The Momentum Equation

Interest

in the momentum equation:

Quantification of propulsion rates
Design structures for power generation
Design of pipeline systems to withstand forces at bends and other places
where the flow changes.

Recall Newtons Second Law, in its most general form, states

Re sul tan t force in direction
Rate of change of momentum =
of measurement
The Control Volume
In its application of Newtons 2nd Law to fluids in motion, we cannot specify a body
having an unchanged assembly of particles, because this assembly is constantly
changing as the fluid flows. Instead, we consider the momentum change occurring
within some volume, called the control volume, bounded by a control surface.
A control surface is simply an imaginary surface drawn around some part of the
system, through which fluid can enter at some points and leave at others. The
purpose of the control surface is to define a certain volume of the system for use
in the analysis. The control volume therefore refers to the volume contained
within the control surface. (Sometimes the whole of the control surface is
imaginary, but quite often part of the control surface coincides with a real
boundary. The analysis of the control volume is based on the following concept:
The a lg ebraic sum of the external forces
acting on the fluid in the control volume
in a given direction , F

The rate of change of momentum in the

= given direction as a result of the fluid
pas sin g through the control volume,

Note that momentum is a vector and has a direction.

Derivation of the Steady Flow Momentum Equation

D
C
A
B

Small streamtube implies uniform velocity over AB and CD.

Now in time t, the streamtube moves to ABCD
Consider an elemental particle within the streamtube having a mass of m
The x momentum of this particle at time 0 is given by u x m
Therefore, the momentum of the assembly of particles within the volume ABCD at
time 0 = u x m
(1)
ABCD

Its x momentum at time t =

u m

(2)

x
A' B' C' D'

Now,
Net momentum increase = Momentumfinal - Momentuminitial
That is,
Net momentum increase = u x m u x m

(3)

1st term above can be expanded as

u x m u x m + u x m

(4)

ABCD

ABB' A'

DCC 'D '

ABB ' A '

DCC' D'

Therefore the net momentum increase can be written as:

u x m u x m + u x m
u x m
end
ABB' A'
DCC' D'
ABCD
at
ABCD
at start
of t

(5)

of t

since the flow is steady.

This simplifies to:

u xm u xm
end
ABBA
DCCD
at
of t

(6)

x-momentum leaving minus x-momentum entering:

u x m u x m

ABBA
DCCD

(7)

If t is sufficiently small ux is constant in ABBA and CDDC.

Therefore, net momentum increase

= u x ( m )DCC' D u x ( m )ABB' A'

(8)

Now

m = m& t = m

DCC' D'

(9)

ABB' A

[Mass of fluid entering system in unit time t]

& (u x 2 u x1 )
Net rate of increase in momentum = m

(10)

From Newtons Second Law

Fx = m& (u x 2 u x1 )

(11)

Note force exerted by fluid on surroundings is -F

And in the y-direction it is:
Fy = m& u y 2 u y1

(12)

where, Fx, Fy and are the resultant forces in the x and y directions.
In steady flow,

& = 1 A1u1 = 2 A2 u 2
m

(12)

[Note that u is perpendicular to A]

The above equations at (10) and (11) are for a single streamtube. Now if we
consider not just one streamtube but a collection of such streamtubes, total force
in x, y and z directions are given as:
Fx = Fx = 2 A2 u 2 u x 2 1A1u1u x1
(13)

Fy = Fy = 2 A2 u 2 u y 2 1A1u1u y1

(14)

Fz = Fz = 2 A2 u2 u z 2 1A1u1u z1

(15)
3

Note the following:

The integrals in the above equations can only be evaluated when the
distribution of velocities across the area is known. It is frequently assumed
that the velocity is uniform across the cross-section, an assumption that is
not normally valid (recall for example, the no slip condition which means that
the velocity at the walls of a pipe in pipeflow is zero and maximum at the
centre). The mean velocity at the cross-section is often used, although it is
more accurate to adopt the momentum correction factor approach described
below.
The above equation has been derived assuming that the streamlines at the
entry and exit of the control volume are sensibly straight and parallel.
It is important to note that Newtons Law of Motion are limited to
describing motions with respect to non-accelerating coordinates axes.
Therefore, if we are to apply Newtons 2nd Law, then this condition must be
satisfiedthe coordinate axes must either be at rest or moving with
uniform velocity in a straight line.

Note that this will be treated via an example in the tutorials.

Momentum Correction Factor

Rate of momentum flow taken as
But it really is

u dA = u

u 2

(16)

For fully developed turbulent flow in a circular pipe for example,

u
u max

y
=
R

1
7

(17)

= 1.02
For laminar flow,

= 43

Applications
Applying the Control Volume Concept
The general steps necessary to set up a problem prior to analysis are:
(1) Draw the system, then draw the imaginary control column, which represents
the part of the system to be analysed. If it helps, think of the control
volume as a cling-film enclosing part of the real system.
(2) Use arrows to show the direction of travel of the fluid entering and leaving
the control volume. Label them u1 and u2 to represent velocities.
(3) Label the axes, x and y for a two-dimensional problem in the horizontal
plane, x and z for a problem in a vertical plane. The axes are positive in the
initial direction of the fluid as it enters the control volume.
(4) Draw the external forces acting on the control volume. This includes the
external pressure forces (PA) acting on the ends of the pipe, and the
resultant force, FR.
(5) Vector quantities such as velocity, pressure forces and the unknown
resultant force must be resolved in the direction of the axes before the
values are put into the momentum equation. If you do not know the direction
in which FRX and FRY act initially, take it to be acting in the positive x and y
direction. Having applied the momentum equation, your guess is correct if
the answer obtained for FRY or FRX is positive; they are acting in the
opposite direction if they are negative.
(6) All forces acting in the same direction as the positive axes are positive;
those action in the opposite direction are negative. Use these signs when
evaluating FX, FY or FZ.

(1) Jet Striking a Surface

.
See figure attached (pg 9)

Rate at which x momentum enters the control volume is:

1u1u x1dA1
2

= cos 1u1 dA1

Therefore, the rate of increase of x momentum is
5

= cos 1u1 dA1

Total force in x direction on fluid = cos 1u1 dA1
2

(18)

Since pressure is atmospheric both at entry and at exit, the hydrodynamic force
on the fluid is provided only by the solid surface.
Therefore,
2

Hydrodynamic force by the fluid on the surface = + cos 1u1 dA1

(19)

That is, the force is equal and opposite.

If both the density and velocity are uniform, then
2

Fx = 1u1 A1 cos

(20)

Fx = 1Q1u1 cos

(21)

Consider now the component of the oncoming momentum parallel to the surface,
i.e., along the Y direction.
It is assumed that the fluid is ideal (a fluid having zero viscosity) and the surface
is smooth, so no shear forces are possible. Thus the initial y-component
1Q1u1 sin is not changed at all. There will therefore be no net force exerted in
a direction at right angles to the x direction.
For an ideal fluid, Fy=0

For a real fluid, Fy0

(2) Flow in a Pipe Bend

See figure attached (pg 10)

Force on fluid in x direction = p1 A1 p2 A2 cos + Fx

(22)

where Fx is the force exerted by the pipe bend on the fluid in the x direction.
The resultant force in x-direction is

Q(u2 cos u1 )
6

Therefore,

Q(u2 cos u1 ) = p1 A1 p2 A2 cos + Fx

(23)

Fx = Q(u 2 cos u1 ) + p2 A2 cos p1 A1

(24)

Force on bend is Fx

To calculate Fy

Force on fluid in y direction = Fy + p2 A2 sin

(25)

where Fy is the force exerted by the pipe bend on the fluid in the y direction.
The resultant force in y-direction is

Q( u2 sin )

Fy = Q( u2 sin ) p2 A2 sin

(26)

Force on bend is Fy

(3) Force on a Solid Boundary in a Flowing Fluid

See figure attached (pg 11)
To show that this force can be determined by measuring the velocity and pressure
in the wake of the body.
Consider the body immersed in a fluid in which the velocity far removed from the
body is U and the pressure is p

The control volume has outer boundaries far enough from the solid body for
perturbations of velocity and pressure to be negligible. Inner boundary of the
control volume is on the solid boundary.
Consider a small element of the plane CD of length y.

mass flow rate through the element = u x y

(27)

rate of increase of x momentum for this fluid = u x y (u x U )

(28)

Total rate of increase of x momentum for this fluid = C u x (u x U )dy

D

(29)
Total force on fluid in the x-direction is given by
(1) the x component, Fx of the force exerted by the body on the fluid and
(2) the net pressure force in the x-direction given by
A
D
D
B p dy C pdy = C (p p )dy

(30)

since AB = DC.
The momentum equation is:

Fx + C (p p )dy = C u x (u x U )
D

(31)

It should be noted that beyond points C and D, ux = U and p = p, and so the

limits might be replaced by and + . So,

Fx = {u x (u x U ) (p p )}dy
+

(32)

Force due to Jet Striking Surface

y
x

Force by Flow Round a Pipe-bend

(2)

p2A2

u2

u1

p1A1

(1)

10

Force on a Solid Body in Flowing Fluid

ux

y
x
B

11