Reservoir

This article is about an articial body of water or a natural lake. For other uses, see Reservoir (disambiguation).
A reservoir (etymology: from French rservoir a store-

Lake Vyrnwy Reservoir. The dam spans the Vyrnwy Valley and
was the rst large stone dam built in the United Kingdom.

The Junghua Dam and reservoir on the Dahan Creek in Taoyuan

City, Taiwan.

house [1] ) is a storage space for uids. These uids may

be water, hydrocarbons or gas. A reservoir usually means
an enlarged natural or articial lake, storage pond or
impoundment created using a dam or lock to store water. Reservoirs can be created by controlling a stream
that drains an existing body of water. They can also be The East Branch Reservoir, part of the New York City water supconstructed in river valleys using a dam. Alternately, a ply system, is formed by impounding the eastern tributary of the
Croton River.
reservoir can be built by excavating at ground and/or
constructing retaining walls and levees.
Tank reservoirs store liquids or gases in storage tanks that moved or rare environments relocated. Examples are the
[2]
may be elevated, at grade level, or buried. Tank reservoirs temples of Abu Simbel (which were moved before the
construction
of
the
Aswan
Dam to create Lake Nasser
for water are also called cisterns.
from the Nile in Egypt), the relocation of the village of
Underground reservoirs store almost exclusively water
Capel Celyn during the construction of Llyn Celyn,[3] and
and petroleum below ground.
the relocation of Borgo San Pietro of Petrella Salto during
the construction of Lake Salto.

1
1.1

Construction of a reservoir in a valley will usually need

the river to be diverted during part of the build, often
through a temporary tunnel or by-pass channel.[4]

Types
Reservoirs dammed in valleys

In hilly regions, reservoirs are often constructed by enlarging existing lakes. Sometimes in such reservoirs the
new top water level exceeds the watershed height on one
or more of the feeder streams such as at Llyn Clywedog
in Mid Wales.[5] In such cases additional side dams are
required to contain the reservoir.

A dam constructed in a valley relies on the natural

topography to provide most of the basin of the reservoir.
Dams are typically located at a narrow part of a valley
downstream of a natural basin. The valley sides act as
natural walls, with the dam located at the narrowest practical point to provide strength and the lowest cost of con- Where the topography is poorly suited to a single large
struction. In many reservoir construction projects, peo- reservoir, a number of smaller reservoirs may be conple have to be moved and re-housed, historical artifacts structed in a chain, as in the River Ta valley where the
1

USES

at. Other service reservoirs can be almost entirely underground, especially in more hilly or mountainous country. In the United Kingdom, Thames Water has many
underground reservoirs, sometimes also called cisterns,
built in the 1800s, most of which are lined with brick.
A good example is the Honor Oak Reservoir in London,
constructed between 1901 and 1909. When it was completed it was said to be the largest brick built underground
reservoir in the world[9] and it is still one of the largest in
Europe.[10] This reservoir now forms part of the southern
extension of the Thames Water Ring Main. The top of
the reservoir has been grassed over and is now used by
the Aquarius Golf Club.[11]

Haweswater in the Lake District, UK supplies water to

Manchester.

Llwyn-on, Cantref and Beacons Reservoirs form a chain

up the valley.[6]

1.2

Bank-side reservoir

Service reservoirs perform several functions, including

ensuring sucient head of water in the water distribution system and providing water capacity to even out peak
demand from consumers, enabling the treatment plant to
run at optimum eciency. Large service reservoirs can
also be managed to reduce the cost of pumping, by relling the reservoir at times of day when energy costs are
low.

2 History
Five thousand years ago, the craters of extinct volcanoes
in Arabia were used as reservoirs by farmers for their
irrigation water.[12]

Where water is pumped or siphoned from a river of variable quality or quantity, bank-side reservoirs may be built
to store the water. Such reservoirs are usually formed
partly by excavation and partly by building a complete
encircling bund or embankment, which may exceed 6 km
(4 miles) in circumference.[7] Both the oor of the reservoir and the bund must have an impermeable lining or
core: initially these were often made of puddled clay,
but this has generally been superseded by the modern use
of rolled clay. The water stored in such reservoirs may
stay there for several months, during which time normal
biological processes may substantially reduce many contaminants and almost eliminate any turbidity. The use
of bank-side reservoirs also allows water abstraction to
be stopped for some time, when the river is unacceptably polluted or when ow conditions are very low due to
drought. The London water supply system is one example
of the use of bank-side storage: the water is taken from
the River Thames and River Lee; several large Thamesside reservoirs such as Queen Mary Reservoir can be seen
along the approach to London Heathrow Airport.[7]

Dry climate and water scarcity in India led to early development of water resource management techniques, including the building of a reservoir at Girnar in 3000
BC.[13] Articial lakes dating to the 5th century BC have
been found in ancient Greece.[14] An articial lake in
present-day Madhya Pradesh state of India, constructed
in the 11th century, covered 650 square metres (7,000 sq
ft).[13]

1.3

Many dammed river reservoirs and most bank-side reservoirs are used to provide the raw water feed to a water
treatment plant which delivers drinking water through
water mains. The reservoir does not merely hold water until it is needed: it can also be the rst part of the
water treatment process. The time the water is held be-

Service reservoir

Service reservoirs[8] store fully treated potable water

close to the point of distribution. Many service reservoirs
are constructed as water towers, often as elevated structures on concrete pillars where the landscape is relatively

In Sri Lanka large reservoirs were created by ancient

Sinhalese kings in order to save the water for irrigation.
The famous Sri Lankan king Parkramabhu I of Sri
Lanka said Do not let a drop of water seep into the ocean
without beneting mankind. He created the reservoir
named Parakrama Samudra (sea of King Parakrama).[15]
Vast articial reservoirs were also built by various ancient
kingdoms in Bengal, Assam and Cambodia.

3 Uses
3.1 Direct water supply

3.3

Controlling watercourses

3
enough water to average out the rivers ow throughout
the year(s). Run-of-the-river hydro in a steep valley with
constant ow needs no reservoir.
Some reservoirs generating hydroelectricity use pumped
recharge: a high-level reservoir is lled with water using high-performance electric pumps at times when electricity demand is low, and then uses this stored water to
generate electricity by releasing the stored water into a
low-level reservoir when electricity demand is high. Such
systems are called pump-storage schemes.[18]

3.3 Controlling watercourses

Gibson Reservoir, Montana

fore it is released is known as the retention time. This

is a design feature that allows particles and silts to settle
out, as well as time for natural biological treatment using
algae, bacteria and zooplankton that naturally live in the
water. However natural limnological processes in temperate climate lakes produce temperature stratication in
the water, which tends to partition some elements such
as manganese and phosphorus into deep, cold anoxic water during the summer months. In the autumn and winter
the lake becomes fully mixed again. During drought conditions, it is sometimes necessary to draw down the cold
bottom water, and the elevated levels of manganese in Prospect Reservoir in Sydney, Australia.
particular can cause problems in water treatment plants.
Reservoirs can be used in a number of ways to control
how water ows through downstream waterways:

3.2

Hydroelectricity

Downstream water supply water may be released from an upland reservoir so that it can
be abstracted for drinking water lower down
the system, sometimes hundred of miles further downstream.

Hydroelectric Dam

Reservoir
Long Distance
Power Lines

Powerhouse
Intake
Generator

Penstock
Turbine
River

Hydroelectric dam in cross section.

In 2005 about 25% of the worlds 33,105 large dams (over

15 metres in height) were used for hydroelectricity.[16]
However of 80,000 dams of all sizes in the U.S.,
only 3% produce electricity.[17] A reservoir generating
hydroelectricity includes turbines connected to the retained water body by large-diameter pipes. These generating sets may be at the base of the dam or some distance
away. In a at river valley a reservoir needs to be deep
enough to create a head of water at the turbines; and if
there are periods of drought the reservoir needs to hold

Irrigation water in an irrigation reservoir

may be released into networks of canals for use
in farmlands or secondary water systems. Irrigation may also be supported by reservoirs
which maintain river ows, allowing water to
be abstracted for irrigation lower down the
river.[19]
Flood control also known as an attenuation
or balancing reservoirs, ood control reservoirs collect water at times of very high rainfall, then release it slowly during the following
weeks or months. Some of these reservoirs are
constructed across the river line, with the onward ow controlled by an orice plate. When
river ow exceeds the capacity of the orice
plate, water builds up behind the dam; but as
soon as the ow rate reduces, the water behind the dam is slowly released until the reservoir is empty again. In some cases such reservoirs only function a few times in a decade,

4 OPERATION
and the land behind the reservoir may be developed as community or recreational land. A new
generation of balancing dams are being developed to combat the possible consequences of
climate change. They are called Flood Detention Reservoirs. Because these reservoirs
will remain dry for long periods, there may be
a risk of the clay core drying out, reducing its
structural stability. Recent developments include the use of composite core ll made from
recycled materials as an alternative to clay.
Canals Where a natural watercourses water is not available to be diverted into a canal,
a reservoir may be built to guarantee the water level in the canal: for example, where a
canal climbs through locks to cross a range of
hills.[20]

Dam in Australia and Bala Lake (Llyn Tegid) in North

Wales. Bala Lake is a natural lake whose level was raised
by a low dam and into which the River Dee ows or discharges depending upon ow conditions, as part of the
River Dee regulation system. This mode of operation is
a form of hydraulic capacitance in the river system.

3.5 Recreation
Many reservoirs often allow some recreational uses, such
as shing and boating. Special rules may apply for the
safety of the public and to protect the quality of the water
and the ecology of the surrounding area. Many reservoirs
now support and encourage less formal and less structured recreation such as natural history, bird watching,
landscape painting, walking and hiking, and often provide information boards and interpretation material to encourage responsible use.

4 Operation

Recreational-only Kupferbach reservoir near Aachen/Germany.

Recreation water may be released from a

reservoir to create or supplement white water
conditions for kayaking and other white-water
sports.[21] On salmonid rivers special releases
(in Britain called freshets) are made to encourage natural migration behaviours in sh and to
provide a variety of shing conditions for anglers.

Water falling as rain upstream of the reservoir, together

with any groundwater emerging as springs, is stored in
the reservoir. Any excess water can be spilled via a
specically designed spillway. Stored water may be piped
by gravity for use as drinking water, to generate hydroelectricity or to maintain river ows to support downstream uses. Occasionally reservoirs can be managed to
retain water during high rainfall events to prevent or reduce downstream ooding. Some reservoirs support several uses, and the operating rules may be complex.

Most modern reservoirs have a specially designed drawo tower that can discharge water from the reservoir at
dierent levels, both to access water as the water level
falls, and to allow water of a specic quality to be discharged into the downstream river as compensation water": the operators of many upland or in-river reservoirs
have obligations to release water into the downstream
3.4 Flow balancing
river to maintain river quality, support sheries, to mainReservoirs can be used to balance the ow in highly man- tain downstream industrial and recreational uses or for a
aged systems, taking in water during high ows and re- range of other purposes. Such releases are known as comleasing it again during low ows. In order for this to pensation water.
work without pumping requires careful control of water
levels using spillways. When a major storm approaches,
4.1 Terminology
the dam operators calculate the volume of water that the
storm will add to the reservoir. If forecast storm water will overll the reservoir, water is slowly let out of The terminology for reservoirs varies from country to
the reservoir prior to, and during, the storm. If done country. In most of the world, reservoir areas are exwith sucient lead time, the major storm will not ll the pressed in square kilometres; in the United States acres
reservoir and areas downstream will not experience dam- are commonly used. For volume either cubic metres or
aging ows. Accurate weather forecasts are essential so cubic kilometres are widely used, with acre-feet used in
that dam operators can correctly plan drawdowns prior the US.
to a high rainfall event. Dam operators blamed a faulty The capacity, volume or storage of a reservoir is usually
weather forecast on the 20102011 Queensland oods. divided into distinguishable areas. Dead or inactive storExamples of highly managed reservoirs are Burrendong age refers to water in a reservoir that cannot be drained by

5 Safety
In many countries large reservoirs are closely regulated to
try to prevent or minimise failures of containment.[24][25]
While much of the eort is directed at the dam and its
associated structures as the weakest part of the overall
structure, the aim of such controls is to prevent an uncontrolled release of water from the reservoir. Reservoir
failures can generate huge increases in ow down a river
valley, with the potential to wash away towns and villages
and cause considerable loss of life such as the devastation
following the failure of containment at Llyn Eigiau which
killed 17 people.[26] (see also List of dam failures)
A notable case of reservoirs being used as an instrument of war involved the British Royal Air Force
Dambusters raid on Germany in World War II (codenamed "Operation Chastise" [27] ), in which three German reservoir dams were selected to be breached in order to damage German infrastructure and manufacturing and power capabilities deriving from the Ruhr and
Eder rivers. The economic and social impact was derived
from the enormous volumes of previously stored water
that swept down the valleys, wreaking destruction. This
raid later became the basis for several lms.
Spillway of Llyn Brianne dam in Wales.

6 Environmental impact

gravity through a dams outlet works, spillway or power Main article: Environmental impacts of reservoirs
plant intake and can only be pumped out. Dead storage
allows sediments to settle, which improves water quality
and also creates an area for sh during low levels. Active or live storage is the portion of the reservoir that can
be used for ood control, power production, navigation
and downstream releases. In addition, a reservoirs ood
control capacity is the amount of water it can regulate
during ooding. The surcharge capacity is the capacity
of the reservoir above the spillway crest that cannot be
regulated.[22]
In the United States the water below the normal maximum level of a reservoir is called the conservation
pool.[23]
In the United Kingdom, top water level describes the
reservoir full state, whilst fully drawn down describes
the minimum retained volume.
Brushes Clough Reservoir, located above Shaw and Crompton,
England.

4.2

Modelling reservoir management

6.1 Whole life environmental impact

There is a wide variety of software for modelling reservoirs, from the specialist Dam Safety Program Management Tools (DSPMT) to the relatively simple WAFLEX,
to integrated models like the Water Evaluation And Planning system (WEAP) that place reservoir operations in
the context of system-wide demands and supplies.

All reservoirs will have a monetary cost/benet assessment made before construction to see if the project is
worth proceeding with.[28] However, such analysis can
often omit the environmental impacts of dams and the
reservoirs that they contain. Some impacts such as the

greenhouse gas production associated with concrete manufacture are relatively easy to estimate. Other impact on
the natural environment and social and cultural eects
can be more dicult to assess and to weigh in the balance
but identication and quantication of these issues are
now commonly required in major construction projects
in the developed world [29]

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT

A two-year study of carbon dioxide and methane releases in Canada concluded that while the hydroelectric reservoirs there do emit greenhouse gases, it is on a
much smaller scale than thermal power plants of similar
capacity.[34] Hydropower typically emits 35 to 70 times
less greenhouse gases per TWh of electricity than thermal
power plants.[35]

A decrease in air pollution occurs when a dam is used in

place of thermal power generation, since electricity pro6.2 Climate change
duced from hydroelectric generation does not give rise to
any ue gas emissions from fossil fuel combustion (inNaturally occurring lakes receive organic sediments cluding sulfur dioxide, nitric oxide and carbon monoxide
which decay in an anaerobic environment releasing from coal).
(methane and carbon dioxide). The methane released is
approximately 8 times more potent as a greenhouse gas
than carbon dioxide [30]
6.3 Biology
As a man made reservoir lls, existing plants are submerged and during the years it takes for this matter to
decay, will give o considerably more greenhouse gases
than lakes do. A reservoir in a narrow valley or canyon
may cover relatively little vegetation, one situated on a
plain may ood a great deal of vegetation. The site may
be cleared of vegetation rst or simply ooded. Tropical
ooding can produce far more greenhouse gases than in
temperate regions.

Dams can produce a block for migrating sh, trapping

them in one area, producing food and a habitat for various
water-birds. They can also ood various ecosystems on
land and may cause extinctions.

6.4 Human impact

Dams can severely reduce the amount of water reaching

The following table indicates reservoir emissions in milcountries downstream of them, causing water stress beligrams per square meter per day for dierent bodies of
tween the countries, e.g. the Sudan and Egypt, which
[31]
water.
damages farming businesses in the downstream countries,
and reduces drinking water.
6.2.1

Hydroelectricity and Climate Change

Farms and villages, e.g. Ashopton can be ooded by the

creation of reservoirs, ruining many livelihoods. For this
Depending upon the area ooded vs power produced, a very reason, worldwide 80 million people (gure is as of
reservoir built for hydro-electricity generation can either 2009, from the Edexcel GCSE Geography textbook) have
reduce or increase the net production of greenhouse gases had to be forcibly relocated due to dam construction.
when compared to other sources of power.
A study for the National Institute for Research in the
Amazon found that Hydroelectric reservoirs release a
large pulse of carbon dioxide from decay of trees left
standing in the reservoirs, especially during the rst
decade after ooding.[32] This elevates the global warming impact of the dams to levels much higher than would
occur by generating the same power from fossil fuels.[32]
According to the World Commission on Dams report
(Dams And Development), when the reservoir is relatively large and no prior clearing of forest in the ooded
area was undertaken, greenhouse gas emissions from the
reservoir could be higher than those of a conventional oilred thermal generation plant.[33] For instance, In 1990,
the impoundment behind the Balbina Dam in Brazil (inaugurated in 1987) had over 20 times the impact on global
warming than would generating the same power from fossil fuels, due to the large area ooded per unit of electricity generated.[32]

6.5 Limnology
The limnology of reservoirs has many similarities to that
of lakes of equivalent size. There are however signicant
dierences.[36] Many reservoirs experience considerable
variations in level producing signicant areas that are intermittently underwater or dried out. This greatly limits
the productivity or the water margins and limits the number of species able to survive in these conditions.
Upland reservoirs tend to have a much shorter residence
time than natural lakes and this can lead to more rapid
cycling of nutrients through the water body so that they
are more quickly lost to the system. This may be seen as
a mismatch between water chemistry and water biology
with a tendency for the biological component to be more
oligotrophic than the chemistry would suggest.

Conversely, lowland reservoirs drawing water from nuThe Tucurui dam in Brazil (completed in 1984) had only trient rich rivers, may show exaggerated eutrophic char0.4 times the impact on global warming than would gen- acteristics because the residence time in the reservoir is
erating the same power from fossil fuels.[32]
much greater than in the river and the biological systems

6.7

Microclimate

have a much greater opportunity to utilise the available 6.7 Microclimate

nutrients.
Reservoirs may change the local micro-climate increasDeep reservoirs with multiple level draw o towers can
ing humidity and reducing extremes of temperature, esdischarge deep cold water into the downstream river
pecially in dry areas. Such eects are claimed also by
greatly reducing the size of any hypolimnion. This in turn
some South Australian wineries as increasing the quality
can reduce the concentrations of phosphorus released
of the wine production.
during any annual mixing event and may therefore reduce
productivity.
The Dams in front of reservoirs act as knickpoints-the
energy of the water falling from them reduces and deposition is a result below the Dams.

6.6

Seismicity

7 List of reservoirs
Main article: List of reservoirs
In 2005 there were 33,105 large dams (15 m height)
listed by the International Commission on Large Dams
(ICOLD).[16]

The lling (impounding) of reservoirs has often been attributed to reservoir-triggered seismicity (RTS) as seismic events have occurred near large dams or within their 7.1 List of reservoirs by area
reservoirs in the past. These events may have been triggered by the lling or operation of the reservoir and are
on a small scale when compared to the amount of reservoirs worldwide. Of over 100 recorded events, early examples include the 60 m (197 ft) tall Marathon Dam in
Greece (1929), the 221 m (725 ft) tall Hoover Dam in the
U.S. (1935). Most events involve large dams and small
amounts of seismicity. The only four recorded events
above a 6.0-magnitude (M ) are the 103 m (338 ft) tall
Koyna Dam in India which registered a M of 6.3 along
with the 120 m (394 ft) Kremasta Dam in Greece which
registered a 6.3-M as well. Following those two, the
next largest were the 122 m (400 ft) high Kariba Dam in
Zambia at 6.25-M and the 105 m (344 ft) Xinfengjiang
Dam in China at 6.1-M . Disputes occur over when RTS
has occurred due to a lack of hydrogeological knowledge at the time of the event. It is accepted though that
the inltration of water into pores and the weight of the
reservoir do contribute to RTS patterns. For RTS to occur, there must be a seismic structure near the dam or
its reservoir and the seismic structure must be close to Lake Volta from space (April 1993).
failure. Additionally, water must be able to inltrate the
deep rock stratum as the weight of a 100 m (328 ft) deep Main article: List of reservoirs by surface area
reservoir will have little impact when compared the deadweight of rock on a crustal stress eld which may be located at a depth of 10 km (6 mi) or more.[37]

7.2 List of reservoirs by volume

Main article: List of reservoirs by volume

8 See also
9 References
Liptovsk Mara in Slovakia (built in 1975) - an example of an
articial lake which signicantly changed the local microclimate.

[1] Online Etymology Dictionary. Retrieved 20 September

2015.

REFERENCES

[18] First Hydro Company Pumped Storage.

[19] Irrigation UK (PDF). Retrieved 20 September 2015.
[20] Hudderseld Narrow Canal Reservoirs. Retrieved 20
September 2015.
[21] Canoe Wales - National White Water Rafting Centre.
Retrieved 20 September 2015.
[22] Votruba, Ladislav; Broa, Vojtch (1989). Water Management in Reservoirs. Developments in Water Science.
33. Elsevier Publishing Company. p. 187. ISBN 0-44498933-1.
Lake Kariba from space.

[23] Water glossary. Retrieved 20 September 2015.

[24] North Carolina Dam safety law

[2] UNESCO World Heritage Centre. Nubian Monuments

from Abu Simbel to Philae. Retrieved 20 September
2015.
[3] Capel Celyn, Ten Years of Destruction: 19551965,
Thomas E., Cyhoeddiadau Barddas & Gwynedd Council,
2007, ISBN 978-1-900437-92-9
[4] Construction of Hoover Dam: a historic account prepared
in cooperation with the Department of the Interior. KC
Publications. 1976. ISBN 0-916122-51-4.
[5] Llanidloes Mid Wales - Llyn Clywedog. Retrieved 20
September 2015.
[6] Reservoirs of Fforest Fawr Geopark
[7] Bryn Philpott-Yinka Oyeyemi-John Sawyer. ICE Virtual Library: Queen Mary and King George V emergency
draw down schemes. Retrieved 20 September 2015.

[25] Reservoirs Act 1975 The Reservoirs Act 1975 (UK)

[26] Llyn Eigiau. Retrieved 20 September 2015.
[27] Commonwealth War Graves Commission Operation
Chastise
[28] CIWEM Reservoirs:Global Issues
[29] Proposed reservoir Environmental Impact Assessment
(EIA) Scoping Report
[30] Houghton, John (4 May 2005). Global warming. Reports on Progress in Physics. Institute of Physics. 68 (6):
1362. doi:10.1088/0034-4885/68/6/R02.
[31] https://era.library.ualberta.ca/public/view/item/uuid:
29b113ac-6c30-4eaa-9003-89152584f343/DS1/
BioSci_50_2000_766.pdf

[8] Open Learning - OpenLearn - Open University. Retrieved 20 September 2015.

[32] Fearnside, P.M. 1995. Hydroelectric dams in the Brazilian Amazon as sources of 'greenhouse' gases. Environmental Conservation 22(1): 719.

[9] Honor Oak Reservoir (PDF). London Borough of

Lewisham. Retrieved 2011-09-01.

[33] Graham-Rowe, Duncan. Hydroelectric powers dirty secret revealed.

[10] Honor Oak Reservoir. Mott MacDonald. Retrieved

2011-09-01.

[34] ric Duchemin (1 December 1995). Production of the

greenhouse gases CH4 and CO2 by hydroelectric reservoirs of boreal region. ResearchGate. Retrieved 20
September 2015.

[11] Aquarius Golf Club. Retrieved 20 September 2015.

[12] Smith, S. et al. (2006) Water: the vital resource, 2nd edition, Milton Keynes, The Open University
[13] edited by John C. Rodda, Lucio Ubertini. (2004). Rodda,
John; Ubertini, Lucio, eds. The Basis of Civilization
Water Science?. International Association of Hydrological
Science. ISBN 1-901502-57-0. OCLC 224463869.
[14] Wilson & Wilson (2005). Encyclopedia of Ancient
Greece. Routledge. ISBN 0-415-97334-1. pp. 8
[15] International Lake Environment Committee
Parakrama Samudra
[16] Hydroelectric Reservoirs as Anthropogenic Sources of
Greenhouse Gases. Retrieved 20 September 2015.
[17] Small Hydro: Power of the Dammed: How Small Hydro Could Rescue Americas Dumb Dams. Retrieved 20
September 2015.

[35] http://www.researchgate.net/profile/Michelle_
Garneau/publication/228810337_THE_ISSUE_
OF_GREENHOUSE_GASES_FROM_
HYDROELECTRIC_RESERVOIRS_FROM_
BOREAL_TO_TROPICAL_REGIONS/links/
0c960530cd1782d96f000000.pdf?disableCoverPage=
true
[36] Ecology of Reservoirs and Lakes. Retrieved 20 September 2015.
[37] The relationship between large reservoirs and seismicity
08 February 2010. International Water Power & Dam
Construction. 20 February 2010. Retrieved 12 March
2011.
[38] International Lake Environment Committee Volta Lake
[39] The Canadian Encyclopaedia Smallwood Reservoir

[40] International Lake Environment Committee Reservoir

Kuybyshev
[41] International Lake Environment Committee Lake
Kariba
[42] International Lake Environment Committee Bratskoye
Reservoir
[43] International Lake Environment Committee Aswam
high dam reservoir
[44] International Lake Environment Committee Caniapiscau Reservoir
[45] International Lake Environment Committee Manicouagan Reservoir
[46] International Lake Environment Committee Williston
Lake

10

External links

Department of Water Resources. Reservoir Information. California Data Exchange Center. State of
California.
Global Journal of Research Engineering (USA).
Durability-Based Optimization of Reinforced
Concrete Reservoirs Using Articial Bee Colony
Algorithm.
Civil and Structural Engineering
(GJRE-E).
Integrated Publishing Association. Modeling and
Shape Optimization of Reinforced Concrete Reservoirs Using Particle Swarm Algorithm. International Journal of Civil and Structural Engineering.

10

11

11
11.1

TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

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Makeemlighter, BeenAroundAWhile, Stevo1000, Em3rald, MeekMark, Sean the Spook, Nshimbi, Mattisse, VPliousnine, JamesAM,
Barticus88, Wikid77, Trevyn, Peter gk, Mailseth, Jonpollnow, MichaelMaggs, Vhorvat, Hires an editor, Kbthompson, Oismiy, Ingolfson, JAnDbot, Gcm, Robina Fox, Andonic, Magioladitis, Tedickey, Pete ess, Allstarecho, Jim.henderson, Kostisl, CommonsDelinker,
Tgeairn, Kimse, Svetovid, Uncle Dick, Nigholith, Geonarva, GeoWriter, Acalamari, Sebwite, Davandron, Tsuite, Swanml, Ian n-s, Martial75, Squids and Chips, Idioma-bot, Funandtrvl, Rajasekhar1961, VolkovBot, Philip Trueman, TXiKiBoT, Newell Post, Broadbot,
BotKung, Trilby*foxglove, Enviroboy, Ceranthor, Logan, Billinrio, Thw1309, SieBot, BotMultichill, Hertz1888, Csmart287, Hxhbot,
JetLover, Cyfal, Babakathy, Randy Kryn, ImageRemovalBot, ClueBot, Fribbler, Mattgirling, Rruss, CasualObserver'48, Pointillist, Awickert, Moreau1, Arjayay, Kaiba, Thingg, Floul1, Versus22, Marcia Wright, XLinkBot, DidiWeidmann, Q247, SilvonenBot, HarlandQPitt,
JCDenton2052, Walrusfunk, Osarius, HexaChord, Addbot, Some jerk on the Internet, Knight of Truth, Fieldday-sunday, Zarcadia, CanadianLinuxUser, NjardarBot, Tills, DFS454, Bassbonerocks, Geo Bonanno, Ehrenkater, Rehman, Tide rolls, OlEnglish, Gail, Bermicourt,
Frehley, Severnapark, Luckas-bot, Shannon1, Yobot, Marcbela, Amirobot, Brougham96, Totse-vandal, AnomieBOT, DemocraticLuntz,
Ciphers, Citation bot, MauritsBot, Xqbot, Jerey Mall, Ubcule, Jacksieber, Gatorgirl7563, Sionk, GrouchoBot, Lobob5, PM800, Erik9,
FrescoBot, Krj373, Mistakender, Doremo, Wikijmms, Nixsun01, Citation bot 1, Pinethicket, HRoestBot, Fifth Fish Finger, Gersenes,
S4n1HS22WMX695In, J.Giord, Eranjenes2, NortyNort, EmausBot, Orphan Wiki, WikitanvirBot, AmericanLeMans, Racerx11, Karlos87, ZroBot, F, Shannon1, Unreal7, Monterey Bay, Prabinepali, Dnj710, Rocketrod1960, ClueBot NG, Ohdear15, Catlemur, Castncoot, Widr, Pbmaise, Dougmcdonell, Helpful Pixie Bot, Samnz05, Titodutta, Calidum, MusikAnimal, Glacialfox, Jaywm, Shyncat,
Lovelyjubbly123, Listroiderbob, EglisFeliz-NJITWILL, Aftabbanoori, TheFrog001, Eyesnore, Moneyballs9, Ricky Setiawan, JWNoctis, Noyster, Meganesia, Kingmeap456, Nahnah4, LeoLi1234, Heyinternetman, Kaicur, Sweepy, Shubhamsingh.g8, Foger121, Acquaduct,
Dkrocks365, Bender the Bot and Anonymous: 232

11.2

Images

File:Brushes_Clough_Reservoir_-_geograph.org.uk_-_715413.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/ca/

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Contributors: Source: [1] Original artist: Photo taken by de:Benutzer:Alex Anlicker using a Nikon Coolpix 950.
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11.3

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File:GibsonR.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/0e/GibsonR.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: I

(Q247 (talk)) created this work entirely by myself. (Original uploaded on en.wikipedia) Original artist: Q247 (talk) (Transferred by
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11.3

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