A SEMINAR REPORT ON

MAGNETIC MATERIALS AND ITS

APPLICATIONS IN AUTOMOBILE COMPONENTS
Submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the
award of the degree of

BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY
In

MECHANICAL (AUTOMOBILE) ENGINEERING

Submitted by

AKHIL CHANDRAN: 12402004

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

SREE CHITRA THIRUNAL COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

THIRUVANANTHAPURAM- 695018.
SEPTEMBER 2015

SREE CHITRA THIRUNAL COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING,

THIRUVANANTHAPURAM - 695018.
DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING.

CERTIFICATE
Certified that seminar work entitled MAGNETIC MATERIALS AND ITS
APPLICATIONS IN AUTOMOBILE COMPONENTS is a bonafide work carried
out in the seventh semester by AKHIL CHANDRAN (12402004) in partial fulfillment
for the award of Bachelor of Technology in MECHANICAL (AUTOMOBILE)
ENGINEERING from University of Kerala during the academic year 2015-16 who
carried out the seminar work under the guidance and no part of this work has been
submitted earlier for the award of any degree.

SEMINAR CO-ORDINATOR

SEMINAR GUIDE

E.JAYAKUMAR

GIJOY.S

Assistant professor
Department of Mechanical Engg.

Assistant professor
Department of Mechanical Engg.

SCT College of Engineering,

Thiruvananthapuram-18.

SCT College of Engineering,

Thiruvananthapuram-18.

HEAD OF THE DEPARTMENT

Dr. S. H. ANILKUMAR
Professor,
Department of Mechanical Engg.
SCT College of Engineering.
Thiruvananthapuram-18

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

First and foremost, I am extremely happy to mention a

great word of gratitude to Prof. Dr. S.H. ANILKUMAR, Head of the Department of
Mechanical Engineering, Sree Chitra Thirunal College of Engineering, Trivandrum for
providing me with all facilities for the presentation of this paper. I wish to place on
records my ardent and earnest gratitude to my seminar guide Sri. GIJOY.S, Assistant
professor, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Sree Chitra Thirunal College of
Engineering, Trivandrum.

I would also like to extend my gratefulness to all the staff members in the Department. I
also thank my team members, friends and well-wishers who greatly helped me in my
endeavor.

AKHIL CHANDRAN

~ iii ~

ABSTRACT
The discovery of magnets had revolutionized various industries like electrical, robotics,
aeronautics etc. In our day- to -day life, we are dealing with a lot components which are
made by magnets. From the discovery of magnetite, the first magnet discovered from
Turkey, magnets had influenced our life a lot.

As the technology developed wide range of classification of magnets were also

developed. It includes natural magnets like lodestone, magnetite etc. to artificial magnets
like dumb bell magnets, electromagnets etc. Our earth itself is strong magnet.

Magnets have a wide range of applications from a small headphones to large machines.
Magnets has a great role in the development of the electronic industry. We can't find a
machine without magnets. That's why it is said that the discovery of magnets changed the
face of the world!

~ iv ~

TABLE OF CONTENTS

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

iii

ABSTRACT

iv

NOMENCLATURE

vii

LIST OF FIGURES

viii

TITLE

PAGE NO:

1. INTRODUCTION

Role of magnetic materials in automobiles

2. CLASSIFICATION OF MAGNETIC MATERIALS

1
2

2.1 Magnetic Permeability

2.2 Magnetic Susceptibility

2.3 Intensity of magnetization

2.4 Curie Temperature

2.5 Ferromagnetic

2.6 Diamagnetic

2.7 Paramagnetic

2.8 Magnetically Hard and Soft materials

2.8.1 Soft Materials

2.8.2 Hard Materials

3. APPLICATON OF MAGNETIC MATERIALS

3.1 Application of Ferromagnetic materials

3.2 Application of Diamagnetic materials

3.2.1 Magnetic Levitation

~v~

3.3 Application of Paramagnetic materials

3.4 Application of Hard and Soft materials

4. AUTOMOTIVE APPLICATIONS

4.1 Motor Applications

4.2 Sensor Applications

10

4.3 Actuators

11

4.4 Instrumentation

12

4.5 Loudspeakers

13

5. MATERIALS USED FOR AUTOMOTIVE APPLICATIONS

14

5.1 Sintered Ferrite

15

5.2 Samarium Cobalt alloys

16

5.3 Neodymium Iron Boron Magnets

17

5.4 Al-Ni-Co

20

6. CONCLUSION AND FUTURE PERSPECTIVE

22

7. REFERENCES

23

8. ANNEXURE

24-33

~ vi ~

NOMENCLATURE

SYMBOLS

MEANING

TC

Curie temperature

Intensity of Magnetization

Magnetic Permeability
Magnetic Susceptibility

Volume

kJ

Kilo Joule

Celsius

Oe

Oersted

Area

Dipole Moment

Pole Strength

Henry

Newton

Megagauss-Oerstd

MGOe

~ vii ~

LIST OF FIGURES

PAGE NO.
1 : Power Steering Motor

11

2: Motor used in Wind Screen Wipers

11

3: OEM VW Headlight Horizontal Position

Sensor For VW Passat B5, Golf MK4

12

4 : ABS

12

5 : Air Bag Actuator

12

6 : Tachometer And Speedometer

12

7 : Anti Noise Systems in cars

14

~ viii ~

Chapter 1
INTRODUCTION

Magnetic materials encompass a wide variety of materials, which are used in a diverse
range of applications. Magnetic materials are utilized in the creation and distribution of
electricity, and in most cases, in the appliances that uses that electricity. They are used for
the storage of data on audiotape and videotape and on computer disks. In the world of
medicine they are used in body scanners and in a wide range of applications where they
are attached to or implanted into the body. In home entertainment market relies on
magnetic materials such as PCs, CD players, Games consoles and Loudspeakers.
It is very difficult to imagine a world without magnetic materials and they are becoming
more important in the development of the modern society. The need of efficient
generation and use of use of electricity is dependent on improved magnetic materials and
designs. Non polluting electric vehicles will relay on efficient motors utilizing advanced
magnetic materials. The telecommunication industry is always striving for faster data
transmission and miniaturization of devices, both of which requires development of
improved magnetic materials.

1.1 Role of magnetic materials in automobiles

The modern automotive market demands an increasing sophistication in control and
comfort of its products. Today's car have electric motors for door positioning, window
lift, seat positioning and engine cool fans. In addition Air conditioning, ABS and antiskid , multi speaker radio and CD systems are today not just encountered in prestige
products but are fitted as standard on most models. The average modern car contains
upwards of two hundred magnets covering all these applications.
In future, Drive by wire, Electrical Steering, Braking systems, Climate control, and
Headlight positioning, coupled with the planned move to adopt higher voltages in
automotive electrics will ensure the dramatic growth trend in Automotive magnetic
material usage continues

~1~

Chapter 2
CLASSIFICATION OF MAGNETIC MATERIALS
Magnetic materials are classified on the basis of certain parameters. The parameters are
1. Permeability
2. Susceptibility
3. Intensity of magnetization
4. Curie Temperature

2.1 Magnetic Permeability

Permeability is the measure of the ability of a material to support the formation of
a magnetic field within itself. Hence, it is the degree of magnetization that a material
obtains in response to an applied magnetic field. Magnetic permeability is typically
represented by the Greek letter . The term was coined in September 1885 by Oliver
Heaviside. The reciprocal of magnetic permeability is magnetic reluctivity.
In SI units,

permeability

is

measured

in henries per

meter

(Hm1),

or Newton's per ampere squared (NA2). The permeability constant (0), also known as
the magnetic constant or the permeability of free space, is a measure of the amount of
resistance encountered when forming a magnetic field in a classical vacuum. The
magnetic

constant

has

the

exact

value 0 =

4 107 Hm1

1.2566370614106 Hm1 or NA2).

2.2 Magnetic Susceptibility

Magnetic susceptibility(

)is one measure of the magnetic properties of a material. The

susceptibility indicates whether a material is attracted into or repelled out of a magnetic

field, which in turn has implications for practical applications. Quantitative measures of
the magnetic susceptibility also provide insights into the structure of a materials,
providing insight into bonding and energy levels.

~2~

2.3 Intensity of Magnetization

It is defined as the Degree to which a substance is magnetized when placed in a magnetic
field. It is the magnetic dipole moment(M) acquired per unit volume of the
material(V).Also defined as the pole strength(m) per unit area of the substance.
I=M/V=m/A ( Unit of magnetization is ampere per meter.)-------------eq(1).

2.4 Curie Temperature

Curie temperature (Tc), or Curie point, is the temperature at which certain materials lose
their permanent magnetic properties, to be replaced by induced magnetism. The Curie
temperature is named after Pierre Curie, who showed that magnetism was lost at a critical
temperature.
The force of magnetism is determined by the magnetic moment, a dipole moment within
an atom which originates from the angular momentum and spin of electrons. Materials
have different structures of intrinsic magnetic moments that depend on temperature; the
Curie temperature is the critical point at which a material's intrinsic magnetic moments
change direction.
Permanent magnetism is caused by the alignment of magnetic moments and induced
magnetism is created when disordered magnetic moments are forced to align in an
applied magnetic field. Higher temperatures make magnets weaker, as spontaneous
magnetism only occurs below the Curie temperature. Magnetic susceptibility only occurs
above the Curie Temperature and can be calculated from the Curie-Weiss Law which is
derived from Curie's Law.
In analogy to ferromagnetic and paramagnetic materials, the Curie temperature can also
be used to describe the phase transition between ferroelectricity and paraelectricity. In
this context, the order parameter is the electric polarization that goes from a finite value
to zero when the temperature is increased above the Curie temperature.

~3~

Based on these parameters magnetic materials are classified into :

1. Ferromagnetic materials
2. Diamagnetic materials
3. Paramagnetic materials
4. Magnetically hard materials
5. Magnetically soft materials

2.5 Ferromagnetic materials

Ferromagnetic materials highly attracted to the magnets and becomes permanent magnets
very easily. The

relative permeability is greater than unity. It has very high

susceptibility. Ferromagnetism is a property not just of the chemical make-up of a

material, but of its crystalline structure and microstructure. There are ferromagnetic metal
alloys whose constituents are not themselves ferromagnetic, called Heusler alloys, named
after Fritz Heusler. Conversely there are non-magnetic alloys, such as types of stainless
steel, composed almost exclusively of ferromagnetic metals.
One can also make amorphous (non-crystalline) ferromagnetic metallic alloys by very
rapid quenching (cooling) of a liquid alloy. These have the advantage that their properties
are nearly isotropic ;this results in low coercivity, low hysteresis loss, high permeability,
and high electrical resistivity. One such typical material is a transition metal-metalloid
alloy, made from about 80% transition metal (usually Fe, Co, or Ni) and a metalloid
component (B, C, Si, P, or Al) that lowers the melting point.

2.6 Diamagnetic materials

Diamagnetic materials creates a magnetic field opposite to the applied external field and
repelled by applied magnetic field. It have negative susceptibility. Diamagnetism is
a quantum mechanical effect that occurs in all materials. Unlike a ferromagnet, a
diamagnet is not a permanent magnet. Its magnetic permeability is less than 0, the

~4~

permeability of vacuum. In most materials diamagnetism is a weak effect, but

a superconductor repels the magnetic field entirely, apart from a thin layer at the surface.
Diamagnets were first discovered when SebaldJustinusBrugmans observed in 1778
that bismuth and antimony were

repelled

by

magnetic

fields.

In

1845, Michael

Faraday demonstrated that it was a property of matter and concluded that every material
responded to an applied magnetic field. He adopted the term diamagnetism after it was
suggested to him by William Whewell.

2.7 Paramagnetic materials

Paramagnetic materials are weakly attracted by poles of a magnet. It has relative
permeability slightly greater than unity. These materials are slightly magnetized. These
materials form internal,induced magnetic fields in the direction of the applied magnetic
field. In contrast with this behavior, diamagnetic materials are repelled by magnetic fields
and form induced magnetic fields in the direction opposite to that of the applied magnetic
field.

Paramagnetic

materials

include

most chemical

elements and

some

compounds; they have a relative magnetic permeability greater than or equal to 1 (i.e., a
positive magnetic susceptibility) and hence are attracted to magnetic fields. The magnetic
moment induced by the applied field is linear in the field strength and rather weak. It
typically requires a sensitive analytical balance to detect the effect and modern
measurements

on

paramagnetic

materials

are

often

conducted

with

a SQUID magnetometer.
Paramagnetic materials have a small, positive susceptibility to magnetic fields. These
materials are slightly attracted by a magnetic field and the material does not retain the
magnetic properties when the external field is removed. Paramagnetic properties are due
to the presence of some unpaired electrons, and from the realignment of the electron
paths caused by the external magnetic field. Paramagnetic materials include magnesium,
molybdenum, lithium, and tantalum.

~5~

2.8 Magnetically hard and soft materials

2.8.1 Hard materials
Materials which retain their magnetism and are difficult to demagnetize are called hard
magnetic materials. These materials retain their magnetism even after the removal of the
applied magnetic field. Hence these materials are used for making permanent magnets.
In permanent magnets the movement of the domain wall is prevented. They are prepared
by heating the magnetic materials to the required temperature and then quenching them.
Impurities increase the strength of hard magnetic materials. They have large hysteresis
loss due to large hysteresis loop area. Susceptibility and permeability are low and
magnetic energy stored is high. And also eddy current loss is high.

2.8.2 Soft materials

Soft magnetic materials are easy to magnetize and demagnetize. These materials
are used for making temporary magnets. The domain wall movement is easy. Hence they
are easy to magnetize. By annealing the cold worked material, the dislocation density is
reduced and the domain wall movement is made easier. Soft magnetic materials should
not possess any void and its structure should be homogeneous so that the materials are
not affected by impurities. They have low hysteresis loss due to small hysteresis area and
have high permeability and susceptibility. Eddy current loss is low. And also magnetic
energy stored is less.

~6~

Chapter 3
APPLICATION OF MAGNETIC MATERIALS

3.1 Application of ferromagnetic materials

Ferromagnetic materials are mainly used for the construction if electromagnets; because
of its high permeability and susceptibility, ferromagnets can be easily magnetized and demagnetized. Due to this property ferromagnetic materials have wide applications.
Ferromagnetic materials are also used for Magnetic tape recording, construction of
transformer cores etc.

3.2 Application of diamagnetic materials

Diamagnetic materials are mainly used for magnetic levitation.

3.2.1 Magnetic levitation

Magnetic levitation, maglev, or magnetic suspension is a method by which an object
is suspended with no support other than magnetic fields. Magnetic force is used to
counteract the effects of the gravitational acceleration and any other accelerations.
The two primary issues involved in magnetic levitation are lifting forces: providing an
upward force sufficient to counteract gravity, and stability: ensuring that the system does
not spontaneously slide or flip into a configuration where the lift is neutralized.
Magnetic levitation is used for maglev trains, contactless melting, magnetic bearings and
for product display purposes.
This magnetic levitation principle is used in servomechanisms in transrapid systems.

~7~

Servomechanisms
The attraction from a fixed strength magnet decreases with increased distance, and
increases at closer distances. This is unstable. For a stable system, the opposite is needed,
variations from a stable position should push it back to the target position.
Stable magnetic levitation can be achieved by measuring the position and speed of the
object being levitated, and using a feedback loop, which continuously adjusts one or
more electromagnets to correct the object's motion, thus forming a servomechanism.
Many systems use magnetic attraction pulling upwards against gravity for these kinds of
systems as this gives some inherent lateral stability, but some use a combination of
magnetic attraction and magnetic repulsion to push upwards.
Either system represents examples of Electromagnetic Suspension (EMS). For a very
simple example, some tabletop levitation demonstrations use this principle, and the object
cuts a beam of light to measure the position of the object. Such a simple system is not
very robust; far more effective control systems exist, but this illustrates the basic idea.
EMS magnetic levitation trains are based on this kind of levitation: The train wraps
around the track, and is pulled upwards from below. The servo controls keep it safely at a
constant distance from the track.

3.3 Application of paramagnetic materials

Used in study of electronic properties of material having atomic magnetic moments

3.4 Application of Hard and Soft magnetic materials

Hard materials are used in Starter motors, Anti-lock braking systems (ABS), Motor
drives for wipers , Loudspeakers, Microphones, Stepping motors, Printers, Robotics etc.
Soft materials are used in Step up and step down transformers ,D.C. to D.C
convertors, Magnetic shielding etc.

~8~

Chapter 4
AUTOMOTIVE APPLICATIONS

Automotive applications fall into 5 broad categories

1. Motor Application
2. Sensing Applications
3. Actuators
4. Instrumentation
5. Loudspeakers

4.1 Motor Applications

Motors used in an automobile are:
1. Power steering motors
2. Starter motors
3. Alternators
4. Engine Cooling fans
5. Windscreen wiper
6. Washer pumps
7. Fuel pumps
8. Antenna lift Window actuation
9 .Heat and Air conditioning motors

~9~

fig 1: Power Steering Motor

fig 2: Motor used in Wind Screen Wipers

4.2 Sensor Applications

1. ABS
2. Headlight position
3. Steering
4. Road Speed
5. Inertia sensing (Crash/Airbag)
6. Throttle Engine speed (Crankshaft)
7. Remote locking/unlocking
8.Tyrepressure sensing

~ 10 ~

fig 3: OEM VW Headlight Horizontal Position Sensor For VW Passat B5, Golf MK4

fig 4: ABS

4.3 Actuators
1. Anti skid systems
2. Suspension (both active and self leveling)
3. Throttle
4.Airbag.

~ 11 ~

fig 5 : Air Bag Actuator

4.4 Instrumentation
Dashboard instruments - including speed, engine speed, temperature, oil pressure etc.

fig 6 :Tachometer and Speedometer

~ 12 ~

4.5 Loud Speakers

1.Sound systems
2. Navigation and information systems
3.Anti noise

fig 7 :Anti Noise Systems in cars

~ 13 ~

Chapter 5
MAGNETIC MATERIALS USED FOR AUTOMOBILE
APPLICATIONS
The two materials historically used in Automotive applications are Al-Ni-Co & Sintered
Ferrite. Al-Ni-Co was traditionally used in sensing and instrument applications, but
escalating costs of Cobalt mean that other materials are commonly used today.
Sintered ferrites arcs are used in DC motors and are therefore probably the commonest
material currently in use in Automotive applications. Specific motor grades are available
which are able to offer high resistance to highly demagnetizing forces at start up, thus
retaining maximum magnetic strength.
Higher strength materials such as Samarium Cobalt alloys have been available for many
years, but their high price has precluded their use in all the most extreme applications.
The major development in the past few years has been the availability of cheaper
Neodymium Iron Boron magnetic materials both sintered and bonded types. Although in
the last few years of a patent license, NdFeB can offer competitive pricing. NdFeB can
offer up to ten times the magnetic performance of sintered ferrite, therefore allowing
miniaturization of components with higher efficiencies.
The two drawbacks of NdFeB of temperature stability and corrosion have now been
successfully dealt with. The alloying of trace quantities of additional metals to the NdFeB
mix has allowed the production of materials able to handle 200 deg. Celsius and at the
same time offering increased resistance to corrosion. Plating or coating after production
offers maximum corrosion resistance in the most extreme applications.
Over the past years there has been much development in injection or compression molded
magnetic materials offering easy manufacturing of complex shaped and magnetic pole
configurations to net shape, without additional machining. In the past injected ferrite was
successfully developed and today is in common usage.

~ 14 ~

Today bonded and injected NdFeB grades are available with high resistance to
demagnetization forces, allowing the material to easily replace Sintered Ferrite Arc
segments in motors. This is probably the largest application sector in the Automotive
market, and bonded NdFeB could offer both significant weight, coupled to higher
performance.

5.1 Sintered Ferrites

Developed in the late 1950's Sintered Ferrite or Ceramic magnets are manufactured from
a composite powder containing 80% Iron oxide and 20% Barium or Strontium oxide.
This powder is die pressed into a component that is then sintered in a furnace at
approximately 1200C.
Ferrites suit a wide range of applications due to their low cost. They are readily available
in blocks, rings and discs. Principal applications are DC motors, loudspeakers, reed
switch operation, magnetic separator assemblies and general holding devices such as pot
magnets. The unmagnetized blocks are machined using diamond cutting machines to
match customers' exact specification.
Ferrite has an excellent resistance to demagnetization and can be magnetized before or
after assembly without danger of losing any performance. It can be used in operating
temperatures ranging from -40C to + 250C. However it does have a poor temperature
coefficient losing approximately 0.2% of remanence per degree Celsius when heated
above zero.
Sintered Ferrite will not corrode even in salt-water applications. It also has good chemical
stability, with the only exceptions being concentrated acids such as hydro-chloric.
With mechanical properties similar to ceramics or porcelain, it means that only grinding
techniques can be used to machine these products. Care is required during handling due
to their brittle nature.

~ 15 ~

5.2 Samarium Cobalt

Sintered

Samarium

Cobalt

rare-earth

(SmCo)

magnets

are

manufactured by using powder metallurgy techniques which include stringent process

controls and complicated heat treatment cycles. The composition of this alloy is
approximately 35% Samarium, 60% cobalt with the balance being Fe & Cu.
By varying the percentages of this composition and changing the sintering & heat
treatment cycles the two grades 1:5 & 2:17 are produced. The difference between them is
in energy product, temperature coefficient and magnetization force required to saturate.
The 2:17 offers a better performance & lower temperature coefficient, however it is
slightly more expensive and requires very high fields to magnetize it.
Both grades exhibit excellent energy, temperature and corrosion resistant properties and
should be considered as your first choice of material when a compact high energy field is
required at temperatures of over 100C or hostile environments. Being almost impossible
to de-magnetize SmCo magnets have a vast range of applications ranging from servomotors, robotics, machine tools, to relays, sensors & UHV magnetrons.
The 2:17 grade is the most popular and is readily available from stock in a disc or block
format. Non standard sizes can be sliced or ground at short notice to suit customers'
dimensional specifications. Being extremely brittle, great care must be taken when
handling magnetized Samarium Cobalt to prevent personal injury or damage to the
magnets.

1:5 Grade
These samariumcobalt magnet alloys (generally written as SmCo5, or SmCo Series 1:5)
have one atom of rare earth samarium and five atoms of cobalt. By weight this magnet
alloy will typically contain 36% samarium with the balance cobalt. The energy products
of these samariumcobalt alloys range from 16 MGOe to 25 MGOe, what is approx. 128
kJ/m3 - 200 kJ/m3. These samariumcobalt magnets generally have a reversible
temperature coefficient of -0.05%/C. Saturation magnetization can be achieved with a

~ 16 ~

moderate magnetizing field. This series of magnet is easier to calibrate to a specific

magnetic field than the SmCo 2:17 series magnets.
In the presence of a moderately strong magnetic field, unmagnetized magnets of this
series will try to align their orientation axis to the magnetic field, thus becoming slightly
magnetized. This can be an issue if post processing requires that the magnet be plated or
coated. The slight field that the magnet picks up can attract debris during the plating or
coating process, causing coating failure or a mechanically out-of-tolerance condition.

2:17 Grade
These alloys (written as Sm2Co17, or SmCo Series 2:17) are age-hardened with a
composition of two atoms of rare-earth samarium and 1317 atoms of transition metals
(TM). The TM content is rich in cobalt, but contains other elements such as iron and
copper. Other elements like zirconium, hafnium, and such may be added in small
quantities to achieve better heat treatment response. By weight, the alloy will generally
contain 25% of samarium. The maximum energy products of these alloys range from 20
to 32 MGOe, what is about 160-260 kJ/m3. These alloys have the best reversible
temperature coefficient of all rare-earth alloys, typically being -0.03%/C. The "second
generation" materials can also be used at higher temperatures.

5.3Neodymium Iron Boron Alloys

Neodymium Iron Boron magnets were commercially introduced in the early 1980s. They
are widely used today in many different applications. The cost of this magnet material
(on a dollars per energy product basis) is comparable to that of Ferrite magnets.
Like Samarium Cobalt, NdFeB is termed a Rare Earth magnet. The Neodymium Iron
Boron, NdFeB, magnets are made of an alloy primarily consisting of Neodymium, Iron
and Boron and the alloy is chemically written as Nd2Fe14B. Although Neodymium Iron
Boron is often written as NdFeB or Neodymium, it is often given the nickname of "Neo"
and, very infrequently, "NIB".

~ 17 ~

Up to +150 degrees C, the Neodymium Iron Boron magnets are the strongest performers.
Between +130 degrees C and +160 degrees C, there is an overlap in performance
between NdFeB and SmCo. Above +150 degrees C SmCo provides the greater
performance. The "Neo" magnets are a first choice for many applications as they offer the
greatest performance with the smallest volume.
Neodymium Iron Boron, NdFeB, magnets exist in a variety of grades. These grades not
only vary in magnetic output performance but they also vary with temperature rating. The
maximum recommended temperature of operation for the Neo magnets is +200 to +230
degrees Celsius although the exact limit is actually dependent on the magnet shape and
the total magnetic circuit (so the recommended limits are really only crude guideline
values).
All the Neodymium Iron Boron, NdFeB, magnets are prone to corrosion (a method
similar to rusting). All Neodymium Iron Boron, NdFeB, magnets will require a form of
protective coating. The standard coating is a triple layer plating of Nickel-Copper-Nickel
(Ni-Cu-Ni). Unless requested otherwise, this Ni-Cu-Ni coating is always applied to the
magnets. It should be noted that the level of protection given by any coating depends on
the environment the magnet will be subjected to and how the coating is looked after.
The magnetic output from the "Neo" magnet varies with temperature. The output falls
with increasing temperature but usually returns as it cools (the degree of fall with rising
temperature is dependent on the reversible temperature coefficients). It is possible to
permanently reduce the magnetic output through too high a temperature (a permanent
demagnetization).
The level of permanent demagnetization depends on the magnet shape, the total magnetic
circuit and the actual shape of the BH curve (which will vary depending on the grade of
"Neo" chosen). Neodymium Iron Boron, NdFeB, magnets are also affected by external
demagnetization fields and by radiation, both of which can demagnetize the magnet, the
latter permanently demagnetizing.
The use of NdFeB magnets can allow very compact designs with high performance with
issues affecting the performance. If the magnet is kept in dry conditions at all times and

~ 18 ~

the plating is not broken and no external demagnetizing fields are applied to it, the
magnet theoretically can retain its magnetism indefinitely

Properties

Density - 0.275 lbs per cubic inch

Saturation magnetizing field required - about 35kOe

Manufacturing methods - sintering (most common), injection molding,

compression bonding, or calendaring.

Shapes available - blocks, bars, discs, rings, arc segments, etc.

Grades available - from about 3330 to 5311. (First 2 digits represent BH max, and
second two digits represent Intrinsic Coercivity, )

Sizes - off tool the largest die pressed blocks are about 4" cube, while isostatically
pressed blocks can be much longer in the orientation direction (up to 9 feet).

Machining - Neodymium magnets should be machined by grinding using

diamond wheels, However, of the hard magnet materials, Neo magnets are the
least difficult to machine.

Advantages

Very high strength

Relatively low cost (by weight about 20 times Ferrite magnets, by "Dollars per
BHmax" about 1.5 times Ferrite magnets).

Relatively easy to machine, compared to Alnico and SmCo magnets.

~ 19 ~

Disadvantages

Properties deteriorate rapidly at temperatures in excess of about 150C

(depending on grade and permeance coefficient magnet is operating at).

Most grades of NdFeB magnets need to be protected against oxidation - by

coating or plating the magnet.

NdFeB powder is very fine and when dry can ignite spontaneously - care must be
taken in handling NdFeB powder.

NdFeB magnets are very powerful - care must be taken in handling these magnets
to avoid injuries.

NdFeB magnets are susceptible to corrosion.

5.4 Al-Ni-Co
Alnico is an alloy containing Aluminium (Al), Nickel (Ni), Cobalt (Co) hence its name
Alnico. But Alnico actually contains more than just these three elements. It also contains
Iron and Copper with some versions also containing Titanium and even Niobium (the
Titanium versions were sometimes called Ticonal, derived from the elements TiCoNiAl).
Alnico magnets were developed in the 1930s and were the first Real performance
permanent magnets (the first magnets, called magnetic steels, were quickly replaced by
the vastly superior Alnico).
Alnico is produced by either a sintering method or, more commonly, a casting method.
The as cast or as sintered shape is acceptable for many applications but surfaces may
need to be ground for a smoother surface finish. The as cast look has darkened edges with
a slightly rough texture (due to the sand mold edges); a machined face of an Alnico
magnet has a bright silvery metallic surface and is usually extremely smooth as it is often
precision ground.
There are 29 grades of Alnico (17 cast grades, 10 sintered grades, 2 bonded grades).
Alnico has many trade names used for naming the grades such as Columax, Alcomax
3SC, Alni, Hycomax, Ticonal, etc. China has given them names starting with the letters

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LNG followed by a number to try to give some clarity but this is not widely utilised.
Most people still know Alnico under its more common grade names such as Alnico 5,
Alnico 8, Alnico 9, Alnico 5DG, Alnico5-7, Alnico8HC, Alnico 6, Alnico 2, Alnico3,
Alnico 500, Alnico 400, Alnico 600 and Alnico 700, etc.
Most Alnico magnet grades are anisotropic (they can only be magnetized in a single axis
/ direction they are the more powerful magnet grades of Alnico. The others are isotropic
(they can be magnetized in any direction or directions) they are weaker but offer more
design and performance flexibility. The most commonly used Alnico is Alnico 5.
The complete range of grades is as follows:Alnico 5 (Alnico5_ACA34), Alnico 5 (Alnico5_ACA37), Alnico 5 (Alnico5_ACA40),
Alnico 5 (Alnico5_ACA44), Alnico 5 (Alnico5_ASA34),
Alnico 6 (Alnico6_ACA28), Alnico 6 (Alnico6_ASA28),
Alnico 5DG (Alnico5DG_ACA52),
Alnico 5-7 (Alnico5-7_ACA60),
Alnico 8 (Alnico8_ACA38), Alnico 8 (Alnico8_ACA40), Alnico 8 (Alnico8_ACA44),
Alnico 8 (Alnico8_ASA38), Alnico 8 (Alnico8_ASA44), Alnico 8 (Alnico8_ASA48),
Alnico 8 (Alnico8_ICA18), Alnico 8 (Alnico8_ISA18), Alnico 8 (Alnico8_ISA20),
Alnico 8HC (Alnico8HC_ACA36),
Alnico 9 (Alnico9_ACAT60),
(Alnico9_ACAT80),

Alnico

(Alnico9_ACAT72),

Alnico 8HC (Alnico8HC_ASA36),

Alnico 3 (Alnico3_ICA10), Alnico 3 (Alnico3_ISA10),
Alnico 2 (Alnico2_ICA12), Alnico 2 (Alnico2_ISA12),
Alnico_BA7,
Alnico_BA8.

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Alnico

CHAPTER 6
CONCLUSION AND FUTURE PERSPECTIVE
The magnetic material industry will continue to develop new grades to specifically suit
the Automotive industry. This will allow the industry to meet the increasing pressure
from manufacturers to design more efficient, lower weight high performance
components.
The biggest impact for many years on the use of magnetic materials in
Automotive components is the change of voltage from 12 V to 42 V. The change would
allow the use of combined starter-generators, saving the weight of one of the bulkiest
components and providing a much more efficient starting system. The increased voltage
will allow full electric steering to replace the current heavy hydraulic system of assisted
rams and engine driven hydraulic pumps.
The 42 V system also offers great advantages in networking the controls of the
cars and the extra performance will allow further multiple engine measurements to be
carried out to improve combustion, improve fuel efficiency, and reduce emissions. This
will mean totally new types of sensors probably utilizing the latest magnetic materials
such as multi pole bonded or injection molded Ferrite or NdFeB.
Another exciting new Automotive application is the influence of a magnetic field in the
combustion chamber of petrol engines. The magnetic aligning of the fuel charge
molecules in the combustion chamber has been known to produce positive effects for
many years. Some of the largest companies in the industry have researched this
phenomenon over many years, but it is only with the emergence of low cost sintered
ferrite NdFeB that the magnetic field can be produced effectively.
In short the future for magnetic materials for Automotive applications shows great
potential, with considerable growth forecast. The magnetic material industry has to keep
up with the Automotive industry's considerable technical demands for the future with
both new material and applications. Component manufactures should take care when
selecting magnetic material suppliers and chose partners that can not only offer good
quality at competitive pricing, but also offer strong technical and application backup.

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REFERENCES
1., WANG CHENG, XU SHANZHEN, WU YONGHAI, "Thermal Analysis and Test
Research of the Magnetic Powder Clutch for Vehicles", Faculty of Transportation
Engineering, Huaiyin Institute of Technology, CHINA, 2014.
2., XU SHANZHEN, WANG CHENG, "Study on Clutch Control Technology and Shift
Control Strategy for Automated Mechanical Transmission with Magnetic Powder Clutch"
Faculty of Transportation Engineering, Huaiyin Institute of Technology, CHINA, 2014.
3.Automotive Applications for Magnetic Materials (www.mmgca.com/techalert/MMGauto-apps.pdf ).
4.Soft magnetic materials http://elektroarsenal.net
5. Magnetic particle clutch, Wikipedia.
6.Sensor Application for Magnetic Materials, by Ed Ramsden.
(http://www.sensorsmag.com/sensors/electric-magnetic/sensor-applications-magneticmaterials-899)
7.Introduction to Alnico magnets from www.alnicomagnets.com.
8.Introduction to Neodymium Magnets, www.Nd-Fe-Binfo.com.

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ANNEXURE

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