Documente Academic
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Documente Cultură
an Introduction
(short Version)
Maciej Lewenstein
Anna Sanpera
Matthias Pospiech
Authors / Lecturers
Maciej Lewenstein Institut fr Theoretische Physik, Universitt Hannover
Anna Sanpera Institut fr Theoretische Physik, Universitt Hannover
Wolfgang Ertmer Institut fr Quantenoptik, Universitt Hannover
maintained by
Matthias Pospiech Student der technischen Physik, Universitt Hannover
correctors
Ulrich Schneider Insitut fr Physik, Johannes Gutenberg-Universitt
Alexander Klein TU Kaiserslautern
Stefan Ataman University Cergy-Pontoise (France)
Contact:
Matthias Pospiech: mail@matthiaspospiech.de
Script bases on Lecture Notes from Lecture 1999 by M. Lewenstein and W. Ertmer.
Parts added from Lecture 2003 by A. Sanpera
Contents
1. Introduction
1.1. Quantum Optics and The Renaissance of Atomic Physics . . . . . . .
1.2. Literature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2. Quantization of the Free EM field
2.1. Quantum harmonic oscillator revisited
2.2. Maxwell equations for free EM fields .
2.3. Gauge invariance . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.4. Canonical quantization . . . . . . . . .
2.5. Number operator . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.6. Quadrature operators . . . . . . . . .
2.7. Continuous limit . . . . . . . . . . . .
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Contents
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81
81
Index
83
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functions
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CHAPTER
Introduction
1. Introduction
sate can be employed then as a source of coherent, intense matter waves (atom
laser). Operation of atom lasers has been already demonstrated in few laboratories. One speculate that within few years atom lasers will find fascinating
applications in precision interferometry of matter waves, atomic lithography on
nanometer level etc.
Quantum Communication and Information Processing
We observe in the recent years an exponential growth of interest in applying
quantum mechanics to information processing. In particular quantum mechanics
allows for less noisy, more secure communication and information transfer. It has
been already demonstrated that using single photos one can transmit confidential
information over distances of kilometres in a way, which eliminates the possibility
of eavesdropping. Quantum teleportation (i. e. copying of a unknown quantum
state from one place to another) has also been demonstrated. Theorist have
demonstrated the quantum computers could realize various computational tasks
much faster that the classical computers used nowadays. Several laboratories in
the world are starting to develop first basic elements for quantum computing and
information processing. Quantum optics provides a very natural area for such
implementations. Squeezed states of light, entangled state of pairs or triples of
photons are being used in those experiments. Further applications involving cold
atoms and ions are being considered.
The laboratories in the Physics Department are among the leading ones in the world.
The research areas cover:
atom optic and atom lasers (W. Ertmer),
atom interferometry (W. Ertmer),
physics of highly excited molecules (E. Tiemann),
physics in intense laser fields (B. Wellegehausen),
detection of gravitational waves (using interferomentry on Earth and in space,
K. Danzmann),
applications in medicine and material processing.
All of the above mentioned experimental areas are equally challenging theoretically.
Although the theory that one develops here is phenomenological, and is not as fundamental as quantum field theory of fundamental constituents of matter, the problems
and difficulties are comparable to the most difficult problems of theoretical physics.
Theoretical quantum optics is nowadays somewhat similar to astrophysics in its interdisciplinary character: it must combine knowledge of classical and quantum electrodynamics, optics and field theory, statistical physics, quantum mechanics, plasma
physics, atomic and molecular physics and so forth.
1.2. Literature
1.2. Literature
As already stated above, quantum optics is an interdisciplinary area and requires good
basis in other areas of physics. Particularly important is quantum mechanics, which
is well covered in
Quantum Mechanics
A good concise course is of course the Schwabl book [?]. To deepen his or hers
knowledge the reader should turn to the classical texts of Landau, [?], Messiah
[?] and Baym [?]. The best among the relatively new ones, the most complete,
and particularly useful in the context of quantum optics is the book of CohenTannoudji, Diu, and Lalo [?]. One of us (M.L) considers the book by Galindo
and Pascual to be an absolute Meisterstck [?].
Quantum Optics
There are very few good handbooks of quantum optics. We will base great parts
of the lectures on the books by Walls and Milburn [?] and Vogel and Welsch [?].
The interested readers should tern to classical texts of Loudon [?] and Luisell
[?], may consider books by Haken [?], Meystre & Sargent III [?] and Mandel &
Wolf [?].
Laser Physics and Non-linear Optics
A very good book for those interested in experiments is Yarivs text [?]. The
Bible of classical optics is still Born and Wolf [?], whereas the corresponding one
of laser physics is Siegman [?]. Laser theory freaks, however, would enjoy more
Eberly and Milonni book [?]. The book by Shen [?] can also be recommended
for further reading.
1. Introduction
CHAPTER
In classical electrodynamics electromagnetic fields E, D, and B, H are physical observables representated as time and position dependent real valued vectors. The complete
microscopic theory must necessarily consider those physical observables as quantum
mechanical operators. Historically, the first indication of quantum nature of light stem
from Max Planck, who described spectrum of thermal radiation assuming that the energy quanta of the field correspond to excitations of harmonic oscillators of a given
energy. Einstein explained the photoelectric effects assuming that electromagnetic energy is distributed in discrete quanta, later termed as photons. He has also used the
concept of photons to describe the absorption and emission of light by atoms. With an
advent of modern quantum theory, Dirac gave the first full description of electromagnetic fields in terms of ensembles of quantum harmonic oscillators. Further theoretical
developments by Schwinger, Feynmann and other have lead to the development of the
quantum electrodynamics.
Experimentally, however, it took a long time to demonstrate the quantum nature of
light directly. The vast majority of physical optics experiment can be well described
using classical Maxwell theory. Consider for example an analogue of Young experiment: two slit experiment with one photon incident on the slits (G. I. Taylor 1909).
The results of such experiment can be equally well described in terms of interference
of classical waves, or in terms of interference of probability amplitudes for the photon
passing through one or other slit. Detecting photons requires more than just measuring interference patterns. The difference between classical and quantum interference
become first visible on the level of higher order correlations of the EM field, for instance
intensity-intensity correlations.
The first experiment of such type was Hanbury-Brown and Twiss experiment, who
measured correlations in the photocurrent fluctuations at two detectors irradiated by
the thermal light. The result showed enhancement of the two-time intensity correlations for short time delay, termed later as photon bunching effect. Photon bunching,
however, can also be described in the classical theory assuming fluctuations of the
field amplitude. The light coming from a well stabilized laser does not exhibit any
correlation enhancement. When described in terms of photons, it can be regarded as
(2.1)
and describes harmonic oscillations around the origin with an amplitude and frequency
. Here, q,
and q denote the first, and the second time derivatives, respectively.
The above equation can be derived using the Hamiltonian formalism. The Hamilton
function is
H(p, q) =
p2
m 2 q 2
+
,
2m
2
(2.2)
Hamilton equations
H
= p/m,
p
H
= m 2 q,
p = {p, H} =
q
q = {q, H} =
(2.3)
(2.4)
and the Heisenberg equations have an analogous form as the Newton equations
d
q
= i[
q, H]/~
=p
/m,
dt
d
p
= i[
p, H]/~
= m 2 q
.
dt
(2.5)
(2.6)
There are various ways of representing quantum mechanical position and canonical
momentum operators. The most common is the position representation in which
q
= q, and p
= i~/q. In the position representation the Hamiltonian reads:
2
2 2
= ~ + m q
H
2m
q2
2
(2.7)
The eigenstates of the Hamiltonian are the solutions of the stationary Schrdinger
equation:
|i = E |i ,
H
(2.8)
are called usually Fock states, |ni and correspond to En = ~(n + 12 ). In the position
representation their wave functions (q) = hq |i are
n (q) = hq |ni =
1/4
1
exp( 2 q 2 /2)Hn (q)
2n n!
(2.9)
p
where = m/~ has the dimension of the inverse of the length, whereas Hn (.)
denote Hermite polynomials.
+ iP
2
1
iP
,
a = Q
(2.10)
(2.11)
(2.12)
(2.13)
which fulfill
[
a,
a ] = 1
(2.14)
Their names follow from the fact that they annihilate, or create respectively energy
quanta of the quantum oscillator
(2.15)
a |ni = n |n 1i
a |ni = n + 1 |n + 1i
(2.16)
= ~(
The operator n
=
a
a counts the number of quanta, and H
n + 1/2). The term
1/2 represents here the energy of the zeropoint fluctuations, or vacuum fluctuation,
since it describes energy of the vacuum state |0i that contains no quanta.
Note that quantum expression for the Hamiltonian differs from the classical one by
the zero-point (vacuum fluctuation) energy.
(2.17)
D=0
(2.18)
B
+E=0
t
D
H=0
t
(2.19)
(2.20)
The first two equation do not have dynamical character. Because in free space
D = 0 E, and B = 0 H, where 0 is electric permittivity, whereas 0 is magnetic
permeability, and 0 0 = c2 , the second and fourth equations can be written as
E=0
(2.21)
E
B=0
c2 t
(2.22)
(2.25)
1 2 A(r, t)
=0
c2
t2
(2.26)
(2.27)
10
where A() (r, t) varies as exp(it) with 0. Obviously, A(+) (r, t) = (A(+) (r, t)) ,
because A(r, t) is real.
Let us consider first the simplest situation when the field is contained in a finite
volume (a box, a resonator, etc.). The field can be expanded into a discrete sum of
eigenmodes, (see next example for details)
X
A(+) (r, t) =
ck uk (r) exp(ik t),
(2.28)
k
(2.29)
kx = 2nx /L,
ky = 2ny /L,
kz = 2nz /L,
L
L
(2.31)
with the multiindex k = (k, ). k is here photon wave vector, whereas = 1, 2 enumerates two possible directions of the photon polarization. ck (t) denotes the amplitude
of each mode. The eigenfunctions uk (r) are of the form
uk (r) =
1
L3/2
e+ikr .
(2.32)
k 2 2 2 ck (t) = 0
c t
11
(2.33)
(2.34)
Thus
2
X
ak k
(2.35)
=1
orthogonal to k-vector
k,1
orthogonal
k,1
k,2 = 1 2
k
k,2 =
|k|
(2.36)
right handed
+ik t ikr
a
e
e
+a
e
e
A(r, t) =
k k
k k
2k 0 L3
k
i
X X ~ 1/2 h
k
k
=
ak 3/2 e+ikr eik t +ak 3/2 eikr e+ik t
2k 0
L
L
k
XX
k
rewrite: uk (r) = L3/2
e+ikr
For any general orthogonal basis expansion the vector potential reads as
A(r, t) =
X
k
~
2k 0
1/2
ak uk (r)eik t + ak uk (r)e+ik t
(2.37)
This is the general form of the EM potential. The equivalent form of the electric field
is then (E = A/t)
E(r, t) = i
X ~k 1/2
k
20
ak uk (r)eik t ak uk (r)e+ik t .
(2.38)
12
~k ak ak .
(2.40)
Thus the energy of the total EM field is the sum of the energies of different modes
denoted by k.
Canonical variables
Introduce canonical variables (with ak (t) = ak (0) eik t )
qk (t) = ak (t) + ak (t)
pk (t) = ik ak (t) ak (t)
(2.41)
These variables fullfill {q, p} = 1. They are the quadratures of the electromagnetic
field and can be measured e. g. as squeezed light.
With the Hamilton equations Eq.(2.3)
H
q k = pk =
t
p
H
pk = k qk =
t
q
we find the classical Hamiltonian
H=
1 X 2
pk (t) + k2 qk2 (t)
2
(2.42)
Remarks: As in Eq.(2.39) is this Hamiltonian a sum of independent harmonic oscillators, with one oscillator for each mode k = (k, ) of the EM field. The EM field is
specified by the canonical variables pk , qk .
2nd quantisation
This can easily be done in the following way. We replace the canonical variables by
operators. These are hermitian and therefore can be observables
qk (t) q
k (t)
pk (t) p
k (t)
13
(2.43)
(2.44)
(2.45)
[ak , ak0 ]
(2.46)
= kk0
Our observable canonical variables are represented by the annihilation and creation
operators in the following way
r
~
ak +
ak
q
k =
2
(2.47)
r
~
a
ak
p
k = i
2 k
Insert Eq.(2.47) in the Hamilton Eq.(2.43). The quantum Hamilton operator becomes then
X
=
H
~k (
ak
ak +
ak
ak )
(2.48)
k
~k (
ak
ak + 1/2)
(2.49)
=
H
X
k
~k
ak
ak +
(2.50)
14
and contains formally infinite zero-point energy. The infinity is not physical, since we
can always choose the zero of energy where we want. What is physical are variations
(derivatives) of this infinity with respect to the changes of the geometry of the quantization volume. The are responsible for the Casimir effect. Physically it means that
if I deform my resonator, I change the zeropoint energy, ergo I execute some work.
There must therefore be forces acting on my resonator walls in this process these are
Casimir forces.
The quantized EM fields (without the time dependence) are
1/2
~
ak uk (r) + ak uk (r)
A(r)
=
2k 0
k
X ~k 1/2
ak uk (r) ak uk (r) ,
E(r) = i
20
X
(2.51)
k
Assuming a plane wave expansion u(r) = L3/2
e+ikr
i
X ~ 1/2 h
1
i(krt)
t) =
A(r,
a
(0)
e
+
h.
c.
k
k
2k 0
L3/2 k
i
X ~k 1/2 h
i(krt)
t) = i
E(r,
a
(0)
e
h.
c.
k
k
20
L3/2 k
1/2 h
i
i X
~
ak (0)(r k ) ei(krt) h. c.
B(r, t) = 3/2
2k 0
L
(2.52)
(2.53)
(2.54)
(2.55)
(2.56)
Commutators with a
and a
k
[
ak , n
k0 ] =
ak kk0
(2.57)
ak kk0
[
ak , n
k0 ] =
(2.58)
15
(2.59)
k , (
Eigenvalues of a
and a
ak |0i = 0)
ak |nk i =
ak |nk i =
nk |nk 1i
nk + 1 |nk + 1i
(2.60)
= i 2~(
a
a)
P
(2.61)
1
L3/2
~
20
1/2
h
i
sin(kr t) P
cos(kr t)
k Q
(2.62)
Q
are the amplitudes of the quadratures into which the
The canonical variables P,
oscillating EM field can be decomposed.
L
2
3 Z
d3 k
1
e+ikr
(2)3/2
16
=
L
2
3/2
ak
Such defined operators fulfil in the continuous limit the commutation relations in which
Kronecker delta is replaced by Diracs delta function,
[
ak ,
ak0 0
]=
L
2
3
kk0 0 (k k0 )0
(2.64)
ikr
+ikr
A(r)
=
d3 k
e
a
e
+
a
k
k
2k 0
(2)3/2
XZ
~ 1/2 k
ikr
+ikr
e
E(r) = i
d3 k
e
a
k
k
20
(2)3/2
XZ
B(r)
= rot A(r)
(2.65)
(2.66)
(2.67)
Hamiltonian
=
H
XZ
d3 k ~k
ak
ak
(2.68)
and correspondingly a
f , so that [af , af ] = 1. Hilbert space consist then of vacuum
state |i (which is annihilated by all af s, single photon states af |i, or many photon
states
p
|kf1 , kf2 , . . .i = (
af1 )kf1 / kf1 ! . . . |i
etc.
17
rsum
what have we done to do the second quantisation:
1) Start with the Maxwell equations and fix the gauge: A = 0
(the canonical variables depend on the gauge!)
2) expand A(r, t) in a Fourier series
3) define the classical canonical variables qk , pk
4) quantize the canonical variables and change poisson bracket to commutators
5) define annihilation and creation operators ak , ak
6) find the new Hamiltonian
Equations:
basis expansion for A(r, t)
uk (r) = k
1 +ikr
e
L3/2
X
k
~
2k 0
1/2
ak uk (r)eik t + ak uk (r)e+ik t
quantum Hamiltonian
X
H=
~k
ak
ak +
k
2k 0
k
X ~k 1/2
ak uk (r) ak uk (r) ,
E(r) = i
20
A(r)
=
X
18
number operator
n
=
a
a
n
k |nk i = nk |nk i
quadrature operators
p
= ~/2(
a+
a )
Q
= 2~i(
a
a )
P
Continuous limit
1/2
k
~
ikr
+ikr
e
a
e
+
a
d3 k
k
k
2k 0
(2)3/2
XZ
~ 1/2 k
ikr
+ikr
E(r) = i
e
d3 k
e
a
k
k
20
(2)3/2
A(r)
=
XZ
B(r)
= rot A(r)
Hamiltonian
=
H
XZ
d3 k ~k
ak ak
List of variables
H
E
B
A
k
k
ck
ak (0)
k,
uk
qk , p k
q
k , p
k
a, ak
a , ak
Hamiltonian
electric field
magnetic field
electromagnetic potential field
multiindex k = (k, )
wave vector
polarisation index
time dependent amplitude of mode k
time independent amplitude of mode k
polarisation vector
basis expansion for A(r, t)
canonical variables (classical)
canonical variables (quantum)
annihilation operator
creation operator
Q,
number operator
quadrature operators
19
20
CHAPTER
In the following we will discuss examples of quantum states of the quantized EM field.
In particular we will give examples of states that are either useful, or experimentally
producible, or interesting. All of those states are quantum, but some of them are more
quantum than others (show more properties of quantum nature than others). Since
we have seen that the EM field corresponds to a collection of uncoupled modes (each
corresponding to a harmonic oscillator) we will dicuss for simplicity a single mode.
The results can be straight forwardly extended to n-modes.
H = k ~k (
ak
ak + 1/2)
n
k |nk i = nk |nk i
(3.1)
k
a
ak |0k i = 0
(3.2)
(3.3)
X
k
~k (
ak
ak + 1/2) |i =
X
k
21
~k /2
(3.4)
22
In the previous chapter we have derived the expression for the EM field in a box of
size L. Let us now consider this example again. The operators ak , and ak represent
annihilation and creation operators of photons of the momentum k and polarization
k . In general they annihilate and create photons in corresponding modes denoted
by k
ak |nk i =
k |nk i =
a
nk |nk 1i
nk + 1 |nk + 1i
(3.5)
(3.6)
P
They form the orthonormal basis for each mode k, hnk |mk i = nm , and
nk =0 |nk i hnk | =
Ik , where Ik is the unity operator in the kth mode Hilbert space.
Fock states of low photon number |ni = |0i , |1i , |2i. . . are currently created in
the laboratory. One can for instance place a single atom in a high quality cavity
(i. e. between two very well polished mirrors). The atom interacts with the laser, gets
excited and emits a single photon which remains in the cavity after the atom has left
the cavity. It is however not possible to use a similar method to create a high number
of photons in the cavity.
We can thus comprehend, that Fock states are difficult to create !
D()
e(a a)
(3.7)
23
The origin of the name becomes clear in Eq.(3.11) and Eq.(3.12). Why must be
complex becomes apparend in Eq.(3.15).
= D()
1 = D().
(3.8)
D()
= e|| /2 ea e a
(3.9)
The proof of the Baker-Haussdorf formula employs the following identity valid for
arbitrary operators (without assuming vanishing of commutators):
eA B eA = B + [A, B]/1! + [A, [A, B]]/2! + . . .
(3.10)
D
a D()
=
a+
()
D
a D()
=
a +
(3.11)
(3.12)
|i D()
|0i
(3.13)
We see that the displacement operator is equivalent to a creation operator for the
coherent state
The following most important property of the coherent states is also used frequently
to define them. Since
() a
D
|i
= D ()
a D()
|0i
= |0i
()D()
=D
|0i
(3.14)
() |i
=D
we conclude that
a |i = |i
(3.15)
24
and analogue
h|
a = h|
(3.16)
n + 1 hn + 1|i = hn|i
hn|i = hn 1|i
n
(3.17)
so that
n
hn|i = h0|i
n!
(3.18)
(3.19)
Thus with Eq.(3.18) using Eq.(3.19), the coherent states have the following Fock
states representation
|i =
||2 /2
|ni hn|i = e
n=0
X
n
|ni
n!
n=0
(3.20)
||2n
exp(||2 )
n!
(3.21)
25
pn
low
higher
n
||2
=e
||2
=e
||2n ||2
e
n!
||2
(3.22)
X ||2(n1)
(n 1)!
n
2 +||2
|| e
= ||2
(3.23)
Another important property of the coherent states is that they are not orthogonal.
Their scalar product is
2
2
()D()
h |i = h0| D
|0i = e|| /2|| /2+
(3.24)
and vanishes exponentially with the growth of modulus squared of the difference.
Coherent state are thus not orthogonal, but form a complete set! In particular,
Z
1
|i h| d2 = I
(3.25)
26
Proof
We use the Fock states representation
Z
Z
X
X
1
|ni hm|
2
|i h| d2 =
e|| ( )m n d2
n!m!
(3.26)
n=0 m=0
Z
Z2
X
X
|ni hm|
r2 n+m
re
r
dr ei(nm) d/
|i h| d2 =
n!m!
n=0 m=0
o
X
n=0
|ni hn|
2
n!
r2n+1 er dr
(3.27)
|ni hn|
n=0
q.e.d
This means that coherent states are overcomplete and form a non-orthogonal basis.
Note: Measurements of non-orthogonal sets of states are tricky. They can be understood as measurements of orthogonal states in a bigger Hilbert space. For instance,
measurement of a set of coherent states {|k i}k=1,2,... can be realized as measurement of orthogonal states {|k i |ki}k=1,2,... , where|ki are Fock states in an auxiliary
Hilbert space.
Coherent states are closely related to the coherent properties of the EM field. Since
they are linear superpositions of Fock states, the number of photons in each mode is
badly defined, but intuitively one expects that the phase properties of the EM field will
be in a coherent state well defined. Any EM field produced by a deterministic current
source (Poisson distribution) is a coherent state. Examples are lasers, parametric
oscillators and so forth.
= 2~i(
P
a
a)
(3.29)
Let us calculate their variance in
a coherent
state (the variance of an observable
(hermitian operator) A is (A)2 = A2 hAi2 ). It is easy to check that
2 = ~/2
(Q)
coh
2
(P)coh = ~/2
(3.30)
(3.31)
27
(3.32)
a = (Q
(3.33)
P
are hermitian.
where Q,
Lets write the EM field in terms of the quadrature operators (Eq.(2.62))
h
i
t) k Q
sin(kr t) P
cos(kr t)
E(r,
(3.34)
cosine of t. Since their commutator is [Q, P] = 2i, the Heisenberg relations says that
P
1. For coherent states we have
Q
= P
= 1.
Q
For squeezed states
< 1, P
= 1/Q
> 1, but Q
P
1.
Q
Note: The equality is achieved only if the state is pure.
Q),
whereas
Graphically, coherent states are represented as circles in the phase space (P,
the squeezed states correspond to ellipses.
111111
000000
000000
111111
000000
111111
000000
111111
000000
111111
000000
111111
000000
111111
000000
111111
000000
111111
000000
111111
000000
111111
111111111
000000000
000000000
111111111
000000000
111111111
000000000Q
111111111
28
S()
= exp(
a2 /2 (a )2 /2)
(3.35)
S ()
aS()
=
a cosh r a e2i sinh r,
S ()
a S()
=
a cosh r a e2i sinh r
(3.36)
(3.37)
Let us define more general hermitian quadrature operators (rotated, or phase shifted
ones)
01 + iP
02 = (Q
+ iP)
ei
Q
(3.38)
(3.39)
(3.40)
and
01 + iP
02 =
Q
a ei
01 iP
02 = a
Q
ei
(3.41)
(3.42)
01 er +P
02 er
S ()(Q
= ei (a cosh r a e2i sinh r) = Q
(3.43)
0 , and streches P
0 . The parameter r = || is
Evidently, the operator S()
squeezes Q
1
2
therefore called squeezing factor.
The squeezed states |, i are defined
|0i
|, i = D()
S()
|0i is called a squeezed vacuum.
The state S()
(3.44)
29
111
000
000
111
000
111
000
111
000
111
000
111
111111
000000
000000
111111
000000
111111
Q
(a) coherent state
Q
(b) squeezed state
(3.45)
Note: n and (n)2 have not been derived, because they are difficult to calculate and
beyond the scope of this introduction.
Let us make a comparison:
For coherent states (r = 0) (n)2 = n and we deal with the Poissonian distribution.
The situation is much more complex and richer for the squeezed states: For
instance, for || , (n)2 can be greater or smaller than n, depending on
. For example, for real we get for = 0, a subPoissonian distribution,
i. e. (n)2 is smaller than n
On the contrary, for = /2, (n)2 = n er , and the distribution is super
Poissonian, i. e. (n)2 is greater than n
1
e
2
2
p(n) = (n!)
,
(3.46)
H
n
2
2
30
E(r, t) =
1
L3/2
~
20
1/2 h
sin t P
cos t
Q
(3.47)
so that
E(r, t)2 = E2 hEi2
i
1
~ h 2 2
2 cos2 t .
(Q) sin t + (P)
= 3
L
20
(3.48)
31
32
ea
Z
= (1 e~ ) ea
(3.49)
n e~n = e~ /(1 e~ )
n=0
we can rewrite
1
=
n+1
n
n+1
a a
(3.50)
(3.51)
n=0
d X n
d
x x=n/(n+1)
x
dx dx n=o
(, ) = D()
th ()D ().
Elementary calculations allow to determine their properties: mean photon number
is just a sum of means from the coherent and thermal component, n = ||2 + nth . The
variance has more complicated form: thermal fluctuations tend to amplify coherent
state fluctuations:
(n)2 = ||2 (2nth + 1) + n2th + nth .
33
(3.52)
exp(i)
=
a
a
Intuitively, one divides here the amplitude operator through the modulus operator. In
order to omit the problems with dividing by zero, the modules operator is taken as a
square root of strictly positive operator aa . In Fock representation
exp(i)
=
|ni hn + 1|
(3.53)
n=0
Eigenstates of this operator do not belong to the Hilbert space (as eigenstates of the
position, or momentum operators), but they make a good sense, and can be used to
build well defined wave-packets. They fulfill
(3.54)
exp(i)
ei = ei ei
with defined modulo 2, for example in the interval [, ). In the Fock representation
i X
e
=
ein |ni
(3.55)
n=0
Indeed, the moduli squared of coefficients of this expansion are not summable. We
could live with that, but the problem is the the operator exp(i)
is not unitary
[exp(i),
(exp(i))
] = |0i h0|
(3.56)
and thus the operator is not hermitian, ergo it is not a physical observable.
Nevertheless, the eigenstates
are useful. They are not orthogonal, they scalar prodD
E
0
0
ucts can be defined as ei |ei = (1 + ei( ) )1 , but they form a complete set:
Z
i
i d
e
e
= I
2
(3.57)
34
This property allows to define in a very reasonable way the phase probability distribution for a given state |i
P () =
1
i 2
| e | |
2
(3.58)
R
This functions is obviously positive, and normalized, P () d = 1.
We can check what are the phase distributions for various states that we have already
studied:
Fock state |n0 i.
We have ei |n0 = ein0 , and thus P () = 1/2, as was easy to guess. Thus
a Fock state has a completely undetermined phase, since it is independent of .
Coherent states |i, with = r ei0 .
Here
2
ei | = er
rn ein(0 ) / n!
n=0
Instead of calculating the mean of the phase and its variance, one can easily
check that for any odd function of 0
Z
P ()f ( 0 ) = 0,
( 0 )2 ' 1 2 hcos( 0 )i ' 1/4r2 = 1/4||2 .
The larger the coherent state modulus square of the amplitude, the bigger the
mean photon number, and the smaller the phase fluctuations. We can therefore
conclude, that coherent states have a well defined phase.
Pegg and Barnett6 tried to define the hermitian phase operator, by taking a finite
subspace Hs of the Hilbert space, spanned by the Fock states with 0, 1, . . . , s photons.
They define
|0 i =
s
X
1
ein0 |ni
s + 1 n=0
35
These new states differ in phase by 2m/(s + 1), i.e. m = 0 + 2m/(s + 1), and
form an orthonormal basis on Hs . The phase operator
PB =
s
X
m |m i hm |
m=0
It is still an open question what is an exact meaning of the distribution P (). There
are strong indications, however, that it corresponds to an optimal phase measurement.
36
rsum
Fock, number states
state sign
|nk i
definition
n
k |nk i = nk |nk i
fock state
|nk i =
(
a )nk
k
nk !
|0k i
ak
|nk i =
nk |nk 1i
(3.59)
nk + 1 |nk + 1i
Coherent states
state sign
|i
definition
Fock states representation
|i D()
|0i
P
2
|i = e|| /2
n=0
n!
|ni
Displacement operator
D()
e(a a)
(3.60)
(3.61)
h|
a = h|
(3.62)
Squeezed states
state sign
|, i
definition
|0i
|, i = D()
S()
Squeeze operator
S()
= exp(
a2 /2 (a )2 /2)
(3.63)
thermal states
definition (density matrix)
1
n+1
n
n+1
a a
(, ) = D()
th ()D ()
37
Properties
photon number distribution (probabilities of having n photons)
fock
pn = nn0
coherent
H
e
pn = (n!)1 2
n
2
n
n
1
pn = n+1 n+1
squeezed
thermal
2n
noisy
mean photon number
fock
n = n0
coherent
n = ||2
squeezed
n = ||2 + sinh2 r
thermal
n=
noisy
n = ||2 + nth
e~
1e~
n2 = n20
coherent
n2 = n2 + n
thermal
n2 = 2n2 + n
(n)2 = 0
coherent
squeezed
(n)2 = n
2
(n)2 = cosh r e2i sinh r + 2 cosh2 r sinh2 r
thermal
(n)2 = n2 + n
noisy
Poisson distributions
(n)2 = n Poissonian
(n)2 < n subPossonian
(n)2 > n superPoissonian
38
Phase distribution
Fock states
i X in
e
=
e
|ni
(3.64)
| ei | |2
.
P () =
2
(3.65)
For |i = |n0 i
P () =
1
2
(uniform).
Coherent states
|i = r ei0
Z+
d P () = 0
(3.66)
(3.67)
hi = 0
1
2 hi2 =
4n
for large n
(3.68)
(3.69)
List of variables
fock states
n
D()
displacement operator
|i
coherent state
Q,
quadrature operators
S()
squeeze operator
0
0
Q1 , P2
general hermitian quadrature operators
|, i
squeezed state
2i
= re
complex number
r = ||
squeezing factor
thermal states
density matrix
2
n
photon number fluctuations
phase of the field
P ()
phase probability distribution
39
40
CHAPTER
In the previous chapters we have described the properties of the free quantised EM field.
We are now interested in its interaction with matter.
(4.1)
with
Ha the atomic Hamiltonian; describes an electron in an atom
Ha =
p
2
+ V (r)
2m
(4.2)
V (r) : is the Coulomb interaction between a bound electron and the nucleus. We
make here the approximation of just one single (valence) electron in the atom,
which is interacting with the field
HF quantised electromagnetic field Hamiltonian
Z
1
1
2
2
HF =
|B(r, t)|
|E(r, t)| +
d3 r
2
0
X
1
=
~k
ak
ak +
2
k
X
1
=
~k n
k +
2
k
41
(4.3)
42
X
1
2 + V(r)
(
p eA)
+
~k (ak ak )
2m
(4.4)
2
X
1 2
e
+ A
p) + e A
2 +
p
+ V(r)
(
pA
~k (ak ak )
2m
2m
2m
|
{z
}|
{z
}
|k
{z
}
Ha
=Hint
(4.5)
EM field
Thus
Hint =
2
e
+ A
p) + e A
2
pA
(
2m
2m
(4.6)
= i~(A)
= i~
with p
= i~(A) i~A
+ i~A
(4.7)
=0
with A = 0 from Coulomb gauge. The Hamiltonian simplifies to
H=
2
X
e
1 2
2 +
+ e A
~k (ak ak )
p
+ V(r)
(
pA)
2m
2m
2m
(4.8)
H=
X
1 2
e
+
p
+ V(r)
(
pA)
~k (ak ak )
2m
2m
k
(4.9)
43
Ha j (r) = Ej j (r)
(4.11)
where j (r) are the eigenfuctions of the hamiltonian. Any general wavefunction (r)
can be expanded in an eigenfunction basis of the hamiltonian, where j enumerates the
eigenstates of Ha .
X
(r)
bj j (r)
(4.12)
j
(r)
=
(r) =
j j (r)
b
(4.13)
bj j (r)
For the atomic Hamiltonian we derive, using the condition of orthonormality for j ,
R
i. e. i j = ij
Z
Hat = (Ha ) d3 r
X Z p
2
+ V (r) i d3 r
=
bj bi j
2m
ij
|
{z
}
(4.14)
Ei i
bj bi Ei
ij
at =
H
j i d3 r
| {z }
ij
X
j
Ej b
j j
(4.15)
44
j , b
b2 |0i = |1i2
(4.16)
Pauli exlusion principle implies (no possibility of two electrons in the same state)
b
b
j j |0i = 0
(4.17)
(4.18)
(4.19)
j |1i = |0i
b
j
j obey anticomThe above properties follow from the assumption that the operators b
mutator relations:
i b
+ b
b
i , b
} = b
{b
j
j
j i ij
i , b
j } = 0 and
{b
(4.20)
, b
} = 0
{b
i
j
(4.21)
(b
j
j i ) |0i = bi bj |0i = bi |1ij = 0
i b
+ b
b
(b
i
i i ) |0i = bi bi |0i = bi |1ii = |0i
for i 6= j
(4.22)
(4.23)
45
Ej b
j j
(4.24)
~k
ak
ak
(4.25)
F =
H
X
k
int =
H
e
d3 r
p (r)
(r) A
m
(4.26)
b
(r)
=
j
(r) =
(r)
b
j i
=
A
~
[
ak uk (r) + h. c. ]
20
int = e
b
H
i j
m
ijk
i (r)
o
~ n
j (r) d3 r
[ak uk (r) + h. c. ] p
20
(4.27)
e
=
m
1
2~0
) j (r) d3 r
i (r) (uk (r) p
(4.28)
and get
int = ~
H
b
j gkij
b
a
+
g
a
k
kij k
i
(4.29)
ijk
X
j
Ej b
j j +
X
k
~k
ak
ak + ~
X
ijk
b
ak + gijk
ak )
i j (gijk
(4.30)
46
(4.31)
where r0 are the coordinates of the atom. We now want to solve the integral from
Eq.(4.28)
Z
Z
) j (r) d3 r uk (r0 ) i (r) p
j (r) d3 r
i (r) (uk (r) p
written in terms of the time evolution of the r operator (Heisenberg equation)
with p
dr
i
= m
p
v=m
=m
[ r, Ha ]
dt
~
we can solve
Z
Z
mi
3
a ] j (r) d3 r
j (r) d r = i (r)
i (r) p
[ r, H
~
Z
mi
r rH)
j (r) d3 r
i (r)(H
=
~
= Ei (r) and H
j (r) = Ej j (r)
using: i (r)H
i
Z
Z
mi
3
j (r) d r =
i (r) p
(Ei i (r)rj (r) Ej i (r)rj (r)) d3 r
~
Z
mi
=
(Ei Ej )
i (r)rj (r) d3 r
~
|
{z
}
dij dipole matrix element
mi
(Ei Ej )dij
~
e
= i
m
~
m
uk (r0 ) (Ei Ej )dij
20
~
(4.32)
int = ~
H
b
ak + ak )
(4.33)
i j gkij (
ijk
47
Definitions:
upper state
|2i
lower state
|1i
~0
E2 E0 +
E1 E0
|2i
~0
1
2 ~0
1
2 ~0
E0
~0
~0
|1i
(4.35)
(4.36)
h1|2i = 12
(4.37)
(4.32)
r
= ie
1
u(r0 )~0 d12
2~0
(4.38)
48
b
a = E1 b
H
1 1 + E2 b2 b2
F = ~
H
a
a
1 g21 (a + a )
2 g12 (
b
b
int = ~ b
a
+
a
)
+
b
H
2
1
(4.39)
In the Heisenberg picture we have found the time evolution of the operators a and b
i (t) = b
i (0) e ~i Ei t
b
(4.40)
+ ~i Ej t
(4.41)
(t) = b
(0) e
b
j
j
a(t) =
a(0) eit
(4.42)
(4.43)
a (t) =
a (0) e
+it
(4.44)
b
a
b
2 1
b
a
b
2 1
+i(0 )t
(4.46)
i(0 +)t
(4.47)
(4.45)
e
e
If 0 ' , which occurs if the EM field is close to the atomic resonance, as it is the
case if only these 2 atomic levels are relevant, the terms proportional to 0 + oscillate
like 2. These terms can be negelcted in comparison with the slow oscillating term
0 . They correspond to higly non-energy conserving processes. This is known as
the rotating wave approximation (RWA).
b
2
b
1 a, so that we can conclude
Therefore remain only b
a and b
1
b
a + h. c. )
HRWA = E1 b
a a + ~(g12 b
1 1 + E2 b2 b2 + ~
1 2
This Hamiltonian is exactly solvable!
(4.48)
49
1 =
2 =
3 =
(4.49)
R
2
1 0
i 0
0 1
Let us do the following association:
electron operator
b
1
b
2
b
b
1 2
1
2
b
b
2 2
spin operator
+
R
1 b
b
1
R
3
R
where
R
1 iR
2
R
(4.50)
3 in terms of R
and R
3 = 1 (R
+R
R
R
+)
R
2
(4.51)
, b
operators do.
These operators act on accessible states in the same way as the b
j
are also called raising and lowering operators, since it is
Sometimes the operators R
easy to check that for spin 1/2 system:
!
0
1
+
R
(4.52)
0 0
using as a basis the 2 level system |1i and |2i (equivalent to spin down |1i and up
|2i)
+ |2ih1|
R
|1ih2|
R
(4.53)
(4.54)
|1i = |0i
R
|2i = |1i
R
(4.56)
(4.55)
(4.57)
50
It follows
R
+ |2i = 0
R
R
+ |1i = R
|2i = |1i
R
+R
|1i = R
+ |0i = |1i
R
(4.58)
+R
|2i = R
+ |1i = |2i
R
(4.61)
(4.59)
(4.60)
R
+ plays the role of number of particles in level |1i while R
+R
(4.62)
a = E1 b
H
1 1 + E2 b2 b2
1
1 b
+ b
b
2 ) + 1 (E2 E1 ) b
b
2 b
1 b
= (E2 + E1 )(b
1
2
2
1
2
2
1
1 b
+ b
b
= E0 (b
1
2 2 ) + ~0 b2 b2 b1 b1
2
(4.63)
(4.64)
51
+, R
, R
3
Properties of R
+, R
] = 2R
3
[R
+, R
3 ] = R
+
[R
(4.65)
, R
3 ] = R
[R
1
3 = 1
R
2
0 1
23 = 1 12
R
4
(4.66)
[
a
,R
[
a
,R
a
=0
3,
[ N,
a
a] = [
a
a+R
a
a]
3,
[
a
=
a,
a
a] + [R
a a ]
3
=
a
[R
,
a] +
[R
a ] a
3,
=0
R
+
3, R
+
[ N,
a] = [
a
a+R
a]
+
3, R
+ a ]
= [
a
a, R
a] + [R
+
+ a ] a +
+
3, R
+ ] a
=
a [
a, R
a] + [
a , R
R
R
a] + [R
[
3,
+[
+ ] a + R
+ [ a , a ] a + [ a
+]
+ a
=
a
R
a,
a] +
a
[
a
,R
,R
aa R
+
+
=R
aR
a
=0
R
3, R
[ N,
a ] = [
a
a+R
a ]
3, R
a ]
= [
a
a, R
a ] + [ R
a ] a + R
[
3, R
] a
=
a [
a, R
a ] + [
a , R
R
a ] + [R
3,
[
] a + R
]
a
=
a R
a,
a ] +
a
[
a
,R
[
a
,
a
]
a
+
[
a
,
R
a
a + R
= R
a + R
a
=0
52
(4.67)
(4.68)
To make the evaluation of the commutator easier we rewrite the Hamiltonian with
0 +
0
(4.69)
detuning
3 + ~
+ a a R
)
HRWA = ~0 R
a a + i~g(R
= ...
1 1
3 a a) + i~g(R
+ a a R
)
N + ~(R
= ~
2
2
3 commutes with N
and (R
3 a a), so we are left with
We know R
(4.70)
3, R
+
3, R
+ ] a + R
+ [ R
3 , a ] = R
+ a
[R
a] = [R
3,
] = [ R
3,
+ a [ R
3, R
] = a R
[R
a R
a ] R
3 , HRWA ] = i~g(R
+ a + a R
)
[R
This result is not in terms of
HRWA ,
(4.71)
3 , HRWA ]
3 = [ R
i~R
t
))
= g(i~ (R
a) + i~ (a R
+
t
+
, HRWA ]
= g [R
a, HRWA ] + [ a R
(4.72)
+
1.) Evaluate [ R
a, HRWA ]
+
3 ] = [ R
+, R
3 ] a = R
+ a
[R
a, R
+
+ [
+ , a a ] a
[R
a,
a
a] = R
a,
a a ] + [ R
+
+ [
+
a
[R
, a ] a +
[R
, a
] aa
=R
a,
a ] a +
R
a
[ a, a ] +
+
+
=R
a
53
+
]=0
then follows: [ R
a, N
+ a, R
+
[R
a] = 0
+ a,
] = R
+ [
] + [ R
+ , a R
] a
[R
a R
a,
a R
+
] + R
+ [ a, a ] R
+ a [ R
+, R
] a + [ R
+
=
R
a
[
a, R
, a
] aR
+R
+
+, R
] a
=R
a [R
R = (S + 1)S
1
+1
2
1
3
= 1
2
4
3 = 1 1 we rewrite
together with R
2
3 = 11 + R
3
+R
= 31 11 + R
R
4
4
2
23 + R
3 = (2R
3 + 1)R
3
= 2R
with these results we can continue
+ a,
] = R
+R
+
+, R
] a
[R
a R
a [ R
+R
+ 2R
3
=R
a
a
3 + 1)R
3 + 2R
3 a a
= (2R
h
i
3 + 1) + 2
3
= (2R
a
a R
h
i
3 +
3
= 2(R
a
a) + 1 R
+ 1)R
3
= (2N
, HRWA ]
2.) Evaluate [
a R
, R
3 ] =
, R
3 ]
[ a R
a [ R
a=
a R
,
,
[ a R
a
a] =
a [ R
a
a] + [
a , a a ] R
+ [ a
=
a
a
[R
,
a] +
a
[R
, a ] a + a [ a , a ] R
a ] aR
,
=
a R
54
+
]=0
then follows: [ R
a, N
,
] = 0
[
a R
a R
, R
+
, R
+ a ] + [ a , R
+ a ] R
[
a R
a] =
a [ R
+[
, R
+ ] a + R
+ [ a , a ] R
+ [ a
=
a
R
R
a ] + a [ R
aR
,
, R+ ]
+R
+ a [ R
, R
+ ] a
= R
3 + 1)R
3 2R
3 a a
= (2R
h
i
3 + 1) + 2a a R
3
= (2R
h
i
3 + a a) + 1 R
3
= 2(R
+ 1)R
3
= (2N
Recall
3 + ~
+ a a R
)
HRWA = ~0 R
a
a + i~g(R
3 = g [ R
+
, HRWA ]
i~R
a, HRWA ] + [ a R
(4.62)
(4.72)
+
+ 1)R
3
3 = g 1 ~(2R
a) i~g(2N
i~R
2
1
a R ) i~g(2N + 1)R3
+ ~(2
2
) 2i~g 2 (2N
+ 1)R
3
3 = ~g(R
+
i~R
a+
a R
The second derivative is now in terms of the Hamiltonian
3 = ig(R
+
) 2g 2 (2N
+ 1)R
3
R
a
a R
RWA
n
o
H
1
2 + 2g 2 (2N
+ 1) R
3
=
(
)N
~
2
|
{z
}
2
3
with ~ RWA = HRWA we have finally found the equation of motion for R
1
d2
2
RWA
R
3 (t) =
+
(
)N
dt2
2
(4.73)
(4.74)
55
(4.75)
(4.76)
where (t) and (k, , t) are the amplitudes of having the atom in the excited state
and zero photons |2, 0i and having the atom in the ground state and 1 photon of
momentum k and polarisation emitted |1, 1k, i.
Our initial conditions are
(t = 0) = 1
(k, , t = 0) = 0
The Schrdinger equation becomes thus
(
)
XZ
(t) |2, 0i +
(k, , t) |1, 1k, i d3 k = HRWA |i
i~
t
(4.77)
By inserting the initial values into the Schrdinger equation Eq.(4.77) we find the
differential equation:
XZ
~0
i~(t)
=
+
g(k, )(k, , t) d3 k
(4.78)
2
and
, t) =
i~(k,
~0
+ k (k, , t) + g (k, )(t)
2
(4.79)
(4.80)
here we used
0 = o + 0 , where 0 denotes the Lamb shift. This is a very small
0 0 quantum correction to the energy of the atomic transition. Second we have
used the natural linewidth of an atomic transition
d2 02
60 c2
(4.81)
56
~ |2i
With dipole moment d = h1| e~rE
From Eq.(4.80) follows
(t) = (0) e(i0 )t
(4.82)
Since (t) is nothing else than the population of the excited state, we can rewrite
Eq.(4.82) as
d
P2 (t) = P2 (0)
dt
(4.83)
(4.84)
57
rsum
Hamiltonian with quantised emfields
Hamiltonian describing matter-light interaction
H = Ha + HF + Hint = H0 + Hint
atomic Hamiltonian
Ha =
p
2
+ V (r)
2m
interaction Hamiltonian
Hint =
2
e
+ A
p) + e A
2
(
pA
2m
2m
at =
H
Ej b
j j
j
b
j gkij
int = ~
a
+
g
a
H
b
k
kij k
i
ijk
gkij
e
=
m
1
2~0
) j (r) d3 r
i (r) (uk (r) p
Approximations
dipole approximation: quantized interaction Hamiltonian
X
b
int = ~
H
b
ak +
ak )
i j gkij (
ijk
gkij
e
= i
m
~
m
uk (r0 ) (Ei Ej )dij
20
~
58
b
a = E1 b
H
1 1 + E2 b2 b2
F = ~
H
a
a
1 (g21 a + g a )
2 (g12
b
b
int = ~ b
a
+
g
a
)
+
b
H
21
12
2
1
Hamiltonian in rotating wave approximation
a + h. c. )
b
b
a a + ~(g12 b
HRWA = E1 b
1 2
1 1 + E2 b2 b2 + ~
Pauli Spin matrices
atom raise and lower operators
+ R
1 + iR
2
R
R
1 iR
2
R
number of excitations
+R
R
R
+)
3 = 1 (R
R
2
Jaynes Cummings model
3 + ~
+ a a R
)
HRWA = ~0 R
a a + i~g(R
Number operator (total number of excitations)
3
N
a
a+R
0 +
0
detuning
3
equation* of motion for R
2
1
d
2
RWA
R
3 (t) =
+
(
)N
dt2
2
quantum Rabi frequency
2 = 2 + 2g 2 (2N
+ 1)
Spontaneous emission
natural linewidth
=
d2 02
60 c2
List of variables
Ha
atomic Hamiltonian
HF
electromagnetic Hamiltonian
Hint
interaction Hamiltonian
j
b
gkij
dij
|2i
|1i
1, R
2, R
3
R
3
R
HRWA
+
R
detuning
number of photons
probability of decay
natural linewidth
dipole moment
P2
P1
59
60
CHAPTER
In order to characterize the states of quantum EM field one has to perform measurements. The simplest of such measurements conceptually is counting the number of
photons, i. e. measuring the operator n
= a a. In reality, however, photons are coming
from the source and arriving at a detector at various times. What one measures in
effect is the number of photons that have arrived at the detector within a given time
interval. Repeated measurements of that number provide its probability distributuin.
The probability distribution of photon counts provides a lot of information about the
state of the EM field, and about the correlation functions of the field that characterizes
the state.
We first need to understand what do photo detectors (photo multipliers) really
measure, in order to develop the theory of photo-detection and photo-counting, and
to study the properties of various states of the quantum EM field from that side. To
this aim we will develop a caricature model of a photo-detector a model of a single
electron atom that undergoes ionization under the influence of the field to be measured.
Photocurrent due to ionization is then amplified in the photo-multiplier, but that will
not be of interest of us. We will try to determine which characteristics of the EM field
determine the photo-detector response.
|Ei
|0i
61
62
field is
Z
dE |Ei hE |
H = E0 |0i h0| +
0
+ ~
()
(r, t) + E
(+)
(r, t)
(5.1)
The interaction part describes transitions |0i |Ei caused by interaction with the
electric field (ionization!) at r. is a coupling constant. The sum E () (r, t)+E (+) (r, t)
is the total electric field. We have divided it into a positive and a negative frequency
parts, oscillating as eit and e+it , respectively. The frequencies relevant for the process of ionization will be close to the laser frequency, L
We solve the Schrdinger Equation
i~
d |i
= H |i
dt
(5.2)
(5.3)
(5.4)
i
(E,
t) = E(E, t) i E () (r, t) + E (+) (r, t) (t)
~
(5.5)
Formal solution:
first we go to the interaction picture
= ei
E0
t
~
iE
t
~
=e
(5.6)
(5.7)
Thus
= i
i
(5.8)
i
(5.9)
63
We know that
E () (r, t) e+iL t
(5.10)
iL t
(5.11)
(+)
(r, t) e
We have L 1015 Hz, (E + E0 ) /~ 1015 Hz. We can safely forget rapidly oscillating
terms in the equation above! So
= i
(t)
Zt
(t0 ) dt0
e ~ (E+E0 )t E (+) (r, t0 )
(5.12)
(5.13)
(t) = i
Z
0
(t) = 2
Zt
dE
(5.14)
~i E(tt0 )
+
Z
i
0
dE e ~ E(tt ) 2~(t t0 )
(5.15)
(5.16)
(t t0 ) dt0 =
1
2
(5.17)
(5.18)
(5.19)
64
where h. . .i is the quantum average in quantum electrodynamics (i. e. when fields are
quantized), or average over stochastic character of classical field, if we use classical
model of E(r, t).
Note that the ionization rate determines counting rate of the detector!
D
E
I(r, t) E () (r, t)E (+) (r, t)
(5.20)
Since Eq.(2.53)
E ()
a
E
(+)
(5.21)
(5.22)
(5.23)
(5.24)
(5.26)
(5.27)
65
These correlation functions are mean values of normally ordered and apex-time ordered
products of E () , E (+) . Apex-time ordering means that creation operators are ordered
from earliest to the latest times from left to right, annihilation operators conversely,
from the latest to the earliest. The correlation functions Eq.(5.25) are related to
counting rates of n photons at various times.
Coincidence rate of detecting a photon at (r1 , t1 ), then another at (r2 , t2 ), etc. (for
t1 t2 . . . tn ) is given by
W (n) (r1 , t1 , r2 , t2 , . . . , rn , tn ) G(n) (r1 , t1 , r2 , t2 , . . . , rn , tn )
D
E
()
()
(+)
(+)
= E (r1 , t1 ) E (rn , tn )E (rn , tn ) E (r1 , t1 )
(5.28)
This is a direct generalization of the result of a photo-detector to two photo-detectors,
or in general to n photo-detectors .
Physically:
The simple photo-counting rate is proportional to normally ordered mean intensity.
The coincidence rate is proportional to the normally and apex ordered product of
intensities!
or
A%),
Tr(A
(5.29)
where
xk = (rk , tk ).
Similarly, taking
X
=
A
i E (+) (xi ),
(5.30)
=
A
j E () (xj ),
(5.31)
we get
X
i,j
D
E
j i E () (xj )E (+) (xi ) 0,
(5.32)
66
so that
X
j i G(1) (xj , xi ) 0.
(5.33)
i,j
G(1) (xj , xi ) regarded as a matrix must be positively defined. So have to be all of its
minors. In particular, Cauchy-Schwartz inequality holds
det G(1) (xi , xj ) 0,
(5.34)
so for i, j = 1, 2 we have
2
G(1) (x1 , x1 )G(1) (x2 , x2 ) G(1) (x1 , x2 ) .
Here we have also used
G(1) (x1 , x2 ) = G(1) (x2 , x1 )
(5.35)
(5.36)
More generally
G(n) (x1 , . . . , xn ; xn , . . . , x1 )G(n) (xn+1 , . . . , x2n ; x2n , . . . , xn+1 )
2
G(n) (x1 , . . . , xn ; xn+1 , . . . , x2n ) .
(5.37)
Apart from the mathematical sense mean have all these properties an important physical sense. For instance, the inequality Eq.(5.35) means that the interference term
|G(1) (x1 , x2 )| cannot be larger than the geometric mean of the intensities.
67
photodetector
r2 E1
We have obviously
(+)
(+)
(5.38)
(5.39)
(5.40)
1 (+)
s1
s2
(+)
E 1 (r1 , t ) + E 2 (r2 , t ) .
R
| {z c}
| {z c}
2
si
c)
h
i
I(r, t) G(1) (x1 , x1 ) + G(1) (x2 , x2 ) + 2Re G(1) (x1 , x2 )
(5.41)
retarded time
here we keep s1 , s2 to account for phase difference!
(5.42)
68
(5.43)
By means of intensities
G(2) ( ) = h: I(t)I(t + ) :i
|
{z
}
(5.44)
g (2) ( ) =
G(2) ( )
|G(1) (0)|2
(5.45)
(5.46)
(5.47)
(5.48)
69
so that
G(2) ( ) = (G(1) (0))2 .
(5.49)
In that situation
g (2) ( ) = 1
(5.50)
For classical fields, which do not fluctuate, and fields with E (+) (t) = E eit this is
the case.
Fluctuating Fields
However, for classical fields, which do fluctuate, for instance fields having fluctuating
amplitude E, we have
Z
(2)
G ( ) = P (E)|E|4 dE,
(5.51)
where P (E) is the probability distribution of the amplitude E.
Since
Z
(1)
G (0) = P (E)|E|2 dE,
(5.52)
we obtain
g
(2)
P (E)|E|4 dE
2
P (E)|E|2 dE
2
R
P (E) |E|2 |E|2
dE
=
+11
2
R
P (E)|E|2 dE
R
( ) = R
(5.53)
(5.54)
Gaussian fields
Let us consider another example of classical fluctuating fields, Gaussian fields. These
are fields, whose probability distributions are Gaussian. Technically, if we have E () (t),
E () (t + ), E (+) (t) and E (+) (t + ), they should be regarded as complex random
variables with probability distribution P ,
P exp quadratic form of E () (t), E () (t + ), E (+) (t), E (+) (t + ) .
(5.55)
70
Practically, that means that higher order correlations factorize into a sum of products of two-point correlations for all possible pairings (this is called Wicks theorem in
Quantum Field Theory). We have then
D
E
E () (t)E () (t + )E (+) (t + )E (+) (t)
D
ED
E
= E () (t)E () (t + ) E (+) (t + )E (+) (t)
D
ED
E
+ E () (t)E (+) (t + ) E () (t + )E (+) (t)
D
ED
E
+ E () (t)E (+) (t) E () (t + )E (+) (t + )
= G(1) (0)2 + |G(1) ( )|2 .
(5.56)
We obtain thus
g (2) ( ) = 1 + |g (1) ( )|2
(5.57)
where
g (1) ( ) =
G(1) ( )
G(1) (0)
(5.58)
When the Gaussian field fluctuates, clearly E () (t) = 0. This is the result of the
Gaussian distribution, which is invariant with respect to the change of sign of E () (t),
E () (t + ).
In this case we always have that
D
E
G(1) ( ) = E () E (+) (t + ) 0,
(5.59)
as , or in other words, the field becomes uncorrelated for large s.
Typically
g (1) ( ) =
g (1) ( ) = e
e
2 2
(5.60)
(5.61)
In any case, for such fields we have that g (1) ( ) g (1) (0), and in fact that g (1) ( ) is
a monotonically decreasing function of .
That implies that for classical fluctuating fields we have always
1 g (2) (0) g (2) ( )
(5.62)
The relation above, measured in the famous Hanbury-Brown and Twiss experiment4 ,
expresses the fact that classical fields exhibit photon bunching. In other words, photons
in classical fields, or better to say in classically interpretable or classically described
states, like to bunch, i. e. come together. Of course, in practice, what we observe is,
that the detector is more likely to click twice for short time lag than for larger ones.
4
71
(+)
(5.63)
(t)
a
(5.64)
(2)
(0) =
a
a
a
a
2
h
a
ai
=1+
(n)2 n
,
n2
(5.65)
where mean value n = a
1
,
n
(n)2 = 0,
n = n.
For the coherent states
g (2) (0) = 1,
(n)2 = n.
Since typically g (2) ( ) 1 as , then we have for the Fock states:
g (2) ( ) g (2) (0)
(photon antibunching).
(5.66)
(5.67)
72
(5.68)
Then the probability of zero clicks in
[0, T ] is
Y
P0 (t, +T, t) =
t0 [t,t+T ]
Y
exp p(t0 )
1 p(t0 )
{z
}
|
t0
t+T
Z
= exp
I(t0 ) dt0 .
(5.69)
t00
t+T
Z
t+T
Z
I(t0 ) dt0
(5.70)
Pn (t, +T, t) =
n
1
T I(t, T ) exp T I(t, T )
n!
(5.71)
where
1
I(t, T ) =
T
t+T
Z
I(t0 ) dt0 .
probability of no clicks
(5.72)
73
(5.73)
(5.74)
nn
exp(n),
n!
(5.75)
where
n = IT
(5.76)
(5.77)
This is the so called shot noise. It shows that the number of counts in classical
probabilistic theory fluctuates according to Poisson distribution, even if the EM field
is deterministic. Shot noise is the consequence of probabilistic character of detectors.
Random intensity
I(T ) random variable, distributed according to P (I(T ));
Z
n = I(T )T = T IP (I) dI,
n2 = 2 I(T )2 T 2 + I(T )T
D
2
= 2 T 2 I + T I .
(5.78)
(5.79)
One gets
n2 n2 = n + 2 T 2
hD E
i
2
2
I I
> n.
(5.80)
(5.81)
74
Thermal fields
1
I
P (I) =
exp
I0
I0
In that case
n
I = n!I0n ,
n2
(5.82)
(5.83)
n = T I0 ,
(5.84)
(5.85)
n = n + n,
and
Z
(T )n
1
n
Pn (T ) =
I exp I T +
dI
I0 n!
I0
0
n
n
1
=
.
1+n 1+n
(5.86)
(5.87)
with
h: X :i = Tr (% : X :) ,
(5.88)
t+T
Z
(5.89)
Pn (T ) = :
exp (T )a a : ,
n!
(5.90)
75
For
Open systems (typically):
(T ) = T ,
(t) = 1 eT .
Let us define
Pn = hn| % |ni
Pm (T )
Pm (T ) =
Pn
l=0
Pn
n=m
X
[(T )]m
(T )l m+l m+l
hn|
(1)l
(a )
a
|ni
m!
l!
nm
X
l=0
n!
(T )l
,
(1)l
l! (n m l)!
n
Pm (T ) =
Pn
(T )m (1 (T ))nm
m
n=m
{z
}
|
(5.91)
(5.92)
Bernoulli distr.
(5.93)
(5.94)
Both distributions are Poissonian! Pm (T ) has the same form as in the classical
case of constant I!
Chaotic states (thermal light)
n
1
n
Pn =
,
1+n 1+n
m
1
m
Pm (T ) =
,
1+m 1+m
(5.95)
(5.96)
76
where
m = (t)n
(5.97)
(5.98)
(T )m (1
n0 m
(T ))
for m n0
otherwise
(5.99)
We have:
n = n0 ,
m = (T )n0 = (T )n,
m2 = (T )n0 + (T )2 n0 (n0 1) ,
m2 m2 = n0 (T ) (1 (T )) ,
X n(n 1)Pn
1
g (2) (0) =
=1 ,
2
n
n
X m(m 1)Pm (T )
.
=
m2
(5.100)
(5.101)
The last equality, g (2) (0) can be calculated from Pn or Pm (T ), the result is the
same.
77
rsum
Model of a photodetector
Mean intensity
D
E
I(r, t) = E () (r, t)E (+) (r, t)
Correlation functions
Two points correlation function
D
E
G(1) (r1 , t1 , r2 , t2 ) E () (r1 , t1 )E (+) (r2 , t2 )
Four points correlation function
D
E
G(2) ( ) E () (t)E () (t + )E (+) (t + )E (+) (t) = h: I(t)I(t + ) :i
normalized correlation
g (1) ( ) =
G(1) ( )
G(1) (0)
g (2) ( ) =
G(2) ( )
|G(1) (0)|2
Optical Coherence
Double slit interference
h
i
I(r, t) G(1) (x1 , x1 ) + G(1) (x2 , x2 ) + 2Re G(1) (x1 , x2 )
Photon correlation measurements
classical case
Stationary fields
g (2) ( ) = 1
Gaussian Fields
Fluctuating fields
quantum case
mean value
variance
normalized correlation
n= a
a a aa
(n)2 n
(2)
g (0) =
=
1
+
2
n2
ha ai
g (2) (0) = 1
coherent
g (2) (0) = 1
thermal
g (2) (0) = 2
1
n
78
Photon counting
classical case
Probability of n clicks
Pn (t, +T, t) =
n
1
T I(t, T ) exp T I(t, T ) ,
n!
quantum case
Photon number distribution
+
*
n
T I
exp T I(T ) :
Pn (T ) = :
n!
Photon counting distribution
n
Pm (T ) =
Pn
(T )m (1 (T ))nm
m
n=m
mean number of counted (detected) photons
m = (t)n
Properties for different states
Photon counting distribution
n m
fock
Pm (T ) = nm0 (T )m 1 (T ) 0
coherent
Pm (T ) =
thermal
Pm (T ) =
((t)n)m (t)n
e
m
m!
(T )n
1
1+(T )n
1+(T )n
m2 = n(t) + n (n 1) (T )2
coherent
m2 = m2 + m
thermal
m2 = 2m2 + m
(m)2 = n(T ) (1 (T ))
coherent
(m)2 = m
thermal
(m)2 = m2 + m
79
List of variables
|0i
|Ei
E (+)
E ()
(t)
(E, t)
I
G(1)
G(2)
g (2)
(n)2
I
Pn
(T )
Pn
Pm
m
m
(m)2
ground state
excited state with energy E
coupling constant in the photo-detector
positive frequency part of the EM field
negative frequency part of the EM field
amplitude of the ground state
amplitude of the exited state
Ionization rate / counting rate
correlation function of 1-st order (two points)
correlation function of 2-nd order (four points)
normalized correlation
variance of the photon number
Intensity
detector efficiency
probability of n clicks
probability of detecting one photon in [t, t + T ] quantum efficiency
photon number distribution
photon counting distribution
number of detected photons
mean number of detected photons
variance of the detected photons
80
APPENDIX
A(t)
time t
If we shift the data by a time and multiply the values of the new plot to the
original one we get a big value if the curves have both high and low values at the same
place.
A(t)
detector
(A.1)
time t
81
82
Index
A
atomic field operators, 41
atomic Hamiltonian, 39
atomic operators, 42
L
Lamb shift, 55
M
multiindex, 8
B
Baker-Haussdorf formula, 21
N
natural linewidth, 55
normalized correlation, 68
Number operator, 48
number operator, 12, 42
number state, 19
C
Casimir effect, 12
coherent state, 21
correlation function, 64
Coulomb gauge, 7
coupling constant, 43
O
optical coherence, 67
overcomplete, 24
D
detuning, 50
Dipole approximation, 44
dipole matrix element, 44
dipole moment, 56
displacement operator, 20
P
Pauli matrices, 47
phase probability distribution, 31
photo-detector, 61
photon antibunching, 71
photon bunching, 70
photon correlation, 68
Poisson distribution, 24
polarisation, 9
E
electromagnetic field Hamiltonian, 39
F
Fermis Golden Rule, 63
Fock state, 19
G
gauge invariance, 7
Q
quadrature operators, 13, 25
quantum Rabi frequency, 52
I
interaction Hamiltonian, 40
R
Rotating wave approximation, 46
J
Jaynes Cummings model, 48
S
shot noise, 73
83
84
Spontaneous emission, 55
spontaneous emission, 54
squeeze operator, 25
state overlap, 23
subPossonian, 27
superPoissonian, 27
W
wave equation, 7
Weisskopf Formula, 56
Z
zeropoint fluctuations, 6
Index
Bibliography
[Bay69]
[BW64]
[Hak89]
[LDL90]
[LM95]
Emil Wolf Leonard Mandel. Optical Coherence and Quantum Optics. Cambridge University Press, 1995.
[Lou73]
[Lui73]
[Mes91]
[PM99]
[She84]
[Sie86]
85
86
Bibliography
[VW94]
[WM95]
[Yar89]
Ammon Yariv. Quantum Electronics. John Wiley & Sons, 3 edition, 1989.