Documente Academic
Documente Profesional
Documente Cultură
A Short COURSE ON
power system Voltage STABILITY
Presented by
Dr. P. Kundur
Copyright P. Kundur
This material should not be used without the author's consent
1538pk
1538pk
Copyright P. Kundur
This material should not be used without the author's consent
1538pk
Outline
1538pk
1538pk
1538pk
1538pk
1538pk
1538pk
Power
PowerSystem
SystemStability
Stability
ability to remain in operating equilibrium
equilibrium between opposing forces
Angle
Angle
Stability
Stability
ability to maintain synchronism
torque balance of synchronous
machines
Small
Small
Signal
Signal
Stability
Stability
Frequency
Frequency
Stability
Stability
Short
Short
Term
Term
Voltage
Voltage
Stability
Stability
ability to maintain steady
voltages
reactive power balance
equilibrium of voltage control
Transient
Transient
Stability
Stability
Consideration
for
Classification
Large
Large
Disturbance
Disturbance
Voltage
Voltage
Stability
Stability
Short
Short
Term
Term
Long
Long
Term
Term
Short
Short
Term
Term
Small
Small
Disturbance
Disturbance
Voltage
Voltage
Stability
Stability
Long
Long
Term
Term
Physical Nature/
Main System
Parameter
Size of
Disturbance
Time Span
1538pk
1538pk
Voltage Stability
z
1538pk
12
1538pk
Frequency Stability
z
13
1538pk
14
1538pk
15
1538pk
16
1538pk
17
1538pk
Instantaneous power, p = ei
18
1538pk
e = Em Sin t
i = Im Sin (t - )
Instantaneous power
FIG A.1
19
1538pk
20
1538pk
ACTIVE POWER
pp = P (1 - cos 2 t)
REACTIVE POWER
pq = -Q sin t
Fig. A.2
21
1538pk
3-Phase Power
ea = Em sin t
ia = Im sin ( t - )
We have
p = ea ia + eb ib + ec ic
= 3 EI cos
= 3 x average active power per phase
z
22
1538pk
z A synchronous machine:
23
1538pk
Complex Power
S = E I = P2 + Q 2
1538pk
25
1538pk
26
1538pk
At any junction:
P=0
Q=0
They can be added arithmetically
For a system:
) a balance sheet of active and reactive power can be
drawn;
) the total injected P and Q are equal to the total
extracted P and Q, plus any P and Q losses.
27
1538pk
28
1538pk
29
1538pk
30
1538pk
P - V Characteristics
z
31
1538pk
Fig. 14.4 V-P curve at bus 530 of system shown in Fig. 14.3
32
1538pk
33
1538pk
Q-V Characteristic
z
34
1538pk
1538pk
36
1538pk
37
1538pk
38
1538pk
39
1538pk
40
1538pk
41
1538pk
42
1538pk
43
1538pk
44
1538pk
45
1538pk
46
1538pk
47
1538pk
48
1538pk
49
1538pk
50
1538pk
51
1538pk
52
1538pk
2. EQUIPMENT CHARACTERISTICS
IMPACTING ON VOLTAGE STABILITY
Copyright P. Kundur
This material should not be used without the author's consent
1538pk
Excitation Systems
AC Transmission
1538pk
1538pk
1538pk
1538pk
1538pk
Therefore
X ad
E tifd sin i
Xs
X ad
E2t
Q = E tlt sin =
E tifd cos i
Xs
Xs
P = E tlt cos =
In any balanced design, the thermal limits for the field and
armature intersect at a point (A) which represents the
machine name-plate MVA and power factor rating
1538pk
1538pk
1538pk
1538pk
10
1538pk
11
1538pk
Excitation Systems
12
1538pk
13
1538pk
14
1538pk
15
1538pk
16
1538pk
1538pk
1538pk
AC Transmission
19
1538pk
20
1538pk
VR
I =
where
ZC
ZC =
+ IR
VR
x
ZC
2
~
IR
(6.9)
= zy = + j
21
1538pk
phase constant .
ZC =
L
= Real Number
C
(pure resistance)
= j = Imaginary number
22
1538pk
(6.17)
I = I R cos x + j V R Z sin x
(6.18)
V = VR ex
~
I = I R e x
23
(6.20)
(6.21)
1538pk
345
420
500
1000
765
2300
24
1538pk
VR
PR jQR
V~*
R
1538pk
26
1538pk
27
1538pk
28
1538pk
29
1538pk
ES E R
sin
ZC sin
(6.51)
PO =
ES E R
ZC
PO
sin
sin
1538pk
1538pk
32
1538pk
33
1538pk
= load angle
= power factor angle
(b) Phasor diagram
Fig. 6.21 Power transfer between two sources
34
1538pk
SR
~
~
~ ES E R
= PR + jQ R = ER I = ER
jX
~ ~*
jX
Hence,
ES E R
sin
X
ES ER cos ER2
=
X
PR =
(6.79)
QR
(6.80)
Similarly,
ES E R
sin
X
ES2 ES ER cos
QS =
X
PS =
(6.81)
(6.82)
35
1538pk
PR = PS = 0
QR =
ER (ES ER )
,
X
QS =
ES (ES ER )
X
(E ER )
= S
QS QR
(a) ES>ER
= XI 2
(b) ER>ES
1538pk
1
XI
2
(a) > 0
(b) < 0
37
1538pk
We now have
ES cos + jES sin ER
jX
ES2 + ER2 2ES ER cos
QS QR =
X
2
(XI ) = XI 2
=
X
I =
(6.83)
(6.84)
P R2 + Q R2
= XI = X
ER2
(6.85)
Ploss
P R2 + Q R2
= RI = R
E R2
(6.86)
1538pk
39
1538pk
40
1538pk
41
1538pk
Loads (cont'd)
42
1538pk
Load Modelling
43
1538pk
44
1538pk
( )
Q = Q (V )
P = P0 V
V =
V
V0
45
1538pk
[
Q = Q [q V
]
+qV +q ]
P = P0 p1V 2 + p2V + p3
0
[
Q = Q [q V
]
+ q V + q ] (1 + K f )
P = P0 p1V 2 + p2V + p3 (1 + K pf f )
0
qf
46
1538pk
47
1538pk
48
1538pk
Kp
KI
TC
ref
A
Tl
Kl
G0
GMAX
49
1538pk
50
1538pk
51
1538pk
Stator voltages:
Vds = Rs ids s qs + pds
Vqs = Rs iqs + s ds + pqs
Rotor voltages:
52
1538pk
53
1538pk
Measurement-based approach
) load characteristics measured at representative
substations and feeders at selected times
) parameters of loads throughout the system
extrapolated from the above
Component-based approach
) involves building up the load model from information
on its constituent parts
) load supplied at a bulk power delivery point
categorized into load classes such as residential,
commercial, and industrial
) each load class represented in terms of its
components such as lighting, heating, refrigeration
) individual devices represented by their known
characteristics
54
1538pk
55
1538pk
P/V
Q/V
P/f
Q/f
- 3-phase central
0.90
0.088
2.5
0.98
-1.3
- 1-phase central
0.96
0.202
2.3
0.90
-2.7
- window type
0.82
0.468
2.5
0.56
-2.8
1.0
2.0
Dishwasher
0.99
1.8
3.6
-1.4
Clothes washer
0.65
0.08
1.6
3.0
1.8
Clothes dryer
0.99
2.0
3.2
-2.5
Refrigerator
0.8
0.77
2.5
0.53
-1.5
Television
0.8
2.0
5.1
-4.5
Incandescent lights
1.0
1.55
Fluorescent lights
0.9
0.96
7.4
1.0
-2.8
Industrial motors
0.88
0.07
0.5
2.5
1.2
Fan motors
0.87
0.08
1.6
2.9
1.7
Agricultural pumps
0.85
1.4
1.4
5.0
4.0
Arc furnace
0.70
2.3
1.6
-1.0
-1.0
Transformer (unloaded)
0.64
3.4
11.5
-11.8
Component
Air conditioner
Water heaters,
Range top, oven
Deep fryer
56
1538pk
Table 7.2
Power
Factor
P/V
Q/V
P/f
Q/f
- summer
0.9
1.2
2.9
0.8
-2.2
- winter
0.99
1.5
3.2
1.0
-1.5
- summer
0.85
0.99
3.5
1.2
-1.6
- winter
0.9
1.3
3.1
1.5
-1.1
Industrial
0.85
0.18
6.0
2.6
1.6
0.8
0.1
1.6
2.9
1.8
Load Class
Residential
Commercial
57
1538pk
Dynamic Characteristics
Rs = 0.001
Xs = 0.23
Xr = 0.23
Xm = 5.77
Rr = 0.012
H = 0.663
m = 5.0
Rs = 0.012
Xs = 0.07
Xr = 0.165
Xm = 3.6
Rr = 0.01
H = 1.6
m = 2.0
Rx = 0.025
Xs = 0.10
Xr = 0.17
Xm = 3.1
Rr = 0.02
H = 0.9
58
m = 2.0
1538pk
Copyright P. Kundur
This material should not be used without the author's consent
1538pk
1538pk
Synchronous Generators
) can generate or absorb Q depending on excitation
) capability limited by field current, armature
current, and end-region heating limits
) automatic voltage regulator continuously adjusts
excitation to control armature voltage
) primary source of voltage support!
Overhead lines
) at loads below natural or surge impedance load
(SIL), produce Q
) at loads above SIL, absorb Q
Underground cables
) have high SIL due to high capacitance
) always loaded below SIL, and hence generate Q
1538pk
Transformers
) absorb Q due to shunt magnetizing reactance
and series leakage inductance
Loads
) a typical "load bus" is composed of a large
number of devices
) composite characteristics are normally such
that a load bus absorbs Q
) industrial loads usually have shunt capacitors
to improve power factor
1538pk
1538pk
1538pk
L
C
) electrical length, = l
z
1538pk
Shunt Reactors
z
1538pk
Shunt Capacitors
z
1538pk
1538pk
1538pk
Series Capacitors
z
Typical applications
) improve power transfer compatibility
) alter load division among parallel lines
) voltage regulation
11
1538pk
1538pk
13
1538pk
Compensation Requirements
14
1538pk
Synchronous Condenser
15
1538pk
16
1538pk
(a) Controllable
reactor
(c) SVS
17
1538pk
(a) Voltage-current
characteristic
18
1538pk
19
1538pk
Fig. 11.60 Performance of a 600 km line with an SVS regulating midpoint voltage
1538pk
21
1538pk
Comparison of
STATCOM and SVC Characteristics
(a) V-I characteristics:
Source: N.G. Hingorani and L. Gyugi, "Understanding FACTS", IEEE Press, 1999
22
1538pk
1538pk
24
1538pk
Tap-Changing Transformers
z
1538pk
26
1538pk
27
1538pk
28
1538pk
Feeder regulation
) feeder regulators control the voltage of each
feeder
) older units are the induction type - provide
accurate and continuous control; however, they
are costly and have been superseded by step
type regulator
) step voltage regulator (SVR) is basically an
autotransformer with taps or steps in the series
winding; however, it is purely a voltage control
device and not used for voltage transformation
cont'd
29
1538pk
30
1538pk
31
1538pk
32
1538pk
4. TYPICAL SCENARIO OF
VOLTAGE INSTABILITY
Copyright P. Kundur
This material should not be used without the author's consent
1538pk
1538pk
1538pk
A Typical Scenario of
Long-Term Voltage Instability
z
1538pk
1538pk
1538pk
Overvoltage Instability
z
1538pk
A Typical Scenario of
Short-Term Voltage Instability
z
1538pk
Effective countermeasures:
) STATCOM's, particularly smaller units connected
to distribution network
) fast load shedding
1538pk
1538pk
5. METHODS OF VOLTAGE
STABILITY ANALYSIS
Copyright P. Kundur
This material should not be used without the author's consent
1538pk
Objectives of Analysis:
1538pk
1538pk
Alternative Approaches:
1538pk
Dynamic Analysis
1538pk
Dynamic Analysis
Advantages:
1538pk
1538pk
Example 14.2
In addition to illustrating the time-domain approach to dynamic
analysis of voltage stability, this example shows the effects of
generator overexcitation limiter (OXL), transformer tap changer
on voltage stability
1538pk
Ifdmax2 = 4.60 pu
K1 = 0.248
K2 = 12.6
1538pk
Case (a):
The load at bus 11 is modelled as 50% constant
impedance and 50% constant current for both active and
reactive components; the action of the ULTC transformer
(T6) supplying this load is modelled in detail, as shown in
Fig. 11.80.
The load at bus 8 is modelled as constant MVA for both
active and reactive components. The transformer T4
supplying this load is assumed to have a fixed tap.
Case (b):
The load at bus 8 is modelled with its active component
as an equivalent induction motor. All other components
modelled as in Case (a).
1538pk
10
1538pk
11
1538pk
12
1538pk
13
1538pk
14
1538pk
1538pk
1538pk
Steady-State Analysis
17
1538pk
dx/dt = 0
with the state variables x set at values appropriate
to the specific time frame
cont'd
18
1538pk
19
1538pk
Q-V Curves
P-V Curves using full powerflows
Modal analysis
Continuation powerflow
Methods not discussed here, but considered
in the literature:
V-Q sensitivities
Singular value decomposition
Shortest distance to instability
MVAR margin using optimization
Direct solution of the point of instability
20
1538pk
Q-V Curves
An approach used in early studies
Variable reactive source is placed at a specified bus
and the bus voltage is controlled through a range of
values to obtain a plot of bus voltage versus reactive
power injection
Curve shows:
) the reactive margin at a bus
) the voltage at which instability occurs (critical
voltage)
) the sensitivity of bus voltage to changes in reactive
load
1538pk
22
1538pk
23
1538pk
P-V Curves
Load and generation in selected areas are
increased/changed in a predetermined manner to
find the distance to voltage instability
PV plots show
) variation (sensitivity) of bus voltages (or other
variables) with load
) distance to instability (VS margin)
) voltage at which instability occurs
24
1538pk
1538pk
J PV
JQV V
where
P = incremental change in bus real power injection
Q = incremental change in bus reactive power injection
= incremental change in bus voltage angle
V =incremental change in bus voltage magnitude
Let P = 0,
Q = JQV JQ1 J PV V = J R V
and
V = J R1 Q
1538pk
27
1538pk
Modal Analysis
JR =
Where
= right eigenvector matrix of JR
= left eigenvector matrix
=diagonal eigenvalue matrix
Q = JR V
= V
Rearranging,
1 Q = V
28
1538pk
21 22 23 Q2 = 21 22 23 V2
1 2
1 3 31 32 33 Q3 31 32 33 V3
For mode 1:
1
( 11 Q 1 + 12 Q 2 + 13 Q 3 ) = ( 11 V 1 + 12 V 2 + 13 V 3 )
1
Or
1
q1 = 1
1
where
q1= 1Q = mode 1 reactive power variation
1 = 1V = mode 1 voltage variation
Stability:
> 0 stable mode
< 0 unstable mode
29
1538pk
Modal Analysis
Coordinate transformation so that:
) reactive power changes in a given direction
result in proportional bus voltage changes in the
same direction
30
1538pk
Participation Factors
31
1538pk
Pki = kiik
Pki determines the contribution of i to the V-Q
sensitivity at bus k
1538pk
Q (i ) = 1q = q = i
where i is the ith right eigenvector of JR. We further
assume that all the right eigenvectors are normalized so
that
2
ji
=1
1
Q (i )
i
(i ) = JP1 JPV V (i )
33
1538pk
34
1538pk
Q m for machine m
maximum Q for all machines
35
1538pk
Operating point
0.3867
0.1446
0.0083
1.0271
0.5550
0.3209
2.4049
1.5133
0.9334
4.1031
2.6280
1.8757
4.2699
3.0209
2.3373
Fig. 14.4 V-P curve at bus 530 of system shown in Fig. 14.3
36
1538pk
37
1538pk
Bus participation
Branch participation
Generator participation
Bus no.
Participation
Branch
Participation
Bus no.
Participation
530
0.2638
500-520
1.0000
1311
1.0000
520
0.2091
300-360
0.8414
2412
0.2786
510
0.1025
100-350
0.8175
1011
0.2103
500
0.0941
320-500
0.8093
1014
0.2036
320
0.0482
330-350
0.6534
1013
0.2036
310
0.0319
1012
0.2036
300
0.0296
340
0.0279
38
1538pk
following methods
39
1538pk
Basic Principle
40
1538pk
41
1538pk
Sensitivity information
42
1538pk
Quasi-Dynamic Analysis
43
1538pk
Quasi-Dynamic Analysis
Advantages
44
1538pk
Fast Simulation
Basic Principles and Assumptions
Focus on the evolution of system operating
conditions driven by the following slow dynamics
) change in load
) ULTC operations
) generator field current limiters
) switching of capacitors and reactors
) automatic generation control
45
1538pk
46
1538pk
Mathematical Formulation
YV = I (X ,V , Z )
Where:
X
V
I
Y
Z
=
=
=
=
=
state vector
bus voltage vector
current injector vector
network admittance matrix
variables associated with the slow
control devices including ULTCs,
loads, switchable reactors and
capacitors, and field current limiters
47
1538pk
0 = f (X,V, Z i )
YV = I (X,V, Z i )
As time progresses, the slow control devices
operate and the values of Z change. The above
set of nonlinear algebraic equations is solved
every time the values of Z change.
48
1538pk
49
1538pk
50
1538pk
51
1538pk
'd
cont'd
52
1538pk
1538pk
54
1538pk
Comprehensive Assessment
of Voltage Stability for
Power System Planning and
Operation
55
1538pk
56
1538pk
Model Initialization;
Interface with EMS for on-line application
57
1538pk
58
1538pk
59
1538pk
60
1538pk
Modelling:
) generator capability curves
) governor response, economic dispatch, AGC
) nonlinear loads
) control of ULTCs, switched shunts, etc.
Output
) secure region in secure region space
61
1538pk
62
1538pk
63
1538pk
64
1538pk
65
1538pk
66
1538pk
67
1538pk
68
1538pk
69
1538pk
Copies of:
1. Sections 6.4 and 11.3 from the book "Power
System Stability & control"
provide background information related to power
flow analysis techniques and procedure
70
1538pk
71
1538pk
72
1538pk
73
1538pk
74
1538pk
75
1538pk
76
1538pk
77
1538pk
78
1538pk
79
1538pk
80
1538pk
81
1538pk
82
1538pk
83
1538pk
84
1538pk
85
1538pk
86
1538pk
87
1538pk
88
1538pk
89
1538pk
90
1538pk
91
1538pk
92
1538pk
93
1538pk
94
1538pk
95
1538pk
96
1538pk
97
1538pk
98
1538pk
99
1538pk
100
1538pk
101
1538pk
102
1538pk
103
1538pk
104
1538pk
105
1538pk
106
1538pk
107
1538pk
108
1538pk
109
1538pk
110
1538pk
111
1538pk
6. PREVENTION OF
VOLTAGE INSTABILITY
Copyright P. Kundur
This material should not be used without the author's consent
1538pk
1538pk
1538pk
1538pk
1538pk
1538pk
e) Coordination of protections/controls
) lack of coordination has been the cause of many
voltage collapse incidents
) adequate coordination should be ensured based
on dynamic simulation studies
) tripping of equipment to protect from overloaded
condition should be the last resort
Where possible, adequate control measures (auto
or manual) should be provided for relieving
overload conditions
1538pk
b) Spinning reserve:
) adequate spinning VAR reserve must be ensured
by operating generators, if necessary, at moderate
or low excitation, and switching in shunt caps
) required reserve must be identified and
maintained for each "voltage control area"
1538pk
c) Operators' action:
) operators must be able to recognize voltage
instability related symptoms and take appropriate
actions: voltage and power transfer control, and
load curtailment
) operating strategies that prevent voltage collapse
need to be established
) on-line monitoring and analysis to identify
potential problems and remedial measures would
be invaluable
1538pk
1538pk
10
1538pk
Example 1
Because of delays in obtaining approval to build
500 kV transmission lines, in the mid-1980s the
Ottawa area in Ontario, Canada was supplied
largely by 230 kV transmission
1538pk
12
1538pk
Coordinated Scheme:
13
1538pk
14
1538pk
15
1538pk
16
1538pk
17
1538pk
Example 2
1538pk
1538pk
20
1538pk
Bus Participation
VS Margin (MW)
No SVC
--
1580
Bus 5581
0.01305
2180
Bus 6580
0.00307
1820
Bus 5660
0.00026
1800
Bus 1583
0.00001
1600
Bus 5995
0.00001
1600
Bus 6180
0.00001
1600
Bus 6391
0.00001
1600
21
1538pk
Line B
Line C
Branch Participation
-1.0
0.567
0.039
22
VS Margin
1580 MW
2260 MW
1600 MW
1580 MW
1538pk
Example 3
Objectives
) Demonstrate VS assessment procedures using
static analysis (VSTAB) and time domain dynamic
analysis (ETMSP)
System
) Based on 94 winter peak condition (5348 buses
and 634 generators) of WSCC system
) BC Hydro system (1058 buses, 74 generators)
Procedure
) Use VSTAB to calculate VS margins for the base
case and all the contingency cases. The critical
contingencies which do not meet VS margin
criterion are identified
) Bench mark VSTAB results using ETMSP
) Design remedial measures using VSTAB and
ETMSP for the critical contingencies
Criterion assumed:
) System must be voltage stable for all
contingencies at BCH load level of 7% above the
base case
23
1538pk
Device Modelling
Device
Loads
ULTCs
Generators
VSTAB Model
ETMSP Model
24
1538pk
No.
Branch Lost
VS Margin
TIR500-N to DMR500
250 MW (3.3%)
TIR500-S to DMR500
250 MW (3.3%)
CKY500 to KLY500
450 MW (5.9%)
MDN500 to NIC500
450 MW (5.9%)
25
1538pk
26
1538pk
27
1538pk
28
1538pk
29
1538pk
30
1538pk
31
1538pk
32
1538pk
33
1538pk
34
1538pk
1538pk
36
1538pk
37
1538pk
General Comments
38
1538pk
7. EXAMPLES OF MAJOR
SYSTEM DISTURBANCES DUE
TO VOLTAGE INSTABILITY
Copyright P. Kundur
This material should not be used without the author's consent
1538pk
17 May 1985
22 August 1987
29 July 1995
5 August 1997
30 July 1999
1538pk
Brittany, France
10 November 1976
France
19 December 1978
Western France
12 January 1987
Sweden
27 December 1983
Tokyo, Japan
23 July 1987
Florida, USA
30 December 1982
WSCC
2 July 1996
1538pk
1538pk
1538pk
1538pk
1538pk
4
5
2
1
Event 5
Event 4
Event 3 :
Event 2 :
Event 1 :
14:5:01
14:24:38
14:24:37
14:24:37
14:24:37
1538pk
1538pk
MEASURED RESPONSE
SIMULATED
RESPONSE
1538pk
10
1538pk