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BNQ 30503

Material Engineering Technology


Chapter 2: Mechanical & Physical
Properties of Materials

By: Engr. Dr. Nasrul Fikry Che Pa

Contents Review
Chapter 2: Mechanical & Physical
Properties of Materials
- What you will learn?
Concepts of stress and strain, elastic deformation, plastic
deformation, true stress and strain, elastic recovery after
plastic deformation, compressive, shear and torsional
deformation, hardness, property variability and design/safety
factor.
2 Rules for this chapter:
1) Understand & Exercise
2) Dont forget rule # 1
2

Loadings (Force, Torque, moment)


Types of resultant loadings for three dimension plane.
Normal force, N
Acts perpendicular to the area.
Developed whenever external loads tend to push or pull.

Shear force, V
Lies in the plane of the area.
Developed when external loads tend to cause the two segments of
the body to slide over one another.

Torsional moment or torque, T


Developed when external loads tend to twist one segment with
respect to another.

Bending moment, M
Caused by external loads that tend to bend the body about an axis
lying within the plane of the area.
3

Stress
Stress is the intensity of the internal force on a specific plane
(area) passing through a point.
Type:
Tensile stress
Force per unit area (intensity of force) acting normal to A defined
as normal stress, (sigma).
If it pulls on the area, it is referred to as tensile stress. If it
push, it is compressive stress.

Shear stress
Force per unit area, acting parallel to A is
called shear stress, (tau).
Two subscripts are used for shear-stress
components, zx and zy. z axis specifies
orientation of the area, while x and y refer
to the direction lines for the shear stresses.
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Stress (Cont.)
Units
In the International Standard (SI system), magnitude for
both tensile/normal and shear stress are specified as
newtons per square meter (N/m2).

1 Pa = 1 N/m2

Small units

kilo- (103) k

mega- (106) M
giga- (109) G

More logical for


engineering use

Schematic representation of
(a) Tensile load produce elongation
(b) Compression load produce
contraction
(c) Shear strain , where = tan
(d) Torsional deformation (angle of
twist ) produce by applied
torque T.

Engineering Stress
Tensile stress, s (sigma):

Ft
Area, Ao

Ft
Area, Ao

Ft
Ft
lb
N
= 2f or
s=
m2
A o in
original cross-sectional area
before any load is applied
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Shear stress, t (tau):

Fs
Fs

Fs
t=
Ao

Ft

Stress has units:


N/m2 or lbf /in2

Common States of Stress


Simple tension: cable

A o = cross sectional
area (when unloaded)

F
s=
s
Ao

Torsion (a form of shear): drive shaft

Ac
M

Fs

Ao
Fs
t =
Ao

2R
Note: t = M/AcR here.

Ski lift

(photo courtesy
P.M. Anderson)

OTHER COMMON STRESS STATES (i)


Simple compression:

Ao

Canyon Bridge, Los Alamos, NM


(photo courtesy P.M. Anderson)

Balanced Rock, Arches


National Park
(photo courtesy P.M. Anderson)

F
s=
Ao

OTHER COMMON STRESS STATES (ii)


Bi-axial tension:

Pressurized tank
(photo courtesy
P.M. Anderson)

Fish under water

sq > 0
sz > 0

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Hydrostatic compression:

sh< 0

(photo courtesy
P.M. Anderson)

Strain
Force/temperature applied to a body will change its
shape and size (deformation).
Can be
highly visible e.g. rubber band
practically unnoticeable e.g. building structure with
people walking on it/thermal expansion of a rock
under the hot sun.
Deformation will not be uniform throughout the
volume.
Example of material under
tensile stress will have the
effect of engineering strain.

What is engineering strain?

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Strain (Cont.)
Used to describe changes in deformation
length and angles between lines after
deformation.
Strain are made by experiments (easily seen).
Related to applied loads or stresses acting
inside a body to understand the behavior of
materials and structure better.
Three types of strain
Lateral strain
Tensile strain
Shear strain
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Engineering Strain
Tensile strain:

e =

Lateral strain:

1 - 0

(1 - 0 )
eL =

Tensile & lateral


strains are
always
dimensionless.

Shear strain:

q
x
90 - q

y
90
13

g = x/y = tan q = ? rad

Use of Normal and Shear Strain


Example:

Normal strain causes change in volume, while shear


strain cause change in its shape.
Both effect occur simultaneously during the
deformation.
State of strain at a point in a body required specifying
3 normal strains x, y, z and 3 shear strains x, y, z.
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Stress-Strain Testing
Typical tensile test
machine

Typical tensile
specimen

Adapted from
Fig. 6.2,
Callister &
Rethwisch 8e.

19 mm

extensometer

specimen

Diameter

9.5 mm

Reduced
Section
60 mm

15

12.8 mm Diameter

Radius

50 mm
Gauge
Length

Elastic Deformation
1. Initial

2. Small load

3. Unload

bonds
stretch
return to
initial

d
F

Linearelastic

Elastic means reversible!

d
16

Non-Linearelastic

Plastic Deformation (Metals)


1. Initial

2. Small load
bonds
stretch
& planes
shear
delastic + plastic

3. Unload
planes
still
sheared
dplastic

F
F
Plastic means permanent!

linear
elastic

linear
elastic

dplastic
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Linear Elastic Properties


Modulus of Elasticity, E:
(also known as Young's modulus)

Hooke's Law:

s=Ee

E
e
Linearelastic

18

F
simple
tensile
test

Poisson's ratio, n
Poisson's ratio, n:

eL

eL
n=e
metals: n ~ 0.33
ceramics: n ~ 0.25
polymers: n ~ 0.40

Units:
E: [GPa] or [psi]
n: dimensionless
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e
-n

n > 0.50 density increases


n < 0.50 density decreases
(voids form)

Other Elastic Properties


Elastic Shear
modulus, G:

t=Gg

simple
torsion
test

g
M

Elastic Bulk
modulus, K:

V
P = -K
Vo

P
K

V P
Vo

Special relations for isotropic materials:


E
G=
2(1 + n)
20

E
K=
3(1 - 2n)

P = Pressure

P
pressure
test: Initial V = Vo.
Vol. change = V

Youngs Moduli: Comparison


Metals
Alloys
1200
1000
800
600
400

E(GPa)

200
100
80
60
40

Graphite
Composites
Ceramics Polymers
/fibers
Semicond
Diamond

Tungsten
Molybdenum
Steel, Ni
Tantalum
Platinum
Cu alloys
Zinc, Ti
Silver, Gold
Aluminum
Magnesium,
Tin

Si carbide
Al oxide
Si nitride

Carbon fibers only

CFRE(|| fibers)*

<111>

Si crystal

Aramid fibers only

<100>

AFRE(|| fibers)*

Glass -soda

Glass fibers only

GFRE(|| fibers)*
Concrete

109 Pa

10
8
6
4

2
1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
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GFRE*

20

CFRE*
GFRE( fibers)*

Graphite

Polyester
PET
PS
PC

CFRE( fibers) *
AFRE( fibers) *

Epoxy only

PP
HDPE
PTFE
LDPE

Wood(

grain)

Based on data in Table B.2,


Callister & Rethwisch 8e.
Composite data based on
reinforced epoxy with 60 vol%
of aligned
carbon (CFRE),
aramid (AFRE), or
glass (GFRE)
fibers.

Useful Linear Elastic Relationships


Simple tension:

d = FL o d = -n Fw o
L
EA o
EA o
F

Simple torsion:

a=

wo
dL /2

r o4 G
M = moment
a = angle of twist

d/2

Ao

2ML o

Lo

Lo
2ro

Material, geometric, and loading parameters all


contribute to deflection.
Larger elastic moduli minimize elastic deflection.
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Plastic (Permanent) Deformation


(at lower temperatures, i.e. T < Tmelt/3)

Simple tension test:


Elastic+Plastic
at larger stress

engineering stress, s

Elastic
initially
permanent (plastic)
after load is removed

ep

engineering strain, e
plastic strain

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Adapted from Fig. 6.10(a),


Callister & Rethwisch 8e.

Yield Strength, sy
Stress at which noticeable plastic deformation has
occurred.
when ep = 0.002
tensile stress, s

sy

sy = yield strength
Note: for 2 inch sample

e = 0.002 = z/z
z = 0.004 in
engineering strain, e

ep = 0.002
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Adapted from Fig. 6.10(a),


Callister & Rethwisch 8e.

Yield Strength : Comparison


Metals/
Alloys
2000

Graphite/
Ceramics/
Semicond

Polymers

Composites/
fibers

300
200

Al (6061) ag
Steel (1020) hr
Ti (pure) a
Ta (pure)
Cu (71500) hr

100
70
60
50
40

Al (6061) a

30

20

10
25

Ti (5Al-2.5Sn) a
W (pure)
Cu (71500) cw
Mo (pure)
Steel (4140) a
Steel (1020) cd

Tin (pure)

dry

PC
Nylon 6,6
PET
PVC humid
PP
HDPE

LDPE

in ceramic matrix and epoxy matrix composites, since


in tension, fracture usually occurs before yield.

700
600
500
400

Hard to measure,

1000

Hard to measure ,
since in tension, fracture usually occurs before yield.

Yield strength, sy (MPa)

Steel (4140) qt

Room temperature
values
Based on data in Table B.4,
Callister & Rethwisch 8e.
a = annealed
hr = hot rolled
ag = aged
cd = cold drawn
cw = cold worked
qt = quenched & tempered

Ultimate Strength/ Tensile Strength


Maximum stress on engineering stress-strain curve.
Ultimate
Strength/
T.S

F = fracture
strength

engineering
stress

sy

Typical response of a metal

Neck acts
as stress
concentrator

strain
engineering strain
Metals: occurs when noticeable necking starts.
Polymers: occurs when polymer backbone chains are
aligned and about to break.
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Ultimate Strength: Comparison


Metals/
Alloys

Tensile strength, TS (MPa)

5000
3000
2000
1000

300
200
100
40
30

Polymers

20

Composites/
fibers
C fibers
Aramid fib
E-glass fib

Steel (4140) qt
W (pure)
Ti (5Al-2.5Sn)aa
Steel (4140)cw
Cu (71500)
Cu (71500) hr
Steel (1020)
Al (6061) ag
Ti (pure) a
Ta (pure)
Al (6061) a

AFRE(|| fiber)
GFRE(|| fiber)
CFRE(|| fiber)

Diamond
Si nitride
Al oxide

Room temperature
values

Si crystal
<100>

Glass-soda
Concrete

Nylon 6,6
PC PET
PVC
PP
HDPE

Graphite

wood(|| fiber)
GFRE( fiber)
CFRE( fiber)
AFRE( fiber)

LDPE

10

wood (

1
27

Graphite/
Ceramics/
Semicond

fiber)

Based on data in Table B.4,


Callister & Rethwisch 8e.
a = annealed
hr = hot rolled
ag = aged
cd = cold drawn
cw = cold worked
qt = quenched & tempered
AFRE, GFRE, & CFRE =
aramid, glass, & carbon
fiber-reinforced epoxy
composites, with 60 vol%
fibers.

Ductility
Plastic tensile strain at failure:

Lf - Lo
x 100
%EL =
Lo

smaller %EL

Engineering
tensile
stress, s

larger %EL

Lo

Ao

Af

Adapted from Fig. 6.13,


Callister & Rethwisch 8e.

Engineering tensile strain, e

Another ductility measure:

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Ao - Af
%RA =
x 100
Ao

Lf

Toughness
Energy to break a unit volume of material
Approximate by the area under the stress-strain curve.
Engineering
tensile
stress, s

small toughness (ceramics)


large toughness (metals)
very small toughness
(unreinforced polymers)

Adapted from Fig. 6.13,


Callister & Rethwisch 8e.

Engineering tensile strain, e


Brittle fracture: elastic energy
Ductile fracture: elastic + plastic energy
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Resilience, Ur
Ability of a material to store energy
Energy stored best in elastic region

Ur =

ey

sde

If we assume a linear
stress-strain curve this
simplifies to

1
Ur @ sy e y
2
Adapted from Fig. 6.15,
Callister & Rethwisch 8e.

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Elastic Strain Recovery


sy i

syo
Stress

2. Unload

1. Load

3. Reapply
load

Strain
Adapted from Fig. 6.17,
Callister & Rethwisch 8e.

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Elastic strain
recovery

Hardness
Resistance to permanently indenting the surface.
Large hardness means:
-- resistance to plastic deformation or cracking in compression.
-- better wear properties.
apply known force

measure size
of indent after
removing load

e.g.,
10 mm sphere

D
most
plastics

brasses
Al alloys

Smaller indents
mean larger
hardness.

d
easy to machine
steels
file hard

cutting
tools

increasing hardness
32

nitrided
steels

diamond

Hardness: Measurement
Table 6.5

33

Hardness: Conversion

Detailed conversion tables for various


other metals and alloys are contained
in the ASTM Standard E 140 Standard
Hardness Conversion Tables for Metals.

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Hardness: Measurement

Correlation between hardness and


tensile strength
TS (psia) = 500 x HB
TS (MPa) = 3.45 x HB
Basic formula. Does not apply to all materials.
HB = Brinell Hardness number

35

True Stress & Strain


Note: S.A. changes when sample stretched
True stress sT = F Ai
sT = s1 + e
True straineT = ln i o
e = ln1 + e
T

Adapted from Fig. 6.16,


Callister & Rethwisch 8e.

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Hardening
An increase in sy due to plastic deformation.

large hardening

sy
1
sy

small hardening
unload

Reapply load
Elastic strain recovery

** Refer elastic deformation after


plastic deformation for further
Understanding (In books).

Curve fit to the stress-strain response:

sT = K eT
true stress (F/A)
37

hardening exponent:
n = 0.15 (some steels)
to n = 0.5 (some coppers)
true strain: ln(L/Lo)

Design or Safety Factors


Design uncertainties mean we do not push the limit.
Factor of safety, N

sworking =

Often N is
between
1.2 and 4

sy
N

Example: Calculate a diameter, d, to ensure that a test apparatus can withstand a


max load of 220 KN. The test apparatus is made of (1045) carbon steel rod shown
below. Given the min yield are 310 MPa. Use a factor of safety of 5.

sworking =
220,000N

d /4
2

sy
N

d
1045 plain
carbon steel:
sy = 310 MPa
TS = 565 MPa

d = 0.067 m = 6.7 cm
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F = 220,000N

Lo

Design or Safety Factors (Cont.)


To ensure safety, we choose an allowable stress that restricts the
applied load to one that is less than the load it can fully support.
Why?
Load for which it is designed for might be different than the actual loading.
Intended measurements may not be exact, due to errors in fabrication or in
the assembly of its component parts.
Unknown vibration, impact or accidental loadings can occur that is not
counted in the design.
Atmospheric corrosion, decay or weathering make the material deteriorate
during service.
Some materials like wood, concrete, fiber-reinforced composites, show high
variability in mechanical properties.

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Summary
Stress and strain: These are size-independent
measures of load and displacement, respectively.
Elastic behavior: This reversible behavior often
shows a linear relation between stress and strain.
To minimize deformation, select a material with a
large elastic modulus (E or G).
Plastic behavior: This permanent deformation
behavior occurs when the tensile (or compressive)
uniaxial stress reaches sy.
Toughness: The energy needed to break a unit
volume of material.
Ductility: The plastic strain at failure.

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