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Contents
1 2010
1.1 September . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Notes 1 (2010-09-08 10:52) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
SOP (2010-09-08 10:53) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
16
Safety (2010-09-08 13:57) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
22
ISO (2010-09-09 12:26) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
24
HVAC (2010-09-09 12:39) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
28
hvachome (2010-09-09 12:44) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
33
PRODUCTION SYSTEMS (2010-09-12 05:18) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
34
Fabrica on (metal) (2010-09-20 11:00) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
35
Piping (2010-09-20 11:24) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
41
TPM (2010-09-20 11:28) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
44
Six Sigma (2010-09-20 11:30) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
48
Maintenance (2010-09-20 11:59) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
57
Boiler (2010-09-23 10:05) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
66
IBR Boilers vs. Non-IBR Boilers (2010-09-23 10:17) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
69
Mul pack M/c (2010-09-23 10:57) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
109
Boiler troubleshoo ng (2010-09-23 14:44) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
111
Pump (2010-09-23 15:32) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
113
Air compressor (2010-09-23 15:42) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
122
Vacuum Pumps (2010-09-23 15:46) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
124
ETP (2010-09-23 15:58) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
129
Boilers Basic (2010-09-23 16:08) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
132
RO Plant (2010-09-23 16:16) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
142
Spec (2010-09-27 14:13) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
145
1.2 October . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
147
Ceramics Tiles (2010-10-04 11:15) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
148
Seal (mechanical) (2010-10-22 10:13) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
152
Packaging and labeling (2010-10-22 11:21) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
154
Density (2010-10-22 12:29) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
166
3
Inkjet Printer Cleaning and Maintenance Tips (2010-10-28 00:01) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
181
EHCL M/c (2010-10-28 00:32) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
183
1.3 November . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
185
(2010-11-19 10:28) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
186
Current clamp (2010-11-22 12:39) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
190
Bernoullis Equa on (2010-11-29 00:16) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
193
1.4 December . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
197
Spanner Selec on (2010-12-04 00:12) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
198
2 2011
201
2.1 January . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
202
Roller chain (2011-01-26 10:11) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
203
2.2 March . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
209
Bearing Nomenclature (2011-03-05 00:07) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
210
Na onal pipe thread (2011-03-05 23:21) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
212
3 2012
217
3.1 February . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
218
Photosynthesis (2012-02-18 10:48) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
219
Plant Adapta ons in Desert (2012-02-18 10:58) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
223
Eects of Light on Plants (2012-02-18 11:07) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
224
Semipermeable membrane (2012-02-18 11:18) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
226
Anaerobic respira on (2012-02-18 11:27) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
227
Factors Aec ng Transpira on (2012-02-18 11:32) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
228
Mineral uptake (2012-02-18 11:37) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
230
4 2013
233
4.1 March . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
234
SKF bearing part number system (2013-03-16 01:25) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
235
1.
2010
1.1
September
Notes 1 (2010-09-08 10:52)

FLUID POWER
Sp. Volume- Volume possed by uid per unit mass
Sp. Mass- Reciprocal of sp. mass
Sp. Weight- Weight possesed by the uid per unit volume
Mass Density- Mass possesed by uid per unit volume
Sp. Gravity- Ra o of sp. weight of uid to sp. weight of water at 4C
Pressure Head- Pressure expressed in terms of height of water column
Viscosity- Property of liquid by virtue of it oers resistance to the movement of one layer of liquid over an adjacent
layer
Pressure- Force per unit area is called as pressure
Pascals Law- Liquid @ rest transmit its pressure with equal intensity in all direc on perpendicular to the surface
on which it acts
1bar= 10^5N/m= 10^5Pa= 0.1mPa
Fluid pressure measuring instruments- Manometer, bourdon gauge, diaphragm gauge
Cri cal Vilocity- The velocity @ which the ow changes from laminar ow to turbulant ow
Bernoullis equa on- For a perfect imcompressible uid when ows in con nous stream in fric onless pipe, the
total energy of uid remais same from one point to another
Losses in pipe- Enlargement, contrac on, @ entrance, exit, obstruc on, bend and fric on
Types of turbines:
i. Impulse turbine- All the available poten al energy of water is converted into kine c energy by passing it through
nollle. ex. pelton wheel, girard
ii. Reac on turbine- Part of available energy is converted into kine c energy on guide blades and remaining on
runner blades. ex. francis, kaplan
governing of turbines:
i. For Impulse turbine- deector mo on regula on, needle valve or spear regula on, nolzle regula on
ii. For Reac on turbine- by opera ng wicket gates
Sp. speed of turbine- speed of turbine to develop 1kw power under 1 meter head
Factor of selec on of Turbine- Head, load, overall cost, sp. speed
Head: Pelton wheel- 10 to 40, Francis- 40 to 200, Kaplan- 200 and above
Centrifugual pump- Pumping ac on due to centrifugul force
Impellers- Open impeller, semi open impeller, closed impeller
Casings- Volute casing, volute casing with guide blades, vortex casing
Primimg- To produce ecient pressure energy wp x hs to li the water, pump is lled with liquid before start
known as priming
Faults in pump- Insucient priming, wrong direc on of rota on, clogging of suc on line & impeller, suc on line
leakage, insucient NPSH, less speed, improper alignment, excessive packing, increased delivery head
Air treatment- Inlet lter- compressor- coller- dryer- receiver- lter- dryer- lubrica on- load- vent
Types of lter- Full ow and edge type
7
Dryer- Water trap and saperator, absorp on type

Connector- Flanged, O-ring, barbed
Types of seal:Sta c seal- O- ring
Dynamic seal- Cup, U- ring, end seal, an extruc on or backup
Neutralisa on no- Quan ty of alkali required to neutralise the acidity of liquid
Flash point- The lowest temp @ which uid gives sucient vapour to produce momentary ash when a test ame
is brought near its surface
Types of valves- a. Bend or turn on hinge i.e. ap valve, b. Rise and fall on move perpendicular seat i.e. disc valve,
li valve c. Move parallel to seat i.e. slide valve, sluce valve
1. Flap valve- Indian Rubber disc valve, 2. Ball valve, 3. Metal disc valve, 4. Stop valve- regulate or stop ow, 5.
Feed check valve- Regulate const supply, 6. Safety valve- Open when pressure exceed, shut when pressure down,
i.e. spring loaded, lever safety, dead weight, 7. Blow o cock- Open or stop ow
Types of Couplings- 1. Past or rigid- Box coupling, Spilt mu coupling, Flange coupling, 2. Flexible coupling- Universal coupling, Gear coupling, Clutch, 3. Loose or disengaging
ELECTRICaL TECHNOLOGY
Ohms law- Ra o of poten al dierence to current between two points remains same at constant temp
D.C. Generator- Whenever there is rela ve mo on between conductor and magne c eld an EMF induce in conductor
Parts- i.Yoke, pole core and pole shoe, eld winding ii. core and windinf, iii. commutator, brush
Lap winding- The sides of successive coils overlap each other
Wave winding- The connec ons always progress in the same direc on arround the armature
DC Motor- Whenever a current carrying coil/conductor is placed in a magne c eld, it experience a force
Power stages- Motor input- :copper loss: -driving power in armature- :iron and fric on loss: -output in wa s
Transformer- Mutual induc on between two circuits linked by a common magne c ux
Types:Step down- alters voltage from high to low
Step Up- alters voltage from low to high
Core type- Winding surrounds core
Shell Type- Core surround winding
Ideal Transformer- No winding resistance, magne c leakage, voltage drop
Transformer if reted in KVA not in KW because losses in transformenr depends on Copper (current) and Iron loss
(voltage)
AC Motors:1. Synchronous motor- Plain and Super
2. asynchronous motor- a. Induc on motor i.e. squirrel cage and slipring b. Commutator motor- Series, shunt,
repulsion, compensated
Induc on motor- When 3ph supply given to 3ph stator winding a rota ng magne c ux is produced which cuts
rotor conducer and EMF gets induced to oppose this eect rotor starts rota ngin the same direc on of rota ng
ux
Slip- Dierence between synchronous speed Ns of rota ng ux and actual speed N of rotor is known as slip
8
Single Phase induc on motor- Stator is provided with extra winding in addi on to main running winding which is
placed apart 90 and connected in parallel. Those two windings produce revolving ux and motor starts
Repulsion Motor- Stator winding of distributed non-silient pole type housed in the slots of a smooth cored stator
and rotor is slo ed core type having distributed winding connected to commutator. AC supply is given in the stator
winding. It creates N pole in top and S pole in bo om, which induce ux in rotor due to transformer ac on & due
to repulsion rotor rotates
Universal motor- AC or DC supply is given to both stator and rotor winding then rotor rotates on same principle
of DC motor. It can operate on both AC or DC because current owing both in armature and eld reverse at same
me
AC generator or alternator- When rotor rotates, stator conductors are cut by magne c ux hence induced EMF is
produced in them
Synchronising- Opera on of connec ng an alternator in parallel with another alternator
Synchronised motor- Rotor is speed up to synchronous speed and excited by DC source, it is magne cally locked
into posi on with stator and both run in same direc on, 3ph winding is fade by 3ph supply to the stator which
produces magne c ux
Electrical drives:a. DC motor: Saperately excited & Self Excited[ 1.Series, Shunt( Dieren al and Comula ve), Compound]
b. AC motor: Synchronous, asynchronous( Induc on, Commutator)
Electrical Braking- System for stopping motor in short me
1. Mechanical Braking
2. Electrical Braking (Plugging, Rheosta c, Regenera ve)
DC Welding- With motor- generator set
AC welding- with transformer- rec er unit
Other weldings- 1. Carbon arc welding 2. atomic hydrogen arc welding 3. Tungasten inert gas welding
Space/ height ra o illumina on- Ra o of horizontal distance between two lamps to moun ng height of lamps
Power/ Electricity- One KWh
METROLOGY
Limit- Are extreme permissible size between which the actual size is contained
Devia on- The algebric dierence between size and corrosponding basic size is called devia on
Tolerance- Dierence between max limit and min limit of size
Bilateral Tolerance- Where the part may vary in both direc on from nominal size
Unilateral Tolerance- Dimension may vary in only one direc on of nominal size
Fits- Degree of ghtness or looseness between two ma ng parts
a. Allowance- An inten al dierence between the hole dimension and sha dimension is known as allowance
b. Clearance- +ve dierence between hole and sha is known as clearance
c. Interference- -ve dierence between hole and sha size is known as interference
Limit Systema. Hole system- The hole is constant and varies t obtained by varying size of sha
b. Sha system- The sha is constant and varies ts obtained by varying size of holes
1. Linear measurements9
a. Non precision instruments- Steel-rule, Calipers, Dividers, Telescopic gauge, Depth gauge
b. Precision instruments- Micrometer, Vernier caliper, Height gauge, Slip gauge
c. Comparators
d. Measuring machines
2. Angular measurements
a. Non precision- Protractors, Adjustable bevel, Engineers Square, Combina on set
b. Precision instrument- Bevel protractors, Dividing head, Sine bar, Angle Gauges, Spirit level, Clinometers, Autocollimeters
3. Taper measurements
4. Surface measurements- Straight edge, Surface table, Surface gauge, Op cal at, Prolometer, use of LASER
Gauges- Plug, Ring, Snap, Thread, Form 9Template, Screw, Pitch, Radius and llet) Taper, Thickness (Feeler, plate,
wire) Indica ng, air operated
THERMODYNAMICS
Sources of energy- Conven al i.e. renewable energy & non conven al i.e. non renewable energy
Air standard eciency- Theoro cal thermal eciency of ideal cycle usinf air as uid of engine
Thermal eciency- Performance i.e. re o of heat energy converted into work to the heat supplied to the heat
suppliedto the heat engine
Types of system:
a. Closed System- Mass constant but heat and work transfer across its boundry
b. Open Systen- Mass and energy i.e. heat and work both transfer across its boundry
c. Isolated boundry- Neither heat nor work can transfer across its boundry
Thermodynamic Proper es:
Intensive- Not depend upon mass of the system
Extensive- Depends upon mass of the system
Enthalpy- Energy which is the algebric sum of internal energy and ow work i.e. heat content
Entropy- Entropy is dened as heat transfer or conversion or transforma on. It is func on of heat temperature
Boyles law- Unit mass of gas @ const temp then volume varies inversly propor onal to pressure
Charles law- Unit mass of gas @ const pressure then volume varies directly propor onal to temperature
Gay-Lussac law- Unit mass of gat @ const volume then the absolute pressure varies with directly propor onal to
its temperature
Regnaults law- Sp. heat of gas @ const pressure and sp. heat @ const volume is const for en re range of pressur
i.e Cp/Cv= const= r= 1.4
Zoarth law- Two system are each in thermal equilibrium with third system, they are also in equilibrium with each
other
First law of thermodynamics- Heat and work are mutually conver ble one into another
Heat engine- Cycle inwhich heat is input and work is output
Coecient of performance (COP)- The performance of heat pump depends upon its use
Second law of thermodynamics- It is impossible to construct a engine working in cyclic process whose sole eect
is heat into equal amount of work
10
Kelvin-Plank and Clausis statement- Sp. heat @ const pressure Cp is more than @ const volume Cv cause at Cv
en re energy is u lised for increasing internal energy but @ Cp heat is u lised for increasing internal energy and
also work of expansion
Sensible heat- Heat that can be sensed by thermometer
Latent heat- Amount of heat required to transfer @ const temp to convert unit mass from one phase to another
Sp. work- Amount of heat required to raise the temp of unit mass of any substance through unit degree
Isothermal process- The temp of substance remains const during its expansion or compression
Adiaba c process- In which the working substance will not have any transfer of heat with its surrounding during
its compression or expansion
Thro ling process- It is irrerversible process in which gas ow with drom in pressure without change in enthalpy
or heat transfer or work transfer ex. porous plug
Degree of superheat- Temp of superheated steam- temp of saturated steam
Dryness frac on- Mass of dry steam/ mass of wet steam
Nozzle- Convert poten al energy of steam into kine c energy.
Types- Convergent, Diconvergent and combina on of both
Surface condenser- Steam and water are not in direct contact
Jet contact- Steam and water comes in direct contact
Governing of steam turbine- To keep the speed of turbine const at all loads 1. Thro ling governing, 2. Nozzle
governing, 3. Bypass governing
Steam turbine- Machine in which rotory mo on is obtained by gradual change of momentum of uid ex. Impulse,
reac on and combina on turbine
Compounding of steam turbine- To reduce speed of turbine by gearing cause there is danger of failure of blades
due to excessive centrifugal stress
Types- 1. Pressure compounding, 2. Velocity compounding, 3. Combina on
Components of IC engine- Cylinder, cylinder head, piston, piston ring, connec ng rod, crank sha , crank case,
ywheel
Cylinder bore- Internal diameter of cylinder
Stroke- Nominal distance travelled by piston from one end to another
Dead center- Posi on of moving parts at the moment when the direc on of piston reversed
Clearance volume- Nominal volume of space above piston when it is at top dead center
Carnot cycle- 1-2: Reversible isothermal heat addi on, 2-3: adiaba c expansion, 3-4: isothermal heat rejec on,
4-1: adiaba c compression
Air standard eciency cycle- Theori cal thermal eciency of ideal cycle using air as working uid
O o cycle- 1-2: isentropic compression, 2-3: addi on of heat at const volume, pressure and temperature increase
3-4: isentropic expansion 4-1: rejec on of heat, pressure and temp reduce
Diesel cycle- 1-2: Isentropic compression, pressure and temperature increase, 2-3: addi on of heat at const pressure, 3-4: isentropic expansion, 4-1: rejec on of heat at const volume
O o cycle- Const volume
Diesel cycle- Const pressure
Compression ra o= cylinder volume/ clearance volume
4-stroke petrol engine- Suc on stroke, compression stroke, expansion stroke & exhaust
11
SI engine- Works on O o cycle, mix of air and fuel is used, spark plug used, compression ra on upto 10, high
speed, light in weight
CI engine- Works on Diesel cycle, due to high compression charge ignited, compression ra on upto 22, low speed,
bulky in weight
2-stroke engine- one power stroke in each revolu on of crank, do not contain valves, contains ports
Detona on- Abnormal combus on in engine before produc on of spark
Eects- Noise, mechanical damage, preigni on, increase in heat transfer, decrease in power output and eciency
Scavanging- process of cleaning a er expansion stroke
Types- Uniow, cross, loop scavanging
Supercharging- Process of increasing density of air, fuel mixture in SI engine and of air in IC engine with help of
blower or compressor to increase eciency and reduce weight to power ra o
Brake Sp fuel consump on- is the weight of fuel required to develop 1KW of brake power for a period of 1 hour
Thermal Eeciency- Ra o of power output to the heat energy of fuel supplied during the same dura on
Rela ve eciency- Brake thermal Eciency/ Air tandard eciency
Types of compressor:
Reciproca ng- 1.Single stage, 2.Mul stage- a. Single ac ng, b. Double ac ng
Rotory- 1.Posi ve displacement i.e. Root blower, vane type, lyshlam and screw type, 2. Non posi ve i.e. centrifugal and axial ow
Compressor capacity- Volume of air delivered by compressor expressed in m3/min
Capacity control for reciproca ng compressor- 1. By using mul -speed motor, 2. By suc on valve li control, 3.
By using valve li control, 4. By cylinder bypass system, 5. By hot gas bypass system
Capacity control for centrifugal compressor- 1. Condenser water control system, 2. Inlet valve control system, 3.
Speed control system
Gas turbine1. Closed cycle turbine- working medium is gas 2. Open cycle turbine- Working medium is air
Coecient of absorp vity= amount of energy absorbed/ amount of energy incident
Coecient of reec on= amount of energy reected/ amount of energy incident
Coecient of transmi vity= Energy transmi ed/ energy incident
Radia on- Transfer of rediant energy i.e. electromagne c waves
Fouriers law of heat conduc on- Heat ows from high to low temp body and its rate per unit area is propor onal
to normal
Conduc on- It is mode of heat transfer due to vibra on of molecule
Convec on- Tansfer of heat due to uid ow, Types- 1. Free convec on, 2. Forced convec on
IP- Indicated power of engine is actual power developed in engine cylinder
BP- Brake power is power available at engine crank sha
Isothermal eciency of compressor- is ra o of isothermal power to indicated power in KW
Uses of steam- Genara on of electrical energy in power plants for sizing and blenching in tex le industries and in
sugar industries, chemical industries, hea ng building in cold weather, heat transfer, cleaning
Boilers1. Fire tube- Hot gases passes through tube surrounded by water i.e. Cochran, Lanchire, Cornish and Locomo ve
12
Pressure- 20-25bar and Temp- 340C

2. Water tube boiler- Water inside tube surrounded by hot gases nd ames i.e. Bobcock and Wilcox, La-mount,
Benson, Loeer
Pressure- 225bar, Temp- 560C
Boiler moun ngs- two safety valves, two water level indicator, pressure gauge, fusible plug, steam stop valve, feed
check valve, blow-o cock, man and mud holes
Boiler accessoriesFeed pump- Deliver feed water
Super Heater- Increase temp of steam above its saturatuion point
Economiser- Heat feed water using heat in exhaust gases
Air pre-heater- Increse temp of air before it enters the furnance
Steam saperator- To remove water par cals
Steam trap- Collect and drain away the water from steam
Gear Specica onsCircular pitch- Distance between one tooth to adjcent tooth on pitch cirle
Diametral pitch- No of teeth per unit length if pitch circle
Module pitch- Ra o of pitch circle dia to no of thhoth
Chordal pitch- Smallest distance of chord of pitch circle between a point on one tooth and adjacent tooth both on
pitch circle
Types of gears- Spur, helical (Single and Double), bevel gear, spiral gear
Types of screws- Sharp V, unied, withworth, modied square, ACME, B &S worm, bu ress, knuckle, dardlet
Types of nuts- Square, hexagonal, anged, cap, dome, capstan, ring, wing
Types of bolts- Hexagonal heat, square head, cylindrical or cheese headed, cup headed, T headed, Eye, Hook,
countershank, headless li ing eye bolt, tap bolt, stud
Types of Set-screws- Round/cup, cylindrical, llister, counter sunk, rounded countersunk, socket
Types of Founda on bolt- Eye bolt, rag bolt, lewis bolt, co er
Types of keysa. Taper keys- Sunk k, Saddle k, round or pin k, taper pin, gib headed
b. Parallel or feather keys- Square, dovetail, peg k, single headed, double headed, wood dra , cone keys
Types of rivets- Snap or cup, pan, conical, countersunk, rounded countersunk, ellipsoid
Rivi ed joints- Lap joint, bu joint
Dry Air- Air containing no water par cles
Saturated air- mixture of dry air and water vapour
Degree of satura on- Ra on of mass of water vapour to mass of dry air in saturated air of unit mass
Absolute humidity or vapour density- Mass of water vapour present in 1 cubic meter dry air
Rela ve humidity- ra o of mass of water vapour at given temp to mass of water vapour in asturated air for same
volume and temp
DBT- Dry bulb temperature is temp registered by ordinary thermometer
WBT- Wet bulb temp registered by thermometer surrounded by we ed work
13
DPT- Dew point temp is temp at which water vapour just start to condensate at const pressure
Specic humidity- means moisture content in air
Cooling with dehumidica on- Cooling of air with removing moisture content of it
Sensible heat factor- It is rela on between specic heat and latent heat
Regirent- Heat carrying medium
Ideal proper es- +ve evapora ng pressure, high cri cal temp, high latent heat of vapourisa on, high heat transfer
coecient, low condensing temp, low specic heat, volume, non corrosive, non ammable, non toxic
Ex. NH3, SO2, CH3Cl, R-12, R-22, R-40 etc
Classica on of mfg process
1. Primary shaping process- a. Cas ng, b. Powder me alurgy, c. Plas c technology
2. Forming process- a. Forging, b. Extruc on, c. Rolling, d. Sheet metal working, e. Rotory swaging, f. Thread
rolling, g. Explosive forming, h. Electromagne c forming
3. Machining process- a. Turning, b. Drilling, c. Milling, d. Shaping and planing, e. Grinding, f. EDM, g. ECM, h.
Ultrasonic machining
4. Joining process- a. Pressure welding, b. Brazing, c. Resistance welding, d. Soldering, e. Explosive welding
5. Surface nishing process- a. Plas c coa ng, b. Me alic coa ng, c. Organic nishes, d. Inorganic nishes, e.
Anodising, f. Bung, g. Honing, h. Tumbling, i. Electro pla ng, j. Lapping, k. Sanding
Proper es of metala. Ability to donate electrons and form a posi ve ion, b. Crystalling structure, c. High thermal and electrical
conductor, d. Metalic lustre, e. Ability to be deformed plas cally
Space la ce crystal lu ce-Denite and orderly manner and form of the atoms producing a small, velen ng, three
dimensional, geometrical pa ern having the same symnetry as a crystal
Coordina on Number- Number of equally spaced nearest neighbouring atoms in crystal structure
Alloy- A substance that posses me alic proper es and is composed of two or more elements of which at least one
is metal
Equlibrium diagram- Graphic representa on of changes in state due to varia ons in temp and concentra on
Bearing- 1. Journal bearing- Pressure perpendicular to axis of sha
2. Pivot bearing- Bearing pressure paraller to axis of sha
3. Coller/ thrust bearing- Sha pressure pareller to axis of sha and passed and extended through the bearing
LPG is safe fuel and igni es only within the specied LPG- Air ra o of 2 % to 9 %. A high caloric value of 11900
Kcal/Kg
Gross Caloric Value of LDO 10700 Kcal/Kg.. Gross Caloric Value of HSD 10900 Kcal/Kg. Gross Caloric Value of
FO 10200 Kcal/KG
Furnace oil is a class C product having Flash Point above 66OC, Gross caloric value, Cal/ gm
(typical 10000
Light Diesel Oil falls under class C category fuel having ash point above 66OC
LPG/Propane Flash Pt
104 C (169.1 K) Mel ng point
-187.6 C (85.5 K)
Boiling point
14
-42.09 C (231.1 K)
Tradi onal ceramic raw materials include clay minerals such as kaolinite, whereas more recent materials include
aluminium oxide, more commonly known as alumina. The modern ceramic materials, which are classied as
advanced ceramics, include silicon carbide and tungsten carbide. Both are valued for their abrasion resistance,
and hence nd use in applica ons such as the wear plates of crushing equipment in mining opera ons. Advanced
ceramics are also used in the medicine, electrical and electronics industries
How diesel engines work
Diesel engine model, le side
Diesel engine model, rightside
See also: Diesel cycle
The diesel internal combus on engine diers from the gasoline powered O o cycle by using highly compressed,
hot air to ignite the fuel rather than using a spark plug (compression igni on rather than spark igni on).
In the true diesel engine, only air is ini ally introduced into the combus on chamber. The air is then compressed
with a compression ra o typically between 15 and 22 resul ng into a 40-bar (4.0 MPa; 580 psi) pressure compared
to 8 to 14 bars (0.80 to 1.4 MPa) (about 200 psi) in the petrol engine. This high compression heats the air to 550 C
(1,022 F). At about this moment, fuel is injected directly into the compressed air in the combus on chamber. This
may be into a (typically toroidal) void in the top of the piston or a pre-chamber depending upon the design of the
engine. The fuel injector ensures that the fuel is broken down into small droplets, and that the fuel is distributed
evenly. The heat of the compressed air vaporizes fuel from the surface of the droplets. The vapour is then ignited
by the heat from the compressed air in the combus on chamber, the droplets con nue to vaporise from their
surfaces and burn, ge ng smaller, un l all the fuel in the droplets has been burnt. The start of vaporisa on
causes a delay period during igni on, and the characteris c diesel knocking sound as the vapor reaches igni on
temperature and causes an abrupt increase in pressure above the piston. The rapid expansion of combus on gases
then drives the piston downward, supplying power to the cranksha .[18]. Model aeroplane engines use a variant
of the Diesel principle but premix fuel and air via a carbura on system external to the combus on chambers.
As well as the high level of compression allowing combus on to take place without a separate igni on system,
a high compression ra o greatly increases the engines eciency. Increasing the compression ra o in a sparkigni on engine where fuel and air are mixed before entry to the cylinder is limited by the need to prevent damaging
pre-igni on. Since only air is compressed in a diesel engine, and fuel is not introduced into the cylinder un l shortly
before top dead centre (TDC), premature detona on is not an issue and compression ra os are much higher
15
SOP (2010-09-08 10:53)

***
RO Plant
1. START THE RAW WATER PUMP
2. SET FLOW METER AT 90 LIT/MIN
3. RUN BACKWASH FOR 15MIN DURING THE BACKWASH, OPEN VALVE NO 2 & 3
AND CLOSE 1 & 4
4. AFTER BACKWASH OPEN REJECT VALVE OF MEMBRANE TUBE AND FLUST IT
FOR 10 MIN. DURING FLUSHING ANTISCALANT PUMP SHOULD NOT BE OPEN
5. AFTER FLUSHING CLOSE VALVE NO 6 AND START HIGH PRESSURE PUMP
6. SET THE REJECTION 32 LPM WITH SYNCHRONISATION
7. SET TDS 50-100 PPM
8. AFTER FILLING REJECTION TANK START THE OUTLET PUMP
WATER PRESSURE SHOULD BE AS PER FOLLOWING PARAMETER
P1 2.5KG/CM2
P3 1.6KG/CM2
P4 7.5KG/CM2
P5 6.5KG/CM2
9. ANTISCALANT DOSING PUMP QTY SHOULD BE 700GM/100LTR
10. MAINTAIN RECORD OF FOLLOWING PARAMETERS:
A. PH OH RO GENERATED WATER
B. TIME OF READING
C. PRESSURE AT FEED END AND AT REJECTION OF MEMBRANE TUBE
D. FLOW AT REJECTION, CIRCULATION, PRODUCTION AND FEED IN LIT/MIN
E. TDS AND CONDUCTIVITY OF RO WATER
F. TOTAL RUNNING HOURS OF PLANT
G. FLOW OF CARTRIDGE FILTER AT O/P AND WASTE
***
D.G. 250KVA.
OBJECTIVE: - TO ENSURE THE CONTINUOS POWER SUPPLY IN PROCESS TO
MAINTAIN THE PRODUCT SAFETY.
1. CHECK THE HOSE CONNECTION IF ANY LOOSE/LEAKAGE TIGHTEN PROPERLY
CLAMPS.
2. ENSURE THE OIL QUANTITY IN THE OIL SUMP AS PER LIMIT SPECIFIED ON DIP
STICK, MAINTAIN IT IF IN LOWER SIDE 15 W/40 VALVOLINE.
3. CHANGE OIL FILTER,SLO BYPASS FILTER AND LUB OIL ,AFTER EVERY 300
HOURS TO AVOID FAILURE OF BEARINGS,CRANK SHAFT AND OTHER
16
ROTATING PARTS.
4. ENSURE THE COOLANT LEVEL IS WITHIN SPECIFIED LIMIT, MAINTAIN IT IF IS IN
LOWER SIDE.
5. CLEAN THE COOLING SYSTEM THOROUGHLY TO PREVENT THE ENGINE FROM
OVERHEATING.
6. CHECK THE AIR CLEANER ELEMENT AND CLEAN IT IF NECESSARY.
RESTRICTION IN AIR SYSTEM MAY BE THE CAUSE OF IMPROPER BURNING.
7. ENSURE THAT ENGINE BREATHING/BLOW BY IS WITHIN THE SPECIFIED
LIMIT.CLEAN THE BREATHER AT EVERY 300 HOURS. EXCESS BLOW BY MAY BE
THE CAUSE OF ENGINE FAILURE.
8. CHANGE THE FUEL FILTER AT EVERY 300 HOURS FOR PROPER FILTRATION.
9. CALIBRATE THE FUEL PUMP AND INJECTOR AT EVERY 6000 HOURS TO GET
OPTIMUM FUEL EFFICIENCY.
***
TO SWITCH ON AIR HANDING UNIT:
1. ENSURE THAT COOLING TOWER BASIN WATER LEVEL IS FULL.
2. ENSURE THAT COOLING WATER INLET AND OUTLET VALVES ARE OPEN ATCONDENSER.
3. CHECK THE DAMPERS OF AHU SYSTEM. IT SHOULD BE SET AT THE MARKEDPOSITION.
4. SWITCH ON THE MAIN SWITCH TO THE PANEL OF AHU UNIT.
5. SWITCH ON THE MAIN SWITCH ON THE CONTROL PANEL OF AHU UNIT.
6. SWITCH ON COOLING WATER PUMP, BLOWER OF AHU BY OPERATING
GREEN PUSH BUTTON ON THE CONTROL PANEL AND CHECK THE BLOWER
ROTATION.
7. SWITCH ON THE COMPRESSOR BY OPERATING GREEN PUSH BUTTON ON THE
PANEL.
8. THESE ABOVE STEPS ENSURE WORKING OF AHU SYSTEM.
AHU
TO SWITCH OFF AIR HANDING UNIT:
1. SWITCH OFF THE COMPRESSOR; BLOWER, AND COOLING WATER PUMP BY
OPERATING RED PUSH BUTTON ON THE PANEL OF AHU SYSTEM.
2. CLOSE THE INLET & OUTLET VALVE OF COOLING WATER AT CONDENSER.
3. SWITCH OFF MAIN SWITCH ON PANEL OF AHU SYSTEM.
4. SWITCH OFF THE MAIN SWITCH TO THE PANEL OF AHU SYSTEM.
***
ETP
1. WHEN THE INITIAL TANK BECOME FULL START AERATION USING BLOWERS
AND MIX THE CONTENT OF EQ. TANK FOR ABOUT 30MIN THEN CHECK THE PHAND NOTE DOWN
2. THEN ADD REQUIRED QUANTITY OF 10 % NaOH SOLUTION TILL THE PH
17
BECOME 7.5-8.0
3. THEN PUMP THE NEUTRALISED EFFULENT TO PRIMARY TREATMENT TANK ATTHE RATE OF 15 TO 16 LIT /MIN
4. ONCE IN SHIFT THE SLUDGE FROM PRIMARY TREANMENT TANK IS DRAINEDABOUT 5-10 MIN.
5. IN BIOREACTOR PH TO BE MAINTAIN BETWEEN 6.5-8.0. IF REQUIRED ADD 10 %NaOH SOLUTION
6. MAINTAIN OPTIMUM MESS LEVEL AT ABOUT 35-45 %
7. AERATION AND DOSING OF UREA AND DAP IN THE BIOREACTOR ROUND ACLOCK
8. TRANSFER BACK SLUDGE FROM SECONDARY FILTER TO BIO REACTOR
9. REGULARLY BACKWASH SANDFILTER TILL WATER BECOME CLEAR
10. CHECK PH, TSS, COD OF INLET AND FINAL OUTLET SAMPLE AND MAINTAIN DATA
****
REFRIGERATION PLANT
BEFORE STARTING THE PLANT
1. ENSURE ALL VALVES IN THE
A. REFRIGERATION LINES
B. CONDENSER WATER LINES
C. CHILLED WATER LINES
ARE OPEN
2. CHECK WATER LEVEL IN COOLING TOWER BASIN AND ENSURE THAT MAKE-UP
WATER IS AVAILABLE IN THE COOLING TOWER
3.CHECK WATER LEVEL IN CHILLED WATER TANK
4. CHECK SUPPLY VOLTAGE. IT SHOULD BE BETWEEN 390 AND 440 VOLTS
STARTING SEQUENCE
1. SWITCH ON THE MAINS SWITCH OF THE MOTOR CONTROL CENTRE
2. START THR COOLING TOWER FAN
3. START THE CONDENSER WATER PUMP(S). OBSERVE THE PRESSURE
4. START THE CHILLED WATER PUMP(S). OBSERVE THE PRESSURE
5. SWITCH ON THE CONTROL SUPPLY SWITCH OF THE GAUGE CONTROL PANEL
6. SWITCH ON THE COMPRESSOR CONTROL SWITCH
7. SWITCH ON THE LIQUID LINE SOLENOID VALVE
8. SWITCH ON THE COMPRESSOR CAPACITY CONTROL SOLENOID VALVE(S)
9. OBSERVE AND NOTE ALL PRESSURE AND TEMPERATURE READINGS IN THE
LOG BOOK
10. CHECK OIL LEVEL IN THE COMPRESSOR. IT SHOULD BE AS MARKED IN THE
OIL SIGHT GLASS
11. CHECK FOR ANY UNUSUAL NOISE/VIBRATION IN THE PLANT
STOPPING SEQUENCE
1. SWITCH OFF THE LIQUID LINE SOLENOID VALVE(S). THE COMPRESSOR WILL
AUTIMATICALLY STOP AS THE PLANT IS PUMPED DOWN
18
2. SWITCH OFF THE COMPRESSOR CONTROL SWITCH

STOP THE CHILLED WATER PUMP
4. STOP THE CONDENSER WATER PUMP.
5. STOP THE COOLING TOWER FAN.
6. IF THE PLANT IS TO REMAIN OFF FOR MORE THAN 48 HOURS, CLOSE THE
COMPRESSOR SHUTOFF VALVES
NOTES
1. WHERE STANDBY PLANTS / PUMPS ETC ARE INSTALLED, OPERATE THESE
PLANTS / PUMPS PERIODICALLY SAY AT LEAST ONCE A WEEK OR PREFERABLY
EVERY ALTERNATE DAY. THIS WILL ENSURE THAT ALL EQUIPMENT IS IN GOOD
RUNNING CONDITION ALL THE TIME.
2. ALL THE WATER VALVES IN THE SYSTEM NEED NOT BE CLOSED EVERY DAY.
BUT IT IS ESSENTIAL TO OPERATE THESE VALVES PERIODICALLY TO INSURE
THAT THE VALVES DO NOT GET STUCK BY SCALE OR DIRT ACCUMULATION
****
NON LUB COMPRESSOR
TO SWITCH ON NON LUBE COMPRESSOR
1. DRAIN THE RECEIVER TO REMOVE WATER USING EJECTOR TRAP OR
MANUALLY
2. CHECK ALL SAFETY CONDITIONS I.E. SAFETY VALVES AND GAURDS
3. CHECK THE LUBRICATING OIL LEVEL IN THE CRANKCASE AND IN THE
CYLINDER LUBRICATOR
4. TURN ON FULL SUPPLY OF COOLING WATER AND CHECK THE ACTUAL
CIRCULATION AT DISCHARGE CONNECTION
5. START THE MOTOR MANUALLY AND CHECK RISE IN OIL PRESSURE
6. RELEASE START BUTTON. AND RESTART MOTOR IN AUTO MODE AND
OBSERVE OIL PRESSURE, IT SHOULD BE 15 TO 40PSI.
7. CHECK THE RECEIVER PRESSUR GAUGE
8. ADJUST THE FLOW OF COOLING WATER SO THAT THE TEMPERATUR OF
WATER AT DISCHARGE IS APPROX. 120F.
TO SWITCH OFF NON LUBE COMPRESSOR
1. PUSH STOP BUTTON OF COMPRESSOR MOTOR
2. SHUT OFF COOLER WATER
3. DRAIN ALL WATER PASSAGES, JACKETS AND PIPELINES
4. RELEASE AIR PRESSURE FROM ALL SYSTEM IF SHUTDOWN FOR EXTENDED
PERIOD
****
CHILLIPNG PLANT
19
BEFORE STARTING THE PLANT

1. ENSURE ALL VALVES IN THE
A. REFRIGERATION LINES
B. CONDENSER WATER LINES
C. CHILLED WATER LINES
ARE OPEN
2. CHECK WATER LEVEL IN COOLING TOWER BASIN AND ENSURE THAT MAKE-UP
WATER IS AVAILABLE IN THE COOLING TOWER
3.CHECK WATER LEVEL IN CHILLED WATER TANK
4. CHECK SUPPLY VOLTAGE. IT SHOULD BE BETWEEN 390 AND 440 VOLTS
STARTING SEQUENCE
1. SWITCH ON THE MAINS SWITCH OF THE MOTOR CONTROL CENTRE
2. START THR COOLING TOWER FAN
3. START THE CONDENSER WATER PUMP (S). OBSERVE THE PRESSURE
4. START THE CHILLED WATER PUMP (S). OBSERVE THE PRESSURE
5. SWITCH ON THE CONTROL SUPPLY SWITCH OF THE GAUGE CONTROL PANEL
6. SWITCH ON THE COMPRESSOR CONTROL SWITCH
7. SWITCH ON THE LIQUID LINE SOLENOID VALVE
8. SWITCH ON THE COMPRESSOR CAPACITY CONTROL SOLENOID VALVE(S)
9. OBSERVE AND NOTE ALL PRESSURE AND TEMPERATURE READINGS IN THE
LOG BOOK
10. CHECK OIL LEVEL IN THE COMPRESSOR. IT SHOULD BE AS MARKED IN THE
OIL SIGHT GLASS
11. CHECK FOR ANY UNUSUAL NOISE/VIBRATION IN THE PLANT
STOPPING SEQUENCE
1. SWITCH OFF THE LIQUID LINE SOLENOID VALVE (S). THE COMPRESSOR WILL
AUTIMATICALLY STOP AS THE PLANT IS PUMPED DOWN
2. SWITCH OFF THE COMPRESSOR CONTROL SWITCH
STOP THE CHILLED WATER PUMP
4. STOP THE CONDENSER WATER PUMP.
5. STOP THE COOLING TOWER FAN.
NOTES:
20
***
THERMIC FLUID HEATER
NOTES:
21
Safety (2010-09-08 13:57)
There are two main types of re ex nguishers: stored pressure and cartridge-operated.
In stored pressure units, the expellant is stored in the same chamber as the regh ng agent itself.
Cartridge-operated ex nguishers contain the expellant gas in a separate cartridge that is punctured prior to discharge, exposing the propellant to the ex nguishing agent.
TYPES:
Fire ClassGeometric Symbol PictogramIntended Use
A Green Triangle Garbage can and wood pile burning Ordinary solid combus bles
B Red Square Fuel container and burning puddle Flammable liquids and gases
C Blue Circle Electric plug and burning outlet Energized electrical equipment
D Yellow Decagon (Star) Burning Gear and Bearing Combus ble metals
K Black Hexagon Pan burning Cooking oils and fats
*
A re sprinkler system is an ac ve re protec on measure, consis ng of a water supply system, providing
adequate pressure and owrate to a water distribu on piping system, onto which re sprinklers are connected.
TemperatureColour of liquid
inside bulb
CF
57 135 Orange
68 155 Red
79 174 Yellow
93 200 Green
141 286 Blue
182 360 Mauve
227
260 440
500 Black
**
A re pump is a part of a re sprinkler systems water supply and can be powered by electric, diesel or steam.
The re pump starts when the pressure in the re sprinkler system drops below a threshold. The sprinkler system
pressure drops signicantly when one or more re sprinklers are exposed to heat above their design temperature,
and opens, releasing water.
A jockey pump is a small pump connected to a re sprinkler system and is intended to maintain pressure in a
re protec on piping system to an ar cially high level so that the opera on of a single re sprinkler will cause
a pressure drop which will be sensed by the re pump automa c controller, causing the re pump to start. The
jockey pump is essen ally a por on of the re pumps control system.
22
23
ISO (2010-09-09 12:26)

Original Link
h p://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISO _9000
ISO 9000 and ISO 14000
This sec on provides a concise overview of ISOs best known management system standards and their impact on
the world.
In brief
The ISO 9000 and ISO 14000 families are among ISOs best known standards ever.
ISO 9001:2008 and ISO 14001: 2004 are implemented by over a million organiza ons in 175 countries.
ISO 9000 family
The ISO 9000 family addresses "Quality management".
This means what the organiza on does to full:
the customers quality requirements, and
applicable regulatory requirements, while aiming to
enhance customer sa sfac on, and
achieve con nual improvement of its performance in pursuit of these objec ves.
ISO 14000 family
The ISO 14000 family addresses "Environmental management".
This means what the organiza on does to:
minimize harmful eects on the environment caused by its ac vi es, and to
achieve con nual improvement of its environmental performance.
ISO 9000 is a family of standards for quality management systems. ISO 9000 is maintained by ISO, the Internaonal Organiza on for Standardiza on and is administered by accredita on and cer ca on bodies. The rules are
updated, as the requirements mo vate changes over me. Some of the requirements in ISO 9001:2008 (which is
one of the standards in the ISO 9000 family) include
a set of procedures that cover all key processes in the business;
monitoring processes to ensure they are eec ve;
keeping adequate records;
checking output for defects, with appropriate and correc ve ac on where necessary;
regularly reviewing individual processes and the quality system itself for eec veness; and
facilita ng con nual improvement
ISO 9001:2008 Quality management systems
24
Control of Documents (4.2.3)

Control of Records (4.2.4)
Internal Audits (8.2.2)
Control of Nonconforming Product / Service (8.3)
Correc ve Ac on (8.5.2)
Preven ve Ac on (8.5.3)
In addi on to these, ISO 9001:2008 requires a Quality Policy and Quality Manual
2000 version
ISO 9001:2000 combines the three standards 9001, 9002, and 9003 into one, called 9001. Design and development procedures are required only if a company does in fact engage in the crea on of new products. The 2000
version sought to make a radical change in thinking by actually placing the concept of process management front
and center ("Process management" was the monitoring and op mizing of a companys tasks and ac vi es, instead
of just inspec ng the nal product).
Two types of audi ng are required to become registered to the standard: audi ng by an external cer ca on
body (external audit) and audits by internal sta trained for this process (internal audits). The aim is a con nual
process of review and assessment,
Advantages
It is widely acknowledged that proper quality management improves business, o en having a posi ve eect on
investment, market share, sales growth, sales margins, compe ve advantage, and avoidance of li ga on.The
quality principles in ISO 9000:2000 are also sound, according to Wade and Barnes, who say that "ISO 9000 guidelines provide a comprehensive model for quality management systems that can make any company compe ve
implemen ng ISO o en gives the following advantages:
1. Create a more ecient, eec ve opera on
2. Increase customer sa sfac on and reten on
3. Reduce audits
4. Enhance marke ng
5. Improve employee mo va on, awareness, and morale
6. Promote interna onal trade
7. Increases prot
8. Reduce waste and increases produc vity.
Summary
A good overview for eec ve use of ISO 9000 is provided by Barnes: "Good business judgment is needed to
determine its proper role for a company. Is cer ca on itself important to the marke ng plans of the company?
If not, do not rush to cer ca on Even without cer ca on, companies should u lize the ISO 9000 model as a
benchmark to assess the adequacy of its quality programs."
Conformity assessmentContaining ISO published standards
ISO 10006Quality managementGuidelines to quality management in projects
25
ISO 14001Environmental management standards

ISO 19011Guidelines for quality management systems audi ng and environmental management systems
audi ng
ISO/TS 16949Quality management system requirements for automo ve-related products suppliers
ISO/IEC 27001Informa on security management
AS 9100 - aerospace industry implementa on of ISO 9000/1
List of ISO standards
Quality management system
Test management
Verica on and Valida on
ISO 9001 for Pharmaceu cal / Biotech Manufacturers
PharmOut provides Templates and Consul ng Services to Small to Medium Sized Companies.
ISO 13485 Quality Systems are also available.
QSR / 21 CFR 820 Quality System are available.
INTRODUCTION
Our approach outlines an aordable and prac cal approach to successfully implement ISO 9001 systems. We
provide templates, experience and consul ng services to meet the needs of small / medium size pharmaceu cal,
biotech or medical device manufacturing companies, to ensure their registra on to ISO 9001. Our systems also
ensure compliance to the TGAs and if necessary the FDAs requirements .
Companies, typically complete registra on to ISO 9001 within 6 to 12 months. PharmOut will help clients achieve
registra on on schedule. By installing quality systems that will generate hard-dollar savings / improvements and
operate with minimal costs and you will reap the rewards sooner.
Did you know that independent studies reveal that companies embracing Quality Improvement Programs perform
be er than those that dont?
Want to know more, follow this link to :
Quality Pays.
Do you want to know more about our approach?
Follow this link to :
Prac cal Implementa on of Quality Systems for Pharma and Medical Device Manufacturers?
Applicability of ISO to Pharma / Biotech
The ISO 9001:2000 Standard provides an excellent framework to develop a Quality System fully compliant with
the PIC/S requirements as regulated by the TGA in Australia, and of through the MRA, Europe.
Whilst a Quality System is not a specic requirement of the USAs Food and Drug Administra on it is recommended
as it which assists in compliance to the Code of Federal Regula ons; in par cular the 21 CFR 210 and 211.
ISOmobile! Eight of every 10 cars to run on ISO 9001:2000 by 2006
For the rst me in history, the highly compe ve automo ve industry has reached consensus through the Interna onal Automo ve Task Force (IATF) on a common set of supplier quality requirements that were developed
and published in March 2002 by ISO as ISO/TS 16949:2002..
Health care
26
New, improved ISO 9000 guidelines for health sector

ISO has just published a new version of IWA 1:2005. The new version has been made even more user friendly
for organiza ons in the sector by incorpora ng improvements based on developments in the eld and comments
by health care providers since the original was published in 2001.
27
HVAC (2010-09-09 12:39)

HVAC (pronounced either "H-V-A-C" or
/et.vk/
) is an
ini alism
that stands for the closely related func ons of "
Hea ng
,
Ven la ng
, and
Air Condi oning
"the technology of indoor or automo ve environmental comfort. HVAC system design is a major subdiscipline
of
mechanical engineering
, based on the principles of
thermodynamics
,
uid mechanics
, and
heat transfer
.
Refrigera on
is some mes added to the elds abbrevia on as HVAC &R or HVACR, or ven la ng is dropped as in HACR (such
as the designa on of HACR-rated
circuit breakers
).
HVAC is par cularly important in the design of medium to large industrial and oce buildings such as
skyscrapers
and in marine environments such as
aquariums
, where safe and
healthy building
condi ons are regulated with temperature and humidity, as well as "fresh air" from outdoors.
The three central func ons of hea ng, ven la ng, and air-condi oning are interrelated, providing
thermal comfort
, acceptable
indoor air quality
, within reasonable installa on, opera on, and maintenance costs. HVAC systems can provide
28
ven la on
, reduce air
inltra on
, and maintain pressure rela onships between spaces. How air is delivered to, and removed from spaces is known
as
room air distribu on
.
Hea ng
A central hea ng system provides warmth to the whole interior of a building (or por on of a building) from one
point to mul ple
rooms
. When combined with other systems in order to control the building
climate
, the whole system may be a
HVAC
(
hea ng
,
ven la on
and
air condi oning
) system.
Such a system contains a
boiler
,
furnace
, or
heat pump
to heat water, steam, or air, all in a central loca on such as a
furnace room
in a home or a
mechanical room
in a large building.
Forced air systems
send heated air through
ductwork
. During warm weather the same ductwork can be used for air condi oning. The forced air can also be ltered or
put through air cleaners.
Ven la ng
29
Ven la ng
is the process of "changing" or replacing air in any space to control temperature or remove moisture, odors, smoke,
heat, dust, airborne bacteria, carbon dioxide, and to replenish oxygen. Ven la on includes both the exchange of
air to the outside as well as circula on of air within the building. It is one of the most important factors for
maintaining acceptable
indoor air quality
in buildings. Methods for ven la ng a building may be divided into mechanical/forced and natural types. [ 3 ]
Ven la on is used to remove unpleasant smells and excessive moisture, introduce outside air, to keep interior
building air circula ng, and to prevent stagna on of the interior air.
Mechanical or forced ven la on
Factors in the design of such systems include the ow rate (which is a func on of the fan speed and exhaust
vent size) and noise level. If duc ng for the fans traverse unheated space (e.g., an a c), the duc ng should be
insulated as well to prevent condensa on on the duc ng. Direct drive fans are available for many applica ons,
and can reduce maintenance needs
Ceiling
fans
and table/oor fans
Natural ven la on
openable windows or
trickle vents
when the spaces to ven late are small and the architecture permits.
Air condi oning
Air condi oning and refrigera on are provided through the removal of heat. The deni on of cold is the absence
of heat and all air condi oning systems work on this basic principle. Heat can be removed through the process of
radia on
,
convec on
, and
Heat cooling
through a process called the
refrigera on cycle
. The
conduc on
mediums such as water, air, ice, and chemicals are referred to as refrigerants.
An air condi oning system, or a standalone
air condi oner
, provides cooling, ven la on, and
humidity control
for all or part of a house or building. The refrigerant cycle consists of four essen al elements to create a cooling
eect. A compressor raises the cooling mediums (refrigerants) temperature and density. The compressed vapor
is then cooled by heat exchange (in the
30
condensercoil
) with the outside air, so that the vapor condenses to a uid. The uid is then pumped inside the building, where
it enters an evaporator. Here, small nozzles spray the pressurized refrigerant into an expansion chamber, where
the pressure drops and the uid evaporates. Since the evapora on absorbs heat from the surroundings, the
evaporator coils cool down. This vaporiza on heat is supplied by the inside air which is forced over these inside
heat-exchange coils. Thus the
evaporator
transfers heat from the air inside the building into the refrigerant. The warmed refrigerant vapor is piped back
to the compressor and the cycle repeats. A metering device (o en called an "orice") acts as a restric on in the
system at the evaporator to ensure the refrigerant ows at the proper rate. This prevents the refrigerant from
returning to the compressor in a liquid state, and eec vely controls the rate of heat exchange in the evaporator.
Central, all-air air condi oning systems are o en installed in modern residences, oces, and public buildings,
but are dicult to retrot (install in a building that was not designed to receive it) because of the bulky air ducts
required.
Dehumidica on in an air condi oning system is provided by the evaporator.
Since the evaporator operates at a temperature below
dew point
, moisture in the air condenses on the evaporator coil tubes. This moisture is collected at the bo om of the
evaporator in a condensate pan and is removed by piping it to a central drain or onto the ground outside. A
dehumidier
is an air-condi oner-like device that controls the humidity of a room or building. It is o en employed in basements
which have a higher
rela ve humidity
because of their lower temperature (and propensity for damp oors and walls). In food retailing establishments,
large open chiller cabinets are highly eec ve at dehumidifying the internal air. Conversely, a
humidier
increases the humidity of a building
Chilled beam
Circulator pump
Cooling tower
Damper (ow)
Diuser
Duct
Economizer
Evapora ve cooler
Fan coil unit
Fan (mechanical)
Heater
31
Heat exchanger
, including coils
Heat Pump
Heat recovery ven lator
Humidier
/
Dehumidier
HVAC control system
Piping
Valve
Variable air volume
Variable-frequency drive
,
for ne control of pumps
32
hvachome (2010-09-09 12:44)

What Is HVAC?
Filed under: HVAC john at 7:56 pm on Tuesday, March 21, 2006
h p://www.hvachome.net/
What is HVAC? Youve probably heard of the term from dierent contractors, engineers, or perhaps colleagues and
business partners; but youre s ll wondering what the ini alism means. Well, HVAC (H-V-A-C or H-VAK) stands
for Hea ng, Ven la on, and Air-Condi oningthree closely related fundamental func ons found in homes, ofces, and other building structures.
The beginning of HVAC is not clear, though as early as second century, a lot of Roman ci es were using a central
hea ng system known as hypocaust. This is further popularized during the Industrial Revolu on as big factories
used it. Now most modern buildings that you see have integrated HVAC.
The HVAC system is also known as climate control. This is because these three func ons are essen al in maintaining comfort in every dwelling.
The primary use of HVAC is to regulate room temperature, humidity, and air ow, ensuring that such elements
remain within their acceptable ranges. Eec ve control of such factors minimizes health-related risks. A very
humid atmosphere impairs the bodys ability to regulate body temperature as it prevents the evapora on of sweat.
High humidity also decreases physical strength, which usually leads to fa gue. An unhealthy surrounding can also
aect peoples thinking abili es. Hypothermia, heat stroke, and hyperpyrexia, among others, are some of the
illnesses that may also occur.
Three Func ons of HVAC
Hea ng is signicant in maintaining adequate room temperature especially during colder weather condi ons.
There are two classica ons of hea ng: local and central. The la er is more commonly used because it is more
economical. Furnace or boiler, heat pump, and radiator make up the hea ng system.
Ven la on, on the other hand, is associated with air movement. There are many types of ven la on, but they
all func on similarly. Ven la on is necessary to allow carbon dioxide to go out and oxygen to get in, making sure
that people are inhaling fresh air. Stagnant air causes the spreading of sickness, usually airborne, and allergies.
But it is also essen al to maintain an ecient ven la on system, especially in the a cs. Insucient ven la on
usually promotes the growth of bacteria and fungi such as molds because of high humidity. It will also decrease
the eec veness of ra er and roof sheathing insula on because of water vapor condensa on.
The air-condi oning system controls the heat as well as ven la on. They o en come in dierent sizes. Most air
condi oners have large air ducts, so it is be er to check out the building rst to see if they can be installed. Or else,
you can use the split system or remote coils. It is necessary, though, that air ducts are properly cleaned. Pathogens
thrive in dirty air ducts. Return-air grills are also vulnerable to chemical, microbiological, and radiological elements.
Thus, HVAC return-air grill height should be that it is not accessible but visible for any observa on.
33
PRODUCTION SYSTEMS (2010-09-12 05:18)

GIRAFFE PRODUCTION SYSTEMS
PRODUCTION SCHEDULING and PRODUCTION PLANNING PROCESS
GIRAFFE SCHEDULING SYSTEM:
HOW TO USE
Girae Produc on Systems HomepageGirae Scheduling System: Infopage
Girae Scheduling System: Suitable Business Processes
Girae Scheduling System: Benets
Girae Scheduling System: How to Use
Girae Scheduling System: Modify and Customise
Professional Services: Infopage
Contact Us STEP NO: PRODUCTION SCHEDULING PROCESS: GIRAFFE SCHEDULING SYSTEM PROCESS:
1. Dene machine families, Shi hours and manufacturing capacity.
"Machines and Capacity"
2. Dene manufacturing processes, process set up mes and produc on throughput rates.
"Process Quote Book"
3. Detail resources and processes involved for each job, materials required and work instruc ons.
"Master Schedule"
"Job Sheet"
4. Forecast and schedule resource requirements and track vs capacity.
"Resources and Processing"
5. Re-schedule work and re-allocate resources to meet customer requirements.
"Master Schedule"
"Forecast"
"Scheduling Wizard"
6. Priori se workload and process jobs.
"Produc on Schedule"
7. Carry any jobs not run as scheduled to next shi and ensure all incomplete jobs are on the schedule.
"Resources and Processing"
"Scheduling Wizard"
8. Automate clerical tasks and enable mely and relevant produc on scheduling.
"Consignment Note"
Produc on Repor ng
34
Fabrica on (metal) (2010-09-20 11:00)

Fabrica on, when used as an industrial term, applies to the building of
machines
,
structures
and other equipment, by cu ng, shaping and assembling components made from
raw materials
. Small businesses that specialize in metal are called fab shops .
Fabrica on comprises or overlaps with various metalworking special es:
Fabrica on shops and machine shops have overlapping capabili es, but fabrica on shops generally concentrate on the metal prepara on aspects (such as sawing
tubing
to length or bending
sheet metal
or plate),
welding
, and assembly, whereas machine shops are more concerned with the
machining
of parts on
machine tools
. Firms that encompass both are also common.
Blacksmithing
has always involved fabrica on, although it was not always called by that name.
The products produced by
welders
, which are o en referred to as weldments, are an example of fabrica on.
Boilermakers
originally specialized in
boilers
, leading to their trades name, but the term as used today has a broader meaning.
Similarly,
millwrights
originally specialized in se ng up grain mills and saw mills, but today they may be called upon for a broad
range of fabrica on work.
Ironworkers
, also known as
steel erectors
, also engage in fabrica on. O en the fabrica ons for structural work begin as prefabricated segments in a
fab shop, then are moved to the site by
35
truck
,
rail
, or
barge
, and nally are installed by erectors.
Metal fabrica on
Metal fabrica on is a
value added
process that involves the construc on of machines and structures from various raw materials. A fab shop will bid
on a job, usually based on the
engineering drawings
, and if awarded the contract will build the product.
Fabrica on shops are employed by
contractors
,
OEMs
and
VARs
. Typical projects include; loose parts, structural frames for buildings and
heavy equipment
, and hand railings and stairs for buildings.
[
edit
]
Engineering
The fabricator may employ or contract out
steel detailers
to prepare shop drawings, if not provided by the customer, which the fabrica ng shop will use for manufacturing.
Manufacturing engineers will program
CNC
machines as needed.
[
edit
]
Raw materials
Standard raw materials used by metal fabricators are;
plate metal
36
formed and
expanded metal
tube stock, CDSM
square stock
sec onal metals
(I beams, W beams, C-channel...)
welding wire
hardware
cas ngs
ngs
[
edit
]
Cu ng and burning
The raw material has to be cut to size. This is done with a variety of tools.
The most common way to cut material is by
Shearing (metalworking)
;
Special
band saws
designed for cu ng metal have hardened blades and a feed mechanism for even cu ng. Abrasive cut-o saws,
also known as chop saws, are similar to miter saws but with a steel cu ng abrasive disk.
Cu ng torches
can cut very large sec ons of steel with li le eort .
Burn tables are CNC cu ng torches, usually natural gas powered. Plasma and
laser cu ng
tables, and
Water jet cu ers
, are also common. Plate steel is loaded on a table and the parts are cut out as programmed. The support table is
made of a grid of bars that can be replaced. Some very expensive burn tables also include CNC punch capability,
with a carousel of dierent punches and taps.
Fabrica on of structural steel by plasma and laser cu ng
introduces robots to move the cu ng head in three dimensions around the material to be cut.
[
edit
]
Forming
Hydraulic
37
brake presses
with v-dies are the most common method of forming metal. The cut plate is placed in the press and a v-shaped
die is pressed a predetermined distance to bend the plate to the desired angle.
Wing brakes
and hand powered brakes are some mes used.
Tube bending machines have specially shaped dies and mandrels to bend tubular sec ons without kinking them.
Rolling machines are used to form plate steel into a round sec on.
English Wheel
or Wheeling Machines are used to form complex double curvature shapes using sheet metal.
[
edit
]
Machining
Main ar cle:
machining
Fab shops will generally have a limited machining capability including; metal
lathes
,
mills
,
magne c based drills
along with other portable metal working tools.
[
edit
]
Welding
Main ar cle:
welding
Welding is the main focus of steel fabrica on. The formed and machined parts will be assembled and tack welded
into place then re-checked for accuracy. A
xture
may be used to locate parts for welding if mul ple weldments have been ordered.
The welder then completes welding per the engineering drawings, if welding is detailed, or per his own judgment
if no welding details are provided.
Special precau ons may be needed to prevent warping of the weldment due to heat. These may include redesigning the weldment to use less weld, welding in a staggered fashion, using a stout xture, covering the weldment in sand during cooling, and straightening opera ons a er welding.
Straightening of warped steel weldments is done with an Oxy-acetylene torch and is somewhat of an art. Heat is
selec vely applied to the steel in a slow, linear sweep. The steel will have a net contrac on, upon cooling, in the
direc on of the sweep. A highly skilled welder can remove signicant warpage using this technique.
38
Steel weldments are occasionally

annealed
in a low temperature oven to relieve
residual stresses
.
[
edit
]
Final assembly
A er the weldment has cooled it is generally
sand blasted
, primed and painted. Any addi onal manufacturing specied by the customer is then completed. The nished
product is then
inspected
and shipped.
[
edit
]
Special es
Many fab shops have specialty processes which they develop or invest in, based on their customers needs and
their exper se:
brazing
cas ng
chipping
drawing
extrusion
forging
heat treatment
hydroforming
oven
soldering
plas c fabrica on
powder coa ng
powder metallurgy
punching
shearing
39
spinning
English wheeling
welding
And higher-level specializa ons such as:
electrical
hydraulics
prototyping/machine design/
technical drawing
sub-contract manufacturing
h p://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fabrica on _(metal)
40
Piping (2010-09-20 11:24)

h p://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Piping
Within industry, piping is a system of pipes used to convey uids (liquids and gases) from one loca on to another.
The engineering discipline of piping design studies the ecient transport of uid. [ 1 ] [ 2 ]
Industrial process piping (and accompanying in-line components) can be manufactured fromwood, berglass,
glass, steel, aluminum, plas c, copper, and concrete. The in-line components, known as ngs, valves, and
other devices, typically sense and control thepressure, ow rate and temperature of the transmi ed uid, and
usually are included in the eld of Piping Design (or Piping Engineering). Piping systems are documented in piping
and instrumenta on diagrams (P &IDs). If necessary, pipes can be cleaned by the tube cleaningprocess.
"Piping" some mes refers to Piping Design or the performance of the actual layout of the physical piping within
a process plant or commercial building. In earlier days, this was some mes called Dra ing, Technical drawing,
Engineering Drawing, and Design but is commonly performed by Designers who have learned to used automated
computer aided drawing/computer aided design (CAD) so ware.
Plumbing is a piping system that most people are familiar with, as it cons tutes the form of uid transporta on
that is used to provide potable water and fuels to their homes and business. Plumbing pipes also remove waste
in the form of sewage, and allow ven ng of sewage gases to the outdoors. Fire sprinkler systems also use piping,
and may transport potable or nonpotable water, or other re-suppression uids.
Piping also has many other industrial applica ons, which are crucial for moving raw and semi-processed uids
for rening into more useful products. Some of the more exo c materials of construc on are Inconel, Titanium,
chrome-moly and various other steel alloys.
Contents
[hide]
1
Piping Branches
2
Pipe stress analysis
3
Wooden piping history
4
See also
5
References
6
Further reading
7
External links
[edit]
Piping Branches
Generally, Industrial piping has three major branches as follows:
41
Piping Material eld

Piping Design eld
Stress analysis eld
[edit]
Pipe stress analysis
Process piping and power piping are typically checked by pipe stress engineers to verify that the rou ng, nozzle
loads, hangers, and supports are properly placed and selected such that allowable pipe stress is not exceeded
under dierent situa on such as sustain, opera ng, hydro test etc as per the ASME or any other legisla ve code
and local government standards, Here it is necessary to check the occasional cases such as earthquake, high wind
or special vibra on, water hammer. [ 3 ] [ 4 ] This checking is usually done with the assistance of a (nite element)
pipe stress analysis program such as Caesar II, ROHR2, CAEPIPE and AUTOPIPE.
[edit]
Wooden piping history
Early wooden pipes were constructed out of logs that had a large hole bored lengthwise through the center. Later
wooden pipes were constructed with staves and hoops similar to wooden barrel construc on. Stave pipes have
the advantage that they are easily transport as a compact pile of parts on a wagon and then assembled as a hollow
structure at the job site. Wooden pipes were especially popular in mountain regions where transport of heavy
iron or concrete pipes would have been dicult.
Wooden pipes were easier to maintain than metal, because the wood did not expand or contract with temperature
changes as much as metal and so consequently expansion joints and bends were not required. The thickness of
wood aorded some insula ng proper es to the pipes which helped prevent freezing as compared to metal pipes.
Wood used for water pipes also does not rot very easily. Electrolysis that bugbear many iron pipe systems, doesnt
aect wood pipes at all, since wood is a much be er electrical insulator.
In the Western United States where redwood was used for pipe construc on, it was found that redwood had
"peculiar proper es" that protected it from weathering, acids, insects, and fungus growths. Redwood pipes stayed
smooth and clean indenitely while iron pipe by comparison would rapidly begin to scale and corrode and could
eventually plug itself up with the corrosion. [ 5 ]
[edit]
See also
Firestop
Hydraulic machinery
Hydrogen piping
Hydrosta c test
Pipe network analysis
Piping and plumbing ngs
Coupling (piping)
Double-walled pipe
Elbow (piping)
Nipple (plumbing)
Pipe cap
Street elbow
42
Union (plumbing)
Valve
Victaulic
Plas c Pressure Pipe Systems
Riser clamp
Thermal insula on
Gasket
43
TPM (2010-09-20 11:28)

Total produc ve maintenance (TPM) has been around for almost 50 years. To the "west" it is a new way of looking
at maintenance: to the Japanese, it is an established process. Like all processes, it has a host of acronyms and
buzzwords. Some are obvious, many will require follow-up reading.
In TPM, the machine operator is thoroughly trained to perform much of the simple maintenance and fault-nding.
Eventually, by working in "Zero Fails" teams that include a technical expert as well as operators, they can learn
many more tasks - some mes all.
This fully documented, auto-maintenance (autonomous maintenance) ensures appropriate and eec ve eorts
are expended since the machine is wholly the domain of one person or team. Safety is paramount, so training
must be appropriate. Operators are o en capable of high standards of technical ability, this is improved through
the use of "best prac ce" procedures and proper training of these procedures.
TPM is a cri cal adjunct to lean manufacturing. If machine up me is not predictable and if process capability is
not sustained, the process must keep extra stocks to buer against this uncertainty and ow through the process
will be interrupted. Unreliable up me is caused by breakdowns or badly performed maintenance. If maintenance
is done properly (Right First Time), up me will improve - as will "OEE" (Overall Equipment Eec veness - basically
how many "sellable" items "are" actually produced as opposed to how many the machine "should" produce in a
given me).
One way to think of TPM is "deteriora on preven on": deteriora on is what happens naturally to anything that is
not "taken care of". For this reason many people[who?] refer to TPM as "total produc ve manufacturing" or "total
process management". TPM is a proac ve approach that essen ally aims to iden fy issues as soon as possible
and plan to prevent any issues before occurrence. One mo o is "zero error, zero work-related accident, and zero
loss".
Contents
[hide]
1
Introduc on
2
History
3
Implementa on
4
See also
5
References
6
Further reading
[edit]
Introduc on
TPM is a maintenance process developed for produc vity.
Original goal of total produc ve management:
44
Con nuously improve all opera onal condi ons, within a produc on system; by s mula ng the daily awareness
of all employees (by Seiichi Nakajima, Japan, JIPM)
TPM focuses primarily on manufacturing (although its benets are applicable to virtually any "process") and is
the rst methodology Toyotaused to improve its global posi on (1950s). A er TPM, the focus was stretched, and
also suppliers and customers were involved (Supply Chain), this next methodology was called lean manufacturing.
This sheet gives an overview of TPM in its original form.
An accurate and prac cal implementa on of TPM, will increase produc vity within the total organiza on, where:
(1) ..
(2) ..
(3) ..
(4) ..
(5) ..
a clear business culture is designed to con nuously improve the eciency of the total produc on system
a standardized and systema c approach is used, where all losses are prevented and/or known.
all departments, inuencing produc vity, will be involved to move from a reac ve- to a predic ve mindset.
a transparent mul disciplinary organiza on is reaching zero losses.
steps are taken as a journey, not as a quick menu.
Finally TPM will provide prac cal and transparent ingredients to reach opera onal excellence.
[edit]
History
TPM is an evolving process, star ng from a Japanese idea that can be traced back to 1951, when preven ve
maintenance was introduced into Japan from the USA (Demming). Nippondenso, part of Toyota, was the rst
company in Japan to introduce plant wide preven ve maintenance in 1960. In preven ve maintenance operators
produced goods using machines and the maintenance group was dedicated to the work of maintaining those
machines. However with the high level of automa on of Nippondenso, maintenance became a problem as so
many more maintenance personnel were now required. So the management decided that much of the rou ne
maintenance of equipment would now be carried out by the operators themselves. (Autonomous Maintenance,
one of the features of TPM is more cost eec ve to use as the operator (compared to a highly skilled engineer) is
on a lower pay rate. This is not to reduce costs, however; the operator has a be er understanding of the how the
equipment works on a daily basis, can tell if an issue is appearing, can tell if quality is decreasing, and, through
constant learning, is allowed to follow a career path to a be er job. The maintenance group then focused only on
more complex problems and project work for long term upgrades.
The maintenance group performed equipment modica on that would improve its reliability. These modica ons
were then made or incorporated into new equipment. The work of the maintenance group, with the support and
input from operators and produc on engineers, is then to make changes that lead to maintenance preven on
and increased quality through fewer defects and a reduc on in scrap levels. Thus preven ve maintenance along
with maintenance preven on and maintainability improvement were grouped as produc ve maintenance. The
aim of produc ve maintenance was to maximize plant and equipment eec veness to achieve the op mum life
cycle cost of produc on equipment.
Nippondenso already had quality circles which involved the employees in changes. Therefore, now, all employees
took part in implemen ng Produc ve maintenance. Based on these developments Nippondenso was awarded
the dis nguished plant prize for developing and implemen ng TPM, by the Japanese Ins tute of Plant Engineers
(JIPE). Thus Nippondenso of the Toyota group became the rst company to obtain the TPM cer ca ons.
[edit]
Implementa on
TPM has basically 3 goals - Zero Product Defects, Zero Equipment unplanned failures and Zero Accidents. It sets
out to achieve these goals by Gap Analysis of previous historical records of Product Defects, Equipment Failures
and Accidents. Then through a clear understanding of this Gap Analysis (Fishbone Cause-Eect Analysis, WhyWhy Cause-Eect Analysis, and P-M Analysis) plan a physical inves ga on to discover new latent fuguai (slight
deteriora on)during the rst step in TPM Autonomous Maintenance called "Ini al Cleaning".
Many companies struggle to implement TPM due to 2 main reasons. First is having insucient knowledge and
skills especially in understanding the linkages between the 8 Pillar-Ac vi es in TPM. It does not help in that most
TPM books are long on the theories but scanty on the implementa on details. The second reason is that TPM
45
requires more me, resources and eorts than most of these companies can aord. A typical TPM implementa on requires company-wide par cipa on and results can only be seen a er 3 years and some mes 5 years.
The main reason for this long dura on is due to the tedious involvements and trainings required for Autonomous
Maintenance par cipa on where operators par cipate in the restoring and improving the equipment.
An eec ve Fast-Track TPM Implementa on Approach has been successful in a Paper Mill and Electronics Industries and documented. It circumvented this problem by assigning Project Teams to do Autonomous Maintenance
for the AM Steps of 1) Ini al Cleaning and 2) Elimina ng Sources of Contamina on and Improving Equipment
Accessibility. Produc on Operators take over the Autonomous Maintenance a er the AM Step 3 (Ini al Maintenance Standards) has been established. This has been proven to reduce TPM implementa on me by about 50
%.
TPM iden es the 7 losses (types of waste) (muda) and then works systema cally to eliminate them by making
improvements (kaizen). TPM has 8 pillars of ac vity[cita on needed], each being set to achieve a zero target. These
8 pillars are the following: focussed improvement; autonomous maintenance; planned maintenance; training and
educa on; early-phase management; quality maintenance; oce TPM; and safety, health, and environment.
TPM success measurement - A set of performance metrics which is considered to t well in a lean manufacturing/TPM environment is overall equipment eec veness, or OEE. For advanced TPM world class prac oners, the
OEE is converted to costs using Target Cos ng Management (TCM) where all the manufacturing measurements
are merged with the manufacturing costs to enable costs and manufacturing indices to be translated easily. this
allows management to drive all improvements using cost drivers.
Part of a
series
of ar cles on
Industry
Manufacturing methods
Batch produc on
Job produc on
Con nuous produc on
Improvement methods
LM
TPM
QRM
VDM
TOC
46

Six Sigma
RCM
Informa on & communica on
ISA-88
ISA-95
ERP
SAP
IEC 62264
B2MML
Process control
PLC
DCS
47
Six Sigma (2010-09-20 11:30)

h p://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Six _Sigma
Six Sigma is a business management strategy originally developed by Motorola, USA in 1981. [ 1 ] As of 2010, it
enjoys widespread applica on in many sectors of industry, although its applica on is not without controversy.
Six Sigma seeks to improve the quality of process outputs by iden fying and removing the causes of defects (errors)
and minimizing variability in manufacturing and business processes. [ 2 ] It uses a set of quality management methods, including sta s cal methods, and creates a special infrastructure of people within the organiza on ("Black
Belts", "Green Belts", etc.) who are experts in these methods. [ 2 ] Each Six Sigma project carried out within an
organiza on follows a dened sequence of steps and that not only has quan ed nancial targets (cost reduc on
or prot increase) but also has other benets such as reduc on in errors or [mistake proong] resul ng in be er
controls on the business processes. [ 2 ]
The term six sigma originated from terminology associated with manufacturing, mining, specically terms associated with sta s cal modelling of manufacturing processes. The maturity of a manufacturing process can be
described by a sigma ra ng indica ng its yield, or the percentage of defect-free products it creates. A six-sigma
process is one in which 99.99966 % of the products manufactured are sta s cally expected to be free of defects
(3.4 defects per million). Motorola set a goal of "six sigmas" for all of its manufacturing opera ons, and this goal
became a byword for the management and engineering prac ces used to achieve it.
Contents
[hide]
1
Historical overview
2
Methods
2.1
DMAIC
2.2
DMADV
2.3
Quality management tools and methods used in Six Sigma
3
Implementa on roles
3.1
Cer ca on
4
Origin and meaning of the term "six sigma process"
4.1
Role of the 1.5 sigma shi
4.2
Sigma levels
5
So ware used for Six Sigma
48
6
List of Six Sigma companies
7
Cri cism
7.1
Lack of originality
7.2
Role of consultants
7.3
Poten al nega ve eects
7.4
Based on arbitrary standards
7.5
Cri cism of the 1.5 sigma shi
8
See also
9
References
10
Further reading
[edit]
Historical overview
Six Sigma originated as a set of prac ces designed to improve manufacturing processes and eliminate defects, but
its applica on was subsequently extended to other types of business processes as well. [ 3 ] In Six Sigma, a defect
is dened as any process output that does not meet customer specica ons, or that could lead to crea ng an
output that does not meet customer specica ons. [ 2 ]
Bill Smith rst formulated the par culars of the methodology at Motorola in 1986. [ 4 ] Six Sigma was heavily
inspired by six preceding decades of quality improvement methodologies such as quality control, TQM, and Zero
Defects, [ 5 ] [ 6 ] based on the work of pioneers such as Shewhart,Deming, Juran, Ishikawa, Tag uchi and others.
Like its predecessors, Six Sigma doctrine asserts that:
Con nuous eorts to achieve stable and predictable process results (i.e., reduce process varia on) are of
vital importance to business success.
Manufacturing and business processes have characteris cs that can be measured, analyzed, improved and
controlled.
Achieving sustained quality improvement requires commitment from the en re organiza on, par cularly
from top-level management.
Features that set Six Sigma apart from previous quality improvement ini a ves include:
A clear focus on achieving measurable and quan able nancial returns from any Six Sigma project. [ 2 ]
49
An increased emphasis on strong and passionate management leadership and support. [ 2 ]

A special infrastructure of "Champions","Master Black Belts","Black Belts","Green Belts", etc. to lead and
implement the Six Sigma approach. [ 2 ]
A clear commitment to making decisions on the basis of veriable data, rather than assump ons and
guesswork. [ 2 ]
The term "Six Sigma" comes from a eld of sta s cs known as process capability studies. Originally, it referred to
the ability of manufacturing processes to produce a very high propor on of output within specica on. Processes
that operate with "six sigma quality" over the short term are assumed to produce long-term defect levels below
3.4 defects per million opportuni es (DPMO). [ 7 ] [ 8 ] Six Sigmas implicit goal is to improve all processes to that
level of quality or be er.
Six Sigma is a registered service mark and trademark of Motorola Inc. [ 9 ] As of 2006 Motorola reported over US
$17 billion in savings [ 10 ] from Six Sigma.
Other early adopters of Six Sigma who achieved well-publicized success include Honeywell (previously known
as AlliedSignal) and General Electric, where Jack Welch introduced the method. [ 11 ] By the late 1990s, about
two-thirds of the Fortune 500 organiza ons had begun Six Sigma ini a ves with the aim of reducing costs and
improving quality. [ 12 ]
In recent years, some prac
named Lean Six Sigma.
oners have combined Six Sigma ideas with lean manufacturing to yield a methodology
[edit]
Methods
Six Sigma projects follow two project methodologies inspired by Demings Plan-Do-Check-Act Cycle. These
methodologies, composed of ve phases each, bear the acronyms DMAIC and DMADV. [ 12 ]
DMAIC is used for projects aimed at improving an exis ng business process. [ 12 ] DMAIC is pronounced as
"duh-may-ick".
DMADV is used for projects aimed at crea ng new product or process designs. [ 12 ] DMADV is pronounced
as "duh-mad-vee".
[edit]
DMAIC
The DMAIC project methodology has ve phases:
Dene the problem, the voice of the customer, and the project goals, specically.
Measure key aspects of the current process and collect relevant data.
Analyze the data to inves gate and verify cause-and-eect rela onships. Determine what the rela onships
are, and a empt to ensure that all factors have been considered. Seek out root cause of the defect under
inves ga on.
Improve or op mize the current process based upon data analysis using techniques such as design of experiments, poka yoke or mistake proong, and standard work to create a new, future state process. Set up
pilot runs to establish process capability.
Control the future state process to ensure that any devia ons from target are corrected before they result
in defects. Implement control systems such as sta s cal process control, produc on boards, and visual
workplaces, and con nuously monitor the process.
50
[edit]
DMADV
The DMADV project methodology, also known as DFSS ("Design For Six Sbldigma"), [ 12 ] features ve phases:
Dene design goals that are consistent with customer demands and the enterprise strategy.
Measure and iden fy CTQs (characteris cs that are Cri cal To Quality), product capabili es, produc on
process capability, and risks.
Analyze to develop and design alterna ves, create a high-level design and evaluate design capability to
select the best design.
Design details, op mize the design, and plan for design verica on. This phase may require simula ons.
Verify the design, set up pilot runs, implement the produc on process and hand it over to the process
owner(s).
[edit]
Quality management tools and methods used in Six Sigma
Within the individual phases of a DMAIC or DMADV project, Six Sigma u lizes many established qualitymanagement tools that are also used outside of Six Sigma. The following table shows an overview of the main
methods used.
5 Whys
Analysis of variance
ANOVA Gauge R &R
Axioma c design
Business Process Mapping
Catapult exercise on variability
Cause & eects diagram (also known as shbone or Ishikawa diagram)
Chi-square test of independence and ts
Control chart
Correla on
Cost-benet analysis
CTQ tree
Design of experiments
Failure mode and eects analysis (FMEA)
General linear model
Histograms
Homoscedas city
Quality Func on Deployment (QFD)
51
Pareto chart
Pick chart
Process capability
Quan ta ve marke ng research through use of Enterprise Feedback Management (EFM) systems
Regression analysis
Root cause analysis
Run charts
SIPOC analysis (Suppliers, Inputs, Process, Outputs, Customers)
Stra ca on
Taguchi methods
Taguchi Loss Func on
TRIZ
[edit]
Implementa on roles
One key innova on of Six Sigma involves the "professionalizing" of quality management func ons. Prior to Six
Sigma, quality management in prac ce was largely relegated to the produc on oor and to sta s cians in a
separate quality department. Formal Six Sigma programs borrow mar al arts ranking terminology to dene a
hierarchy (and career path) that cuts across all business func ons.
Six Sigma iden es several key roles for its successful implementa on. [ 13 ]
Execu ve Leadership includes the CEO and other members of top management. They are responsible for
se ng up a vision for Six Sigma implementa on. They also empower the other role holders with the
freedom and resources to explore new ideas for breakthrough improvements.
Champions take responsibility for Six Sigma implementa on across the organiza on in an integrated manner. The Execu ve Leadership draws them from upper management. Champions also act as mentors to
Black Belts.
Master Black Belts, iden ed by champions, act as in-house coaches on Six Sigma. They devote 100 % of
their me to Six Sigma. They assist champions and guide Black Belts and Green Belts. Apart from sta s cal tasks, they spend their me on ensuring consistent applica on of Six Sigma across various func ons
and departments.
Black Belts operate under Master Black Belts to apply Six Sigma methodology to specic projects. They
devote 100 % of their me to Six Sigma. They primarily focus on Six Sigma project execu on, whereas
Champions and Master Black Belts focus on iden fying projects/func ons for Six Sigma.
Green Belts are the employees who take up Six Sigma implementa on along with their other job responsibili es, opera ng under the guidance of Black Belts.
Some organiza ons use addi onal belt colours, such as Yellow Belts, for employees that have basic training in
Six Sigma tools.
[edit]
Cer ca on
52
In the United States, Six Sigma cer ca on for both Green and Black Belts is oered by the Ins tute of Industrial
Engineers [ 14 ] and by theAmerican Society for Quality. [ 15 ]
In addi on to these examples, there are many other organiza ons and companies that oer cer ca on. There
currently is no central cer ca on body, either in the United States or anywhere else in the world.
[edit]
Origin and meaning of the term "six sigma process"
Graph of the normal distribu on, which underlies the sta s cal assump ons of the Six Sigma model. The Greek
le er (sigma) marks the distance on the horizontal axis between the mean, , and the curves inec on point.
The greater this distance, the greater is the spread of values encountered. For the curve shown above, = 0
and = 1 . The upper and lower specica on limits (USL, LSL) are at a distance of 6 from the mean. Because
of the proper es of the normal distribu on, values lying that far away from the mean are extremely unlikely.
Even if the mean were to move right or le by 1.5 at some point in the future (1.5 sigma shi ), there is s ll a
good safety cushion. This is why Six Sigma aims to have processes where the mean is at least 6 away from the
nearest specica on limit.
The term "six sigma process" comes from the no on that if one has six standard devia ons between the process mean and the nearest specica on limit, as shown in the graph, prac cally no items will fail to meet
specica ons. [ 8 ] This is based on the calcula on method employed in process capability studies.
Capability studies measure the number of standard devia ons between the process mean and the nearest specica on limit in sigma units. As process standard devia on goes up, or the mean of the process moves away
from the center of the tolerance, fewer standard devia ons will t between the mean and the nearest specica on limit, decreasing the sigma number and increasing the likelihood of items outside specica on. [ 8 ]
[edit]
Role of the 1.5 sigma shi
Experience has shown that processes usually do not perform as well in the long term as they do in the short
term. [ 8 ] As a result, the number of sigmas that will t between the process mean and the nearest specica on
limit may well drop over me, compared to an ini al short-term study. [ 8 ] To account for this real-life increase
in process varia on over me, an empirically-based 1.5 sigma shi is introduced into the calcula on. [ 8 ] [ 16 ]
According to this idea, a process that ts six sigmas between the process mean and the nearest specica on
limit in a short-term study will in the long term only t 4.5 sigmas either because the process mean will move
over me, or because the long-term standard devia on of the process will be greater than that observed in the
short term, or both. [ 8 ]
Hence the widely accepted deni on of a six sigma process as one that produces 3.4 defec ve parts per million
opportuni es (DPMO). This is based on the fact that a process that is normally distributed will have 3.4 parts per
million beyond a point that is 4.5 standard devia ons above or below the mean (one-sided capability study). [ 8 ]
So the 3.4 DPMO of a "Six Sigma" process in fact corresponds to 4.5 sigmas, namely 6 sigmas minus the 1.5 sigma
shi introduced to account for long-term varia on. [ 8 ] This takes account of special causes that may cause a
deteriora on in process performance over me and is designed to prevent underes ma on of the defect levels
likely to be encountered in real-life opera on. [ 8 ]
53
[edit]
Sigma levels
A control chart depic ng a process that experienced a 1.5 sigma dri in the process mean toward the upper
specica on limit star ng at midnight. Control charts are used to maintain 6 sigma quality by signaling when
quality professionals should inves gate a process to nd and eliminate special-cause varia on.
See also: Three sigma rule
The table [ 17 ] [ 18 ] below gives long-term DPMO values corresponding to various short-term sigma levels.
Note that these gures assume that the process mean will shi by 1.5 sigma toward the side with the cri cal
specica on limit. In other words, they assume that a er the ini al study determining the short-term sigma
level, the long-term Cpk value will turn out to be 0.5 less than the short-term Cpk value. So, for example, the
DPMO gure given for 1 sigma assumes that the long-term process mean will be 0.5 sigma beyond the specica on limit (Cpk = 0.17), rather than 1 sigma within it, as it was in the short-term study (Cpk = 0.33). Note
that the defect percentages only indicate defects exceeding the specica on limit to which the process mean
is nearest. Defects beyond the far specica on limit are not included in the percentages.
Sigma levelDPMOPercent defec vePercentage yieldShort-term CpkLong-term Cpk
1 691,462 69 % 31 % 0.33 0.17
2 308,538 31 % 69 % 0.67 0.17
3 66,807 6.7 % 93.3 % 1.00 0.5
4 6,210 0.62 % 99.38 % 1.33 0.83
5 233 0.023 % 99.977 % 1.67 1.17
6 3.4 0.00034 % 99.99966 % 2.00 1.5
7 0.019 0.0000019 % 99.9999981 % 2.33 1.83
[edit]
So ware used for Six Sigma
Main ar cle: List of Six Sigma so ware packages
[edit]
List of Six Sigma companies
54
Main ar cle: List of Six Sigma companies

[edit]
Cri cism
[edit]
Lack of originality
Noted quality expert Joseph M. Juran has described Six Sigma as "a basic version of quality improvement", sta ng
that "[t]here is nothing new there. It includes what we used to call facilitators. Theyve adopted more amboyant
terms, like belts with dierent colors. I think that concept has merit to set apart, to create specialists who can be
very helpful. Again, thats not a new idea. The American Society for Qualitylong ago established cer cates, such
as for reliability engineers." [ 19 ]
[edit]
Role of consultants
The use of "Black Belts" as i nerant change agents has (controversially) fostered an industry of training and cer ca on. Cri cs argue there is overselling of Six Sigma by too great a number of consul ng rms, many of which claim
exper se in Six Sigma when they only have a rudimentary understanding of the tools and techniques involved. [ 2 ]
[edit]
Poten al nega ve eects
A Fortune ar cle stated that "of 58 large companies that have announced Six Sigma programs, 91 percent have
trailed the S &P 500 since". The statement is a ributed to "an analysis by Charles Holland of consul ng rm
Qualpro (which espouses a compe ng quality-improvement process)." [ 20 ] The summary of the ar cle is that Six
Sigma is eec ve at what it is intended to do, but that it is "narrowly designed to x an exis ng process" and does
not help in "coming up with new products or disrup ve technologies." Advocates of Six Sigma have argued that
many of these claims are in error or ill-informed. [ 21 ] [ 22 ]
A BusinessWeek ar cle says that James McNerneys introduc on of Six Sigma at 3M may have had the eect of
s ing crea vity. It cites two Wharton School professors who say that Six Sigma leads to incremental innova on at
the expense of blue-sky work. [ 23 ] This phenomenon is further explored in the book, Going Lean, which describes
a related approach known as lean dynamics and provides data to show that Fords "6 Sigma" program did li le to
change its fortunes. [ 24 ]
[edit]
Based on arbitrary standards
While 3.4 defects per million opportuni es might work well for certain products/processes, it might not operate
op mally or cost eec vely for others. A pacemaker process might need higher standards, for example, whereas
a direct mail adver sing campaign might need lower standards. The basis and jus ca on for choosing 6 (as
opposed to 5 or 7, for example) as the number of standard devia ons is not clearly explained. In addi on, the Six
Sigma model assumes that the process data always conform to the normal distribu on. The calcula on of defect
rates for situa ons where the normal distribu on model does not apply is not properly addressed in the current
Six Sigma literature. [ 2 ]
[edit]
Cri cism of the 1.5 sigma shi
The sta s cian Donald J. Wheeler has dismissed the 1.5 sigma shi as "goofy" because of its arbitrary nature. [ 25 ]
Its universal applicability is seen as doub ul. [ 2 ]
The 1.5 sigma shi has also become conten ous because it results in stated "sigma levels" that reect short-term
rather than long-term performance: a process that has long-term defect levels corresponding to 4.5 sigma performance is, by Six Sigma conven on, described as a "6 sigma process." [ 8 ] [ 26 ] The accepted Six Sigma scoring
system thus cannot be equated to actual normal distribu on probabili es for the stated number of standard devia ons, and this has been a key bone of conten on about how Six Sigma measures are dened. [ 26 ] The fact
55
that it is rarely explained that a "6 sigma" process will have long-term defect rates corresponding to 4.5 sigma
performance rather than actual 6 sigma performance has led several commentators to express the opinion that
Six Sigma is a condence trick. [ 8 ]
56
Maintenance (2010-09-20 11:59)

General types of technical maintenance:
Preven ve maintenance
Condi on-based maintenance
Predic ve maintenance
Correc ve maintenance
Reliability centered maintenance
Value driven maintenance
Preven ve maintenance can be described as maintenance of equipment or systems before fault occurs. It can be
divided into two subgroups:
planned maintenance
and condi on-based maintenance.
The main dierence of subgroups is determina on of maintenance me, or determina on of moment when maintenance should be performed.
While preven ve maintenance is generally considered to be worthwhile, there are risks such as equipment failure
or human error involved when performing preven ve maintenance, just as in any maintenance opera on. Preven ve maintenance as scheduled overhaul or scheduled replacement provides two of the three proac ve failure
management policies available to the maintenance engineer. Common methods of determining what Preven ve
(or other) failure management policies should be applied are; OEM recommenda ons, requirements of codes and
legisla on within a jurisdic on, what an "expert" thinks ought to be done, or the maintenance thats already done
to similar equipment, and most important measured values and performance indica ons.
To make it simple:
Preven ve maintenance is conducted to keep equipment working and/or extend the life of the equipment.
Correc ve maintenance, some mes called "repair", is conducted to get equipment working again.
The primary goal of maintenance is to avoid or mi gate the consequences of failure of equipment. This may be
by preven ng the failure before it actually occurs which Planned Maintenance and Condi on Based Maintenance
help to achieve. It is designed to preserve and restore equipment reliability by replacing worn components before
they actually fail. Preven ve maintenance ac vi es include par al or complete overhauls at specied periods, oil
changes, lubrica on and so on. In addi on, workers can record equipment deteriora on so they know to replace
or repair worn parts before they cause system failure. The ideal preven ve maintenance program would prevent
all equipment failure before it occurs.
There is a controversy of sorts regarding the propriety of the usage preventa ve. [1] [2] [3]. The consensus of
internet entries concerning the respec ve usages seems to indicate that preven ve is the preferred term. [4].
Planned Preventa ve Maintenance (PPM) or more usual just simple Planned Maintenance (PM) or Scheduled
Maintenance is any variety of scheduled maintenance to an object or item of equipment. Specically, Planned
Maintenance is a scheduled service visit carried out by a competent and suitable agent, to ensure that an item of
equipment is opera ng correctly and to therefore avoid any unscheduled breakdown and down me.
Together with Condi on Based Maintenance, Planned maintenance comprises preven ve maintenance, in which
the maintenance event is preplanned, and all future maintenance is preprogrammed. Planned maintenance is
57
created for every item separately according manufacturers recommenda on or legisla on. Plan can be based
on equipment running hours, date based, or for vehicles distance travelled. Good example of PM program is car
maintenance. A er so many kilometers or miles oil should be changed, parts renewed,...
Planned maintenance has some advantages over Condi on Based Maintenance such as:
easier planning of maintenance and ordering spares,
costs are distributed more evenly,
no ini al costs for instruments for supervision of equipment.
Disadvantages are:
less reliable than equipment with CBM
more expensive due to more frequent parts change.
Parts that have scheduled maintenance at xed intervals, usually due to wearout or a xed shelf life, are some mes
known as me-change interval, or TCI items.
Condi on based maintenance shortly described is maintenance when need arises. This maintenance is performed a er one or more indicators show that equipment is going to fail or that equipment performance is deteriora ng.
Condi on-based maintenance was introduced to try to maintain the correct equipment at the right me. CBM
is based on using real- me data to priori ze and op mize maintenance resources. Observing the state of the
system is known as condi on monitoring. Such a system will determine the equipments health, and act only
when maintenance is actually necessary. Developments in recent years have allowed extensive instrumenta on
of equipment, and together with be er tools for analyzing condi on data, the maintenance personnel of today
are more than ever able to decide what is the right me to perform maintenance on some piece of equipment.
Ideally condi on-based maintenance will allow the maintenance personnel to do only the right things, minimizing
spare parts cost, system down me and me spent on maintenance.
Despite its usefulness, there are several challenges to the use of CBM. First and most important of all, the inial cost of CBM is high. It requires improved instrumenta on of the equipment. O en the cost of sucient
instruments can be quite large, especially on equipment that is already installed. Therefore, it is important for
the installer to decide the importance of the investment before adding CBM to all equipment. A result of this
cost is that the rst genera on of CBM in the oil and gas industry has only focused on vibra on in heavy rota ng
equipment .[edit]
Challenges
Secondly, introducing CBM will invoke a major change in how maintenance is performed, and poten ally to the
whole maintenance organiza on in a company. Organiza onal changes are in general dicult.
Also, the technical side of it is not always as simple. Even if some types of equipment can easily be observed by
measuring simple values as vibra on (displacement or accelera on), temperature or pressure, it is not trivial to
turn this measured data into ac onable knowledge about health of the equipment.
[edit]
Value poten al
As systems get more costly, and instrumenta on and informa on systems tend to become cheaper and more
reliable, CBM becomes an important tool for running a plant or factory in an op mal manner. More op mal opera ons will lead to lower produc on cost and lower use of resources. And lower use of resources may be one of
the most important dieren ators in a future where environmental issues become more important by the day.
A more down to earth scenario where value can be created is by monitoring the health of your car motor. Rather
than changing parts at predened intervals, the car itself can tell you when something needs to be changed based
58
on cheap and simple instrumenta on.

It is Department of Defense policy that condi on-based maintenance (CBM) be "implemented to improve maintenance agility and responsiveness, increase opera onal availability, and reduce life cycle total ownership costs"[1].
[edit]
Advantages and disadvantages
CBM has some advantages over Planned maintenance:
Improved system reliability
Decreased maintenance costs
Decreased number of maintenance opera ons causes decreasing of human error inuence
Disadvantages are:
High installa on costs, for minor equipment items more than value of equipment
Unpredictable maintenance periods are causing costs to be divided unequaly
Increased number of parts (CBM installa on) that need maintenance and checking
CBM today due to its costs is not used for less important parts of machinery despite obvious advantages. However
it can be found evrywhere where increased reliability and safety is required, and in future will be even more
applied
Predic ve maintenance (PdM) techniques help determine the condi on of in-service equipment in order to predict when maintenance should be performed. This approach oers cost savings over rou ne or me-based preven ve maintenance, because tasks are performed only when warranted.
PdM, or condi on-based maintenance, a empts to evaluate the condi on of equipment by performing periodic
or con nuous (online) equipment condi on monitoring. The ul mate goal of PdM is to perform maintenance at
a scheduled point in me when the maintenance ac vity is most cost-eec ve and before the equipment loses
performance within a threshold. This is in contrast to me- and/or opera on count-based maintenance, where
a piece of equipment gets maintained whether it needs it or not. Time-based maintenance is labor intensive,
ineec ve in iden fying problems that develop between scheduled inspec ons, and is not cost-eec ve.[edit]
Overview
The "predic ve" component of predic ve maintenance stems from the goal of predic ng the future trend of the
equipments condi on. This approach uses principles of sta s cal process control to determine at what point in
the future maintenance ac vi es will be appropriate.
Most PdM inspec ons are performed while equipment is in service, thereby minimizing disrup on of normal
system opera ons. Adop on of PdM can result in substan al cost savings and higher system reliability.
Reliability-centered maintenance, or RCM, emphasizes the use of predic ve maintenance (PdM) techniques in
addi on to tradi onal preven ve measures. When properly implemented, RCM provides companies with a tool
for achieving lowest asset Net Present Costs (NPC) for a given level of performance and risk.[1]
[edit]
Technologies
To evaluate equipment condi on, predic ve maintenance u lizes nondestruc ve tes ng technologies such as
infrared, acous c (par al discharge and airborne ultrasonic), corona detec on, vibra on analysis, sound level
measurements, oil analysis, and other specic online tests. New methods in this area is to u lize measurements
on the actual equipment in combina on with measurement of process performance, measured by other devices,
to trigger maintenance condi ons. This is primarily available in Collabora ve Process Automa on Systems(CPAS).
Site measurements are o en supported by wireless sensor networks to reduce the wiring cost.
59
Vibra on analysis is most produc ve on high-speed rota ng equipment and can be the most expensive component of a PdM program to get up and running. Vibra on analysis, when properly done, allows the user to evaluate
the condi on of equipment and avoid failures. The latest genera on of vibra on analyzers comprises more capabili es and automated func ons than its predecessors. Many units display the full vibra on spectrum of three
axes simultaneously, providing a snapshot of what is going on with a par cular machine. But despite such capabili es, not even the most sophis cated equipment successfully predicts developing problems unless the operator
understands and applies the basics of vibra on analysis.[2]
Acous cal analysis can be done on a sonic or ultrasonic level. New ultrasonic techniques for condi on monitoring
make it possible to hear fric on and stress in rota ng machinery, which can predict deteriora on earlier than
conven onal techniques.[3] Ultrasonic technology is sensi ve to high-frequency sounds that are inaudible to the
human ear and dis nguishes them from lower-frequency sounds and mechanical vibra on. Machine fric on and
stress waves produce dis nc ve sounds in the upper ultrasonic range. Changes in these fric on and stress waves
can suggest deteriora ng condi ons much earlier than technologies such as vibra on or oil analysis. With proper
ultrasonic measurement and analysis, its possible to dieren ate normal wear from abnormal wear, physical
damage, imbalance condi ons, and lubrica on problems based on a direct rela onship between asset and opera ng condi ons.
Sonic monitoring equipment is less expensive, but it also has fewer uses than ultrasonic technologies. Sonic technology is useful only on mechanical equipment, while ultrasonic equipment can detect electrical problems and is
more exible and reliable in detec ng mechanical problems.
Infrared monitoring and analysis has the widest range of applica on (from high- to low-speed equipment), and
it can be eec ve for spo ng both mechanical and electrical failures; some consider it to currently be the most
cost-eec ve technology.
Oil analysis is a long-term program that, where relevant, can eventually be more predic ve than any of the other
technologies. It can take years for a plants oil program to reach this level of sophis ca on and eec veness.
Analy cal techniques performed on oil samples can be classied in two categories: used oil analysis and wear
par cle analysis. Used oil analysis determines the condi on of the lubricant itself, determines the quality of the
lubricant, and checks its suitability for con nued use. Wear par cle analysis determines the mechanical condi on
of machine components that are lubricated. Through wear par cle analysis, you can iden fy the composi on of
the solid material present and evaluate par cle type, size, concentra on, distribu on, and morphology.[4]
Correc ve maintenance can be dened as the maintenance which is required when an item has failed or worn
out, to bring it back to working order.
Correc ve maintenance is the most commonly used maintenance approach[why?], but it is easy to see its limitaons. When equipment fails, it o en leads to down me in produc on, and some mes damages other parts. In
most cases, this is expensive.[cita on needed] Also, if the equipment needs to be replaced, the cost of replacing it
alone can be substan al.[cita on needed] Reliability of systems maintained by this type of maintenance is unknown
and can not be measured[dubious discuss ]. Therefore, correc ve maintenance is carried out on all items where the
consequences of failure or wearing out are not signicant (less important items) and the cost of this maintenance
is not greater than preven ve maintenance.
Reliability-centered maintenance, o en known as RCM, is a process to ensure that assets con nue to do what
their users require in their present opera ng context.[1]
It is generally used to achieve improvements in elds such as the establishment of safe minimum levels of maintenance, changes to opera ng procedures and strategies and the establishment of capital maintenance regimes
and plans. Successful implementa on of RCM will lead to increase in cost eec veness, machine up me, and a
greater understanding of the level of risk that the organiza on is presently managing.
The late John Moubray, in his industry leading book RCM2 [2], characterized Reliability-centered Maintenance as
a process to establish the safe minimum levels of maintenance. This descrip on echoed statements in the Nowlan
and Heap report from United Airlines.
It is dened by the technical standard SAE JA1011 [3], Evalua on Criteria for RCM Processes, which sets out the
minimum criteria that any process should meet before it can be called RCM. This starts with the 7 ques ons below,
60
worked through in the order that they are listed:

1.What is the item supposed to do and its associated performance standards? 2.In what ways can it fail to provide
the required func ons? 3.What are the events that cause each failure? 4.What happens when each failure occurs?
5.In what way does each failure ma er? 6.What systema c task can be performed proac vely to prevent, or to
diminish to a sa sfactory degree, the consequences of the failure? 7.What must be done if a suitable preven ve
task cannot be found?
Reliability centered maintenance is an engineering framework that enables the deni on of a complete maintenance regime. It regards maintenance as the means to maintain the func ons a user may require of machinery
in a dened opera ng context. As a discipline it enables machinery stakeholders to monitor, assess, predict and
generally understand the working of their physical assets. This is embodied in the ini al part of the RCM process
which is to iden fy the opera ng context of the machinery, and write a Failure Mode Eects and Cri cality Analysis (FMECA). The second part of the analysis is to apply the "RCM logic", which helps determine the appropriate
maintenance tasks for the iden ed failure modes in the FMECA. Once the logic is complete for all elements in the
FMECA, the resul ng list of maintenance is "packaged", so that the periodici es of the tasks are ra onalised to
be called up in work packages; it is important not to destroy the applicability of maintenance in this phase. Lastly,
RCM is kept live throughout the "in-service" life of machinery, where the eec veness of the maintenance is kept
under constant review and adjusted in light of the experience gained.
Reliability Centered Maintenance can be used to create a cost-eec ve maintenance strategy to address dominant
causes of equipment failure. It is a systema c approach to dening a rou ne maintenance program composed of
cost-eec ve tasks that preserve important func ons.
The important func ons (of a piece of equipment) to preserve with rou ne maintenance are iden ed, their
dominant failure modes and causes determined and the consequences of failure ascertained. Levels of cri cality
are assigned to the consequences of failure. Some func ons are not cri cal and are le to "run to failure" while
other func ons must be preserved at all cost. Maintenance tasks are selected that address the dominant failure
causes. This process directly addresses maintenance preventable failures. Failures caused by unlikely events,
non-predictable acts of nature, etc. will usually receive no ac on provided their risk (combina on of severity
and frequency) is trivial (or at least tolerable). When the risk of such failures is very high, RCM encourages (and
some mes mandates) the user to consider changing something which will reduce the risk to a tolerable level.
The result is a maintenance program that focuses scarce economic resources on those items that would cause the
most disrup on if they were to fail.
RCM emphasizes the use of Predic ve maintenance (PdM) techniques in addi on to tradi onal preven ve measures.
The term Reliability-Centered Maintenance (RCM) was rst used in public papers authored by Tom Ma eson,
Stanley Nowlan, Howard Heap, and other senior execu ves and engineers at United Airlines (UAL) to describe
a process used to determine the op mum maintenance requirements for aircra . Having le United Airlines
to pursue a consul ng career a few months before the publica on of the nal Nowlan-Heap report, Ma eson
received no authorial credit for the work. However, his contribu ons were substan al and perhaps indispensable
to the document as a whole. The US Department of Defense (DOD) sponsored the authoring of both a textbook
(by UAL) and an evalua on report (by Rand Corpora on) on Reliability-Centered Maintenance, both published
in 1978. They brought RCM concepts to the a en on of a wider audience. The text book described eorts by
commercial airlines and the US Navy in the 1960s and 70s to improve the reliability of their new jet the Boeing
747[which?]. [edit]
Historical background
The rst genera on of jet aircra had a crash rate that would be considered highly alarming today, and both the
Federal Avia on Administra on (FAA) and the airlines senior management felt strong pressure to improve ma ers.
In the early 1960s, with FAA approval the airlines began to conduct a series of intensive engineering studies on
in-service aircra . The studies proved that the fundamental assump on of design engineers and maintenance
plannersthat every airplane and every major component in the airplane (such as its engines) had a specic
"life me" of reliable service, a er which it had to be replaced (or overhauled) in order to prevent failureswas
wrong in nearly every specic example in a complex modern jet airliner.
61
This was one of many astounding discoveries that have revolu onized the managerial discipline of physical asset
management and have been at the base of many developments since this seminal work was published. Among
some of the paradigm shi s inspired by RCM were:
an understanding that the vast majority of failures are not necessarily linked to the age of the asset (this is
o en modeled by the "memoryless" exponen al probability distribu on)
changing from eorts to predict life expectancies to trying to manage the process of failure
an understanding of the dierence between the requirements of an assets from a user perspec ve, and the
design reliability of the asset
an understanding of the importance of managing assets on condi on (o en referred to as condi on monitoring, condi on based maintenance and predic ve maintenance)
an understanding of four basic rou ne maintenance tasks
linking levels of tolerable risk to maintenance strategy development
Today RCM is dened in the standard SAE JA1011, Evalua on Criteria for Reliability-Centered Maintenance (RCM)
Processes. This sets out the minimum criteria for what is, and for what is not, able to be dened as RCM.
The standard is a watershed event in the ongoing evolu on of the discipline of physical asset management. Prior
to the development of the standard many processes were labeled as RCM even though they were not true to the
inten ons and the principles in the original report that dened the term publicly.
Today companies can use this standard to ensure that the processes, services and so ware they purchase and
implement conforms with what is dened as RCM, ensuring the best possibility of achieving the many benets
a ributable to rigorous applica on of RCM.
[edit]
Basic Features
The RCM process described in the DOD/UAL report recognized three principal risks from equipment failures:
threats
to safety,
to opera ons, and
to the maintenance budget.
Modern RCM gives threats to the environment a separate classica on, though most forms manage them in the
same way as threats to safety.
RCM oers four principal op ons among the risk management strategies:
on-condi on maintenance tasks,
scheduled restora on or discard maintenance tasks,
failure-nding maintenance tasks, and
one- me changes to the "system" (changes to hardware design, to opera ons, or to other things).
62
RCM also oers specic criteria to use when selec ng a risk management strategy for a system that presents a
specic risk when it fails. Some are technical in nature (can the proposed task detect the condi on it needs to
detect? does the equipment actually wear out, with use?). Others are goal-oriented (is it reasonably likely that
the proposed task-and-task-frequency will reduce the risk to a tolerable level?). The criteria are o en presented
in the form of a decision-logic diagram, though this is not intrinsic to the nature of the process.
[edit]
In use
A er being created by the commercial avia on industry, RCM was adopted by the U.S. military (beginning in the
mid-1970s) and by the U.S. commercial nuclear power industry (in the 1980s). It began to enter other commercial
industries and elds in the early 1990s.
It is probably clear from the account of RCMs basic features that it is a highly complex analy c
process.[cita on needed] Star ng in the late 1980s, a series of independent ini a ves sprang up that were intended
to reduce the processs complexity without reducing its benets. A par al list of these ini a ves would include:
"RCM 2", Aladon
"RCM Blitz" RCM Blitz
"Streamlined" RCM,
"PM Op miza on," or PMO PM Op misa on,
Naval Sea Systems Command "Classic RCM" and "Backt RCM". Outlined in references below. Backt RCM
is used as a con nuous process improvement process tool to evaluate exis ng maintenance tasks.
Since each ini a ve is sponsored by one or more consul ng rms eager to help clients use it, there is s ll considerable disagreement about their rela ve merits (and dangers). Also there is a tendency for consul ng rms to
promote a so ware package as an alterna ve methodology.
However, the RCM standard (SAE JA1011, available from h p://www.sae.org) provides the minimum criteria that
processes must comply with if they are to be called RCM. Although a voluntary standard, it provides a reference
for companies looking to implement RCM to ensure they are ge ng a process, so ware package or service that
is in line with the original report.
Nonetheless, everyone well-acquainted with RCM seems to agree that a thorough applica on of the RCM analy c
process is s ll the most exible and comprehensive tool available for iden fying the ac ons that need to be taken
to ensure that the risks of equipment failure are reduced to a tolerable level.[cita on needed]
VDM - Value Driven Maintenance is a maintenance management methodology.

VDM was developed by Mark Haarman and Guy Delahay. Both former chairmen of the Dutch Maintenance Associa on (NVDO) [ 1 ] and authors of the book en tled Value Driven Maintenance, New Faith in Maintenance.
A cash ow is the dierence between income and expenditure. It is not the dierence between turnover and costs,
because this is easy to manipulate through accoun ng. There are companies that use highly crea ve lease, deprecia on and reserva on techniques to keep book prots ar cially high or low; this does not always contribute
to shareholder value. Recent stock market scandals are a painful but revealing illustra on of what some mes
happens as a result of this. The second part of the deni on concerns the knowledge that the value of a cash
ow is me-related, given the term "present value". Future cash ows must be corrected or discounted to today.
Managing by value necessitates maximizing future cash ows. Managing by value obliges companies constantly
63
to search for new free cash ows. Its no longer enough for a company to go on doing what it is already doing.
Today, its all about crea ng value.
What exactly is value? In nancial literature [ 2 ] ; value (net present value) is dened as: Value = the sum of all
free future cash ows, discounted to today. [edit]
Value drivers in Maintenance
Now that we know what value is, we can translate the concept into maintenance. Within VDM, there are four
axes along which maintenance can contribute to value crea on within a company. The axes are also called the 4
value drivers (see g 1.).
[edit]
Asset U liza on
The rst value driver is Asset U liza on. Asset U liza on seeks to increase the technical availability of a technical
equipment. With higher technical availability, it is possible to produce and sell more products with the same
invested capital, genera ng more income while the xed costs remain the same. In other words, the free cash
ows increase, which automa cally means value crea on. Maintenance can increase technical availability by
preven ng unwanted breakdowns, scheduling plant maintenance in a smarter way and performing repairs and
inspec ons faster. A point to note is that higher technical availability produces value not only in growth markets.
In markets where demand is stable or declining, greater availability can also create value. By making a plant more
ecient, the number of shi s can be reduced or it may even be possible to close down sister plants. At corporate
level, this does not generate more turnover, but it does signicanlty reduce costs, which is another way of crea ng
value.
[edit]
Safety, Health & Environment
An increasingly important value driver for maintenance is Safety, Health & Environment, or SHE in VDM terminology. Compliance with legal direc ves covering SHE creates value in two ways. Firstly, it avoids the imposi on of
government penal es for breaches of legisla on. Secondly, a good SHE policy has a posi ve eect on reten on
of the License to Operate. This is something else that has value, because it increases the likelihood of future cash
ows actually materializing. Without a License to Operate, there will be no future cash ows and thus no value.
The importance of the SHE value driver becomes apparent when looking at the recent incident with the BP Oil
Spill in the Gulf of Mexico; theDeepwater Horizon oil spill. Poor maintenance is believed to be the cause of on
of the biggest oil spills in history, causing massive damage to the environment. Total accumulated consequence
costs (both clean-up costs and loss of company value) are es mated on 12 billion. [ 3 ]
[edit]
Cost Control
Even though maintenance is not a cost center in itself, it does gobble up a lot of money. The maintenance budget
consists mainly of wage and training costs of technicians, managers and indirect personnel, the costs of spare
parts and tools and the costs of contracted personnel and outsourced work. Savings on the maintenance budget
automa cally generate free cash ows in the future and, by consequence, value. The savings are achievable
by having a smarter Preven ve maintenance program, higher technician produc vity, lower procurement prices
for materials and services and the right ra o of the number of technicians, managers and indirect personnel.
Controlling maintenance costs is called "Cost Control" in VDM.
[edit]
Resource Alloca on
Finally, maintenance can create value through the smarter management of resources. This is called "Resource
Alloca on" in VDM. It is not about the consump on of resources, because that is already covered in the Cost
Control value driver. Within VDM, a dis nc on is made between four types of resources: technicians, spare parts,
contractors and knowledge. One need to think only of cash ows freed up as a result of smarter management or
savings on warehouses, logis cal employees, insurance and the avoidance of obsolete and surplus spare parts. In
64
prac se, it o en turns out that the value poten al of smart management of spare parts by far exceeds the value
poten al of the other resources.
As gure 1 shows, a natural tension exists between the four value drivers. That is why todays maintenance manager is con nually searching for the right balance between these value drivers. It is important to know how they
square up to eachother. Which are the dominant ones and which are the subordinate ones? One can determine
this ins nc vely but many corporate managers require a nancial valida on because, for example, it will be a
decisive factor in investment decisions or because stakeholders (e.g. nancial manager, produc on manager) are
not prepared to accept a judgement based on ins nct. This is a situa on where one should use the VDM formula.
[edit]
VDM Formula
The VDM formula is derived from the net present value formula and can be used to calculate the value of maintenance. The VDM formula is:
PVmaintenance = {FSHE,t x (CFAU,t + CFCC,t + CFRA,t + CFSHE,t) / (1+r)t }
where:
PVmaintenance = present value poten al of maintenance
FSHE,t = SHE factor in year t
CFAU,t = future free cash ow in year t from Asset U liza on
CFCC,t = future free cash ow in year t from Cost Control
CFRA,t = future free cash ow in year t from Resource Alloca on
CFSHE,t = future free cash ow in year t from Safety, Health & Environment
r = Discount rate
SHE stands out prominently in the formula. This factor shows how great the probability is that the License to
Operate will be retained in the coming years and that the expected cash ows from all four value drivers will
actually be a ainable in the future. Consequently, the SHE factor is a probability factor with a value of 0 to 1. A
SHE factor of 0 means 0 % probability of reten on of the License to Operate, for example in a c ous case where
a company decides to stop performing all maintenance for cost reasons. The free cash ow that this creates on
Cost Control will be enormous. But because the company fails to sa sfy SHE laws and this loses its License to
Operate, this cash ow will not create any value. The VDM model can be simplied in certain situa ons. Assume
that we work with Perpetuity. This means there will be indenitely be a free cash ow that is the same year a er
year and the SHE factor is constant; the VDM formula thus becomes:
PVmaintenance = FSHE,t x (CFAU,t + CFCC,t + CFRA,t + CFSHE,t) / r
65
Boiler (2010-09-23 10:05)

h p://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boiler _(steam _generator)
Boiler types
A re-tube boiler is a type of boiler in which hot gases from a re pass through one or more tubes running
through a sealed container of water. The heat of the gases is transferred through the walls of the tubes by thermal
conduc on, hea ng the water and ul mately crea ng steam.
Cornish boiler,
Lancashire boiler, Locomo ve boiler
A water tube boiler is a type of boiler in which water circulates in tubes heated externally by the re. Water tube
boilers are used for high-pressure boilers. Fuel is burned inside the furnace, crea ng hot gas which heats water
in the steam-genera ng tubes. In smaller boilers, addi onal genera ng tubes are separate in the furnace, while
larger u lity boilers rely on the water-lled tubes that make up the walls of the furnace to generate steam.
Babcock & Wilcox boiler,
S rling boiler
Water treatment
Feed water for boilers needs to be as pure as possible with a minimum of suspended solids and dissolved impuri es
which cause corrosion, foaming and water carryover. Various chemical treatments have been employed over
the years, the most successful being Porta treatment[cita on needed]. This contains a foam modier that acts as a
ltering blanket on the surface of the water that considerably puries steam quality.
[edit]
Boiler safety
Many steam engines possess boilers that are pressure vessels that contain a great deal of poten al energy. Steam
explosions can and have caused great loss of life in the past. While varia ons in standards may exist in dierent
countries, stringent legal, tes ng, training and cer ca on is applied to try to minimise or prevent such occurrences.
Failure modes include:
overpressurisa on of the boiler
insucient water in the boiler causing overhea ng and vessel failure
pressure vessel failure of the boiler due to inadequate construc on or maintenance.
Essen al boiler ngs
Safety valve
Pressure measurement
Blowdown Valves
Main steam Stop Valve
Feed check valves
Fusible Plug
Water gauge
66
Low-Water Alarm
Low Water Fuel Cut-out
Inspectors Test Pressure Gauge A achment
Name Plate
Registra on Plate
Feedwater pump
Boiler ngs
Safety valve: used to relieve pressure and prevent possible explosion of a boiler. As originally devised by
Denis Papin it was a dead weight on the end of an arm that was li ed by excess steam pressure. This type
of valve was used throughout the 19th century for sta onary steam engines, however the vibra ons of
locomo ve engines caused the valves to bounce and "zzle" was ng steam. They were therefore replaced
by various spring-loaded devices.
Water column: to show the operator the level of uid in the boiler, a water gauge or water column is provided
Bo om blowdown valves
Surface blowdown line
Feed Pump(s)
Circula ng pump
Check valve or clack valve: a non-return stop valve by which water enters the boiler.
[edit]
Steam accessories
Main steam stop valve
Steam traps
Main steam stop/Check valve used on mul ple boiler installa ons
[edit]
Combus on accessories
Fuel oil system
Gas system
Coal system
Automa c combus on systems
67
Superheater
A greater quan ty of steam can be generated from a given quan ty of water by superhea ng it. As the re is
burning at a much higher temperature than the saturated steam it produces, far more heat can be transferred
to the once-formed steam by superhea ng it and turning the water droplets suspended therein into more steam
and greatly reducing water consump on.
Dra (as related to a re-tube boiler) is the ow of combus on products going from the rebox, through the
boiler and up the stack. Dra may be natural, produced by the rising of the combus on gases in the stack, or
by mechanical means, for example a blower. Since the stack of alocomo ve is too short to provide natural dra ,
during normal running forced dra is achieved by direc ng the exhaust steam from the cylinders through a cone
(blast pipe) upwards and into a skirt at the bo om the stack. When the locomo ve is sta onary or in a restricted
space live steam from the boiler is directed through an annular ring surrounding the blast pipe to produce the
same eect.
A chimney is a structure for ven ng hot ue gases or smoke from a boiler, stove, furnace orreplace to the outside
atmosphere. Chimneys are typically ver cal, or as near as possible to ver cal, to ensure that the gases ow
smoothly, drawing air into the combus on in what is known as the stack, or chimney, eect. The space inside a
chimney is called a ue. Chimneys may be found in buildings, steam locomo ves and ships. In the United States,
the term smokestack(colloquially, stack) is also used when referring to locomo ve chimneys.
Boiler blowdown
Draining water from the boiler, To wash out sediment and/or reduced the level.
68
IBR Boilers vs. Non-IBR Boilers (2010-09-23 10:17)

Any
boiler that is comply with these specica ons
given the status of an IBR cer ed boiler
While those than do not comply are called Non-IBR boliers
Reg. 1
Short Title, Extent, Applica on and Commencement:
1)
These Regula ons may be called the Indian Boiler Regula ons, 1950 .
2)
They extend to the whole of India, except the State of Jammu and Kashmir.
2a)
These Regula ons generally apply to:- ( i)
all boilers, including those working on the principles of natural circula on, forced circula on and forced ow with
no xed steam water line, and
(ii)
to steam pipes.
3)
They shall come into force at once
eg.1
Short Title, Extent, Applica on and Commencement
Reg.2
Deni ons
Reg.3
General Requirements, Applica ons of Standard Condi ons and Expecta ons thereto
Reg.3A
Inspec on of Boiler to comply into any foreign code
Reg.4
Standard Requirements-Material, Construc on, Inspec ng Authoritys Cer cates and Makers Stamp
Reg.4A
Applica on for Recogni on
Reg.4B
Scru ny of applica ons by the Evalua on Commi ee
69
Reg.4C
Recogni on of a rm as Competent Authority, Inspec ng Authori es, etc.
Reg.4D
Validity of Cer cate of Recogni on
Reg.4E
Renewal of Cer cate of Recogni on
Reg.4F
Applica on for registra on of exis ng competent authority
Reg.4G
Appeal
Reg.4H
Func on of Evalua on commi ee
Reg.5
Modica on of Formulae
Reg.5A
Material not fully iden ed
Reg.6
Standard Specica ons for Materials
Reg.7
Boiler Shells not in Accordance with Standard Condi ons
Reg.8
Use of Welding
Reg.9
Process of manufacture
Reg.10
Chemical Analysis
Reg.11
Freedom from defects, etc
Reg.12
Rolling Margin
Reg.13
Tes ng and Inspec ng.
Reg.13A
Designate steel
Reg.14
Selec on of test pieces
Reg.15
Tensile Test pieces
70
Reg.16
Tensile tests
Reg.17
Number of Tensile Tests
Reg.18
Dump Tests
Reg.19
Bend Tests
Reg.20
Number of Bend Tests
Reg.21
Manufactured Rivets
Reg.22
Addi onal tests before rejec on
Reg.23
Branding
Reg.24
Defacing of rejected material
Reg.25
Facili es for inspec on
Reg.26
Steel not produced where rolled
Reg.27
Makers Cer cate
Reg.28
Rivet Bars
Reg.29
Manufactured Rivets Tests
Reg.30
Stay Bars
Reg.31
Stay Bars - Bend Tests
Reg.32
Special Iron for Screw Stays for Fire-boxes and Combus on Chambers
Reg.33
Plates
Reg.34
Stay and Rivet bars
71
Reg.35-1
Copper Tubes
Reg.35-2
Brass Tubes
Reg.35-3
Carbon steel tubes
Reg.36
Material process
Reg.37
Selec on of Tubes for Test
Reg.38
Tensile and Hardness Tests
Reg.39
Fla ening Test
Reg.40
Expanding or aring test
Reg.41
Addi onal test before rejec on
Reg.42
Hydraulic Test
Reg.43
Material
Reg.44
Tensile, Bend and Fla ening
tests
Reg.45
Reg.46
Hydraulic Test
Reg.47
General
Reg.48
Material
Reg.49A
Tensile and Hardness Test
s
Reg.49B
Fla ening Test
72
Reg.49C
Expanding or aring test
Reg.50
Reg.51
Hydraulic test.
Reg.52
General
Reg.53A
Material
Reg.53B
Heat treatment
Reg.53C
Workmanship and tolerance
Reg.53D
Selec on of Tubes for tes ng
Reg.54A
Tensile Test
Reg.54B
Bend Test
Reg.54C
Fla ening Test
Reg.55
Reg.56
Hydraulic Test
Reg.57
General
Reg.58
Material
Reg.59
Fla ening & Flaring test
Reg.60
Tensile Test
Reg.61
Hydraulic test
Reg.62
Test specimens
73
Reg.63
Number of tests
Reg.63A
Material
Reg.73
Scope
Reg.74
Reg.75
Freedom from all rec ca on of defects
Reg.76
Number of tests
Reg.77
Tensile Test
Reg.78
Bend tests
Reg.79
Reg.80
Procedure for Welding
Reg.81
Forged or rolled pressure parts
Reg.82
Selec on of test pieces
Reg.83
Tensile strength
Reg.84
Bend Tests
Reg.85
Reg.86
General grey iron cas ng (Grade A)
Reg.87
Provision of test bars
Reg.88
Dimension of test bars
Reg.89
Mechanical test
74
Reg.90
Transverse test
Reg.91
Tensile test
Reg.92
Number of transverse and tensile tests
Reg.93
Addi onal Tests
Reg.94
General requirements
Reg.95
Requirements for Normal Penetra on Electrodes
Reg.96
Requirements for Deep Penetra on Bu -Welding Electrodes
Reg.97
Requirements for Deep Penetra on Fillet Welding Electrodes
Reg.98
Periodic Check Test
Reg.98A
Filler rods for gas welding of steel
Reg.99
Prepara on of Plates
Reg.100
Normalizing of certain steel plates
Reg.101
Minimum thickness of Plates
Reg.102
Cylindrical Shells
Reg.103
Posi on of Longitudinal Seams
Reg.104
Circumferen al and End Seams
Reg.105
Angle Rings
Reg.106
Thickness of Shell Angle Rings
Reg.107
Welded Shell Plates
75
Reg.108
Longitudinal Seams
Reg.109
Bu Straps
Reg.110
Thinning of Bu Straps
Reg.111
Alterna ve Construc on
Reg.112
Local Welding of Bu Seams
Reg.113
Flat End Plates
Reg.114
Strengthening of Flat End Plate at Manhole
Reg.115
End Plates in steam spaces
Reg.116
Hemispherical Crowns
Reg.117
Dished End and Crown Plates
Reg.118
Tube Plates
Reg.119
Parts of at tube plates within the tube nests
Reg.120
Flanging of End Plates
Reg.121
Furnaces in general
Reg.122
Furnaces of Horizontal boilers
Reg.123
Furnaces of Ver cal Boilers
Reg.124
Longitudinal Seams
Reg.125
Fusion Welded Longitudinal Seams
Reg.126
Furnace Crown
76
Reg.127
Cross Tubes
Reg.128
Uptakes
Reg.129
Loco Type Fireboxes
Reg.129A
Welded Joints in Copper Fire Boxes
Reg.130
Bar Stays
Reg.131
Longitudinal Stays
Reg.132
Nuts and Washers for Stays
Reg.133
Jointed Stays
Reg.134
Diagonal Bar or Rod Stays
Reg.135
Screwed Stays
Reg.136
Axial drilling
Reg.137
Stay Nuts
Reg.138
Spacing of End Stays Allowance for curves, etc.
Reg.139
Girder Stays for Firebox and Combus on Chamber Crowns
Reg.140
Gusset Stays
Reg.141
Breathing Space
Reg.142
Gussets Angles
Reg.143
Load on Gusset Stay
Reg.144
Gusset Rive ng
77
Reg.145
Steel and Wrought Iron Tubes
Reg.146
Fi ng of Plain Tubes
Reg.147
Screw Threads of Stay Tubes
Reg.148
Stay Tubes
Reg.149
Thickened ends of Stay Tubes
Reg.150
Load on Stay Tubes
Reg.151
Steel Tubes
Reg.152
A achment of Steel Tubes
Reg.153
Copper Tubes
Reg.154
Headers, Mud Boxes, etc., of Water Tube Boilers
Reg.155
Stand Pipes and Pads
Reg.156
Design of stand pipes
Reg.157
Pressed Plate Saddles
Reg.158
Sea ng for Moun ngs
Reg.159
A achment of Moun ngs
Reg.160
Insucient thickness of End Plates
Reg.161
A achment of Water and Pressure Gauges
Reg.162
Moun ngs on Flat Plates
Reg.163
Bolts and Nuts
78
Reg.164
Access
Reg.165
Compensa ng Rings and Frames for Openings in Shells
Reg.166
Doors and Cross Bars
Reg.167
Raised Manhole Frames and Cover Plates
Reg.168
Posi on of Manhole in Shell
Reg.169
Compensa on Rings to Manholes
Reg.170
Compensa on for cu ng large holes in Shell Type Boilers
Reg.171
Rivets securing compensa ng rings and Stand Pipes
Reg.172A
Rivet Heads
Reg.172B
Tolerances on shanks
Reg.172C
Rivet Holes
Reg.173
Rive ng
Reg.174
Fullering and Caulking
Reg.175
Maximum pressure
Reg.176
Formula for Working Pressure of Shell
Reg.177
Methods of calcula ng the strength of riveted joints
Reg.178
When Pitch exceeds maximum allowed
Reg.179
Bu Straps and spacing of rivets below requirements
Reg.180
Percentage of Welded and Strapped Seams
79
Reg.181
Percentage to be allowed for Solid Rolled Shells
Reg.182
Thickness of Bu Straps
Reg.183
Maximum Pitch of Rivets in longitudinal joints
Reg.184
Spacing of rows of rivets
Reg.185
Circumferen al and End Seams of Water Tube Boilers
Reg.186
Compensa on for Manholes and other openings
Reg.187
Uncompensated holes in Water Tube Boilers
Reg.188
Complete hemisphere without stays or other support made of one or more plates and subject to internal pressure
Reg.189
Dished ends subject to internal pressure
Reg.190
Dished ends subject to external pressure
Reg.191
Dished ends of Lancashire and Cornish Type Boilers
Reg.192
Dished shell and rebox crowns
Reg.193
Flat plates supported by solid screwed stays, marginal seams or anges
Reg.194
Flat plates supported by stays and nuts and large washers or strips or doublings
Reg.195
Flat tube plates
Reg.196
Plates supported by gusset stays
Reg.197
Flat Crown plates of Ver cal Boilers
Reg.198
Circular at ends of drums, etc., supported only at edges
Reg.199
Bar or bulb s ened end plates and smoke-box tube plates of Loco-type boilers
80
Reg.200
Flat plate margins
Reg.201
Manholes and Mudholes in Flat Plates
Reg.202
Solid screwed stays
Reg.203
Stresses in steel jointed stays
Reg.204
Stay Tubes
Reg.205
Stays in tension and compression
Reg.206
Measurements of stayed areas in the end plates of Locotype and Ver cal Boilers
Reg.207
Gusset Stays
Reg.208
Bolts and Studs
Reg.209
Compression of tube plates
Reg.210
Parts to be stayed
Reg.211
Minimum thickness and cross-sec on
Reg.212
Holding power of plain tubes
Reg.213
Tubes plates, other than ends of ver cal boilers forming parts of outer shell
Reg.214
Curved tube plates of water-tube boilers
Reg.215
Eciency of Ligament
Reg.216
Boiler and Superheater Tubes Subject to Internal Pressure
Reg.217
Headers and Sec on Boxes of Water Tube Boilers
Reg.218
Boiler Tubes (Smoke) Subject to External Pressure
81
Reg.219
Brass and Copper Tubes
Reg.220
Plain Furnaces of Horizontal Boilers
Reg.221
Corrugated Furnaces of Horizontal Boilers
Reg.222
Plain Furnaces of Ver cal Boilers
Reg.223
Hemispherical Furnaces of Ver cal Boilers
Reg.224
Corrugated Fireboxes of Ver cal Boilers
Reg.225
Founda ons of Ver cal Boiler Furnaces
Reg.226
Founda ons of Loco-type Boiler Fireboxes
Reg.227
Cross Tubes
Reg.228
Uptakes of Ver cal Boilers
Reg.229
Girder stay for rebox crowns
Reg.230
Marshall Type
Reg.231
Garre Type
Reg.232
Fowler Type
Reg.233
Fusion Welded and Seamless Forged Drums for Water Tube Boilers and Super Heaters
Reg.234
Materials of Construc on
Reg.235
Seamless Forged Drums
Reg.236
Chemical Analysis
Reg.237
Freedom from defects
82
Reg.238
Heat Treatment
Reg.239
Mechanical Tests
Reg.240 A
Selec on of Test Pieces
Reg.240 B
Tensile test pieces
Reg.240 C
Tensile test
Reg.240 D
Bend test pieces
Reg.240 E
Bend Tests
Reg.241
Reg.242
Discard
Reg.243
Forging
Reg.243 A
Tolerance
Reg.244 A
Tubes, Pipes in Boilers, Headers and Steel Cas ngs
Reg.244 B
Pipes
Reg.245
Headers
Reg.246
Steel Cas ngs
Reg.247
Fusion Welded Drums
Reg.248
Equipment of Workshop
Reg.249
Construc onal details and prepara on for welding
Reg.250
Prepara on of plates
83
Reg.251
Cylindrical shells of drums
Reg.252
Method of making welded joints
Reg.253
Type of welded joints
Reg.254
Number of joints
Reg.255
Posi on of the Tube holes
Reg.256
Circularity of drums
Reg.257
Mechanical test and test plates for fusion welded seams
Reg.258
Selec on of Test Pieces*
Reg.259
Tensile Test Pieces
Reg.260 A
Tensile Tests
Reg.260 B
All-weld Metal
Reg.261
Bend Test Pieces
Reg.262
Bend Tests
Reg.263
Notched-Bar Impact Tests
Reg.264
Reg.265 A
Non-Destruc ve Tests
Reg.265 B
Radiographical Examina on
Reg.265 C
Magne c par cle aw detec on
Reg.265 D
Dye-Penetrant aw detec on
84
Reg.266 A
General
Reg.266 B
Longitudinal Seams
Reg.266 C
Circumferen al Seams
Reg.266 D
Removal of Defects
Reg.266 E
Examina on before Re-welding
Reg.266 F
Process used for Repairs
Reg.266 G
Radiographical Examina on a er Repairs
Reg.266 H
Specimen Represen ng Repairs
Reg.266 I
Diagram of Welded Repairs
Reg.267 A
Heat Treatment
Reg.267 B
Heat Treatment
Reg.267 C
Heat Treatment
Reg.267 D
Heat Treatment
Reg.267 E
Heat Treatment
Reg.267 F
Heat Treatment
Reg.267 G
Heat Treatment
Reg.268
Hydraulic test at makers works
Reg.269
Inspec on and Tes ng
Reg.270
Shells
85
Reg.271
Permissible working stresses for shells of Boiler and Integral Super-heater Drums and Headers
Reg.271 A
Reg.271 B
Reg.272
Fusion Welded and Seamless Forged Drums for Water Tube Boilers and Super Heaters
Reg.273
Longitudinal Stress
Reg.274
Intermediate Boiler Drum Supports
Reg.275
Shape of Dished End Plate
Reg.276
General
Reg.277
Dished End with Opening
Reg.278
End Plate subject to pressure on the concave side
Reg.279 A
Standpipes and Nozzles
Reg.279 B
Standpipe and nozzles welded to dished end plates
Reg.279 C
Minimum thickness of Flanges
Reg.280
A achment of Stand blocks and Branch Pipes by Welding
Reg.281
Requisite Moun ngs, Fi ngs and Auxiliaries
Reg.281 A
Addi onal requirements for automa c boilers only
Reg.282 A
General Requirements
Reg.282 B
Limits of cast Iron
Reg.282 C
Limits of copper alloy
86
Reg.283
Method Of Construc on
Reg.284
Packing of Cocks
Reg.285
Covers and Spindles
Reg.286
Direc on of Opera on
Reg.287
Moving Parts
Reg.288
Flanges
Reg.289
Valve Sea ngs
Reg.290
Chests etc., in General
Reg.291
Special Requrements
Reg.292
Deni on
Reg.293
Minimum Aggregate Area
Reg.294
Over pressure of Safety Valves
Reg.295
Pressure Drop
Reg.296
A achment to Boiler
Reg.297
Opening in Shell
Reg.298
Discharge Passage
Reg.299
Drainage
Reg.300
Moving Parts
Reg.301
Bearings for Levers
87
Reg.302
A achments of weights and Springs
Reg.303
Easing Gear
Reg.304
Li
Reg.305
High and Low water Alarms
Reg.306
Final Se ngs
Reg.306 A
Adjustment of safety valve set pressure
Reg.307 A
Springs And Torsion Bars
Reg.307 B
Torsion Bars
Reg.308
Dimensions
Reg.309
Determina on of Working Pressure
Reg.310
Test
Reg.311
Extension Springs
Reg.312
Number of Eec ve Coils
Reg.313
Spacing of Coils
Reg.314
Finishing of Ends
Reg.315
Lever Valves
Reg.316
Steam Stop Valve
Reg.317
Blow-Down Cock Or Valve And Pipes
Reg.318
Blow-down Moun ngs
88
Reg.319
Blow-down Valve or Cock
Reg.320
Water Gauges
Reg.321
Drains
Reg.322
Protectors
Reg.323
Glass size
Reg.324
Safety Devices
Reg.325
Gauge columns
Reg.326
Isola ng Cocks
Reg.327
Pressure Gauges
Reg.328
Connec ons
Reg.329
Gauge Cocks
Reg.330
Test Connec ons-Inspectors Pressure Gauge A achment
Reg.331
Fusible Plugs
Reg.332
Type
Reg.333
Material
Reg.334
A achment to Boiler
Reg.335
Feed Valves
Reg.336
Opera ng posi on
Reg.336 A
Requirements as to feed apparatus in certain cases
89
Reg.337
Material and Construc on
Reg.338
Boiler and Super Heater Tubes, Headers and other Pressure Parts Tubes
Reg.339
Materials and Construc on
Reg.340
Rectangular Headers Symmetrical in Form
Reg.341
Headers Irregular in Form
Reg.342 (a)
Cylindrical Headers
Reg.342 (b)
End A achments
Reg.343
Pipes
Reg.344
Material
Reg.345
Condi on of Pipes
Reg.346
Mechanical Tests
Reg.347 (a)
Fla ening test (for pipes up to and including 102 mm. (4 in.) Nominal bore)
Reg.347 (b)
Cold bend test (for pipes over 102 mm. (4in.) Nominal bore)
Reg.347 (c)
Bend test on the weld
Reg.347 (d)
Addi onal test
Reg.347 (e)
Tensile test
Reg.347 (f)
Steam-Pipes and Fi ngs
Reg.348
Method of manufacture, Heat treatment and Marking
Reg.349
90
Reg.350
Steel Pipes
Reg.351
Cast Steel Pipes
Reg.352
Copper Pipes
Reg.353 A
Flanges
Reg.353 B
Flanges of Alloy Steel Pipes
Reg.353 C
Non-Ferrous Flanges
Reg.354
Screwed on Flanges
Reg.355
Loose Flanges
Reg.356
Riveted on Flanges
Reg.357
Welded on anges
Reg.357 C
Heat treatment a er welding
Reg.358
Flanges of copper pipes
Reg.359
Standard Flanges
Reg.360
Joints
Reg.361
Wrought Bends
Reg.361 A
Bu -welding ngs
Reg.362 A
Branches, Bosses and Drain pockets
Reg.362 B
External reinforcement
Reg.362 C
Thickness where no external reinforcement is provided
91
Reg.363
Blowdown pipes
Reg.364
Valves Chests
Reg.365 A
Steam Receivers, Separators, Catch Waters, Accumulators and Similar Vessels
Reg.365 B
Construc on and Workmanship
Reg.365 C
Access to shells
Reg.365 D
Compensa ng Rings to Opening and Doors
Reg.365 E
Branches and other Connec ons
Reg.365 F
Shell Joints
Reg.366
Reg.366 B
End Plates
Reg.366 C
Branches
Reg.366 D
Inspec on during construc on
Reg.367
Steel Screwed and Socketed Joints and Moun ngs of Steel
Reg.368
Bronze Screwed and Socketed joints and moun ngs and ngs of bronze
Reg.369
Reducing Valve
Reg.370
Flexibility
Reg.371
Pipe work supports
Reg.372
Drainage
Reg.373
Freedom from rust and other foreign ma er
92
Reg.374
Reg.375
Regula ons for the Registra on of Boilers and Inspec on of Boilers and Steam-Pipes
Reg.376
Prepara on for Inspec on
Reg.377
Hydraulic test of boilers for registra on
Reg.378
Prepara on for hydraulic tests
Reg.379
Procedure of hydraulic tests
Reg.380
Steam tests
Reg.381
Procedure for registra on
Reg.382
Engraving of registry number
Reg.383
Measurement of hea ng surface
Reg.384
Boiler ra ng
Reg.385
Registra on fee
Reg.386
Memorandum of Inspec on Book
Reg.387
Registra on Book
Reg.387 A
Maintenance of Records
Reg.388
Transfer of Memorandum of Inspec on Book and Registra on Book
Reg.389
Grant of cer cate
Reg.390
Procedure for inspec on of installed boilers
Reg.390 B
Scale Oils, etc
93
Reg.390 C
Corrosion, Grooving
Reg.390 D
Stays
Reg.390 E
Manholes and other Openings
Reg.390 F
Fire Surfaces.-Bulging, Blistering, Leaks
Reg.390 G
Lap Joints, Fire Cracks
Reg.390 H
Tes ng Staybolts
Reg.390 I
Tubes -Their defects, etc
Reg.390 J
Ligaments between tube holes
Reg.390 K
Steam Pockets
Reg.390 L
Pipe Connec ons and Fi ngs
Reg.390 M
Water column
Reg.390 N
Baing-Water tube boilers
Reg.390 O
Localiza on of heat
Reg.390 P
Suspended boilers-Freedom of expansion
Reg.390 Q
Safety Valves
Reg.390 R
Steam Gauges
Reg.391
Calcula on of Wasted Shell
Reg.391 A
Aging of boilers
Reg.392
Repairs to boilers and steam pipes
94
Reg.392 A
Repairs to boilers and steam pipes
Reg.392 B
Welding
Reg.392 C
Rive ng and Other Repairs
Reg.392 D
Reg.392 E
Reg.392 F
Reg.392 G
Reg.392 H
Reg.392 I
Reg.392 J
Reg.392 K
Reg.392 L
Reg.392 M
Reg.392 N
Reg.392 O
Reg.392 P
Reg.393
Reg.394
Inspec ons of Steam Pipe
Reg.395
Submission of plans of steam-pipes
95
Reg.395 A
Inspec on fee for boilers and parts thereof constructed in India
Reg.395 B
Fees for inspec on of Pipes
Reg.395 C
Fee for inspec on of valves
Reg.395 D
Fees for inspec on of components of valves
Reg.395 E
Fees for inspec on of feed water heaters and other ngs
Reg.395 F
Marking
Reg.395 G
Fee for inspec on of spares and scantlings
Reg.397
Electrode Boilers
Reg.398
Electrode Boilers
Reg.399
Electrode Boilers
Reg.400
Riveted Steel Boilers
Reg.401
Working Pressure of Shells
Reg.402
Strength of Riveted Joints
Reg.403
Thickness of Bu -Straps
Reg.404
Maximum pitch of rivets in Longitudinal Joints
Reg.405
Spacing of rows of rivets
Reg.406
End and Circumferen al Seams
Reg.407
Manholes and other openings in Shells
Reg.408
Dished End Plates with pressure on concave side
96
Reg.409
Sea ng for Moun ng
Reg.410
Flange-Thickness and Drilling
Reg.411
Pads
Reg.412
Unstayed Flat-End Plates
Reg.413
Thickness of Angle Rings
Reg.414
Bolts, Nuts and Studs
Reg.415
Hydraulic Test
Reg.416
Reg.417
Selec on of Test pieces
Reg.418
Tensile test
Reg.419
Bend Test
Reg.420
Nick Break Test
Reg.421
Retests
Reg.422
Specimens a er Tests
Reg.423
Heat Treatment
Reg.424
Hydraulic and Hammer Test
Reg.425
Determina on for Working Pressure
Reg.426
Welds and compensa on for manholes and branches
Reg.427
Manholes and other openings in Shells
97
Reg.428
Dished End Plates with pressure on Concave side
Reg.429
Unstayed Flat End Plates
Reg.430
Thickness of Angle Rings
Reg.431
Tests for Class II Fusion Welded Seams
Reg.432
Tests for Class II Fusion Welded Seams
Reg.433
Hydraulic Test
Reg.434
Reg.435
End Plates
Reg.436
Manholes and other opening in the Shells
Reg.437
Moun ngs, Fi ngs and Connec ons (For all types of Electrode Boilers)
Reg.500
Applica on of standard condi ons and excep ons thereto
Reg.501
General requirements
Reg.502
Modica on of formula
Reg.503
Makers Cer cates for Steel Economisers
Reg.504
Hydraulic test for new economisers
Reg.505
Workmanship and manufacture
Reg.506
Reg.507
Test bars
Reg.508
Number of tensile tests
98
Reg.509
Standard test piece
Reg.510
Cast Iron Economisers
Reg.511
Joint bolts and studs for Cast Iron Economisers
Reg.512
Economiser water outlet temperature
Reg.513
Tubes: Construc on
Reg.514
Tubes: Working Pressure
Reg.515
Headers: Construc on
Reg.516 A
Working Pressure
Reg.516 B
Cylindrical headers
Reg.517
A achment of tubes to headers
Reg.518
Joint bolts, studs and anges
Reg.519 A
Valves and Moun ngs
Reg.519 B
Relief valves
Reg.519 C
Pressure Gauge
Reg.519 D
Air Release valves
Reg.519 E
Below o drain valves
Reg.519 F
Non-return valves in return feed line
Reg.519 G
Reserve Flues
Reg.519 H
Explosion Doors
99
Reg.519 I
Hydraulic Test
Reg.519 J
Feed Line
Reg.519 K
Non-return valve
Reg.520
Feed Pipes
Reg.521
Steel feed pipes
Reg.522
Cast Iron feed pipes
Reg.523
Copper feed pipes
Reg.523 A
Feed Heaters and similar vessels ed to feed pipes
Reg.523 B
Working Pressure
Reg.523 C
Safety valve requirement in Feed Heaters and similar vessels
Reg.524
Regula ons for Registra on and Inspec on of Economisers and Feed Pipes
Reg.525
Procedure for Registra on
Reg.526
Procedure at subsequent inspec on
Reg.527
Procedure for Hydraulic test
Reg.528
Memorandum of Inspec on Book
Reg.529 A
Registra on Books
Reg.529 B
Transfer of Memorandum of Inspec on Book and Registra on Books
Reg.530
Grant of cer cate
Reg.531
Casual visits
100
Reg.532
Economiser ra ng
Reg.533
Registra on fee
Reg.534
Engraving of registry number
Reg.534 A
Inspec on of Feed Pipes
Reg.534 B
Submission of plans of Feed Pipes
Reg.535
Shell type Boilers of Welded Construc on
Reg.536
General Requirements
Reg.536 A
Equipment of Workshop
Reg.537
Materials of Construc on
Reg.538
Covered Electrodes
Reg.539 A
Plain and Stay Tubes
Reg.539 B
Seamless Steel Crosstubes and uptake Tubes
Reg.540
Reg.541
Prepara on of Plates
Reg.542
Stress Relieving
Reg.543
Cylindrical Shells
Reg.544
Circularity
Reg.545
End Plates, Crown Plates and Tube Plates
Reg.546
Internal Flues
101
Reg.547 A
Fireboxes and Combus on Chambers
Reg.547 B
Hemispherical reboxes
Reg.547 C
Loco-type reboxes
Reg.547 D
Water-cooled combus on chambers
Reg.548
Uptakes
Reg.549
Cross Tubes
Reg.550
Bar stays and Firebox stays
Reg.551
Girder stays for Firebox and Combus on Chamber Crowns
Reg.552
Gusset stays
Reg.553
Access
Reg.554
Manhole frames, mouthpieces and doors
Reg.555
Sea ngs for moun ngs
Reg.555 A
Standpipes
Reg.555 B
Saddles
Reg.555 C
Pads
Reg.555 D
A achment of Standpipes
Reg.555 E
Tensile Tests
Reg.555 F
A achment of water and pressure gauges
Reg.555 G
Bolts and Nuts
102
Reg.556
Compensa ng plates
Reg.557
Deni on of the terms Fusion Weld
Reg.558
Method of Welding
Reg.559
Types of welded shell seams
Reg.560
Repairs to welded seams
Reg.561 A
Tests on welded seams
Reg.561 B
Test for Class I boilers
Reg.561 C
Test for Class II Boilers
Reg. 561 D
Test for Class III boiler
Reg.562
Reg.563
Classica on of Fusion-Welded Boilers
Reg.564
Shells
Reg.565
Horizontal shelves of tube plates forming part of the shell
Reg.566
Dished end plates for Lancashire and Cornish boilers
Reg.567
Reg.567 A
Reg.568
Dished ends subject to external pressure
Reg.569
Hemispherical crowns
Reg.570
Manholes and other openings in shells
103
Reg.571
Compensa on for openings in shells
Reg.571 A
Area to be compensated
Reg.571 B
Compensa ng area
Reg571 C
Compensa ng plates
Reg571 D
Compensa on for openings in shells
Reg.572
Raised manhole frames, cover plates and joint bolts
Reg.573
Reg.574
Stayed Flat surfaces (other than Crowns of Ver cal Boilers).
Reg.575
Flat crown plates for ver cal boilers
Reg.576
Wide water spaces between and around tube nests
Reg.577 A
Flat tube plates and tube nests
Reg.577 B
Parts of at plates within tube nests
Reg.578
Manhole openings in at plates
Reg.579 A
Plain tubes
Reg.579 B
Plain tubes
Reg.579 C
Plain tubes
Reg.579 D
Plain tubes
Reg.580
Pitch of tubes
Reg.581
Stay tubes
104
Reg.582
Compression of tube plates
Reg.583
Girders for re-box and combus on chamber crowns
Reg.584
Girder sling stays
Reg.585 A
Stays for re-boxes and circular furnaces
Reg.585 B
Circumferen al stays for circular furnaces and re-bo
Reg.586
Fire-box Crown stays for Loco-type Boilers
Reg.587
Longitudinal Bar Stays
Reg.588
Loads on Stay Tubes and Bar Stays
Reg.589
Flat Plate Margins
Reg.590
Breathing space
Reg.591
Gusset Link, Brace and Similar Stays
Reg.591 A
Load on each stay
Reg.591 B
Gusset plates
Reg.591 C
Link stays
Reg.591 D
Anchor plates angles, link pins and the line members
Reg.591 E
Weld a achment
Reg.592
Reg.593
Plain Furnaces of Ver cal Boilers
Reg.594
Corrugated Fireboxes of Ver cal Boilers
105
Reg.595
Hemispherical Furnaces of Ver cal Boilers
Reg.596
Founda ons of Ver cal Boilers Furnaces
Reg.597
Founda ons of Loco-type Boiler Fireboxes
Reg.598
Uptakes of Ver cal Boilers
Reg.599
Cross Tubes
Reg.600
Pads Welded to shell or the a achment of Flanged Moun ngs
Reg.601
Reg.602
Qualica on Tests for Welders Engaged in Welding of Boilers and Steam-Pipes under Construc on, Erec on and
Fabrica on at Site in India and in Repairing Boilers and Steam-Pipes by Weldingt
Reg.603
Deni on
Reg.604
Engaging of Cer ed Welders
Reg.605
Ini al
Reg.605 A
Issue of duplicate cer cate
Reg.606
Produc on of cer cate
Reg.607 A
Validity of cer cate
Reg.607 B
Re-valida on of cer cate
Reg.607 C
Validity of cer cate
Reg.608
Age and experience
Reg.609
Tests for ini al qualica on of a welder
Reg.610
106
Tests for Requalica on

Reg.611 A
Examina on of test specimens for ini al qualica on tests
Reg.611 B
Fillet welded plate specimens
Reg.611 C
Groove and llet welded pipe and tube specimens
Reg.611 D
Welded Tube Joints
Reg.611 E
Reg.612
Examina on of Test Specimens for Requalica on Tests
Reg.613
Awarding of Marks
Reg.614
Award of Cer cate
Reg.615
Maintenance of records
Reg.616
Fees for examina on of welders
Reg.617
Penalty
Reg.618
Small Inductrial Boilers General
Reg.619
Deni on
Reg.620
Extent to which varia on from the standard condi ons laid down in the preceding Chapters is permissible
Reg.621
Valves, Gauges, Fi ngs and Feed Supply
Reg.622
Registra on, Opera on and Maintenance
Reg.623
Feed Water for Boiler
Reg.624
Requirements
Reg.625
107
Sampling
Reg.626
Test Methods
Reg.627
Deleted
Reg.628
Deleted
Reg.629
Deleted
Reg.630 A
Deleted
Reg.630 B
Deleted
Reg.630 C
Deleted
Reg.630 D
Deleted
Reg.631
Deleted
Reg.632
Deleted
Reg.633
Deleted
Reg.634
Deleted
Reg.635
Deleted
108
Mul pack M/c (2010-09-23 10:57)
HORIZONTAL FLOW WRAP M/C

Start UpSwitch on main supply to M/c Panel 230V AC +- 5 % or 415V AC +-5 %
Switch on Main MCB
Start air ow @ 4-6kg/cm2
Install Wrappper roll
Feed wrapper as per diagram
Ensure both webs of wrapper are equally caught between rollers and formerbox
Ensure photocell light besm falling on print mark when jaws are closed together
Close the gaurds
Set heater temperature 95-120C
Feed product on infeed side
Start m/c by pressing start push bu on
Ensure that wrapper is not ge ng stuck on heater roller and jaw
-
Adujstment to Reel Brake
The brake provides constant tension in the lm through out the wrapper reel diameter
Long seam sealing unit: check the allignment of the proppeling rollers and long seam sealing channel (heater
strips), gap of 1mm when closed, 10-14mm when open.
Surra on matching of rollers, check with paper, adjust hight of roller using round shim.
Adjustment of Angle between Propelling Rollers: It allows the wrapper to be more or less ghtned around the
product, Degree of ghtening should be maintained as small as possible
Se ng of temperature for Longitudinal Seal and End Seal
Temp of sealing rollers and crimp jaw depends upon two factors:
Wrapper Material and Machine Speed
Se ng of Knives (Cu er)
Se ng of Anvil: Factory set, Top face of anvil should be 0.2-0.3mm below the valley point of serra on
Se ng of Knives: Se ng done When jaw and knife are hot.
Se ng Master Reference
1. Master reference cam se ng is to be done for propper synchronisa on of all ac vi es like gusse ng forword
/reverse correc on etc.
2. All se ng are to be done when jaws are closed perfectly in centre
3. Ensure that metal por on of the master reference cam will just sense the proximity switch while sealing jaws
are closed.
Check lubrica on and Maintenance
1.Carbon brushes of heaters
2. Electrical panel cleaning
3. Electrical circuit problem
Photocell moun ng
Distance between lence and reec on should be 10+1.0mm, Switch on the power, and set green dash of the light
focus to get maximum sharpness of the dash.
Sensi vity adjustment:
To get the maximum output sensi vity of scanner on two colours has to be adjusted.
Procedure: Threshold Adjustment and Light/Dark selec on
Using the procedure given below the sensor output is set to be ON when mark is detected.
1. Output ON state acquisi on (MARK)
Place the target mark into imission spot and press the MARK push bu on un l the green LED turns OFF
The senser acquires red red and green emission dont move the mark during this phase
2. Output OFF state acquisi on (BKGD)
Place background into emission spot and press BKGD bu on. the green LED blinks once the senser acquires
109
switching the red and green emission; dont move background during this phase.
Splicing arrangement: Provided along with machine joins the end of empty lm reel kept on x/moving roller with
lm of second reel. End of the wrapper of second reel is to be s ck with adhesive tape and to be kept at moving/x
roller so that when solonoid actuates by signal given by empty reel sensing device, and moving roller presses the
lm aith adhesive tape with he wrapper end of rst reel so that machine need not stop for reel changeover.
1.Match the print mark of second wrapper roll with print mark on top plate.
2.press plunger of solonoid valve, so the gap remains to be 1 mm
***
SIZE CHANGEOVER
1.Former box:Check that base of former box is approx 0.5mm above the sealing roller.
Adjust lm angle and angle roller
2. Adjustment of lug posi on rela ve to jawas:This se ng permit correct posi on of product in wrapper yube rela ve to crimp jaws.
Adjust side guides, Open gaurd, Place crimp jaw in closed posi on, Slacken screw A, hold driving sprocket with
spanner on sha and move lug to required posi on.
3. Cut o length adjustment:- Adjustment for varing length of product. Done in running condi on. Keep rollers in
open posi on, done with PKL knob.
4. Adjustment of crimp jaw height:- Adjustment for product height. Keep jaws in open posi on. with cu er
support plate and piller bolt adjustment. Also verify height on scale P. It should be equal height of product.
5. Posi oning and adjustment of the wrapping reel:- Set inner cone as per product, Place outer cone and ght
with knob, them for alignment use se ng knob.
6. Adjustment of crimp Dwell:- This alignment permits synchronisa on of jaw speed to wrapper speed. using
se ng HANDLE. Adjustment to be done during mc running. If material slacks bet pair of rollers and jaw then
reduse distance between crimp plate and eccentric cam holding assly and of material too ght then increase
distance between crimp plate and eccentric cam holding assly
6a. Heater removal: Remove heater between gap of bearing block and piller sha .
6b. Air gusse ng: Maintain center nozzle such that nozzle matches inline with periphery of jaws without fouling
with product.
6c. Cross pusher and inline pusher se ng: Adjust gap +3mm between inline pusher and cross pusher., use HMI
to decrease stroke of inline pusher such that requires stack of biscuits are taken for stack separa on.
6d. Decompressor devise: to hold biscuits while cross pusher separa ng the stack just by releasing spring pressure.
110
Boiler troubleshoo ng (2010-09-23 14:44)

h p://www.hvac-for-beginners.com/boiler-troubleshoo ng.html
With our
boiler
troubleshoo ng guide, you can x it yourself and save a lot of money. The average repair call will cost well over
$100. With a li le help, you can do it yourself and keep your hard earned money.
**NOTE** Only you can assess your ability to perform this task. This is a guide and cannot provide all of the details
for every situa on.
Proper maintenance will help you to avoid many of the common causes o oiler malfunc on. Before you start
troubleshoo ng, make sure you have performed the suggested maintenance.
We will begin our

boilertroubleshoo ng with the common gas red hea ng
boiler. If your unit has a standing pilot light, you should check to make sure it is lit. Then, you can use the rest of
the guide but skip the part about the pilot ligh ng.
The rst step is to check the thermostat. Ensure that it is set above the actual room temperature. Then, you
should go to the boiler and see if the circulator pump is running. You should feel the motor with your hand to see
if it is hot.
If the pump is not running and it is cool, check the breaker that supplies power to the boiler.
If the motor feels very hot, the problem could be the run capacitor, the motor, or the pump itself could be locked
up. If it is cool and the breaker is on, the problem could be the thermostat or the circulator relay. If the circulator is
running, con nue your boiler troubleshoo ng by checking the temp/press gauge on the boiler. If the temperature
and pressure is normal, there is probably air in the system. This is common on systems with the old style of manual
air eliminators. You can easily replace the old manual type with modern, automa c, oat type air eliminators.
If the temperature and pressure are abnormally low, check to see if the vent damper is open and/or the inducer
fan is running. If not, shut o the breaker to the unit, wait a couple of minutes and then turn it back on. If the
damper does not open and/or the inducer doesnt start, the problem could be the boiler control or the aquastat.
If the vent damper is open and/or the inducer fan is running, does the pilot ignite? If the pilot does not a empt
to light, the vent pipe could be blocked. If the pilot lights but does not stay lit, the pilot assembly could be dirty,
the ame sensor could be dirty, the thermocouple could be bad, or the boiler control could be bad.
A er the pilot is lit for a few seconds check to see if the main burnerscome on. If the main burners do not come
on, the boiler control or the gas valve could be bad.
We con nue
boiler
troubleshoo ng with a look at combi
boiler repair. We will check the unit in the central hea ng mode.
You should begin by pushing the reset bu on on the unit. If the unit does not start then check the thermostat
se ng. If the se ng is above the room temperature, check to see if the circulator is running. If it is not, check the
fuse or circuit breaker for the unit. If you have power to the unit and it s ll does not operate, the problem could
be with the thermostat, the circulator motor, or the units control board.
111
If the circulator starts, you can feel the units hea ng water outlet pipe to see if it is hot. If it is not hot, check
that the units ue fan starts. If the fan does not start, the problem could be the water ow switch, the hea ng
temperature sensor, ue fan motor, or the units control board. If the fan starts but the unit then locks out, the
problem may be the ue temperature sensor.
If the ue fan starts, does the burner ignite a er a short delay? You should be able to hear the spark generator
and the burner ignite. If it does not, the problem could be the spark generator, the gas valve, or the units control
board.
If the burner ignites, does it con nue to operate? If it does not, the problem can be the ame sensor or the control
board.
In the dhw mode, the boiler troubleshoo ng procedure should be the same if water is being taken from the tap.
(NOTE: Most units have a minimum rate for the ow of water being taken from the tap, before the unit will operate.
If the ow is not high enough the unit will not start.)
If you require
further
assistance with your
boiler
troubleshoo ng, you can check out our
consul ng services.
For a small fee, we will work with you to solve your problem and avoid the call to the repairman.
Return from boiler troubleshoo ng to home
112
Pump (2010-09-23 15:32)

h p://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pump
A pump is a device used to move uids, such as liquids, gases or slurries.
A pump displaces a volume by physical or mechanical ac on. Pumps fall into ve major groups:direct li , displacement, velocity, buoyanc y and gravity pumps. [ 1 ] Their names describe the method for moving a uid.
Types
[edit]
Posi ve displacement pumps
A lobe pump
Mechanism of a scroll pump

A posi ve displacement pump causes a uid to move by trapping a xed amount of it then forcing (displacing)
that trapped volume into the discharge pipe. A posi ve displacement pump can be further classied according to
the mechanism used to move the uid:
Rotary-type, internal gear, screw, shu le block, exible vane or sliding vane, helical twisted roots (e.g. the
Wendelkolben pump) or liquid ring vacuum pumps.
Posi ve displacement rotary pumps are pumps that move uid using the principles of rota on. The vacuum
created by the rota on of the pump captures and draws in the liquid. Rotary pumps are very ecient because
they naturally remove air from the lines, elimina ng the need to bleed the air from the lines manually.
Posi ve displacement rotary pumps also have their weaknesses. Because of the nature of the pump, the clearance between the rota ng pump and the outer edge must be very close, requiring that the pumps rotate at a
slow, steady speed. If rotary pumps are operated at high speeds, the uids will cause erosion, much as ocean
waves polish stones or erode rock into sand. Rotary pumps that experience such erosion eventually show signs of
enlarged clearances, which allow liquid to slip through and detract from the eciency of the pump.
Posi ve displacement rotary pumps can be grouped into three main types. Gear pumps are the simplest type of
rotary pumps, consis ng of two gears laid out side-by-side with their teeth enmeshed. The gears turn away from
each other, crea ng a current that traps uid between the teeth on the gears and the outer casing, eventually
113
releasing the uid on the discharge side of the pump as the teeth mesh and go around again. Many small teeth
maintain a constant ow of uid, while fewer, larger teeth create a tendency for the pump to discharge uids in
short, pulsing gushes.
Screw pumps are a more complicated type of rotary pumps, featuring two screws with opposing thread - that
is, one screw turns clockwise, and the other counterclockwise. The screws are each mounted on sha s that run
parallel to each other; the sha s also have gears on them that mesh with each other in order to turn the sha s
together and keep everything in place. The turning of the screws, and consequently the sha s to which they are
mounted, draws the uid through the pump. As with other forms of rotary pumps, the clearance between moving
parts and the pumps casing is minimal.
Moving vane pumps are the third type of rotary pumps, consis ng of a cylindrical rotor encased in a similarly
shaped housing. As the rotor turns, the vanes trap uid between the rotor and the casing, drawing the uid
through the pump.
Reciproca ng-type, for example, piston or diaphragm pumps.
Posi ve displacement pumps have an expanding cavity on the suc on side and a decreasing cavity on the discharge
side. Liquid ows into the pumps as the cavity on the suc on side expands and the liquid ows out of the discharge
as the cavity collapses. The volume is constant given each cycle of opera on.
The posi ve displacement pumps can be divided into two main classes
reciproca ng
rotary
The posi ve displacement principle applies whether the pump is a
rotary lobe pump
progressing cavity pump
rotary gear pump
piston pump
diaphragm pump
screw pump
gear pump
Hydraulic pump
vane pump
regenera ve (peripheral) pump
peristal c
Posi ve displacement pumps, unlike centrifugal or roto-dynamic pumps, will produce the same ow at a given
speed (RPM) no ma er what the discharge pressure.
Posi ve displacement pumps are "constant ow machines"
114
A posi ve displacement pump must not be operated against a closed valve on the discharge side of the pump
because it has no shut-o head like centrifugal pumps. A posi ve displacement pump opera ng against a closed
discharge valve, will con nue to produce ow un l the pressure in the discharge line are increased un l the line
bursts or the pump is severely damaged - or both.
A relief or safety valve on the discharge side of the posi ve displacement pump is therefore necessary. The relief
valve can be internal or external. The pump manufacturer normally has the op on to supply internal relief or
safety valves. The internal valve should in general only be used as a safety precau on, an external relief valve
installed in the discharge line with a return line back to the suc on line or supply tank is recommended.
Reciproca ng pumps
Typical reciproca ng pumps are
plunger pumps
diaphragm pumps
A plunger pump consists of a cylinder with a reciproca ng plunger in it. The suc on and discharge valves are
mounted in the head of the cylinder. In the suc on stroke the plunger retracts and the suc on valves open causing
suc on of uid into the cylinder. In the forward stroke the plunger pushes the liquid out of the discharge valve.
With only one cylinder the uid ow varies between maximum ow when the plunger moves through the middle
posi ons, and zero ow when the plunger is at the end posi ons. A lot of energy is wasted when the uid is accelerated in the piping system. Vibra on and "water hammer" may be a serious problem. In general the problems
are compensated for by using two or more cylinders not working in phase with each other.
In diaphragm pumps, the plunger pressurizes hydraulic oil which is used to ex a diaphragm in the pumping cylinder. Diaphragm valves are used to pump hazardous and toxic uids.
[edit]
Gear pump
Main ar cle: Gear pump
This uses two meshed gears rota ng in a closely ed casing. Fluid is pumped around the outer periphery by
being trapped in the tooth spaces. It does not travel back on the meshed part, since the teeth mesh closely in the
centre. Widely used on car engine oil pumps. it is also used in various hydraulic power packs
[edit]
Progressing cavity pump
Main ar cle: Progressive cavity pump
Widely used for pumping dicult materials such as sewage sludge contaminated with large par cles, this pump
consists of a helical shaped rotor, about ten mes as long as its width. This can be visualized as a central core of
diameter x, with typically a curved spiral wound around of thickness half x, although of course in reality it is made
from one cas ng. This sha ts inside a heavy duty rubber sleeve, of wall thickness typically x also. As the sha
rotates, uid is gradually forced up the rubber sleeve. Such pumps can develop very high pressure at quite low
volumes.
[edit]
Roots-type pumps
The low pulsa on rate and gentle performance of this Roots-type posi ve displacement pump is achieved due to
a combina on of its two 90 helical twisted rotors, and a triangular shaped sealing line congura on, both at the
point of suc on and at the point of discharge. This design produces a con nuous and non-vor culess ow with
equal volume. High capacity industrial "air compressors" have been designed to employ this principle, as well as
most "superchargers" used on internal combus on engines, and even a brand of civil defense siren, the Federal
Signal Corpora ons Thunderbolt.
115
[edit]
Peristal c pump
Rotary peristal c pump

Main ar cle: Peristal c pump
A peristal c pump is a type of posi ve displacement pump used for pumping a variety of uids. The uid is
contained within a exible tube ed inside a circular pump casing (though linear peristal c pumps have been
made). A rotor with a number of "rollers", "shoes" or "wipers" a ached to the external circumference compresses
the exible tube. As the rotor turns, the part of the tube under compression closes (or "occludes") thus forcing
the uid to be pumped to move through the tube. Addi onally, as the tube opens to its natural state a er the
passing of the cam ("res tu on") uid ow is induced to the pump. This process is called peristalsis and is used
in many biological systems such as the gastrointes nal tract.
[edit]
Reciproca ng-type pumps
Main ar cle: Reciproca ng pump
Hand-operated, reciproca ng, posi ve displacement, water pump inKoice-ahanovce, Slovakia (walking beam
pump).
Reciproca ng pumps are those which cause the uid to move using one or more oscilla ng pistons, plungers or
membranes (diaphragms).
Reciproca ng-type pumps require a system of suc on and discharge valves to ensure that the uid moves in a
posi ve direc on. Pumps in this category range from having "simplex" one cylinder, to in some cases "quad" four
cylinders or more. Most reciproca ng-type pumps are "duplex" (two) or "triplex" (three) cylinder. Furthermore,
they can be either "single ac ng" independent suc on and discharge strokes or "double ac ng" suc on and discharge in both direc ons. The pumps can be powered by air, steam or through a belt drive from an engine or
motor. This type of pump was used extensively in the early days of steam propulsion (19th century) as boiler feed
water pumps. Reciproca ng pumps are now typically used for pumping highly viscous uids including concrete
and heavy oils, and special applica ons demanding low ow rates against high resistance.
[edit]
Buoyancy pump
116
[edit]
Compressed-air-powered double-diaphragm pumps
One modern applica on of posi ve displacement diaphragm pumps is compressed-air-powered doublediaphragm pumps. Run on compressed air these pumps are intrinsically safe by design, although all manufacturers
oer ATEX cer ed models to comply with industry regula on. Commonly seen in all areas of industry from shipping to processing, SandPiper, Wilden Pumps or ARO are generally the larger of the brands. They are rela vely
inexpensive and can be used for almost any duty from pumping water out of bunds, to pumping hydrochloric
acid from secure storage (dependent on how the pump is manufactured - elastomers / body construc on). Li is
normally limited to roughly 6m although heads can reach almost 200 Psi.[cita on needed].
[edit]
Impulse pumps
[edit]
Hydraulic ram pumps
A hydraulic ram is a water pump powered by hydropower.
It func ons as a hydraulic transformer that takes in water at one "hydraulic head" (pressure) and ow-rate, and
outputs water at a higher hydraulic-head and lower ow-rate. The device u lizes the water hammer eect to
develop pressure that allows a por on of the input water that powers the pump to be li ed to a point higher than
where the water originally started.
The hydraulic ram is some mes used in remote areas, where there is both a source of low-head hydropower, and
a need for pumping water to a des na on higher in eleva on than the source. In this situa on, the ram is o en
useful, since it requires no outside source of power other than the kine c energy of owing water..
[edit]
Velocity pumps
A centrifugal pump uses a spinning "impeller" which has backward-swept arms

Rotodynamic pumps (or dynamic pumps) are a type of velocity pump in which kine c energy is added to the
uid by increasing the ow velocity. This increase in energy is converted to a gain in poten al energy (pressure)
when the velocity is reduced prior to or as the ow exits the pump into the discharge pipe. This conversion of
kine c energy to pressure can be explained by the First law of thermodynamics or more specically by Bernoullis
principle. Dynamic pumps can be further subdivided according to the means in which the velocity gain is achieved.
These types of pumps have a number of characteris cs:
1. Con nuous energy
2. Conversion of added energy to increase in kine c energy (increase in velocity)
3. Conversion of increased velocity (kine c energy) to an increase in pressure head
One prac cal dierence between dynamic and posi ve displacement pumps is their ability to operate under closed
valve condi ons. Posi ve displacement pumps physically displace the uid; hence closing a valve downstream of
a posi ve displacement pump will result in a con nual build up in pressure resul ng in mechanical failure of either
117
pipeline or pump. Dynamic pumps dier in that they can be safely operated under closed valve condi ons (for
short periods of me).
[edit]
Centrifugal pump
Main ar cle: Centrifugal pump
A centrifugal pump is a rotodynamic pump that uses a rota ng impeller to increase the pressure and ow rate
of a uid. Centrifugal pumps are the most common type of pump used to move liquids through a piping system.
The uid enters the pump impeller along or near to the rota ng axis and is accelerated by the impeller, owing
radially outward or axially into a diuser or volute chamber, from where it exits into the downstream piping system.
Centrifugal pumps are typically used for large discharge through smaller heads.
The screw centrifugal impeller was invented in 1960 by the late Mar n Sthle, the founder of Hidrostal AG. He
had received an order from the Amial S.A. sh processing factory in Chimbote (Peru) for the development of a
system for transpor ng sh from the nets into a boat, and from the boat into the sh processing plant. The pump
was to work reliably without damaging the sh. The result was the pump with the characteris c screw centrifugal
impeller. This inven on was a great success. It has since been used in many ways throughout the world in countless
other uid handling systems.
The screw centrifugal pump is a popular choice for handling delicate products such as food and crystals. Its low
shear characteris c reduces emulsica on when pumping mixtures making it ideal for pumping oily water and
Return Ac vated Sludge [RAS] as it does not damage theoc. The pumps ability to pass long brous materials such
as rope without clogging makes it a frequent choice for municipal waste water applica ons. A screw centrifugal
pump typically has an opera ng eciency of 70 % to 85 %. It has a rela vely steeply rising head/capacity curve
shape giving it good ow control capability over its allowable opera ng range
The impeller has a single blade, axially extended at the inlet and developed around its axis much like a corkscrew.
Linking this to a centrifugal outlet allows pumping with the minimum of agita on and shear, essen al factors when
product bruising, liquid emulsica on or clogging is to be avoided.
The screw centrifugal impeller features:
Large free passages for pumping liquid with solid objects and brous materials
Able to pump liquids and viscosi es above values normally possible with conven onal centrifugal pumps
Steep H/Q curves with closed valve twice best eciency point
Low NPSH characteris cs
Flat non-overloading power curves
High hydraulic eciencies
Screw centrifugal impeller pumps are widely accepted as state of the art pumps for handling raw sewage and
sludges on treatment plants and incorporate many features, which benets the end user. Screw centrifugal impeller pumps are ideal for handling raw sewage, which contains stringy brous material and for handling sewage
sludge with up to 10 % dry solids content. Typical applica on areas:
Sump emptying
Industrial euent treatment
Feeding oily water separators
Transfer of live sh
Oil and Chemical spillages
118
Mine Drainage
Parts washer equipment
Processing of waste oils & sludges
Transfer of fruit and vegetables
Municipal waste water treatment plants
Centrifugal pumps are most o en associated with the radial ow type. However, the term "centrifugal pump" can
be used to describe all impeller type rotodynamic pumps [ 2 ] including the radial, axial and mixed ow varia ons.
[edit]
Radial ow pumps
O en simply referred to as centrifugal pumps. The uid enters along the axial plane, is accelerated by the impeller
and exits at right angles to the sha (radially). Radial ow pumps operate at higher pressures and lower ow rates
than axial and mixed ow pumps.
[edit]
Axial ow pumps
Main ar cle: Axial ow pump
Axial ow pumps dier from radial ow in that the uid enters and exits along the same direc on parallel to the
rota ng sha . The uid is not accelerated but instead "li ed" by the ac on of the impeller. They may be likened
to a propeller spinning in a length of tube. Axial ow pumps operate at much lower pressures and higher ow
rates than radial ow pumps.
[edit]
Mixed ow pumps
Mixed ow pumps, as the name suggests, func on as a compromise between radial and axial ow pumps, the uid
experiences both radial accelera on and li and exits the impeller somewhere between 0-90 degrees from the
axial direc on. As a consequence mixed ow pumps operate at higher pressures than axial ow pumps while delivering higher discharges than radial ow pumps. The exit angle of the ow dictates the pressure head-discharge
characteris c in rela on to radial and mixed ow.
[edit]
Eductor-jet pump
Main ar cle: Eductor-jet pump
This uses a jet, o en of steam, to create a low pressure. This low pressure sucks in uid and propels it into a higher
pressure region.
[edit]
Gravity pumps
Gravity pumps include the syphon and Herons fountain - and there also important qanat or foggara systems
which simply use downhill ow to take water from far-underground aquifers in high areas to consumers at lower
eleva ons. The hydraulic ram is also some mes referred to as a gravity pump.
[edit]
Steam pumps
Steam pumps are now mainly of historical interest. They include any type of pump powered by a steam engine
and also pistonless pumpssuch as Thomas Saverys pump and the Pulsometer steam pump.
Applica ons
119
Metering pump for gasoline and addi ves.

Pumps are used throughout society for a variety of purposes. Early applica ons includes the use of the windmill
or watermill to pump water. Today, the pump is used for irriga on, water supply, gasoline supply, air condi oning systems, refrigera on (usually called a compressor), chemical movement, sewage movement, ood control,
marine services, etc.
Because of the wide variety of applica ons, pumps have a plethora of shapes and sizes: from very large to very
small, from handling gas to handling liquid, from high pressure to low pressure, and from high volume to low
volume.
[edit]
Priming a pump
Liquid and slurry pumps can lose prime and this will require the pump to be primed by adding liquid to the pump
and inlet pipes to get the pump started. Loss of "prime" is usually due to inges on of air into the pump. The
clearances and displacement ra os in pumps used for liquids and other more viscous uids cannot displace the
air due to its lower density.
Specica ons
Pumps are commonly rated by horsepower, ow rate, outlet pressure in feet (or metres) of head, inlet suc on in
suc on feet (or metres) of head. The head can be simplied as the number of feet or metres the pump can raise
or lower a column of water at atmospheric pressure.
From an ini al design point of view, engineers o en use a quan ty termed the specic speed to iden fy the most
suitable pump type for a par cular combina on of ow rate and head.
Pumping power
Main ar cle: Bernoullis equa on
The power imparted into a uid will increase the energy of the uid per unit volume. Thus the power rela onship
is between the conversion of the mechanical energy of the pump mechanism and the uid elements within the
pump. In general, this is governed by a series of simultaneous dieren al equa ons, known as the Navier-Stokes
equa ons. However a more simple equa on rela ng only the dierent energies in the uid, known as Bernoullis
equa on can be used. Hence the work, W, done by or on a pump is given by:
where P is the change in total pressure between the inlet and outlet (in Pa), and the uid owrate is given in
m^3/s. The total pressure may have gravita onal, sta c pressure and kine c energy components; i.e. energy is
distributed between change in the uids gravita onal poten al energy (going up or down hill), change in velocity,
or change in sta c pressure. is the pump eciency, and may be given by the manufacturers informa on, such
as in the form of a pump curve, and is typically derived from either uid dynamics simula on (i.e. solu ons to the
Navier-stokes for the par cular pump geometry), or by tes ng. The eciency of the pump will depend upon the
pumps congura on and opera ng condi ons (such as rota onal speed, uid density and viscosity etc).
For a typical "pumping" congura on, the work is imparted on the uid, and is thus posi ve. For the uid imparting the work on the pump (i.e. a turbine), the work is nega ve.e power required to drive the pump is determined
120
by dividing the output power by the pump eciency. Furthermore, this deni on encompasses pumps with no
moving parts, such as a siphon.
[edit]
Pump eciency
Pump eciency is dened as the ra o of the power imparted on the uid by the pump in rela on to the power
supplied to drive the pump. Its value is not xed for a given pump, eciency is a func on of the discharge and
therefore also opera ng head. For centrifugal pumps, the eciency tends to increase with ow rate up to a
point midway through the opera ng range (peak eciency) and then declines as ow rates rise further. Pump
performance data such as this is usually supplied by the manufacturer before pump selec on. Pump eciencies
tend to decline over me due to wear (e.g. increasing clearances as impellers reduce in size).
One important part of system design involves matching the pipeline headloss-ow characteris c with the appropriate pump or pumps which will operate at or close to the point of maximum eciency. There are free tools that
help calculate head needed and show pump curves including their Best Eciency Points (BEP). [ 10 ]
Pump eciency is an important aspect and pumps should be regularly tested. Thermodynamic pump tes ng is
one method.
Jockey Pump
A jockey pump is a small pump connected to a re sprinkler system and is intended to maintain pressure in a
re protec on piping system to an ar cially high level so that the opera on of a single re sprinkler will cause
a pressure drop which will be sensed by the re pump automa c controller, causing the re pump to start. The
jockey pump is essen ally a por on of the re pumps control system.
A re pump is a part of a re sprinkler systems water supply and can be powered by electric, diesel or steam.
The pump intake is either connected to the public underground water supply piping, or a sta c water source (e.g.,
tank, reservoir, lake)
121
Air compressor (2010-09-23 15:42)

h p://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Air _compressor
An air compressor is a device that converts electrical power or gas into kine c energy by pressurizing and compressing air, which is then released in quick bursts. There are numerous methods of air compression, divided into
either posi ve-displacement or non-posi ve displacement types. [ 1 ]
Posi ve-displacement air compressors work by forcing air into a chamber whose volume is reduced to eect the
compression. Piston-type air compressors use this principle by pumping air into an air chamber through the
use of the constant mo on of pistons. They use unidirec onal valves to guide air into a chamber, where the
air is compressed. [ 1 ] Rotary screw compressors also use posi ve-displacement compression by matching two
helical screws that, when turned, guide air into a chamber, the volume of which is reduced as the screws turn. [ 2 ]
Vane compressors use a slo ed rotor with varied blade placement to guide air into a chamber and compress the
volume. [ 3 ]
Non-posi ve-displacement air compressors include centrifugal compressors. These devices use centrifugal force
generated by a spinning impeller to accelerate and then decelerate captured air, which pressurizes it. [ 1 ]
The air compressors seen by the public are used in 5 main applica ons:
To supply a high-pressure clean air to ll gas cylinders
To supply a moderate-pressure clean air to supply air to a submerged surface supplied diver
To supply a large amount of moderate-pressure air to power pneuma c tools
For lling res
To produce large volumes of moderate-pressure air for macroscopic industrial processes (such as oxida on
for petroleum coking or cement plant bag house purge systems).
Most air compressors are either reciproca ng piston type or rotary vane or rotary screw. Centrifugal compressors
are common in very large applica ons. There are two main types of air compressors pumps: Oil lubed and oil-less.
The oil-less system has more technical development, but they are more expensive, louder and last for less me
than the oiled lube pumps. However, the air delivered has be er quality.
IR Air compressors (rotary screw)
Oil-free or lubricated, enclosed rotary screw compressor op ons to meet varied customer demands
Time-proven, airend(s) provides trouble-free opera on, minimal maintenance and consistently high performance
Leak-free designs and industry tested rugged components give unparalleled reliability, reducing opera onal
costs
Digital controls and variable frequency drives match system demand, reducing maintenance requirements
Patented sound-dampening enclosures allow installa on near the job, reducing installa on costs
37-75kW / 50-100hp
A rugged and reliable air compressor is what most people desire. If this is your priority then look no further
than Ingersoll Rands 37-75kW / 50-100hp rotary air compressors. With me proven, integral gear drive Intellisys
control system, and long life Ultra Coolant, the Ingersoll Rand, single stage, contact cooled rotary compressor is
the one that you can count on for years to come.
Features
122
Digital Control System Delivered capacity of the compressor is regulated by the Intellisys microprocessor
controller and regulator. The intui ve controller provides all the informa on you need at the touch of a
bu on. You can rest assured that your compressor will be under reliable control needing minimum maintenance.
Higher Ambient Ra ng Rated to operate con nuously at high ambient temperatures of 115F (46C). This
means fewer nuisance shutdowns due to summer heat or reduced suscep bility to opera ng in dirty condi ons.
Advanced Air-end Design At the heart of the compressor is our conserva vely loaded, rugged and highly
reliable air-end which is close coupled to an integrated drive system. This gear drive arrangement eliminates
the need for couplings and is known throughout the industry for its trouble-free opera on with minimal
maintenance.
Ultra Coolant Designed specically for rotary screw air compressors, Ultra Coolant minimizes maintenance
costs by extending the opera ng life of the compressor and maximizing the me between changes: 8,000
hours or 2 years.
123
Vacuum Pumps (2010-09-23 15:46)

A vacuum pump is a device that removes gas molecules from a sealed volume in order to leave behind a par al
vacuum.
A vacuum pump is a device that removes gas molecules from a sealed volume in order to leave behind a par al
vacuum. The vacuum pump was invented in 1650 by O o von Guericke.
Contents
[hide]
1
Types
2
Performance measures
3
Posi ve displacement
4
Momentum transfer
5
Entrapment
6
Other pump types
7
Techniques
8
Uses of vacuum pumps
9
History of the vacuum pump
10
Hazards
11
See also
12
References
124
[edit]
Types
Pumps can be broadly categorized according to three techniques: [ 1 ]
Posi ve displacement pumps use a mechanism to repeatedly expand a cavity, allow gases to ow in from
the chamber, seal o the cavity, and exhaust it to the atmosphere.
Momentum transfer pumps, also called molecular pumps, use high speed jets of dense uid or high speed
rota ng blades to knock gas molecules out of the chamber.
Entrapment pumps capture gases in a solid or adsorbed state. This includes cryopumps, ge ers, and ion
pumps.
Posi ve displacement pumps are the most eec ve for low vacuums. Momentum transfer pumps in conjunc on
with one or two posi ve displacement pumps are the most common congura on used to achieve high vacuums.
In this congura on the posi ve displacement pump serves two purposes. First it obtains a rough vacuum in the
vessel being evacuated before the momentum transfer pump can be used to obtain the high vacuum, as momentum transfer pumps cannot start pumping at atmospheric pressures. Second the posi ve displacement pump
backs up the momentum transfer pump by evacua ng to low vacuum the accumula on of displaced molecules in
the high vacuum pump. Entrapment pumps can be added to reach ultrahigh vacuums, but they require periodic
regenera on of the surfaces that trap air molecules or ions. Due to this requirement their available opera onal
me can be unacceptably short in low and high vacuums, thus limi ng their use to ultrahigh vacuums. Pumps also
dier in details like manufacturing tolerances, sealing material, pressure, ow, admission or no admission of oil
vapor, service intervals, reliability, tolerance to dust, tolerance to chemicals, tolerance to liquids and vibra on.
Performance measures
Pumping speed refers to the volume ow rate of a pump at its inlet, o en measured in volume per unit of
me. Momentum transfer and entrapment pumps are more eec ve on some gases than others, so the
pumping rate can be dierent for each of the gases being pumped, and the average volume ow rate of the
pump will vary depending on the chemical composi on of the gases remaining in the chamber.
Throughput refers to the pumping speed mul plied by the gas pressure at the inlet, and is measured in
units of pressurevolume/unit me. At a constant temperature, throughput is propor onal to the number of
molecules being pumped per unit me, and therefore to themass ow rate of the pump. When discussing a
leak in the system or backstreaming through the pump, throughput refers to the volume leak rate mul plied
by the pressure at the vacuum side of the leak, so the leak throughput can be compared to the pump
throughput.
125
Posi ve displacement and momentum transfer pumps have a constant volume ow rate, (pumping speed,) but
as the chambers pressuredrops, this volume contains less and less mass. So although the pumping speed remains constant, the throughput and mass ow rate drop exponen ally. Meanwhile, the leakage, evapora on,
sublima on and backstreaming rates con nue to produce a constant throughput into the system.
[edit]
Posi ve displacement
The manual water pump draws water up from a well by crea ng a vacuum that water rushes in to ll. In a sense,
it acts to evacuate the well, although the high leakage rate of dirt prevents a high quality vacuum from being
maintained for any length of me.
Mechanism of a scroll pump

Fluids cannot be pulled, so it is technically impossible to create a vacuum by suc on. Suc on is the movement of
uids into a vacuum under the eect of a higher external pressure, but the vacuum has to be created rst. The
easiest way to create an ar cial vacuum is to expand the volume of a container. For example, the diaphragm
muscle expands the chest cavity, which causes the volume of the lungs to increase. This expansion reduces the
pressure and creates a par al vacuum, which is soon lled by air pushed in by atmospheric pressure
To con nue evacua ng a chamber indenitely without requiring innite growth, a compartment of the vacuum
can be repeatedly closed o, exhausted, and expanded again. This is the principle behind posi ve displacement
pumps, like the manual water pump for example. Inside the pump, a mechanism expands a small sealed cavity
to create a deep vacuum. Because of the pressure dieren al, some uid from the chamber (or the well, in our
example) is pushed into the pumps small cavity. The pumps cavity is then sealed from the chamber, opened to
the atmosphere, and squeezed back to a minute size.
More sophis cated systems are used for most industrial applica ons, but the basic principle of cyclic volume
removal is the same:
126
Rotary vane pump, the most common

Diaphragm pump, zero oil contamina on
Liquid ring pump
Piston pump, cheapest
Scroll pump, highest speed dry pump
Screw pump (10 Pa)
Wankel pump
External vane pump
Roots blower, also called a booster pump, has highest pumping speeds but low compression ra o
Mul stage Roots pump that combine several stages providing high pumping speed with be er compression
ra o
Toepler pump
Lobe pump
The base pressure of a rubber- and plas c-sealed piston pump system is typically 1 to 50 kPa, while a scroll pump
might reach 10 Pa (when new) and a rotary vane oil pump with a clean and empty metallic chamber can easily
achieve 0.1 Pa.
A posi ve displacement vacuum pump moves the same volume of gas with each cycle, so its pumping speed is
constant unless it is overcome by backstreaming.
[edit]
Momentum transfer
A cutaway view of a turbomolecular high vacuum pump

In a momentum transfer pump, gas molecules are accelerated from the vacuum side to the exhaust side (which is
usually maintained at a reduced pressure by a posi ve displacement pump). Momentum transfer pumping is only
possible below pressures of about 0.1 kPa. Ma er ows dierently at dierent pressures based on the laws of
uid dynamics. At atmospheric pressure and mild vacuums, molecules interact with each other and push on their
neighboring molecules in what is known as viscous ow. When the distance between the molecules increases, the
molecules interact with the walls of the chamber more o en than the other molecules, andmolecular pumping
becomes more eec ve than posi ve displacement pumping. This regime is generally called high vacuum.
Molecular pumps sweep out a larger area than mechanical pumps, and do so more frequently, making them
capable of much higher pumping speeds. They do this at the expense of the seal between the vacuum and their
exhaust. Since there is no seal, a small pressure at the exhaust can easily cause backstreaming through the pump;
this is called stall. In high vacuum, however, pressure gradients have li le eect on uid ows, and molecular
pumps can a ain their full poten al.
127
The two main types of molecular pumps are the diusion pump and the turbomolecular pump. Both types of
pumps blow out gas molecules that diuse into the pump by impar ng momentum to the gas molecules. Diusion
pumps blow out gas molecules with jets of oil or mercury, while turbomolecular pumps use high speed fans to
push the gas. Both of these pumps will stall and fail to pump if exhausted directly to atmospheric pressure, so
they must be exhausted to a lower grade vacuum created by a mechanical pump.
As with posi ve displacement pumps, the base pressure will be reached when leakage, outgassing, and backstreaming equal the pump speed, but now minimizing leakage and outgassing to a level comparable to backstreaming becomes much more dicult.
Diusion pump
Turbomolecular pump
Vacuum Pumps
Engineered for compactness, economy and dependability, Ingersoll Rands Vacuum Pumps are the number one
choice for demanding applica ons, providing top opera ng eciency combined with low maintenance. Best of all,
these vacuum pumps are backed by Ingersoll Rand, the worlds leader in air compressor and pump manufacturing.
View Model Specica ons
Features
Cast Iron Construc on: Cylinders and frame designed with 100 % cast iron for durability and long life
Cylinders: - Separately cast cylinders with deep ns allow for 360 cooling, removing heat of compression Individual bol ng of cylinders to frame for easy inspec on and maintenance
Low Oil Level Protec on: Low oil level switch protects pump from opera ng without proper lubrica on
Piston Rings: Each piston equipped with 2 compression rings and 2 oil control rings to maintain maximum
opera ng eciency and low oil carryover
Valves: Stainless steel valves readily accessible and inexpensively replaced if necessary
Connec ng Rods: One piece design permits precision aligned machining of both crankpin and piston pin
bearings for longer bearing life and simple maintenance-no bolts to come loose or adjust
128
ETP (2010-09-23 15:58)

Industrial wastewater treatment
Industrial wastewater treatment covers the mechanisms and processes used to treat waters that have been contaminated in some way byanthropogenic industrial or commercial ac vi es prior to its release into the environment or its re-use.
Food industry
Wastewater generated from agricultural and food opera ons has dis nc ve characteris cs that set it apart from
common municipal wastewater managed by public or private wastewater treatment plants throughout the world:
it is biodegradable and nontoxic, but that has high concentra ons of biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) and
suspended solids (SS). [ 1 ] The cons tuents of food and agriculture wastewater are o en complex to predict due
to the dierences in BOD and pH in euents from vegetable, fruit, and meat products and due to the seasonal
nature of food processing and postharves ng.
Processing of food from raw materials requires large volumes of high grade water. Vegetable washing generates
waters with high loads ofpar culate ma er and some dissolved organics. It may also contain surfactants.
Animal slaughter and processing produces very strong organic waste from body uids, such as blood, and gut
contents. This wastewater is frequently contaminated by signicant levels of an bio cs and growth hormones
from the animals and by a variety of pes cides used to control external parasites. Insec cide residues in eeces
is a par cular problem in trea ng waters generated in wool processing.
Processing food for sale produces wastes generated from cooking which are o en rich in plant organic material
and may also contain salt,avourings, colouring material and acids or alkali. Very signicant quan es of oil or
fats may also be present.
Biochemical oxygen demand or BOD is a chemical procedure for determining the amount of dissolved oxygen
needed by aerobic biological organisms in a body of water to break down organic material present in a given
water sample at certain temperature over a specic me period. It is not a precise quan ta ve test, although it is
widely used as an indica on of the organic quality of water. [ 1 ] . It is most commonly expressed in milligrams of
oxygen consumed per litre of sample during 5 days of incuba on at 20 C and is o en used as a robust surrogate
of the degree of organic pollu on of water.
The BOD5 test
There are two commonly recognized methods for the measurement of BOD.
[edit]
Dilu on method
To ensure that all other condi ons are equal, a very small amount of micro-organism seed is added to each sample
being tested. This seed is typically generated by dilu ng ac vated sludge with de-ionized water. The BOD test is
carried out by dilu ng the sample with oxygen saturated de-ionized water, inocula ng it with a xed aliquot of
seed, measuring the dissolved oxygen (DO) and then sealing the sample to prevent further oxygen dissolving in.
The sample is kept at 20 C in the dark to prevent photosynthesis (and thereby the addi on of oxygen) for ve
days, and the dissolved oxygen is measured again. The dierence between the nal DO and ini al DO is the BOD.
The apparent BOD for the control is subtracted from the control result to provide the corrected value.
The loss of dissolved oxygen in the sample, once correc ons have been made for the degree of dilu on, is called
the BOD5. For measurement of carbonaceous BOD (cBOD), a nitrica on inhibitor is added a er the dilu on
water has been added to the sample. The inhibitor hinders the oxida on of nitrogen.
BOD can be calculated by:
Undiluted: Ini al DO - Final DO = BOD
Diluted: ((Ini al DO - Final DO)- BOD of Seed) x Dilu on Factor
129
BOD is similar in func on to chemical oxygen demand (COD), in that both measure the amount of organic compounds in water. However, COD is less specic, since it measures everything that can be chemically oxidised,
rather than just levels of biologically ac ve organic ma er.
[edit]
Manometric method
This method is limited to the measurement of the oxygen consump on due only to carbonaceous oxida on. Ammonia oxida on is inhibited.
The sample is kept in a sealed container ed with a pressure sensor. A substance that absorbs carbon dioxide
(typically lithium hydroxide) is added in the container above the sample level. The sample is stored in condi ons
iden cal to the dilu on method. Oxygen is consumed and, as ammonia oxida on is inhibited, carbon dioxide is
released. The total amount of gas, and thus the pressure, decreases because carbon dioxide is absorbed. From
the drop of pressure, the sensor electronics computes and displays the consumed quan ty of oxygen.
The main advantages of this method compared to the dilu on method are:
simplicity: no dilu on of sample required, no seeding, no blank sample
direct reading of BOD value
con nuous display of BOD value at the current incuba on me.
Furthermore, as the BOD measurement can be monitored con nuously, a graph of its evolu on can be plo ed.
Interpola on of several graphs on a similar water may build an experience of its usual evolu on, and allow an
es ma on of the ve days BOD a er as early as the rst two days of incuba on. [ 2 ]
Chemical oxygen demand
In environmental chemistry, the chemical oxygen demand (COD) test is commonly used to indirectly measure the amount of organic compounds in water.
Overview
The basis for the COD test is that nearly all organic compounds can be fully oxidized to carbon dioxide with a strong
oxidizing agent underacidic condi ons. The amount of oxygen required to oxidize an organic compound to carbon
dioxide, ammonia, and water is given by:
This expression does not include the oxygen demand caused by the oxida on of ammonia into nitrate. The process
of ammonia being converted into nitrate is referred to as nitrica on. The following is the correct equa on for
the oxida on of ammonia into nitrate.
The second equa on should be applied a er the rst one to include oxida on due to nitrica on if the oxygen
demand from nitrica on must be known. Dichromate does not oxidize ammonia into nitrate, so this nitrica on
can be safely ignored in the standard chemical oxygen demand test.
Wastewater quality indicators such as the biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) and the chemical oxygen demand
(COD) are essen allylaboratory tests to determine whether or not a specic wastewater will have a signicant
adverse eect upon sh or upon aqua c plant life.
Wastewater biochemical oxygen demand and chemical oxygen demand
Any oxidizable material present in a natural waterway or in an industrial wastewater will be oxidized both by
biochemical (bacterial) or chemical processes. The result is that the oxygen content of the water will be decreased.
Basically, the reac on for biochemical oxida on may be wri en as:
130
Oxidizable material + bacteria + nutrient + O2 CO2 + H2O + oxidized inorganics such as NO3 or SO4
Oxygen consump on by reducing chemicals such as suldes and nitrites is typied as follows:
S + 2 O2 SO4
NO2- + O2 NO3Since all natural waterways contain bacteria and nutrient, almost any waste compounds introduced into such
waterways will ini ate biochemical reac ons (such as shown above). Those biochemical reac ons create what is
measured in the laboratory as the Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD).
Oxidizable chemicals (such as reducing chemicals) introduced into a natural water will similarly ini ate chemical
reac ons (such as shown above). Those chemical reac ons create what is measured in the laboratory as the
Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD).
Both the BOD and COD tests are a measure of the rela ve oxygen-deple on eect of a waste contaminant. Both
have been widely adopted as a measure of pollu on eect. The BOD test measures the oxygen demand of
biodegradable pollutants whereas the COD test measures the oxygen demand of biogradable pollutants plus the
oxygen demand of non-biodegradable oxidizable pollutants.
The so-called 5-day BOD measures the amount of oxygen consumed by biochemical oxida on of waste contaminants in a 5-day period. The total amount of oxygen consumed when the biochemical reac on is allowed to
proceed to comple on is called the Ul mate BOD. The Ul mate BOD is too me consuming, so the 5-day BOD has
almost universally been adopted as a measure of rela ve pollu on eect.
There are also many dierent COD tests. Perhaps, the most common is the 4-hour COD.
There is no generalized correla on between the 5-day BOD and the Ul mate BOD. Likewise, there is no generalized correla on between BOD and COD. It is possible to develop such correla ons for a specic waste contaminant
in a specic wastewater stream, but such correla ons cannot be generalized for use with any other waste contaminants or wastewater streams.
The laboratory test procedures for the determining the above oxygen demands are detailed in the following sec ons of the "Standard Methods For the Examina on Of Water and Wastewater" available at
www.standardmethods.org:
5-day BOD and Ul mate BOD: Sec ons 5210B and 5210C
COD: Sec on 5220
131
Boilers Basic (2010-09-23 16:08)

h p://www.scribd.com/doc/36964485/Boiler-Basics
Boilers
Boiler Types, Combus on in boilers Performances evalua on of boilers, Analysis of losses Feed water treatment,
Blow down Energy conserva on opportuni es.
Introduc on to Boiler
Enclosed Pressure Vessel Heat generated by Combus on of Fuel is transferred to water to become steam Process:
Evapora on
Steam volume increases to 1,600 mes from water and produces tremendous force Boiler to be extremely dangerous equipment. Care is must to avoid explosion.
What is a boiler?
What are the various hea ng surfaces in a boiler?
Hea ng surface is expressed in square feet or in square meter
Classied into :
1 Radiant Hea ng Surfaces (direct or primary)
including all water-backed surfaces that are directly exposed to the radiant heat of the combus on ame.
2 Convected Hea ng Surfaces ( indirect or secondary) including all those water-backed surfaces
exposed only to hot combus on gases.
3 Extended Hea ng Surfaces referring to the surface
of economizers and super heaters used in certain types of water tube boilers.
Fuels used in Boiler
S. olid No 1 Coal 2 Lignite 3 4 5 6 Liquid Gaseous AgroWaste HSD NGas aggase LDO io Gas ith ur.Oil Rice Husk LSHS
addy oconut shell Groundnutshell
Indian Boiler Regula on
IBR Steam Boilers
means any closed vessel exceeding 22.75 liters in capacity and which is used expressively for genera ng steam
under pressure and includes any moun ng or other ng a ached to such vessel, which is wholly, or partly under
pressure when the steam is shut o.
IBR Steam Pipe
means any pipe through which steam passes from a boiler to a prime mover or other user or both, if pressure
at which steam passes through such pipes exceeds 3.5 kg/cm2 above atmospheric pressure or such pipe exceeds
254 mm in internal diameter and includes in either case any connected ng of a steam pipe.
As per sec on 28 & 29 of the Indian Boilers Act.
Typical Boiler Specica on
Boiler Make & Year MCR
(Maximum Con nuous Ra ng)
::::::
XYZ & 2003 10TPH (F & A 100oC)
Rated Working Pressure Type of Boiler
10.54 kg/cm2(g) 3 Pass, Fire
132
tube,packaged
Fuel Fired Total Hea ng Surface
Fuel Oil 310 M2
Boiler Systems
Water treatment system Feed water system Steam System Blow down system
Fuel supply system ir Supply system Flue gas system
Boiler Types and Classica ons
Fire in tube or Hot gas through tubes and boiler feed water in shell side Fire Tubes submerged in water Applica on
Used for small steam capaci es ( up to 12000 kg/hr and 17.5kg/cm2 Merits Low Capital Cost and fuel Ecient (82
%) Accepts wide & load uctua ons Steam pressure varia on is less (Large volume of water) Packaged Boiler
Fire Tube Boiler
Boiler Types and Classica ons
Water ow through tubes Water Tubes surrounded by hot gas Applica on Used for Power Plants Steam capacies range from 4.5- 120 t/hr Characteris cs High Capital Cost Used for high pressure high capacity steam boiler
Demands more controls Calls for very stringent water quality
Water Tube Boiler
Package boilers are generally of shell type with re tube design High heat release rate in small combus on space
Packaged Boiler
More number of passes-so more heat transfer Large number of small diameter tubes leading to good convec ve
heat transfer. Higher thermal eciency
Chain
rate or Traveling
rate Stoker Boiler
Coal is fed on one end of a moving steel chain grate Coal burns and ash drops o at end Coal grate controls rate
of coal feed into furnace by controlling the thickness of the fuel bed. Coal must be uniform in size as large lumps
will not burn out completely Bed thickness decreases from coal feed end to rear end and so more air at front and
less air at rear end to be supplied Water tube boiler
Uses both suspension and grate burning Coal fed con nuously over burning coal bed Coal nes burn in suspension
and larger coal pieces burn on grate Good exibility to meet changing load requirements Preferred over other type
of stokers in industrial applica on
Spreader Stoker Boiler
Pulverized Fuel Boiler
Coal is pulverised to a ne powder, so that less than 2 % is +300 microns, and 70-75 % is below 75 microns. Coal is
blown with part of the combus on air into the boiler plant through a series of burner nozzles. Combus on takes
place at temperatures from 1300-1700C Par cle residence me in the boiler is typically 2-5 seconds One of
the most popular system for ring pulverized coal is the tangen al ring using four burners corner to corner to
create a re ball at the center of the furnace. See Figure Tangen al ring
Thermal power Sta on Boiler
90 % of coal-red power boiler in the world is Pulverized type
Pulverized Fuel Boiler (Contd..)
Advantages
Its ability to burn all ranks of coal from anthraci c to ligni c, and it permits combina on ring (i.e., can use coal,
oil and gas in same burner). Because of these advantages, there is widespread use of pulverized coal furnaces.
133
Disadvantages
High power demand for pulverizing Requires more maintenance, yash erosion and pollu on complicate unit
opera on
Fluidized bed Combus on (FBC) boiler
When an evenly distributed air or gas is passed upward through a nely divided bed of solid par cles such as sand
supported on a ne mesh, the par cles are undisturbed at low velocity. s air velocity is gradually increased, a
stage is reached when the individual par cles are suspended in the air stream
Further, increase in velocity gives rise to bubble forma on, vigorous turbulence and rapid mixing and the bed is
said to be uidized. Coal is fed con nuously in to a hot air agitated refractory sand bed, the coal will burn rapidly
and the bed a ains a uniform temperature
Fluidized Bed Combus on
Fluidized-bed boiler (Contd..)
Advantages :
Higher rates of heat transfer between combus on process and boiler tubes (thus reduced furnace area and size
required), combus on temperature 850oC is lower than in a conven onal furnace. The lower furnace temperatures means reduced NOx produc on. In addi on, the limestone (CaCO3) and dolomite (MgCO3) react with SO2
to form calcium and magnesium suldes, respec vely, solids which do not escape up the stack; This means the
plant can easily use high sulfur coal. Fuel Flexibility: Mul fuel ring
Circula ng Fluidized Bed Boiler
Performance Evalua on of Boilers
What are the factors for poor eciency? Eciency reduces with me, due to poor combus on, heat transfer fouling and poor opera on and maintenance.Deteriora on of fuel and water quality also leads to poor performance
of boiler.
How Eciency tes ng helps to improve performance? Helps us to nd out how far the boiler eciency dri s
away from the best eciency. Any observed abnormal devia ons could therefore be inves gated to pinpoint the
problem area for necessary correc ve ac on.
Boiler Eciency
Thermal eciency of boiler is dened as the percentage of heat input that is eec vely u lized to generate steam.
There are two methods of assessing boiler eciency. 1) The Direct Method: Where the energy gain of the working
uid (water and steam) is compared with the energy content of the boiler fuel. 2) The Indirect Method: Where
the eciency is the dierence between the losses and the energy input.
Boiler Eciency Evalua on Method
1. Direct Method
2. Indirect Method
Example:
Type of boiler: Coal red Boiler Heat input data Qty of coal consumed :1.8 TPH GCV of coal :3200K.Cal/kg Heat
output data Qty of steam generated :8 TPH Steam pr/temp :10 kg/cm2(g)/1800C Enthalpy of steam(sat) at 10
kg/cm2(g) pressure :665 K.Cal/kg Feed water temperature :850 C Enthalpy of feed water :85 K.Cal/kg
Find eciency and Evapora on Ra o?
Eciency Calcula on by Direct Method
Boiler eciency (L): = Q x (H h) x 100 (q x GCV)
Where Q = Quan ty of steam generated per hour (kg/hr) H = Enthalpy of saturated steam (kcal/kg) h = Enthalpy
of feed water (kcal/kg) q = Quan ty of fuel used per hour (kg/hr) GCV = Gross caloric value of the fuel (kcal/kg)
Boiler eciency (L)=
134
8 TPH x1000Kg/Tx (66585) x 100 1.8 TPH x 1000Kg/T x 3200 = 80.0 % = 8 Tonne of steam/1.8 Ton of coal = 4.4
Evapora on Ra o
What are the losses that occ r i a boiler?
team O tp t
1. Dry Flue gas loss 2. H2 loss 3. Moisture in uel 4. Moisture in air 5. O loss
6. Sur ace loss
7. Fly ash loss
Fuel Input, 100
Boiler
Flue gas
ir
8. o om ash loss
cie cy
(by In Direct Method)
= 100 (1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8)
Boiler Heat Balance:
Input/ utput Parameter Kcal / Kg of fuel % 100
= Heat Input in fuel Various Heat losses in boiler 1. Dry ue gas loss = 2. oss due to hydrogen in fuel 3. oss due
to moisture in fuel = 4. oss due to moisture in air = 5. Par al combus on of C to CO = 6. Surface heat losses =
7. oss due to Unburnt in y ash = 8. oss due to Unburnt in bo om = ash = Total osses Boiler eciency = 100
(1+2+3+4+5+6+7+8)
What are the Measurements to be carried out during energy udit in Boiler?
Ul mate analysis of fuel (H2, content) Heat content of fuel, Fuel ow, steam or water ow Temp & Pressure of
steam Temperature of water inlet / outlet t of economizer % of CO2 or O2, CO and Temperature from Flue Surface
Temp & mbient Temp Ambient temperature in 0C & humidity of air in kg/kg of dry air. Percentage combus ble in
ash and Amount of blow down Size & dimension of boiler CV of ash (for solid fuels) as
2,
S, C, moisture content, ash
CV in kcal/kg
Test Procedure
Plan / inform the concerned dept. All the Instrument should be calibrated Ensure fuel and water availability Test
at maximum steam load condi on Conduct 8 hrs minimum (1/2 or 1 hr frequently) Water level in drum should be
same at start & end of test Gas Sampling point should be proper No blow down during test
Example: The following are the data collected for a typical oil red boiler. Find out the eciency of the boiler by
indirect method and Boiler Evapora on ra o.
yy
yyyyyyyy
Type of boiler : Oil red Ul mate analysis of Oil C: 84.0 % H2: 12.0 % S: 3.0 % O2: 1.0 % GCV of Oil : 10200 kcal/kg
Steam Genera on Pressure : 7kg/cm2(g)-saturated Enthalpy of steam : 660 kCal/kg Feed water temperature :
60oC Percentage of Oxygen in ue gas: 7 Percentage of CO2in ue gas : 11 Flue gas temperature (Tf) : 220 0C
Ambient temperature (Ta) : 27 0C Humidity of air : 0.018 kg/kg of dry air
135
Solu on
Step-1: Find the theore cal air re uirement =[(11.43 x C) + [ {34.5 x ( 2 O2/8) } + (4.32 x S)]/100 kg/kg of oil
=[(11.43 x 84) + [ {34.5 x (12 1/8) } + (4.32 x 3)]/100 kg/kg of oil =13.82 kg of air/kg of oil Step-2: Find the
%Excess air supplied Excess air supplied (EA) = (O2 x 100) (21-O2) = (7 x 100)/(21-7) = 50 %
Step-3: Find the Actual mass of air supplied Actual mass of air supplied /kg of fuel : [ 1 + EA/100] x Theo. Air (AAS)
= [1 + 50/100] x 13.82 = 1.5 x 13.82 = 20.74 kg of air/kg of oil
Step-4: Es ma on of all losses
I Dry ue gas loss
i. Percentage heat loss due to dry ue gas = m x Cp x (Tf Ta ) x 100
CV of fuel m = mass of CO2 + mass of SO2 + mass of m=
0.84 x 44 + 12 % eat loss in dry ue gas 32 0.03 x 64 + 100 x 100 20.74 x 77 + (0.07 x 32)
2
+ mass of O2
m =21.35 kg / kg of oil
= 21.35 x 0.23 x (220 27) 10200
9.29 % Alterna vely a simple method can be used for determining the dry ue gas loss as given below.
Percentage heat loss due to dry ue gas = m x Cp x (Tf Ta ) x 100 CV of fuel Total mass of ue gas (m) = mass of
actual air supplied + mass of fuel supplied = 20.19 + 1=21.19 %Dry ue gas loss = 21.19 x 0.23 x (220-27) x 100
9.22 % 10200
ii. Heat loss due to evapora on of water formed due to H2 in fuel =
Where,
2
percentage of
2
in fuel
9x
2
{584 + 0.45 (Tf Ta) } CV of fuel
9 x 12 {584 + 0.45 (220 27) } 10200
= 7.10 %
iii. Heat loss due to moisture present in air
AAS x humidity x 0.45 x (Tf Ta) x 100 CV of fuel
=[ 20.74 x 0.018 x 0.45 x (220-27) x 100]/10200 = 0.317 %
iv Heat loss due to radia on and other unaccounted losses
For a small boiler it is es mated to be 2 %
Boiler Eciency i. ii. iii. iv. eat loss due to dry ue gas eat loss due to evapora on of water formed due to eat loss
due to moisture present in air eat loss due to radia on and other unaccounted loss : 2 %
2
: 9.29 % in fuel : 7.10 % : 0.317 %
136
Boiler Eciency = 100- [9.29+7.10+0.317+2] = 100 17.024 = 83 %(app) Evapora on a o = eat u lised for steam
genera on/ eat addi on to the steam = 10200 x 0.83/ (660-60) = 14.11
Why Boiler Blow Down ?
When water evaporates Dissolved solids gets concentrated Solids precipitates Coa ng of tubes educes the heat
transfer rate
Intermi ent Blowdown
The intermi ent blown down is given by manually opera ng a valve ed to discharge pipe at the lowest point of
boiler shell to reduce parameters (TDS or conduc vity, pH, Silica etc) within prescribed limits so that steam quality
is not likely to be aected TDS level keeps varying uctua ons of the water level in the boiler. substan al amount
of heat energy is lost with intermi ent blow down.
Con nuous Blowdown
A steady and constant dispatch of small stream of concentrated boiler water, and replacement by steady and
constant inow of feed water. This ensures constant TDS and steam purity. Once blow down valve is set for a
given condi ons, there is no need for regular operator interven on. Even though large quan es of heat are
wasted, opportunity exits for recovering this heat by blowing into a ash tank and genera ng ash steam. This
type of blow down is common in highpressure boilers.
The uan ty of blowdown re uired to control boiler water solids concentra on is calculated by using the following
formula: (Con nuous Blow down) Steam 10 T/hr TDS(T) =0 TDS(S) in feed water TDS (C) =3500 ppm Allowable)
100 ppm Blow down(B)
B = SX100/(C-S) Blowdown % = TDS in FWx100 TDSin Boiler - TDS in FW Blow down ow rate = 3 %x 10,000kg/hr
= 300kg/hr
= 100 / (3500-100) = (100/3400)x100 = 2.9 %=3 %
Boiler Water Treatment
Method : It is carried out by adding chemicals to boiler to prevent the forma on of scale by conver ng the scaleforming compounds to free-owing sludges, which can be removed by blowdown. Limita on : Applicable to
boilers, where feed water is low in hardness salts, to low pressures- high TDS content in boiler water is tolerated,
and when only small quan ty of water is required to be treated. If these condi ons are not applied, then high
rates of blowdown are required to dispose o the sludge. They become uneconomical from heat and water loss
considera on. Chemicals : Dierent waters require dierent chemicals. Sodium carbonate, sodium aluminate,
sodium phosphate, sodium sulphite and compounds of vegetable or inorganic origin are all used for this purpose.
Internal treatment alone is not recommended.
External Water Treatment
Propose: External treatment is used to remove suspended solids, dissolved solids (par cularly the calcium and
magnesium ions which are a major cause of scale forma on) and dissolved gases (oxygen and carbon dioxide).
Dierent treatment Process : ion exchange; demineraliza on; reverse osmosis and de-aera on. Before any of
these are used, it is necessary to remove suspended solids and colour from the raw water, because these may foul
the resins used in the subsequent treatment sec ons. Methods of pre-treatment include simple sedimenta on
in se ling tanks or se ling in clariers with aid of coagulants and occulants. Pressure sand lters, with spray
aera on to remove carbon dioxide and iron, may be used to remove metal salts from bore well water. Removal
of only hardness salts is called so ening, while total removal of salts from solu on is called demineraliza on.
Ion-exchange Process (So ener Plant)
In ion-exchange process, hardness is removed as the water passes through bed of natural zeolite or synthe c
resin and without the forma on of any precipitate. The simplest type is base exchange in which calcium and
magnesium ions are exchanged for sodium ions. The sodium salts being soluble, do not form scales in boilers.
Since base exchanger only replaces the calcium and magnesium with sodium, it does not reduce the TDS content,
and blowdown quan ty. It also does not reduce the alkalinity. Demineraliza on is the complete removal of all
salts. This is achieved by using a ca on resin, which exchanges the ca ons in the raw water with hydrogen ions,
137
producing hydrochloric, sulphuric and carbonic acid. Carbonic acid is removed in degassing tower in which air is
blown through the acid water. Following this, the water passes through an anion resin which exchanges anions
with the mineral acid (e.g. sulphuric acid) and forms water. Regenera on of ca ons and anions is necessary at
intervals using, typically, mineral acid and caus c soda respec vely. The complete removal of silica can be achieved
by correct choice of anion resin. Ion exchange processes can be used for almost total demineraliza on if required.
De-aera on
In de-aera on, dissolved gases, such as oxygen and carbon dioxide, are expelled by prehea ng the feed water
before it enters the boiler. All natural waters contain dissolved gases in solu on. Certain gases, such as carbon
dioxide and oxygen, greatly increase corrosion. When heated in boiler systems, carbon dioxide (CO2) and oxygen
(O2) are released as gases and combine with water (H2O) to form carbonic acid, (H2CO3). Removal of oxygen,
carbon dioxide and other non-condensable gases from boiler feedwater is vital to boiler equipment longevity
as well as safety of opera on. Carbonic acid corrodes metal reducing the life of equipment and piping. It also
dissolves iron (Fe) which when returned to the boiler precipitates and causes scaling on the boiler and tubes.
De-aera on can be done by mechanical de-aera on, by chemical de-dera on or by both together.
Mechanical de-aera on
Removal of oxygen and carbon dioxide can be accomplished by hea ng the boiler feed water. They operate at the
boiling point of water at the pressure in the de-aerator. They can be of vacuum or pressure type. The vacuum type
of de-aerator operates below atmospheric pressure, at about 82oC, can reduce the oxygen content in water to
less than 0.02 mg/litre. Vacuum pumps or steam ejectors are required to maintain the vacuum. The pressure-type
de-aerators operates by allowing steam into the feed water and maintaining temperature of 105oC. The steam
raises the water temperature causing the release of O2 and CO2 gases that are then vented from the system. This
type can reduce the oxygen content to 0.005 mg/litre. Steam is preferred for de-aera on because steam is free
from O2 and CO2, and steam is readily available & economical
Chemical de-aera on
While the most ecient mechanical de-aerators reduce oxygen to very low levels (0.005 mg/litre), even trace
amounts of oxygen may cause corrosion damage to a system. So removal of hat traces of oxygen with a chemical
oxygen scavenger such as sodium sulte or hydrazine is needed.
Reverse Osmosis
Reverse osmosis uses the fact that when solu ons of diering concentra ons are separated by a semi-permeable
membrane, water from less concentrated solu on passes through the membrane to dilute the liquid of high concentra on. If the solu on of high concentra on is pressurized, the process is reversed and the water from the
solu on of high concentra on ows to the weaker solu on. This is known as reverse osmosis. The quality of water produced depends upon the concentra on of the solu on on the high-pressure side and pressure dieren al
across the membrane. This process is suitable for waters with very high TDS, such as sea water.
Recommended Boiler Water imits
Factor TDS, ppm Total iron dissolved solids ppm Specic electrical conduc vity at 250C (mho) Phosphate residual
ppm p at 250C Silica (max) ppm Upto20 kg/cm2 3000-3500 500 1000 21 kg/cm2 40 41-60 kg/cm2 500-750 150
300
1500-2000 200 400
20-40 10-10.5 25
20-40 10-10.5 15
15-25 9.8-10.2 10
Energy Conserva on Opportuni es
in Boilers
1. Reduce Stack Temperature
Stack
138
temperatures greater than 200C indicates poten al for recovery of waste heat. It also indicate the scaling of heat
transfer/recovery equipment and hence the urgency of taking an early shut down for water / ue side cleaning.
22o C reduc on in ue gas temperature increases boiler eciency by 1 %
2. Feed Water Prehea ng using Economizer
For an older shell boiler, with a ue gas exit temperature of 260oC, an economizer could be used to reduce it to
200oC, Increase in overall thermal eciency would be in the order of 3 %. Condensing economizer(N.Gas) Flue
gas reduc on up to 65oC
6oC raise in feed water temperature, by economiser / condensate recovery, corresponds to a 1 % saving in fuel
consump on
3. Combus on Air Prehea ng
Combus on
air prehea ng is alterna ve to feed water hea ng.
an
In
order to improve thermal eciency by 1 %, the combus on air temperature must be raised by 20 oC.
4. Incomplete Combus on
(c c c c c +
co co co co)
Incomplete combus on can arise from a shortage of air or surplus of fuel or poor distribu on of fuel. In the case of
oil and gas red systems, CO or smoke with normal or high excess air indicates burner system problems. Example:
Poor mixing of fuel and air at the burner. Poor oil res can result from improper viscosity, worn ps, carboniza on
on ps and deteriora on of diusers.
With coal ring: Loss occurs as grit carry-over or carbonin-ash (2 % loss).
Example :In chain grate stokers, large lumps will not burn out completely, while small pieces and nes may block
the air passage, thus causing poor air distribu on. Increase in the nes in pulverized coal also increases carbon
loss.
5. Control excess air
for every 1 % reduc on in excess air ,0.6 % rise in eciency. The op mum excess air level varies ith urnace design,
type o burner, uel and process variables.Install oxygen trim system
Ta le 2.5 Fuel ulverised coal xcess air levels for dierent fuels Type of Furnace or Burners Completely ater-cooled
urnace or slagtap or dry-ash removal ar ally ater-cooled urnace or dry-ash removal Spreader stoker Water-cooler
vibra ng-grate stokers Chain-grate and traveling-gate stokers nder eed stoker Oil burners, register type Mul - uel
burners and lat- lame Dutch over (10-23 through grates) and Ho t type ll urnaces Recovery urnaces or dra t and
sodapulping processes xcess Air ( % y t) 15-20 15-40 30-60 30-60 15-50 20-50 5-10 10-30 20-25 25-35 5-7
Coal
Fuel oil Wood agasse lack liquor
6. Radia on and Convec on Heat oss
The surfaces lose heat to the surroundings depending on the surface area and the dierence in temperature
between the surface and the surroundings. The heat loss from the boiler shell is normally a xed energy loss,
irrespec ve of the boiler output. With modern boiler designs, this may represent only 1.5 % on the gross caloric
value at full ra ng, but will increase to around 6 %, if the boiler operates at only 25 percent output. Repairing or
augmen ng insula on can reduce heat loss through boiler walls
7. Automa c Blowdown Control
139
con nuous blowdown is very wasteful. Automa c blowdown controls can be installed that sense and respond to
boiler water conduc vity and pH. A 10 % blow down in a 15 kg/cm2 boiler results in 3 % eciency loss.
Uncontrolled
B OWDOWN HEAT OSS
This loss varies between 1 % and 6 % and depends on a number of factors: Total dissolved solids (TDS) allowable
in boiler water Quality of the make-up water, which depends mainly on the type of water treatment installed
(e.g. base exchange so ener or demineralisa on): Amount of uncontaminated condensate returned to the boilerhouse Boiler load varia ons. Correct checking and maintenance of feedwater and boiler water quality, maximising condensate return and smoothing load swings will minimise the loss. Add a waste heat recovery system
to blowdowns
Flash steam genera on
Blowdown Heat Recovery
Eciency Improvement - Up to 2 percentage points. Blowdown of boilers to reduce the sludge and solid content
allows heat to go down the drain. The amount of blowdown should be minimized by following a good water
treatment program, but installing a heat exchanger in the blowdown line allows this waste heat to be used in
prehea ng makeup and feedwater. Heat recovery is most suitable for con nuous blowdown opera ons which in
turn provides the best water treatment program.
8. Reduc on of Scaling and Soot osses
In oil and coal-red boilers, soot buildup on tubes acts as an insulator against heat transfer. Any such deposits
should be removed on a regular basis. Elevated stack temperatures may indicate excessive soot buildup. Also
same result will occur due to scaling on the water side. High exit gas temperatures at normal excess air indicate
poor heat transfer performance. This condi on can result from a gradual build-up of gas-side or waterside deposits. Waterside deposits require a review of water treatment procedures and tube cleaning to remove deposits.
Stack temperature should be checked and recorded regularly as an indicator of soot deposits. When the ue gas
temperature rises about 20oC above the temperature for a newly cleaned boiler, it is me to remove the soot
deposits
Cleaning
Incorrect water treatment, poor combus on and poor cleaning schedules can easily reduce overall thermal eciency However, the addi onal cost of maintenance and cleaning must be taken into considera on when assessing
savings.
Every millimeter thickness of soot coa ng increases the stack temperature by about 55oC. 3 mm of soot can
cause an increase in fuel consump on by 2.5 %. A 1mm thick scale (deposit) on the water side could increase
fuel consump on by 5 to 8 %
9. Reduc on of Boiler Steam Pressure
Lower steam pressure gives a lower saturated steam temperature and without stack heat recovery, a similar reducon in the temperature of the ue gas temperature results. Poten al 1 to 2 % improvement. Steam is generated
at pressures normally dictated by the highest pressure / temperature requirements for a par cular process. In
some cases, the process does not operate all the me, and there are periods when the boiler pressure could be
reduced. Adverse eects, such as an increase in water carryover from the boiler owing to pressure reduc on,
may negate any poten al saving. Pressure should be reduced in stages, and no more than a 20 percent reduc on
should be considered.
10. Variable Speed Control for Fans, Blowers and Pumps
Generally, combus on air control is eected by thro ling dampers ed at forced and induced dra fans. Though
dampers are simple means of control, they lack accuracy, giving poor control characteris cs at the top and bo om
of the opera ng range. If the load characteris c of the boiler is variable, the possibility of replacing the dampers
by a VSD should be evaluated.
11. Eect of Boiler oading on Eciency
140
As the load falls, so does the value of the mass ow rate of the ue gases through the tubes. This reduc on in
ow rate for the same heat transfer area, reduced the exit ue gas temperatures by a small extent, reducing the
sensible heat loss. Below half load, most combus on appliances need more excess air to burn the fuel completely
and increases the sensible heat loss. Opera on of boiler below 25 % should be avoided Op mum eciency occurs
at 65-85 % of full loads
12. Boiler Replacement
if the exis ng boiler is :
Old and inecient, not capable of ring cheaper subs tu on fuel, over or under-sized for present requirements,
not designed for ideal loading condi ons replacement op on should be explored. The feasibility study should
examine all implica ons of long-term fuel availability and company growth plans. All nancial and engineering
factors should be considered. Since boiler plants tradi onally have a useful life of well over 25 years, replacement
must be carefully studied.
141
RO Plant (2010-09-23 16:16)

h p://www.watertreatmentplant.co.in/ro _plant.html
RO Plant ION EXCHANGE
Scarcity of good quality water has increased our dependence on ground water sources. This brackish or saline
water is unt for drinking or for industrial use unless properly treated. Reverse osmosis, a membrane desalina on
process increasingly used worldwide, puries brackish water for drinking and industrials purposes.
Reverse osmosis membrane technology produces water with very low dissolved solids and which is also free from
par culate, colloidal and organics ma er.
Features :
Compact unit with robust mild steel powder coated frame .
Eciently removes up to 95 % of total dissolved solids (TDS) or salinity, producing water which is clear & pleasant
to taste.
Range of models with capaci es from 30 L/h up to 1000 L/h.
Built in safety features to protect high pressure pump & membranes.
Capable of handling waters with TDS levels between 1500 to 2500 ppm depending on the model.
Fully assembled and tested before dispatch.
On-line device to monitor treated water quality.
Advantages :
The most economical &ecient method of dissolved solids removal.
Easy to startup and uses very li le space on solids in feed water.
Can handle uctua ons of total dissolved solids removal.
Easy availability of spares and service.
Short delivery periods.
Applica ons :
Hygienic drinking water hotels ,restaurants, hospitals and residences.
Mineral water plants.
High purity water for hospital for use in dialysis units.
As a retrot to demineralisa ons plants in industries to reduce regenera on chemicals.
Specica ons :
Cartridge pre-lter for FRP pressure vessels.
Spiral wound membrane elements of polyamide type.
Mul stage pump made of 316 stainless steel.
TEFC pump motor.
142
36 stainless steel high pressure piping.

Low feed pressure switch for pump protec on.
Motor starter with disconnect switch.
Motor contractor with thermal overload protec on.
Sample valves for feed, product and concentrate.
Concentrate check valve.
Product check valve.
Automa c feed shut-o valve.
Cleaning connec ons.
Full control panel instrumenta on.
Pump discharge pressure indicator.
Feed and concentrate ow meters. Conduc vity meter.
Power on light.
Fault alarm.
Post shutdown system ush.
Scarcity of good quality water has increased our dependence on ground water sources. This brackish or saline
water is unt for drinking or for industrial use unless properly treated. Reverse osmosis, a membrane desalina on
process increasingly used worldwide, puries brackish water for drinking and industrials purposes.
Reverse osmosis membrane technology produces water with very low dissolved solids and which is also free from
par culate, colloidal and organics ma er.
Features :
Compact unit with robust mild steel powder coated frame .
Eciently removes up to 95 % of total dissolved solids (TDS) or salinity, producing water which is clear & pleasant
to taste.
Range of models with capaci es from 30 L/h up to 1000 L/h.
Built in safety features to protect high pressure pump & membranes.
Capable of handling waters with TDS levels between 1500 to 2500 ppm depending on the model.
Fully assembled and tested before dispatch.
On-line device to monitor treated water quality.
Advantages :
The most economical &ecient method of dissolved solids removal.
Easy to startup and uses very li le space on solids in feed water.
Can handle uctua ons of total dissolved solids removal.
Easy availability of spares and service.
Short delivery periods.
143
Applica ons :
Hygienic drinking water hotels ,restaurants, hospitals and residences.
Mineral water plants.
High purity water for hospital for use in dialysis units.
As a retrot to demineralisa ons plants in industries to reduce regenera on chemicals.
Specica ons :
Cartridge pre-lter for FRP pressure vessels.
Spiral wound membrane elements of polyamide type.
Mul stage pump made of 316 stainless steel.
TEFC pump motor.
36 stainless steel high pressure piping.
Low feed pressure switch for pump protec on.
Motor starter with disconnect switch.
Motor contractor with thermal overload protec on.
Sample valves for feed, product and concentrate.
Concentrate check valve.
Product check valve.
Automa c feed shut-o valve.
Cleaning connec ons.
Full control panel instrumenta on.
Pump discharge pressure indicator.
Feed and concentrate ow meters. Conduc vity meter.
Power on light.
Fault alarm.
Post shutdown system ush.
144
Spec (2010-09-27 14:13)

RO PLANT:
Make- Ion Exchange Pvt Ltd
Commissioning Date: Aug2008
Feed TDS: 120 (Bore well)
Feed Qty: 3300 Lit/Day
Reg Qty: 1500 Lit/Day
Blend: 5
Produc on Qty: 2200 lit/Day
Produc on Conduc vity: 140
Product Ph: 6.7
Hardness: 20PPM
Product TDS: 40-60
Free Chlorines: Nil
Consump on Details:
An scalant (Ion Exchange Ltd)Ra o 1:25Lit Water
Consump on: 200Lit/Week
ChlorineRa o: 5:50Lit
Consump on: 200Lit/week
PH dosing SodaRa o 5:200Lit water
Consump on: 100Lit/Day
Citric Acid and Caus c soda for cleaning membrane
PartList:
1. Chlorine Dosing Tank
2. Sand Filter
3. Mul port Valve
4. Carbon Filter
5. An scalant Dosing Tank
6. Bypass Valve
7. Bypass Flow meter
8. Cartridge Filter
9. Membrane Filter
10. High Pressure Pump
11. Recycle Flow meter
12. Reject Flow meter
13. Product ow meter
14. Ph Dosing tank
15. Reservior tank
16. Booster Pump
TFH 1
Make: Thermax TP10
Fuel oil temp: 120C
Inlet Hytherm-500 temp: 225C
Outlet Hytherm-500 temp: 243C
Stack temp(Exhaust): 372C
Modula on Temp: 275C
Expansion tank Temp: 56.9C
Hytherm-500 Inlet pressure: 3Bar
145
Hytherm-500 Outlet pressure: 1.5Bar

Fuel Return Line Pressure: 8Bar
Fuel Inlet Pressure: 18Bar
Nozzle Size: 19GPH
Fuel Consump on: 1000Ltr/Day
Sequence of Opera on of DG
1. When MSEB will switch OFF at that me
First Step- Switch o the 630Amp Main MCCB of Non Cri cal Panel (Manually)
Second Step- Switch on the 250KVA DG set (Manually) at that thime ATS will automa c-switch over the load on
250KVA DG set.
2. When MSEB will switch ON at that me
First Step- Switch ON the 630Amp Main MCCB of Non Cri cal Panel (Manually). It feeds power to UPS and
maintain its rated voltage a er all it feeds the power to ATS.
Second Step- ATS will check the power for few minutes and Automa c changeover the load to MSEB side
Third Step- Switch OFF the 250KVA Dg set
Engine oil- 10W30
H- 46
C- 68
G- 90
0
30
45
60
90
Sin
0
1/2
1/ 2
3/2
1
146
1.2
October
147
Ceramics Tiles (2010-10-04 11:15)

Raw Materials
The raw materials used to form le consist of clay minerals mined from the earths crust, natural minerals such as
feldspar that are used to lower the ring temperature, and chemical addi ves required for the shaping process.
The minerals are o en rened or beneciated near the mine before shipment to the ceramic plant.
The raw materials must be pulverized and classied according to par cle size. Primary crushers are used to reduce
large lumps of material. Either a jaw crusher or gyratory crusher is used, which operate using a horizontal
The ini al step in ceramic le manufacture involves mixing the ingredients. Some mes, water is then added and
the ingredients are wet milled or ground in a ball mill. If wet milling is used, the excess water is removed using
lter pressing followed by spray drying. The resul ng powder is then pressed into the desired le body shape.
squeezing mo on between steel plates or rota ng mo on between steel cones, respec vely.
Secondary crushing reduces smaller lumps to par cles. Hammer or muller mills are o en used. A muller mill
uses steel wheels in a shallow rota ng pan, while a hammer mill uses rapidly moving steel hammers to crush the
material. Roller or cone type crushers can also be used.
A third par cle size reduc on step may be necessary. Tumbling types of mills are used in combina on with grinding
media. One of the most common types of such mills is the ball mill, which consists of large rota ng cylinders
par ally lled with spherical grinding media.
Screens are used to separate out par cles in a specic size range. They operate in a sloped posi on and are
vibrated mechanically or electromechanically to improve material ow. Screens are classied according to mesh
number, which is the number of openings per lineal inch of screen surface. The higher the mesh number, the
smaller the opening size.
A glaze is a glass material designed to melt onto the surface of the le during ring, and which then adheres to the
le surface during cooling. Glazes are used to provide moisture resistance and decora on, as they can be colored
or can produce special textures.
The Manufacturing
Process
Once the raw materials are processed, a number of steps take place to obtain the nished product. These steps
include batching, mixing and grinding, spray-drying, forming, drying, glazing, and ring. Many of these steps are
now accomplished using automated equipment.
Batching
1 For many ceramic products, including le, the body composi on is determined by the amount and type
of raw materials. The raw materials also determine the color of the le body, which can be red or white in
color, depending on the amount of iron-containing raw materials used. Therefore, it is important to mix the
right amounts together to achieve the desired proper es. Batch calcula ons are thus required, which must
take into considera on both physical proper es and chemical composi ons of the raw materials. Once the
appropriate weight of each raw material is determined, the raw materials must be mixed together.
Mixing and grinding
148
2 Once the ingredients are weighed, they are added together into a shell mixer, ribbon mixer, or intensive
mixer. A shell mixer consists of two cylinders joined into a V, which rotates to tumble and mix the material.
A ribbon mixer uses helical vanes, and an intensive mixer uses rapidly revolving plows. This step further
grinds the ingredients, resul ng in a ner par cle size that improves the subsequent forming process (see
step #4 below).Some mes it is necessary to add water to improve the mixing of a mul ple-ingredient batch
as well as to achieve ne grinding. This process is called wet milling and is o en performed using a ball mill.
The resul ng water-lled mixture is called a slurry or slip. The water is then removed from the slurry by
lter pressing (which removes 40-50 percent of the moisture), followed by dry milling.
Spray drying
3 If wet milling is rst used, the excess water is usually removed via spray drying. This involves pumping
the slurry to an atomizer consis ng of a rapidly rota ng disk or nozzle. Droplets of the slip are dried as they
are heated by a rising hot air column, forming small, free owing granules that result in a powder suitable
for forming.Tile bodies can also be prepared by dry grinding followed by granula on. Granula on uses a
machine in which the mixture of previously dry-ground material is mixed with water in order to form the
par cles into granules, which again form a powder ready for forming.
Forming
4 Most le is formed by dry pressing. In this method, the free owing powdercontaining organic binder
or a low percentage of moistureows from a hopper into the forming die. The material is compressed in
a steel cavity by steel plungers and is then ejected by the bo om plunger. Automated presses are used with
opera ng pressures as high as 2,500 tons.Several other methods are also used where the le body is in a
we er, more moldable form. Extrusion plus punching is used to produce irregularly shaped le and thinner
le faster and more economically. This involves compac ng a plas c mass in a high-pressure cylinder and
forcing the material to ow out of the cylinder into short slugs. These slugs are then punched into one or
more les using hydraulic or pneuma c punching presses. Ram pressing is o en used for heavily proled
les. With this method, extruded slugs of the le body are pressed between two halves of a hard or porous
mold mounted in a hydraulic press. The formed part is removed by rst applying vacuum to the top half
of the mold to free the part from the bo om half, followed by forcing air through the top half to free the
top part. Excess material must be removed from the part and addi onal nishing may be needed. Another
process, called pressure glazing, has recently been developed. This process combines glazing and shaping
simultaneously by pressing the glaze (in spray-dried powder form) directly in the die lled with the le body
powder. Advantages include the elimina on of glazing lines, as well as the glazing waste material (called
sludge) that is produced with the conven onal method.
Drying
5 Ceramic le usually must be dried (at high rela ve humidity) a er forming, especially if a wet method is
used. Drying, which can take several days, removes the water at a slow enough rate to prevent shrinkage
cracks. Con nuous or tunnel driers are used that are heated using gas or oil, infrared lamps, or microwave
energy. Infrared drying is be er suited for thin le, whereas microwave drying works be er for thicker
le. Another method, impulse drying, uses pulses of hot air owing in the transverse direc on instead of
con nuously in the material ow direc on.
Glazing
6 To prepare the glaze, similar methods are used as for the le body. A er a batch formula on is calculated,
the raw materials are weighed, mixed and dry or wet milled. The milled glazes are then applied using one
of the many methods available. In centrifugal glazing or discing, the glaze is fed through a rota ng disc
that ings or throws the glaze onto the le. In the bell/waterfall method, a stream of glaze falls onto the
149
le as it passes on a conveyor underneath. Some mes, the glaze is simply sprayed on. For mul ple glaze
applica ons, screen prin ng on, under, or between le that have been wet glazed is used. In this process,
glaze is forced through a screen by a rubber squeegee or other device.Dry glazing is also being used. This
involves the applica on of powders, crushed frits (glass materials), and granulated glazes onto a wet-glazed
le surface. A er ring, the glaze par cles melt into each other to produce a surface like granite.
Firing
7 A er glazing, the le must be heated intensely to strengthen it and give it the desired porosity. Two types
of ovens, or
A er forming, the le is dried slowly (for several days) and at high humidity, to prevent cracking and shrinkage. Next, the glaze is applied, and then the le is red in a furnace or kiln. Although some types of le
require a two-step ring process, wet-milled le is red only once, at temperatures of 2,000 degrees Fahrenheit or more. A er ring, the le is packaged and shipped.
kilns, are used for ring le. Wall le, or le that is prepared by dry grinding instead of wet milling (see #2
and #3 above), usually requires a two-step process. In this process, the le goes through a low-temperature
ring called bisque ring before glazing. This step removes the vola les from the material and most or all
of the shrinkage. The body and glaze are then red together in a process called glost ring. Both ring
processes take place in a tunnel or con nuous kiln, which consists of a chamber through which the ware
is slowly moved on a conveyor on refractory ba sshelves built of materials that are resistant to high
temperaturesor in containers called saggers. Firing in a tunnel kiln can take two to three days, with ring
temperatures around 2,372 degrees Fahrenheit (1,300 degrees Celsius).For le that only requires a single
ringusually le that is prepared by wet millingroller kilns are generally used. These kilns move the
wares on a roller conveyor and do not require kiln furnitures such as ba s or saggers. Firing mes in roller
kilns can be as low as 60 minutes, with ring temperatures around 2,102 degrees Fahrenheit (1,150 degrees
Celsius) or more.
8 A er ring and tes ng, the le is ready to be packaged and shipped.
Byproducts
A variety of pollutants are generated during the various manufacturing steps; these emissions must be controlled
to meet air control standards. Among the pollutants produced in le manufacture are uorine and lead compounds, which are produced during ring and glazing. Lead compounds have been signicantly reduced with the
recent development of no-lead or low-lead glazes. Fluorine emissions can be controlled with scrubbers, devices
that basically spray the gases with water to remove harmful pollutants. They can also be controlled with dry
processes, such as fabric lters coated with lime. This lime can then be recycled as a raw material for future le.
150
The le industry is also developing processes to recycle wastewater and sludge produced during milling, glazing,
and spray-drying. Already some plants recycle the excess powder generated during dry-pressing as well as the
overspray produced during glazing. Waste glaze and rejected le are also returned to the body prepara on process
for reuse.
Quality Control
Most le manufacturers now use sta s cal process control (SPC) for each step of the manufacturing process.
Many also work closely with their raw material suppliers to ensure that specica ons are met before the material
is used. Sta s cal process control consists of charts that are used to monitor various processing parameters,
such as par cle size, milling me, drying temperature and me, compac on pressure, dimensions a er pressing,
density, ring temperature and me, and the like. These charts iden fy problems with equipment, out of spec
condi ons, and help to improve yields before the nal product is nished.
The nal product must meet certain specica ons regarding physical and chemical proper es. These proper es
are determined by standard tests established by the American Society of Tes ng and Materials (ASTM). Proper es
measured include mechanical strength, abrasion resistance, chemical resistance, water absorp on, dimensional
stability, frost resistance, and linear coecient of thermal expansion. More recently, the slip resistance, which
can be determined by measuring the coecient of fric on, has become a concern. However, no standard has yet
been established because other factors (such as proper oor design and care) can make results meaningless.
151
Seal (mechanical) (2010-10-22 10:13)

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Compression seal example

A mechanical seal is a device which helps join systems or mechanisms together by preven ng leakage (e.g., in a
plumbing system), containing pressure, or excluding contamina on. A seal may also be referred to as "packing."
Seal types;
Induc on sealing or cap sealing
Adhesive, sealant
Bodok seal, a specialized gas sealing washer for medical applica ons.
Bridgman seal, a piston sealing mechanism that creates a high pressure reservoir from a lower pressure
source.
Bung
Coa ng
Compression seal ng
Diaphragm seal
Ferrouidic seal
Flange Gasket
Gasket
Glass-ceramic-to-metal seals
Hose coupling, various types of hose couplings
Herme c seal
Hydrosta c seal
Hydrodynamic seal
Labyrinth seal A seal which creates a tortuous path for the liquid to ow through
Lid (container)
Rota ng face mechanical seal
Face seal
O-ring
O-ring boss seal
Piston ring
152
Plug
Radial sha seal
Trap (plumbing) (siphon trap)
Stung box, Gland (engineering) (mechanical packing)
Wiper seal
Dry gas seal
Exitex seal
153
Packaging and labeling (2010-10-22 11:21)

"Packaging" redirects here. For other uses, see Packaging (disambigua on).
Tablets in a blister pack, which was itself packaged in a folding carton made of paperboard.
Packaging is the science, art and technology of enclosing or protec ng products for distribu on, storage, sale,
and use. Packaging also refers to the process of design, evalua on, and produc on of packages. Packaging can
be described as a coordinated system of preparing goods for transport, warehousing, logis cs, sale, and end use.
Packaging contains, protects, preserves, transports, informs, and sells. [ 1 ] In many countries it is fully integrated
into government, business, ins tu onal, industrial, and personal use.
Package labelling (en-GB) or labeling (en-US) is any wri en, electronic, or graphic communica ons on the packaging or on a separate but associated label.
Contents
[hide]
1
History
2
The purposes of packaging and package labels
3
Packaging types
4
Symbols used on packages and labels
4.1
Shipping container labeling
5
Package development considera ons
5.1
Environmental considera ons
6
Packaging machines
7
See also
8
References
8.1
Books, General References
154
[edit]
History
Amphorae on display in Bodrum Castle, Turkey

The rst packages used the natural materials available at the me: Baskets of reeds, wineskins (Bota bags),
wooden boxes, po ery vases, ceramic amphorae, wooden barrels, woven bags, etc. Processed materials were
used to form packages as they were developed: for example, early glass and bronzevessels. The study of old
packages is an important aspect of archaeology.
Iron and n plated steel were used to make cans in the early 19th century. Paperboard cartons andcorrugated
berboard boxes were rst introduced in the late 19th century.
Packaging advancements in the early 20th century included Bakelite closures on bo les, transparentcellophane
overwraps and panels on cartons, increased processing eciency and improved food safety. As addi onal materials such as aluminum and several types of plas c were developed, they were incorporated into packages to
improve performance and func onality. [ 2 ]
In-plant recycling has long been common for produc on of packaging materials. Post-consumer recycling of aluminum and paper based products has been economical for many years: since the 1980s, post-consumer recycling
has increased due to curbside recycling, consumer awareness, and regulatory pressure.
As of 2003, the packaging sector accounted for about two percent of the gross na onal product in developed
countries. About half of this market was related to food packaging. [ 3 ]
[edit]
The purposes of packaging and package labels
Diced pork in tray and lm overwrap. Label indicates net weight, composi on, prepara on, etc. The Union Flag,
Bri sh Farm Standard tractor logo, and Bri sh Meat Quality Standard logo are also present.
Packaging and package labeling have several objec ves [ 4 ]
Physical protec on - The objects enclosed in the package may require protec on from, among other things,
mechanical shock, vibra on, electrosta c discharge, compression, temperature [ 5 ] , etc.
Barrier protec on - A barrier from oxygen, water vapor, dust, etc., is o en required. Permea on is a cri cal
factor in design. Some packages contain desiccants or Oxygen absorbers to help extend shelf life. Modied
atmospheres [ 6 ] or controlled atmospheres are also maintained in some food packages. Keeping the contents clean, fresh, sterile [ 7 ] and safe for the intended shelf life is a primary func on.
Containment or agglomera on - Small objects are typically grouped together in one package for reasons of
eciency. For example, a single box of 1000 pencils requires less physical handling than 1000 single pencils.
Liquids, powders, and granular materials need containment.
155
Informa on transmission - Packages and labels communicate how to use, transport, recycle, or dispose
of the package or product. With pharmaceu cals, food, medical, and chemical products, some types of
informa on are required by governments. Some packages and labels also are used for track and trace
purposes.
Marke ng - The packaging and labels can be used by marketers to encourage poten al buyers to purchase
the product. Packagegraphic design and physical design have been important and constantly evolving phenomenon for several decades. Marke ng communica ons and graphic design are applied to the surface of
the package and (in many cases) the point of sale display.
Security - Packaging can play an important role in reducing the security risks of shipment. Packages can be
made with improved tamper resistance to deter tampering and also can have tamper-evident [ 8 ] features
to help indicate tampering. Packages can be engineered to help reduce the risks of package pilferage: Some
package construc ons are more resistant to pilferage and some have pilfer indica ng seals. Packages may
include authen ca on seals and use security prin ng to help indicate that the package and contents are
notcounterfeit. Packages also can include an -the devices, such as dye-packs, RFID tags, or electronic arcle surveillance [ 9 ] tags that can be ac vated or detected by devices at exit points and require specialized
tools to deac vate. Using packaging in this way is a means ooss preven on.
Convenience - Packages can have features that add convenience in distribu on, handling, stacking, display,
sale, opening, reclosing, use, dispensing, and reuse.
Por on control - Single serving or single dosage packaging has a precise amount of contents to control usage.
Bulk commodi es (such as salt) can be divided into packages that are a more suitable size for individual
households. It is also aids the control of inventory: selling sealed one-liter-bo les of milk, rather than
having people bring their own bo les to ll themselves.
[edit]
Packaging types
Various household packaging types for foods

Packaging may be looked at as being of several dierent types. For example a transport package ordistribu on
package can be the shipping container used to ship, store, and handle the product or inner packages. Some
iden fy a consumer package as one which is directed toward a consumer or household.
Packaging may be described in rela on to the type of product being packaged: medical device packaging,
bulk chemical packaging, over-the-counte r drug packaging, retail food packaging, military materielpackaging,
pharmaceu cal packaging, etc.
156
Aluminium can with a pull tab

It is some mes convenient to categorize packages by layer or func on: "primary", "secondary", etc.
Primary packaging is the material that rst envelops the product and holds it. This usually is the smallest
unit of distribu on or use and is the package which is in direct contact with the contents.
Secondary packaging is outside the primary packaging, perhaps used to group primary packages together.
Ter ary packaging is used for bulk handling, warehouse storage and transport shipping. The most common
form is a palle zed unit load that packs ghtly into containers.
These broad categories can be somewhat arbitrary. For example, depending on the use, a shrink wrapcan be
primary packaging when applied directly to the product, secondary packaging when combining smaller packages,
and ter ary packaging on some distribu on packs.
[edit]
Symbols used on packages and labels
A bar code encoding the word "Wikipedia" in Code 128

Many types of symbols for package labeling are na onally and interna onally standardized. For consumer packaging, symbols exist for product cer ca ons, trademarks, proof of purchase, etc. Some requirements and symbols
exist to communicate aspects of consumer use and safety. Examples of environmental and recycling symbols
include the recycling symbol, the resin iden ca on code and the"Green Dot".
Bar codes , Universal Product Codes, and RFID labels are common to allow automated informa on management
in logis cs and retailing. Country of Origin Labeling is o en used.
[edit]
Shipping container labeling
157
"Print & Apply" corner wrap UCC (GS1-128) label applica on to a pallet load
Technologies related to shipping containers are iden ca on codes, bar codes, and electronic data interchange
(EDI). These three core technologies serve to enable the business func ons in the process of shipping containers
throughout the distribu on channel. Each has an essen al func on: iden ca on codes either relate product
informa on or serve as keys to other data, bar codes allow for the automated input of iden ca on codes and
other data, and EDI moves data between trading partners within the distribu on channel.
Elements of these core technologies include UPC and EAN item iden ca on codes, the SCC-14 (UPC shipping
container code), the SSCC-18 (Serial Shipping Container Codes), Interleaved 2-of-5 and UCC/EAN-128 (newly designated GS1-128) bar code symbologies, and ANSI ASC X12 and UN/EDIFACT EDI standards.
Small parcel carriers o en have their own formats. For example, United Parcel Service has a MaxiCode 2-D code
for parcel tracking.
RFID labels for shipping containers are also increasing in usage. A Wal-Mart division, Sams Club, has also moved
in this direc on and is pu ng pressure on its suppliers for compliance. [ 10 ]
Shipments of hazardous materials or dangerous goods have special informa on and symbols (labels, plackards,
etc.) as required by UN, country, and specic carrier requirements. Two examples are below:
With transport packages, standardised symbols are also used to communicate handling needs. Some common
ones are shown below while others are listed in ASTM D5445 "Standard Prac ce for Pictorial Markings for Handling
of Goods" and ISO 780 "Pictorial marking for handling of goods".
Fragile
Do not use hand hooks

158
This way up
Keep away from sunlight
Keep away from water
Centre of gravity
Clamp as indicated
Do not clamp as indicated

[edit]
Package development considera ons
Package design and development are o en thought of as an integral part of the new product development process.
Alterna vely, development of a package (or component) can be a separate process, but must be linked closely
with the product to be packaged. Package design starts with the iden ca on of all the requirements: structural
design, marke ng, shelf life, quality assurance, logis cs, legal, regulatory, graphic design, end-use, environmental,
etc. The design criteria, performance (specied by package tes ng), comple on me targets, resources, and cost
constraints need to be established and agreed upon.
159
Transport packaging needs to be matched to its logis cssystem. Packages designed for controlled shipments of
uniform pallet loads may not be suited to mixed shipments with express carriers.
An example of how package design is aected by other factors is the rela onship tologis cs. When the distribu on
system includes individual shipments by a small parcel carrier, the sorta on, handling, and mixed stacking make
severe demands on the strength and protec ve ability of the transport package. If the logis cs system consists of
uniform palle zed unit loads, the structural design of the package can be designed to those specic needs: ver cal
stacking, perhaps for a longer me frame. A package designed for one mode of shipment may not be suited for
another.
With some types of products, the design process involves detailed regulatory requirements for the package. For example with packaging foods, any package components that may contact the food are food contact materials. [ 11 ]
Toxicologistsand food scien sts need to verify that the packaging materials are allowed by applicable regula ons.
Packaging engineers need to verify that the completed package will keep the product safe for its intended shelf
life with normal usage. Packaging processes, labeling, distribu on, and sale need to be validated to comply with
regula ons and have the well being of the consumer in mind.
Some mes the objec ves of package development seem contradictory. For example, regula ons for an over-thecounter drug might require the package to be tamper-evident and child resistant [ 12 ] : These inten onally make
the package dicult to open. [ 13 ] The intended consumer, however, might be handicapped or elderly and be
unable to readily open the package. Mee ng all goals is a challenge.
Package design may take place within a company or with various degrees of external packaging engineering: independent contractors,consultants, vendor evalua ons, independent laboratories, contract packagers, total outsourcing, etc. Some sort of formal Project planningand Project management methodology is required for all but
the simplest package design and development programs. An eec ve quality management system and Vericaon and Valida on protocols are mandatory for some types of packaging and recommended for all.
[edit]
Environmental considera ons
Main ar cle: sustainable packaging
Package development involves considera ons for sustainability, environmental responsibility, and applicable environmental and recyclingregula ons. It may involve a life cycle assessment [ 14 ] [ 15 ] which considers the material
and energy inputs and outputs to the package, the packaged product (contents), the packaging process, the logiscs system [ 16 ] , waste management, etc. It is necessary to know the relevant regulatory requirements for point
of manufacture, sale, and use.
The tradi onal three Rs of reduce, reuse, and recycle are part of a waste hierarchy which may be considered in
product and package development.
The waste hierarchy

Preven on Waste preven on is a primary goal. Packaging should be used only where needed. Proper
packaging can also help prevent waste. Packaging plays an important part in preven ng loss or damage
to the packaged-product (contents). Usually, the energy content and material usage of the product being
160
packaged are much greater than that of the package. A vital func on of the package is to protect the product
for its intended use: if the product is damaged or degraded, its en re energy and material content may be
lost. [ 17 ] [ 18 ]
Minimiza on (also "source reduc on") The mass and volume of packaging (per unit of contents) can be
measured and used as one of the criteria to minimize during the package design process. Usually reduced
packaging also helps minimize costs. Packaging engineers con nue to work toward reduced packaging. [ 19 ]
Reuse The reuse of a package or component for other purposes is encouraged. Returnable packaging has
long been useful (and economically viable) for closed loop logis cs systems. Inspec on, cleaning, repair
and recouperage are o en needed. Some manufacturers re-use the packaging of the incoming parts for a
product, either as packaging for the outgoing product [ 20 ] or as part of the product itself. [ 21 ]
Recycling Recycling is the reprocessing of materials (pre- and post-consumer) into new products. Emphasis
is focused on recycling the largest primary components of a package: steel, aluminum, papers, plas cs,
etc. Small components can be chosen which are not dicult to separate and do not contaminate recycling
opera ons.
Energy recovery Waste-to-energy and Refuse-derived fuel in approved facili es are able to make use of
the heat available from the packaging components.
Disposal Incinera on, and placement in a sanitary landll are needed for some materials. Certain states
within the US regulate packages for toxic contents, which have the poten al to contaminate emissions and
ash from incinera on and leachate from landll. [ 22 ] Packages should not be li ered.
Development of sustainable packaging is an area of considerable interest by standards organiza ons, government,
consumers, packagers, and retailers.
[edit]
Packaging machines
Beer bo ling lines

A choice of packaging machinery includes: technical capabili es, labor requirements, worker safety, maintainability, serviceability,reliability, ability to integrate into the packaging line, capital cost, oorspace, exibility (changeover, materials, etc.), energy usage,quality of outgoing packages, qualica ons (for food, pharmaceu cals, etc.),
throughput, eciency, produc vity,ergonomics, return on investment, etc.
Packaging machines may be of the following general types:
161
Accumula ng and Colla ng Machines

Blister packs, skin packs and Vacuum Packaging Machines
Bo le caps equipment, Over-Capping, Lidding, Closing, Seaming and Sealing Machines
Box, Case and Tray Forming, Packing, Unpacking, Closing and Sealing Machines
Cartoning machines
Cleaning, Sterilizing, Cooling and Drying Machines
Coding, Prin ng, Marking, Stamping, and Imprin ng Machines
Conver ng Machines
Conveyor belts, Accumula ng and Related Machines
Feeding, Orien ng, Placing and Related Machines
Filling Machines: Handling dry, powered, solid, liquid, gas, or viscous products
Inspec ng, Detec ng and Check weigher Machines
Label dispenser
Orien ng, Unscrambling Machines
Package Filling and Closing Machines
Palle zing, Depalle zing, Unit load assembly
Product Iden ca on: labeling, marking, etc.
Wrapping machines: Shrink wrap, Banding
Form, Fill and Seal Machines
Other speciality machinery: sli ers, perfora ng, laser cu ers, parts a achment, etc.
Process Machinery (Product Prepara on): Chopper, Crusher, Cu er, Molder, Peeler, etc.
Process Machinery (Special Product): Coa ng, Enrobing, Seasoning
Process Machinery (Product Cooking, Hea ng, and Cooling): Asep c
Bakery goodsshrinkwrapped by shrink lm, heat sealer and heat tunnel on roller conveyer
High speed conveyor withbar code scanner for sor ng transport packages
162
Label printer applicator applying a label to adjacent panels of acorrugated box.
Robo cs used to palle ze bread
Equipment used for making molded pulpcomponents and molding packaging from straw [ 23 ]
A semi-automa c Rotary Arm Stretch Wrapper
Equipment for thermoforming packages at NASA

[edit]
See also
Ac ve packaging
Adhesive
Aluminium foil
Authen ca on
Bag-In-Box
Blow molding
Bo le
Box
Bubble Wrap
Calendering
Cargo
Carton
Check weigher
Child-resistant packaging
Containeriza on
163
Corrugated berboard
Cushioning
Distribu on
Fair Packaging and Labeling Act
Flexography
Food labeling regula ons
Food safety
Glass
Glass recycling
Good manufacturing prac ce
Graphic Design
Hazard Analysis and Cri cal Control Points
Heat sealer
Injec on molding
Label dispenser
Li er
Mandatory labelling
Metallised lm (or metallized lm)
Moisture vapor transmission rate
Molded pulp
Municipal solid waste
Package tes ng
Packaging engineering
Paper
Paper recycling
Paperboard
Plas c
Plas c recycling
Polyester
Polyethylene
Polypropylene
Polystyrene
164
Popcorn bag
Radio-frequency iden ca on
Resonance
Rotogravure
Shock
Shrink wrap
Smart packaging
Stretch wrap
Sustainable packaging
Thermoplas cs
Tin can
Unit load
Vacuum forming
Vibra on
Visual design
[edit]
References
165
Density (2010-10-22 12:29)

h p://www.simetric.co.uk/si _liquids.htm
T
he density of over 150 dierent liquids are listed below. While the data is useful for design, individual samples
will dier. Temperature and purity will o en have a marked inuence.
As 1000kg of pure water @ 4C = 1 cubic metre, those materials under 1000kg/cubic metre will oat; more dense
will sink ie. those materials with a specic gravity more than 1. More detailed data on water is on another page.
Pure water at 4
C (max. density) was chosen as the base line for specic gravity and given the value of 1.
Some other standards set pure water at 60
F as sg = 1 so it is more correct to state the base used.

The specic gravity of all other materials are compared to water as a frac on heavier or lighter density.
For example,
ace c acid
has a specic gravity (sg) of 1.0491 while acetone has a sg of 0.785 (
784.58
kg/cu.m) - see table below.
As specic gravity is just a comparison, it can be applied across any units. The density of pure water is also 62.4
lbs/cu. (pounds per cubic foot) and if we know that a sample of ethyl alcohol has a sg of 0.785 then we can
calculate that its density is 0.785 x 62.4 = 49 lbs/cu. .
Note, kg/cu.m divided by 16.02 = lbs/cu. .
kg/cu.m divided by 1,000 = g/ml (grams per millilitre) and also = kg/L (1000g = 1 kg and 1000ml = 1 Litre)
[ density of materials ] [ density of wood ] [ density of metals ] [ density of water ]
Liquid
Temp
kg/cu.m
1,1,2-Trichlorotriuoroethane
25 C
1564.00
1,2,4-Trichlorobenzene
20 C
1454.00
1,4-Dioxane
20 C
1033.60
2-Methoxyethanol
20 C
166
964.60
Ace c Acid
25 C
1049.10
Acetone
25 C
784.58
Acetonitrile
20 C
782.20
Alcohol, ethyl
25 C
785.06
Alcohol, methyl
25 C
786.51
Alcohol, propyl
25 C
799.96
Ammonia (aqua)
25 C
823.35
Analine
25 C
1018.93
Automobile oils
15 C
880 - 940
Beer (varies)
10 C
1010
Benzene
25 C
167
873.81
Benzil
25 C
1079.64
Brine
15 C
1230
Bromine
25 C
3120.40
Butyric Acid
20 C
959
Butane
25 C
599.09
n-Butyl Acetate
20 C
879.60
n-Butyl Alcohol
20 C
809.70
n-Butyl Chloride
20 C
886.20
Caproic acid
25 C
921.06
Carbolic acid
15 C
956.30
Carbon disulde
25 C
168
1260.97
Carbon tetrachloride
25 C
1584.39
Carene
25 C
856.99
Castor oil
25 C
956.14
Chloride
25 C
1559.88
Chlorobenzene
20 C
1105.80
Chloroform
20 C
1489.20
Chloroform
25 C
1464.73
Citric acid
25 C
1659.51
Coconut oil
15 C
924.27
Co on seed oil
15 C
925.87
Cresol
25 C
169
1023.58
Creosote
15 C
1066.83
Crude oil, 48 API
60 F
790
Crude oil, 40 API
60 F
825
Crude oil, 35.6 API
60 F
847
Crude oil, 32.6 API
60 F
862
Crude oil, California
60 F
915
Crude oil, Mexican
60 F
973
Crude oil, Texas
60 F
873
Cumene
25 C
860.19
Cyclohexane
20 C
778.50
Cyclopentane
20 C
170
745.40
Decane
25 C
726.28
Diesel fuel oil 20 to 60
15 C
820 - 950
Diethyl ether
20 C
714
o-Dichlorobenzene
20 C
1305.80
Dichloromethane
20 C
1326.00
Diethylene glycol
15 C
1120
Dichloromethane
20 C
1326.00
Dimethyl Acetamide
20 C
941.50
N,N-Dimethylformamide
20 C
948.70
Dimethyl Sulfoxide
20 C
1100.40
Dodecane
25 C
171
754.63
Ethane
-89 C
570.26
Ether
25 C
72.72
Ethylamine
16 C
680.78
Ethyl Acetate
20 C
900.60
Ethyl Alcohol
20 C
789.20
Ethyl Ether
20 C
713.30
Ethylene Dichloride
20 C
1253.00
Ethylene glycol
25 C
1096.78
Fluorine refrigerant R-12
25 C
1310.95
Formaldehyde
45 C
812.14
Formic acid 10 % concentra on
20 C
172
1025
Formic acid 80 % concentra on
20 C
1221
Freon - 11
21 C
1490
Freon - 21
21 C
1370
Fuel oil
60 F
890.13
Furan
25 C
1416.03
Furforol
25 C
1154.93
Gasoline, natural
60 F
711.22
Gasoline, Vehicle
60 F
737.22
Gas oils
60 F
890
Glucose
60 F
1350 - 1440
Glycerin
25 C
173
1259.37
Glyme
20 C
869.10
Glycerol
25 C
1126.10
Heptane
25 C
679.50
Hexane
25 C
654.83
Hexanol
25 C
810.53
Hexene
25 C
671.17
Hydrazine
25 C
794.52
Iodine
25 C
4927.28
Ionene
25 C
932.27
Isobutyl Alcohol
20 C
801.60
Iso-Octane
20 C
174
691.90
Isopropyl Alcohol
20 C
785.40
Isopropyl Myristate
20 C
853.20
Kerosene
60 F
817.15
Linolenic Acid
25 C
898.64
Linseed oil
25 C
929.07
Methane
-164 C
464.54
Methanol
20 C
791.30
Methyl Isoamyl Ketone
20 C
888.00
Methyl Isobutyl Ketone
20 C
800.80
Methyl n-Propyl Ketone
20 C
808.20
Methyl t-Butyl Ether
20 C
175
740.50
N-Methylpyrrolidone
20 C
1030.40
Methyl Ethyl Ketone (MEK)
20 C
804.90
MEK
25 C
802.52
Milk
15 C
1020 - 1050
Naphtha
15 C
664.77
Naphtha, wood
25 C
959.51
Napthalene
25 C
820.15
Ocimene
25 C
797.72
Octane
15 C
917.86
Olive oil
20 C
800 - 920
Oxygen (liquid)
-183 C
176
1140
Palmi c Acid
25 C
850.58
Pentane
20 C
626.20
Pentane
25 C
624.82
Petroleum Ether
20 C
640.00
Petrol, natural
60 F
711.22
Petrol, Vehicle
60 F
737.22
Phenol
25 C
1072.28
Phosgene
0C
1377.59
Phytadiene
25 C
823.35
Pinene
25 C
856.99
Propane
-40 C
177
583.07
Propane, R-290
25 C
493.53
Propanol
25 C
804.13
Propylene Carbonate
20 C
1200.60
Propylene
25 C
514.35
n-Propyl Alcohol
20 C
803.70
Propylene glycol
25 C
965.27
Pyridine
25 C
978.73
Pyrrole
25 C
965.91
Rape seed oil
20 C
920
Resorcinol
25 C
1268.66
Rosin oil
15 C
178
980
Sabiname
25 C
812.14
Sea water
25 C
1025.18
Silane
25 C
717.63
Sodium Hydroxide (caus c soda)
15 C
1250
Sorbaldehyde
25 C
895.43
Soya bean oil
15 C
924 - 928
Stearic Acid
25 C
890.63
Sulphuric Acid 95 % conc.
20 C
1839
Sugar solu on 68 brix
15 C
1338
Sunower oil
20 C
920
Styrene
25 C
179
903.44
Terpinene
25 C
847.38
Tetrahydrofuran
20 C
888.00
Toluene
20 C
866.90
Toluene
25 C
862.27
Triethylamine
20 C
727.60
Triuoroace c Acid
20 C
1489.00
Turpen ne
25 C
868.20
Water, pure (more temperatures)
4C
1000.00
Water, sea
77 F
1021.98
Whale oil
15 C
925
o-Xylene
20 C
880.20
180
Inkjet Printer Cleaning and Maintenance Tips (2010-10-28 00:01)

h p://www.bellaonline.com/ar cles/art3296.asp
The upkeep and maintenance of a printer is just as important as maintaining a computer but is o en overlooked.
A printer that is properly maintained will print be er and provide many years of service. With a couple of short
procedures and a minimal amount of me, a clean and well-maintained printer is never far away.
Maintenance procedures for an inkjet printer should be performed on a monthly basis. These procedures can also
be used to correct prin ng problems such as streaking, gaps in prin ng, and ink smearing.
NOTE: This ar cle provides a general overview of how to clean a printer and recommenda ons for cleaning materials. For best results, please refer to your printers documenta on for detailed printer maintenance instruc ons.
Ink/Paper Quality
Though it is temp ng to purchase the cheapest ink and paper available for a printer this is not always a good
prac ce. Lower quality paper and ink can greatly reduce the printers func onality can cause prin ng and hardware
problems it is worth staying with the manufacturers recommenda on for ink and paper.
Printer Maintenance
Several procedures are used to keep an ink jet printer clean and func oning properly. These include checking
the nozzle, cleaning the print heads and performing a print head alignment. The programs for these procedures
are usually located in the printer control panel which is access from Start | Control Panel | Printers select the
printer for maintenance. For addi on informa on on accessing your printers control panel please refer to your
printers documenta on.
Checking the Nozzle / Cleaning Print Heads
Depending on the make and model of the inkjet printer, these selec ons may be separate or combined as one
selec on. The nozzle on an inkjet printer is where the ink is released from the cartridge during prin ng it is part
of the print head. When le unused over a period of me the ink in the nozzle can dry which created a clogged
nozzle. Symptoms of a clogged nozzle include printouts that have gaps or white streaks in the printout.
For some models, the printer control panel will have an op on to check the nozzles and if there is a problem then
clean the print heads. Other models do not have the op on to check the nozzle just the ability to clean the print
head.
Print Head Alignment
If the print heads on a printer are not aligned then printout will appear to be misaligned this is easily xed
by running a print head alignment from the printer control panel. In addi on, each me the ink cartridges are
changed a print head alignment should be performed to make sure the cartridges are aligned before prin ng.
General Cleaning
The outside of the printer should be kept clean with a damp cloth. The inside should be cleaned with condensed
air to remove any dirt and dust buildup. In addi on, alcohol swabs can be used to remove any ink buildup and to
clean rollers of any dirt and grime.
Domino inkjet printer solu on ve common faults - inkjet printer, Domino inkjet printer - Food Industry
Bhavesh
2009-12-31 15:13:00
General Inkjet printer Because of a long break, a long me not to use a variety of failures and problems occur. China
Inkjet printer Net special compila on of this ar cle, ci ng ve common Domino inkjet printer faults and solu ons,
for your reference. Welcome inkjet printer dealers, inkjet printer reproduced the relevant industry sites.
181
1. High-voltage fault Reasons, high pressure Sensor Detected by high-pressure imbalance.

Specic reasons: A. high voltage deector encounter a foreign body.
B. high voltage deec on plate is dirty.
C. pressure sensor itself is too sensi ve.
Solu on: A & b cleaning high-voltage deec on plates, and then boot instantly.
C. If this is the case, may o en reported high-pressure fault, but very clean and deec on plate. Engineers need
to come forward by the Domino solu on, you can call 8008200205 repair.
2. Charging fault Specic reasons: A. charging tanks have ink
B. charge blot detec on of faults
Solu on: A. Close inkjet printer (including Power supply ), Cleaning charge slot. When necessary, remove the
charge tank cleaning. A er thorough washing, drying and other charging slot, reboot.
B. This failure should have produced more rst start from the ink. Determine the inks viscosity, shelf life, of course,
depends on the quality of ink (ink compa ble). Then observe the spli ng, checking ink pressure, modula on
voltage, and make appropriate adjustments to split the good. Such failures usually can be resolved. There may be
charging slot itself damaged. Contact Domino engineers need to solve.
3. Character defect A blot fell on the edge of recovery tube, resul ng in recovery hanger ink (ink product recovery
management)
Specic reasons: A. ink line posi on is correct.
B. blot division is normal. C. whether it is normal ink (ink viscosity BFT, ink durability, compa bility Consumables )
D. inkjet printer is valid ground (o en ignored by customers, and some engineers), grounding is important, the
consequences are serious!
4. Recovery of the malfunc on Recovery tube sensor does not detect the ink ows through the collec on tube.
Specic reasons: A. ink lines are not normal (there is no ink line injec on, or ink line par al)
B. recovery pipe plug C. recovery of damaged or not connected to sensors
Solu on:
A. check for the ink circuit.
182
EHCL M/c (2010-10-28 00:32)

1. STEAM BOILER:MAKE: TECHNOAIDS (INDIA)
VERTICAL AXIS WATER TUBE TYPE
FUEL; LDO
MOTOR HP: 2.5
MFG YEAR: 1989
MAX PRESSURE: 10KG/CM*2
CAPACITY: 450KG/HR
SUPPLY: 3PH440VAC50HZ
FEED PUMP: RECIPROCATING TYPE/DISCHARGE-12LIT/MIN/
2. THERMIC FLUID HEATER:MAKE: IMA IND M/CS AND APPLIANCES
VERTICAL AXIS WATER TUBE TYPE.
CAPACITY: 70000KCAL/HR
FLOW RATE: 26M*3/HR
YEAR OF MFG: 1994
FUEL: LDO
OIL : HYTHERM500
3. BIG AIR COMPRESSOR:MAKE- INGERSOLL
2 STAGE RECIPROCATING COMPRESSOR.
MOTOR- CROMPTON GREAVES/INDUCTION MOTOR/903KW/12.5HP/1460RPM
RECEIVER: INGERSOLRAND
SHELL THICKNESS: 6MM
WORKING PRESSURE: 175LBS
DESIGN PRESSURE: 192LBS
SIZE: D610MM *L1750MM
4. SMALL AIR COMPRESSOR
2 STAGE RECIPROCATING COMPRESSOR
MOTOR: PREMIER ELEC. CORP
INDUCTION MOTOR/3PH/2.2KW/3HP/1440RPM
RECEIVER: SHIVSHAKTI ENGG. WORKS
SHELL THICKNESS: 5MM
WORKING PRESSURE: 185LBS
DESIGN PRESSURE: 182LBS
SIZE: D475*L1000MM3
5. volumetric Filling Machine
6. Central Exhaust System.
7. Collide Mill.
8. Tiger Balm Manufacturing vessel
9. Portable Homogenizer
10.Dis lled Water Plant
Steam Pressure- 3.5kg/cm2.
Steam Temperature- 1400C
Cooling water- Check ow
Feed Water (D.M. Water)
11. D.M. water plant.
Model K6- Ca on Anion bed Resins and
Model D5- Mix bed resins.
12. Balm Filling Machine
13. Screw Capping Machine
183
14. Mul ma c Labeling Machine

15. Planatory Mixer of Ointmnt
16. GAB Ointment lling machine
17. PAC carton packing machine
18. liquid lling machine and Oil ling machine
19.VOLUMETRIC FILLING M/C
20.OINTMENT FILLING M/C
21.AHU
22.CENTRAL EXHAUST SYSTEM
23.DISTILLED WATER PLANT (100LIT/HR)
24.THERMIC FLUID HEATER (70000KCAL/HR)
25.2 STAGE RECIPROCATING COMPRESSOR(INGERSOLREND 175LBS)
26.STEAM BOILER (CAPACITY: 450KG/HR)
184
1.3
November
185
(2010-11-19 10:28)
Star ng Methods for Induc on Motors
Dierent star ng methods are employed for star ng induc on motors because they draw more star ng current
during star ng. To prevent damage to the windings due to the high star ng current ow, we employ dierent
types of starters.
Most large induc on motors are started directly on line, but when very large motors are started that way, they
cause a disturbance of voltage on the supply lines due to large star ng current surges. To limit the star ng current
surge, large induc on motors are started at reduced voltage and then have full supply voltage reconnected when
they run up to near rotated speed.
Introduc on
Two methods of reduced voltage star ng are star delta star ng and autotransformer sta ng. Contactors perform
the switching ac on in the starter to connect and disconnect the power supply to the motor. If the current is
above the rated current for the motor, the contactor will be tripped automa cally to disconnect the motor from
the supply.
A three phase supply is given to the stator of the three phase induc on motor, and this in turn produces a magne c
eld which revolves in space around the stator. As if the magne c poles are being rotated, the speed of the rota ng
magne c eld is given by
N = 120 f /P
Star ng Principle
The high star ng current will produce severe a voltage drop and will aect the opera on of other equipment.
It is not desirable to start large motors direct on line (giving full voltage to the stator). Normally with motors
beyond 5 HP, starters are provided. For reduc on in the star ng current, a lower voltage is applied to the stator,
especially for the squirrel cage induc on motors. Full voltage is only applied when the motor picks up speed.
Star ng methods of Induc on motor include:
1. Direct On line (DOL) starters for less than 10 Kw motors.

2. StarDelta starters for large motors. The stator winding is ini ally connected in a star congura on and
later on changed over to a Delta connec on, when the motor reaches rated speed.
3. Auto transformer.
1. Direct On Line Starter
1. It is simple and cheap starter for a 3-phase induc on motor.

186
2. The contacts close against spring ac on.

3. This method is normally limited to smaller cage induc on motors, because star ng current can be as high
as eight mes the full load current of the motor. Use of a double cage rotor requires lower staring current(
approximately four mes) and use of quick ac ng A.V.R enables motors of 75 Kw and above to be started
direct on line.
4. An isolator is required to isolate the starter from the supply for maintenance.
5. Protec on must be provided for the motor. Some of the safety protec ons are over-current protec on,
under-voltage protec on, short circuit protec on, etc. Control circuit voltage is some mes stepped down
through an autotransformer.
2. Star-Delta Starter
A three phase motor will give three mes the power output when the stator windings are connected in delta
than if connected in star, but will take 1/3 of the current from the supply when connected in star than when
connected in delta. The star ng torque developed in star is that when star ng in delta.
1. A two-posi on switch (manual or automa c) is provided through a ming relay.

2. Star ng in star reduces the star ng current.
3. When the motor has accelerated up to speed and the current is reduced to its normal value, the starter is
moved to run posi on with the windings now connected in delta.
4. More complicated than the DOL starter, a motor with a star-delta starter may not produce sucient torque
to start against full load, so output is reduced in the start posi on. The motors are thus normally started
under a light load condi on.
5. Switching causes a transient current which may have peak values in excess of those with DOL.
3. Auto Transformer Motor Star ng
187
1. Operated by a two posi on switch i.e. manually / automa cally using a mer to change over from start to
run posi on.
2. In star ng posi on supply is connected to stator windings through an auto-transformer which reduces applied voltage to 50, 60, and 70 % of normal value depending on tapping used.
3. Reduced voltage reduces current in motor windings with 50 % tapping used motor current is halved and
supply current will be half of the motor current. Thus star ng current taken from supply will only be 25 %
of the taken by DOL starter.
4. For an induc on motor, torque T is developed by V2, thus on 50 % tapping, torque at star ng is only
(0.5V)2 of the obtained by DOL star ng. Hence 25 % torque is produced.
5. Starters used in lager industries, it is larger in size and expensive.
6. Switching from start to run posi ons causing transient current, which can be greater in value than those
obtained by DOL star ng.
4. Rotor Resistance Starter
1. This starter is used with a wound rotor induc on motor. It uses an external resistance/phase in the rotor
circuit so that rotor will develop a high value of torque.
188
2. High torque is produced at low speeds, when the external resistance is at its higher value.
3. At start, supply power is connected to stator through a three pole contactor and, at a same me, an external
rotor resistance is added.
4. The high resistance limits staring current and allows the motor to start safely against high load.
5. Resistors are normally of the wire-wound type, connected through brushes and slip rings to each rotor
phase. They are tapped with points brought out to xed contactors.
6. As the motor starts, the external rotor resistance is gradually cut out of circuit ; the handle or starter is
turned and moves the three contacts simultaneously from one xed contact to the next.
7. The three moving contacts are interconnected to form a start point for the resistors.
8. To ensure that the motor cannot be started un l all rotor resistance is in circuit, an interlock is ed which
prevents the contactors from being closed un l this condi on is fullled.
Read more: h p://www.brighthub.com/engineering/mechanical/ar cles/74957.aspx?p=2 #ixzz15hVEcUUc
Read more: h p://www.brighthub.com/engineering/mechanical/ar cles/74957.aspx #ixzz15hSXJ6S1
189
Current clamp (2010-11-22 12:39)

Current clamp
For current-clamp recording in neurons, see Electrophysiology #Current _clamp.
In electrical and electronic engineering, a current clamp or current probe is an electrical
device having two jaws which open to allow clamping around an electrical conductor. This
allows proper es of the electric current in the conductor to be measured, without having to
make physical contact with it, or to disconnect it for inser on through the probe. Current
clamps are usually used to read the magnitude of asinusoidal current (as invariably used in
alterna ng current (AC) power distribu on systems), but in conjunc on with more advanced
instrumenta on the phase and waveform are available. Very high alterna ng currents (1000A
and more) are easily read with an appropriate meter; direct currents, and very low AC currents
(milliamps) are more dicult to measure.
Contents
[hide]
1
Types of current clamp
1.1
Current transformer
1.2
Iron vane
1.3
Hall eect
2
Clamp meter
3
Power meter, energy analyser
4
References
Types of current clamp
Current transformer
The most common form of current clamp comprises a split ferrite ring. A wire coil is wound round
one or both halves, forming the secondary winding of a current transformer. The conductor to be
measured forms the primary. Like any transformer this type only works with AC or pulse
waveforms, with some examples extending into the megahertz range.
This type may also be used to inject current into the conductor, for example in EMC suscep bility
190
tes ng to induce an interference current. Usually, the injec on probe is specically designed for
this purpose.
Iron vane
In the iron vane type, the magne c ux in the core directly aects a moving iron vane, allowing
both AC and DC to be measured, and gives a true RMS value for non-sinusoidal AC waveforms.
Due to its physical size it is generally limited to power transmission frequencies up to around
100 Hz.
The vane is usually xed directly to the display mechanism of an analogue (moving pointer) clamp meter.
Hall eect
The Hall eect type is more sensi ve and is able to measure both DC and AC, in some examples
up to the kilohertz (thousands of hertz) range. This type is o en used with oscilloscopes, and with
high-end computerized digital mul meters.
Clamp meter
A mul meter with built in clamp.

Pushing the large bu on at the bo om opens the lower jaw of the
clamp, allowing the clamp to be placed around a conductor.
An electrical meter with integral AC current clamp is known as a clamp meter, clamp-on ammeter
or tong tester.
In order to use a clamp meter, only one conductor is normally passed through the probe; if more
than one conductor is passed through then the measurement would be the vector sum of the
currents owing in the conductors and would depend on the phase rela onship of the currents. In
par cular if the clamp is closed around a 2-conductor cable carrying power to equipment the
same current ows down one conductor and up the other, with a net current of zero. Clamp
meters are o en sold with a device that is plugged in between the power outlet and the device to
be tested. The device is essen ally a short extension cord with the two conductors separated, so
that the clamp can be placed around only one conductor.
The reading produced by a conductor carrying a very low current can be increased by winding the
conductor around the clamp several mes; the meter reading divided by the number of turns is the
current, with some
191
loss of accuracy due to induc ve eects.

Clamp meters are used by electricians, some mes with the clamp incorporated into a general
purpose mul meter.
It is simple to measure very high currents (hundreds of amperes) with the appropriate current
transformer. Accurate measurement of low currents (a few milliamps) with a current transformer
clamp is more dicult.
An iron vane type clamp-on ammeter

Less-expensive clamp meters use a rec er circuit which actually reads mean current, but is
calibrated to display the RMS current corresponding to the measured mean, giving a correct
RMS reading only if the current is a sine wave. For other waveforms readings will be incorrect;
when these simpler meters are used with non-sinusoidal loads such as the ballasts used
withuorescent lamps or high-intensity discharge lamps or most modern computer and
electronicequipment, readings can be quite inaccurate. Meters which respond to true RMS rather
than mean current are described as "true RMS".
Typical hand-held Hall eect units can read currents as low as 200mA, and units that can read
down to 1mA are available.
The Columbia tong test ammeter, manufactured by Weschler Instruments, is an example of the
iron vane type, used for measuring large AC currents up to 1000 amps. The iron jaws of the meter
direct the magne c eld surrounding the conductor to an iron vane that is a ached to the needle
of the meter. The iron vane moves in propor on to the strength to the magne c eld and thus
produces a meter indica on propor onal to the current. This type of ammeter can measure both
AC and DC currents and provides a true RMS current measurement of non-sinusoidal or distorted
AC waveforms. Interchangeable meter movements can be installed in the clamping assembly to
provide various full-scale current values up to 1000 amperes. The iron vane is in a small cylinder
that is inserted in a space at the hinged end of the clamp-on jaws. Several jaw sizes are available
for clamping around large conductors and bus bars up to 4" (114mm) wide.
Power meter, energy analyser
Clamp meters are used in some meters to measure electrical power and energy. The clamp
measures the current and other circuitry thevoltage; the true power is the product of the
instantaneous voltage and current integrated over a cycle. Comprehensive meters designed to
measure many parameters of electrical energy (power factor, distor on, instantaneous power as a
func on of me, phase rela onships, etc.),energy analysers, use this principle. With an
appropriate instrument measurements may be made on three-phase, as well as single-phase,
power systems.
192
Bernoullis Equa on (2010-11-29 00:16)

Bernoulli Equa on
A non-turbulent, perfect, compressible, and barotropic uid undergoing steady mo on is governed

by the Bernoulli Equa on:
where g is the gravity accelera on constant (9.81 m/s2; 32.2 /s2), V is the velocity of the uid,
and z is the height above an arbitrary datum. C remains constant along any streamline in the ow,
but varies from streamline to streamline. If the ow isirrota onal, then C has the same value for all
streamlines.The func on
of state, p = p( r ).
is the "pressure per density" in the uid, and follows from the barotropic equa on
For an incompressible uid, the func on

Equa on becomes:
simplies to p/ r , and the incompressible Bernoulli
Bernoullis Equa on Bernoullis equa on is one of the most important/useful equa ons in uid mechanics. It
may be wri en,
We see that from applying equal pressure or zero veloci es we get the two equa ons from the sec on above.
They are both just special cases of Bernoullis equa on.
Bernoullis equa on has some restric ons in its applicability, they are:
Flow is steady;
193
Density is constant (which also means the uid is incompressible);
Fric on losses are negligible.
The equa on relates the states at two points along a single streamline, (not condi ons on two dierent
streamlines).
All these condi ons are impossible to sa sfy at any instant in me! Fortunately for many real situa ons where
the condi ons are approximately sa sed, the equa on gives very good results.
The deriva on of Bernoullis Equa on:
An element of uid, as that in the gure above, has poten al energy due to its height z above a datum and kine c
energy due to its velocity u. If the element has weight mg then
poten al energy =
poten al energy per unit weight =
kine c energy =
kine c energy per unit weight =
At any cross-sec on the pressure generates a force, the uid will ow, moving the cross-sec on, so work will be
done. If the pressure at cross sec on AB is p and the area of the cross-sec on is a then
force on AB =
when the mass mg of uid has passed AB, cross-sec on AB will have moved to AB
volume passing AB =
therefore
194
distance AA =
work done = force distance AA
=
work done per unit weight =
This term is know as the pressure energy of the owing stream.
Summing all of these energy terms gives
or
As all of these elements of the equa on have units of length, they are o en referred to as the following:
pressure head =
velocity head =
poten al head =
total head =
By the principle of conserva on of energy the total energy in the system does not change, Thus the total head
does not change. So the Bernoulli equa on can be wri en
As stated above, the Bernoulli equa on applies to condi ons along a streamline. We can apply it between two
points, 1 and 2, on the streamline in the gure below
195
Two points joined by a streamline

total energy per unit weight at 1 = total energy per unit weight at 2
or
total head at 1 = total head at 2
or
This equa on assumes no energy losses (e.g. from fric on) or energy gains (e.g. from a pump) along the
streamline. It can be expanded to include these simply, by adding the appropriate energy terms:
196
1.4
December
197
Spanner Selec on (2010-12-04 00:12)

Metric Bolt Head/Wrench SizeBolt Diameter
(mm) Head/Wrench Size
(mm) ANSI/ISODINJISDIN/ISO
Heavy Hex
477758886 10 10 10 7 - 11 - 8 13 13 12 10 16 17 14 12 18 19 17 22/21*
14 21 22 19 16 24 24 22 27
18 - 27 - 20 30 30 - 34/32*
ANSI - American Na onal Standards Ins tute
ISO - Interna onal Organiza on for Standardisa on
DIN - Deutsches Ins tut fur Normung
JIS - Japanese Industrial Standard
Indicates ISO standard.
h p://www.unied-eng.com/scitech/bolt/headsize.html
Bolt Head Dimensions
The strength of a bolt is determined by its diameter and the strength of the material from which it is made.
Minimum material strengths for various grades of bolts are given in a related page. Here, we deal with the
diameter.
It may seem that the determina on of a bolts diameter is a simple ma er of measurement, and this is indeed
the case when the shank is exposed. In many cases, however, the shank is hidden, and the engineer who is
charged with determining the strength of the bolted joint must infer the bolts diameter from the size of its head.
Fortunately, there are standards that govern the rela onship between bolt size and head size. The following
tables are based on informa on in
ANSI B18.2.1 (Square, Hex, and Heavy Hex)
ASTM A325 and A490 (High Strength Structural)
AISC Manual of Steel Construc on (all)
Square Heads
DFCH
1/4 3/8 1/2 3/16
3/8 9/16 13/16 1/4
1/2 3/4 1-1/16 5/16
5/8 15/16 1-5/16 7/16
3/4 1-1/8 1-9/16 1/2
7/8 1-5/16 1-7/8 5/8
1 1-1/2 2-1/8 11/16
1-1/8 1-11/16 2-3/8 3/4
198
1-1/4 1-7/8 2-5/8 7/8

1-3/8 2-1/16 2-15/16 15/16
1-1/2 2-1/4 3-3/16 1
All dimensions in inches
Hex Heads
DFCH
1/4 7/16 1/2 3/16
3/8 9/16 5/8 1/4
1/2 3/4 7/8 3/8
5/8 15/16 1-1/16 7/16
3/4 1-1/8 1-5/16 1/2
7/8 1-5/16 1-1/2 9/16
1 1-1/2 1-3/4 11/16
1-1/8 1-11/16 1-15/16 3/4
1-1/4 1-7/8 2-3/16 7/8
1-3/8 2-1/16 2-3/8 15/16
1-1/2 2-1/4 2-5/8 1
1-3/4 2-5/8 3 1-3/16
2 3 3-7/16 1-3/8
2-1/4 3-3/8 3-7/8 1-1/2
2-1/2 3-3/4 4-5/16 1-11/16
2-3/4 4-1/8 4-3/4 1-13/16
3 4-1/2 5-3/16 2
3-1/4 4-7/8 5-5/8 2-3/16
3-1/2 5-1/4 6-1/16 2-5/16
3-3/4 5-5/8 6-1/2 2-1/2
4 6 6-15/16 2-11/16
Heavy Hex Heads
DFCH
1/2 7/8 1 3/8
5/8 1-1/16 1-1/4 7/16
3/4 1-1/4 1-7/16 1/2
7/8 1-7/16 1-11/16 9/16
1 1-5/8 1-7/8 11/16
1-1/8 1-13/16 2-1/16 3/4
1-1/4 2 2-5/16 7/8
1-3/8 2-3/16 2-1/2 15/16
1-1/2 2-3/8 2-3/4 1
1-3/4 2-3/4 3-3/16 1-3/16
2 3-1/8 3-5/8 1-3/8
2-1/4 3-1/2 4-1/16 1-1/2
2-1/2 3-7/8 4-1/2 1-11/16
199
2-3/4 4-1/4 4-15/16 1-13/16

3 4-5/8 5-5/16 2
High Strength Structural Bolts
DFH
1/2 7/8 5/16
5/8 1-1/16 25/64
3/4 1-1/4 15/32
7/8 1-7/16 35/64
1 1-5/8 39/64
1-1/8 1-13/16 11/16
1-1/4 2 25/32
1-3/8 2-3/16 27/32
1-1/2 2-3/8 15/16
200
2.
2011
201
2.1
202
January
Roller chain (2011-01-26 10:11)

Roller chain or bush roller chain is the type of chain most commonly used for transmission of mechanical power
on many kinds of domes c, industrial and agricultural machinery, including conveyors, wire and tubedrawing
machines, prin ng presses, cars, motorcycles, and simple machines like bicycles. It is a simple, reliable, and
ecient [ 1 ] means of power transmission.
Though Hans Renold is credited with inven ng roller chain in 1880, sketches by Leonardo da Vinci in the 16th
century show a chain with a roller bearing. [ 2 ]
Contents
[hide]
1
Construc on of the chain
2
Lubrica on
2.1
Motorcycle chain lubrica on
* 2.1.1
Sco oiler
3
Variants in design
4
Use
5
Wear
5.1
Bicycle chain wear
6
Chain strength
7
Chain standards
8
References
9
Bibliography
10
External links
203
[edit]
Construc on of the chain
There are actually two types of links alterna ng in the bush roller chain. The rst type is inner links, having two
inner plates held together by two sleeves or bushings upon which rotate two rollers. Inner links alternate with the
second type, the outer links, consis ng of two outer plates held together by pins passing through the bushings
of the inner links. The "bushingless" roller chain is similar in opera on though not in construc on; instead of
separate bushings or sleeves holding the inner plates together, the plate has a tube stamped into it protruding
from the hole which serves the same purpose. This has the advantage of removing one step in assembly of the
chain.
The roller chain design reduces fric on compared to simpler designs, resul ng in higher eciency and less wear.
The original power transmission chain varie es lacked rollers and bushings, with both the inner and outer plates
held by pins which directly contacted thesprocket teeth; however this congura on exhibited extremely rapid
wear of both the sprocket teeth, and the plates where they pivoted on the pins. This problem was par ally solved
by the development of bushed chains, with the pins holding the outer plates passing through bushings or sleeves
connec ng the inner plates. This distributed the wear over a greater area; however the teeth of the sprockets
s ll wore more rapidly than is desirable, from the sliding fric on against the bushings. The addi on of rollers
surrounding the bushing sleeves of the chain and provided rolling contact with the teeth of the sprockets resul ng
in excellent resistance to wear of both sprockets and chain as well. There is even very low fric on, as long as the
chain is suciently lubricated. Con nuous, clean, lubrica on of roller chains is of primary importance for ecient
opera on.[cita on needed]
[edit]
Lubrica on
The great majority of driving chains operate in clean environments, the wearing surfaces (ie the pins and the
bushings) safe from precipita on and air-born grit, many even in a sealed environment such as an oil bath.
A few other chains run unprotected and in those cases, internally sealed roller chain manufacturers such as Tsubaki,
Diamond, Morse, Renold, and Rexnord produce low-maintenance versions wherein o-rings or x-rings seal in the
lubricant for life.
However, there are a few chains that have to operate in dirty condi ons, and for size or opera onal reasons
cannot be sealed. One example is the bicycle chain drive on a derailleur equipped bicycle (though cheaper hubgear bicycles may be similarly naked to the elements). These chains will necessarily have rela vely high rates of
wear, par cularly when the operators are prepared to accept more fric on, less eciency, more noise and more
frequent replacement as they neglect lubrica on and adjustment.
[edit]
Motorcycle chain lubrica on
Chains opera ng at high speeds comparable to those on motorcycles should be used in conjunc on with an oil
bath [ 3 ] . For modern motorcycles this is not applicable and most motorcycle chains run unprotected. They are
subject to extreme forces and have to operate in tough condi ons being exposed to rain, dirt, sand and road salt.
Motorcycle chains are part of the drive train to transmit the motor power to the back wheel. While properly
lubricated chains can reach an eciency of more 98 % in the transmission, unlubricated chains will signicantly
decrease performance and increase chain and sprockets wear [ 4 ] .
Two dis nct types of a ermarket lubricants are available for motorcycle chains, spray on lubricants and oil drip
feed systems.
Spray lubricants may contain wax or PTFE. Whilst these lubricants use tack addi ves to stay on the chain
they can also a ract dirt and sand from the road and over me produce a grinding paste that accelerates
component wear.
Oil drip feed systems con nuously lubricate the chain and use light oil that does not s ck to the chain.
Research has shown that oil drip feed systems provide the greatest wear protec on and greatest power
saving [ 5 ] .
204
[edit]
Sco oiler
Oil drip feed systems or automa c motorcycle chain oilers are o en referred to as Sco oilers. Sco oiler Ltd. [ 6 ]
is a market leader in the eld of automa c oil drip feed systems for motorbikes. [ 7 ] The original product is based
on a vacuum system and works by gravity feed. The engine vacuum provides the power to open a valve. The oil
then siphons from the reservoir by gravity and the ow rate can be adjusted by a dial opening/closing the valve
aperture. [ 8 ]
Especially in the UK the brand is on the way to become a genericized trademark.
[edit]
Variants in design
If the chain is not being used for a high wear applica on (for instance if it is just transmi ng mo on from a hand
operated lever to a control sha on a machine, or a sliding door on an oven), then one of the simpler types of
chain may s ll be used. Conversely, where extra strength but the smooth drive of a smaller pitch is required,
the chain may be "siamesed"; instead of just two rows of plates on the outer sides of the chain, there may be
three ("duplex"), four ("triplex"), or more rows of plates running parallel, with bushings and rollers between each
adjacent pair, and the same number of rows of teeth running in parallel on the sprockets to match. Timing chains
on automo ve engines, for example, typically have mul ple rows of plates called strands.
Roller chain is made in several sizes, the most common American Na onal Standards Ins tute (ANSI) standards
being 40, 50, 60, and 80. The rst digit(s) indicate the pitch of the chain in eighths of an inch, with the last digit
being 0 for standard chain, 1 for lightweight chain, and 5 for bushed chain with no rollers. Thus, a bicycle chain
with half inch pitch would be a #40 while a #160 sprocket would have teeth spaced 2 inches apart, etc. Metric
pitches are expressed in sixteenths of an inch; thus a metric #8 chain (08B-1) would be equivalent to an ANSI #40.
Most roller chain is made from plain carbon or alloy steel, but stainless steel is used in food processing machinery
or other places where lubrica on is a problem, and nylon or brass are occasionally seen for the same reason.
Roller chain is ordinarily hooked up using a master link (also known as a connec ng link), which typically has one
pin held by a horseshoe clip rather than fric on t, allowing it to be inserted or removed with simple tools. Half
links (also known as osets) are available and are used to increase the length of the chain by a single roller.
[edit]
Use
Roller chains are used in low- to mid-speed drives at around 600 to 800 feet per minute; however, at higher
speeds, around 2,000 to 3,000 feet per minute, V-belts are normally used due to wear and noise issues.
A bicycle chain is a form of roller chain. Bicycle chains may have a master link, or may require a chain tool for
removal and installa on. A similar but larger and thus stronger chain is used on most motorcycles although
it is some mes replaced by either a toothed belt or asha drive, which oer lower noise level and fewer
maintenance requirements.
In older automobile engines from the United States and other countries, roller chains would tradi onally
drive the camsha (s) o thecranksha , genera ng less noise than a gear drive as used in very high performance engines, and oering more durability than the ming belt frequently used on more modern engines.
Many modern automobile engines s ll use roller chains, which are more durable than ming belts.
Chains are also used in forkli s using hydraulic rams as a pulley to raise and lower the carriage; however,
these chains are not considered roller chains, but are classied as li or leaf chains.
Chainsaw cu ng chains supercially resemble roller chains but are more closely related to leaf chains. They
are driven by projec ng drive links which also serve to locate the chain onto the bar.
205
[edit]
Wear
The eect of wear on a roller chain is to increase the pitch (spacing of the links), causing the chain to grow longer.
Note that this is due to wear at the pivo ng pins and bushes, not from actual stretching of the metal (as does
happen to some exible steel components such as the hand-brake cable of a motor vehicle).
With modern chains it is unusual for a chain (other than that of a bicycle) to wear un l it breaks, since a worn chain
leads to the rapid onset of wear on the teeth of the sprockets, with ul mate failure being the loss of all the teeth on
the sprocket. The sprockets (in par cular the larger of the two) suer a grinding mo on that puts a characteris c
hook shape into the driven face of the teeth. (This eect is made worse by a chain improperly tensioned, but is
unavoidable no ma er what care is taken). The worn teeth (and chain) no longer provides smooth transmission
of power and this may become evident from the noise, the vibra on or (in car engines using a ming chain) the
varia on in igni on ming seen with a ming light. Both sprockets and chain should be replaced in these cases,
since a new chain on worn sprockets will not last long. However, in less severe cases it may be possible to save
the smaller of the two sprockets, since it is always the larger one that suers the most wear. Only in very lightweight applica ons such as a bicycle, or in extreme cases of improper tension, will the chain normally jump o
the sprockets.
The lengthening due to wear of a chain is calculated by the following formula:
% = ((M (S * P)) / (S * P)) * 100
M = the length of a number of links measured
S = the number of links measured
P = Pitch
In industry, it is usual to monitor the movement of the chain tensioner (whether manual or automa c) or the exact
length of a drive chain (one rule of thumb is to replace a roller chain which has elongated 3 % on an adjustable
drive or 1.5 % on a xed-center drive). A simpler method, par cularly suitable for the cycle or motorcycle user, is
to a empt to pull the chain away from the larger of the two sprockets. Any signicant movement (eg making it
possible to see through a gap) probably indicates a chain worn up to and beyond the limit. Sprocket damage will
result if the problem is ignored.
[edit]
Bicycle chain wear
The lightweight chain of a bicycle with derailleur gears can snap (or rather, come apart at the side-plates, since
it is normal for the rive ng to fail rst) because the wearing pins inside are not parallel, they are barrel-shaped.
Contact between the pin and the bush is not the regular line, but a point. This form of construc on is necessary
because the gear-changing ac on of this form of transmission requires the chain to both bend sideways and to
twist.
Chain failure is much less of a problem on hub-geared systems (o en known as "Sturmey Archer") since the parallel
pins have a much bigger wearing surface in contact with the bush. The hub-gear system also allows complete
enclosure, a great aid to lubrica on and protec on from grit.
[edit]
Chain strength
The most common measure of roller chains strength is tensile strength. Tensile strength represents how much
load a chain can withstand under a one- me load before breaking. Just as important as tensile strength is a chains
fa gue strength. The cri cal factors in a chains fa gue strength is the quality of steel used to manufacture the
chain, the heat treatment of the chain components, the quality of the pitch hole fabrica on of the linkplates, and
the type of shot plus the intensity of shot peen coverage on the linkplates. Other factors can include the thickness
of the linkplates and the design (contour) of the linkplates. The rule of thumb for roller chain opera ng on a
con nuous drive is for the chain load to not exceed a mere 1/6 or 1/9 of the chains tensile strength, depending
206
on the type of master links used (press-t vs. slip-t)[cita on needed]. Roller chains opera ng on a con nuous drive
beyond these thresholds can and typically do fail prematurely via linkplate fa gue failure.
The standard minimum ul mate strength of the ANSI 29.1 steel chain is 12,500 x (pitch, in inches)2 (pitch squared
x 12,500). [ 9 ]
[edit]
Chain standards
Standards organiza ons (such as ANSI) maintain standards for design, dimensions, and interchangeability of transmission chains. For example, the following table shows the principal data of ANSI standard B29-1 (Precision Power
Transmission Roller Chains, A achments, and Sprockets). See the references [ 10 ] [ 11 ] [ 12 ] [ 13 ] [ 14 ] for full informa on.
ANSI B29-1 roller chain standard sizes
SizePitchRoller diameterTensile strengthWorking load
250.250 in (6.35 mm) 0.130 in (3.30 mm) 781 lb (354 kg) 140 lb (64 kg)
350.375 in (9.53 mm) 0.200 in (5.08 mm) 1,758 lb (797 kg) 480 lb (220 kg)
410.500 in (12.70 mm) 0.306 in (7.77 mm) 1,500 lb (680 kg) 500 lb (230 kg)
400.500 in (12.70 mm) 0.312 in (7.92 mm) 3,125 lb (1,417 kg) 810 lb (370 kg)
500.625 in (15.88 mm) 0.400 in (10.16 mm) 4,880 lb (2,210 kg) 1,430 lb (650 kg)
600.750 in (19.05 mm) 0.469 in (11.91 mm) 7,030 lb (3,190 kg) 1,980 lb (900 kg)
801.000 in (25.40 mm) 0.625 in (15.88 mm) 12,500 lb (5,700 kg) 3,300 lb (1,500 kg)
For mnemonic purposes, below is another presenta on of key dimensions from the same standard, expressed in
frac ons of an inch (which was part of the thinking behind the choice of preferred numbers in the ANSI standard):
Pitch (inches)Pitch expressed
in eighthsANSI standard
chain numberWidth (inches)
1
8 25
8 35
8 41
8 40
16
16
207
8 50
1
8 60 2
8
1 8 80 58
Notes:
1. The pitch is the distance between roller centers. The width is the distance between the link plates (ie slightly
more than the roller width to allow for clearance).
2. The right-hand digit of the standard denotes 0 = normal chain, 1 = lightweight chain, 5 = rollerless bushing
chain.
3. The le -hand digit denotes the number of eighths of an inch that make up the pitch.
4. An "H" following the standard number denotes heavyweight chain. A hyphenated number following the
standard number denotes double-strand (2), triple-strand (3), and so on. Thus 60H-3 denotes number 60
heavyweight triple-strand chain.
A typical bicycle chain uses 40 series chain with a minimum tensile strength of 3,125 pounds (1,417 kg) and a
working load of 810 lb (367 kg). The width of the chain is variable, and does not aect the load capacity.
208
2.2
March
209
Bearing Nomenclature (2011-03-05 00:07)

Bearing Nomenclature
To: "INTERNET:qua ro@coimbra" <qua ro@coimbra.ans.net>

Subject: Bearing Nomenclature
From: "Paul C. Waterloo" <74543.407@CompuServe.COM>
Date: 14 Jun 96 08:48:29 EDT
Sender: owner-qua ro@coimbra.ans.net
Find Bearing No
http://gotbearings.com/
Here is some information on bearing types and nomenclature that I thought

everyone might enjoy. If you know the bearing number, you don't need to go to
the dealer, just go to a local bearing distributor or a place that sells gear
boxes. They should have them or be able to get them in a day.
A bearing number has four parts to it which includes four numbers and a set of
letters. Each of the first two numbers stand for something, the last two
designate size. The letters dictate the variation of the bearing. These letters
can also be followed by more letters designating internal clearance. In detail:
First number (will be a 1-7) designates the bearing type:
1 = Double Row self-aligning
2 = Double Row self-aligning (wide)
3 = Double Row
4 = Angular Contact
6 = Single Row Deep Groove
7 = Angular Contact
The second number designates the series, or cross section. This is basically
equivalent to the second number of a tire rating, it's a ratio of the bore to
the width of the bearing, which also controls the O.D. of the bearing. The
larger the cross section, the larger the O.D. of the bearing.
18 = Thin Section, Light
19 = Thin Section, Medium
0 = Very Light
2 = Light
3 = Medium
4 = Heavy
210
The third number (which is a set of two numbers) indicates the bore (in mm) of
the bearings. All bearings are designated with metric standards, not inches.
Numbers are as follows:
00 = 10 mm
01 = 12 mm
02 = 15mm
03 = 17 mm
For 20-480mm bore bearings: Last 2 digits x 5 = Bore (mm)
i.e.- if the bearing number was 04 (04 x 5 = 20 mm), 05 (05 x 5 = 25 mm)
The letters after the number indicate the variation. These change from
manufacturer to manufacturer, but here are some of the common ones:
Plain -- No Shield
Type Z -- One Shield (normally will have metal shields)
Type 2Z -- Two Shields (one on each side)
Type RS1 -- One Seal (normally the R indicates rubber)
Type 2RS1 --Two Seals (one on each side)
Type LL -- Two Seals (just another manufacturer's designation)
CD -- 15 degree contact angle (for angular contact)
ACD = 25 degree contact angle (for angular contact)
The bearings can also have a C2, C3, C4 or C5 designation after the bearing
number. This indicates that the internal fit (the inner race to ball to outer
race) is not standard. If your bearing has one of these designators, make sure
you get a bearing with the same designator. A C2 is less than standard
clearance, while a C3, 4, and 5 are larger than standard.
If anybody has a set of old bearings and can mic them up (ID, OD and width) I
can cross reference them to a standard bearing number.
Boys and girls, our next lesson will be on proper interference and clearance
fits!
**************************************************************
Paul Waterloo
TEL: (860) 267-7714
HydroAire Incorporated
FAX: (860) 267-7387
875 Old Hartford Rd
Colchester, CT 06415
EMAIL: 74543.407@compuserve.com
**************************************************************
211
Na onal pipe thread (2011-03-05 23:21)

h p://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Threaded _pipe
This ar cle may require cleanup to meet Wikipedias quality standards. Please improve this ar cle if you
can. The talk page may contain sugges ons. (July 2009)
Threaded pipe and elbow
This ar cle needs addi onal cita ons for verica on.
Please help improve this ar cle by adding reliable references. Unsourced material may be challenged and
removed. (July 2009)
Na onal Pipe Thread Tapered Thread (NPT) is a U.S. standard for tapered threads used onthreaded pipes and
ngs. The taper rate for all NPT threads is 116 ( inch per foot) measured by the change of diameter (of the
pipe thread) over distance. The taper divided by a center line yields an angle 1 47 24" or 1.7899 as measured
from the center axis. Commonly-used sizes are , , , , , 1, 1, 1, and 2 inch, appearing on pipes and
ngs by most U.S. suppliers. Smaller sizes than those listed are occasionally used for compressed air. Larger
sizes are used less frequently because other methods of joining are more prac cal at 3 inches and above in most
applica ons. It is dened by ANSI/ASME standard B1.20.1. [ 1 ]
Nominal Pipe Size is loosely related to the inside diameter of Schedule 40 pipe. Because of the pipe wall thickness, the actual diameter of the threads is larger than the NPS, considerably so for small NPS. Other schedules of
pipe have dierent wall thickness but the OD (outer diameter) and thread prole remain the same, so the inside
diameter of the pipe is therefore dierent from the nominal diameter.
Threaded pipes can provide an eec ve seal for pipes transpor ng liquids, gases, steam, and hydraulic uid. These
threads are now used in materials other than steel and brass, including PTFE [ 2 ] , PVC, nylon, bronze and cast iron.
The taper on NPT threads allows them to form a seal when torqued as the anks of the threads compress against
each other, as opposed to parallel/straight thread ngs or compression ngs in which the threads merely hold
the pieces together and do not provide the seal. However a clearance remains between the crests and roots of
the threads, resul ng in a leakage around this spiral. This means that NPT ngs must be made leak free with the
aid of thread seal tape or a thread sealant compound. (The use of tape or sealant will also help to limit corrosion
on the threads, which otherwise can make future disassembly nearly impossible.)
There is also a semi-compa ble variant called Na onal Pipe Taper Fuel (NPTF) also called Dryseal American Naonal Standard Taper Pipe Thread, dened by ANSI B1.20.3, designed to provide a more leak-free seal without
the use of teon tape or other sealant compound. NPTF threads are the same basic shape but with crest and root
heights adjusted for an interference t, elimina ng the spiral leakage path.
212
Some mes NPT threads are referred to as MPT (Male Pipe Thread), MNPT, or NPT(M) for male (external) threads;
and FPT (Female Pipe Thread), FNPT, or NPT(F) for female (internal) threads. An equivalent designa on is MIP
(Male iron pipe) and FIP (Female iron pipe). Also the terms NPS and NPSM are some mes used to designate a
straight, not tapered, thread. (this should not be confused with NPS meaningNominal Pipe Size)
Contents
[hide]
1
Pipe thread sizes
2
Thread form
3
Terminology
4
See also
5
References
6
Further reading
7
External links
[edit]
Pipe thread sizes
Nominal
NPT SizeOuter
DiameterThreads
per inchPitch
of Thread
1/ " 0.3125 in (7.94 mm) 27 0.03704 in (0.94082 mm)
16
" 0.405 in (10.29 mm) 27 0.03704 in (0.94082 mm)
" 0.540 in (13.72 mm) 18 0.05556 in (1.41122 mm)
3/8" 0.675 in (17.15 mm) 18 0.05556 in (1.41122 mm)
" 0.840 in (21.34 mm) 14 0.07143 in (1.81432 mm)
" 1.050 in (26.67 mm) 14 0.07143 in (1.81432 mm)
1" 1.315 in (33.40 mm) 11 0.08696 in (2.20878 mm)
1" 1.660 in (42.16 mm) 11 0.08696 in (2.20878 mm)
1" 1.900 in (48.26 mm) 11 0.08696 in (2.20878 mm)
2" 2.375 in (60.33 mm) 11 0.08696 in (2.20878 mm)
2" 2.875 in (73.03 mm) 8 0.12500 in (3.175 mm)
3" 3.500 in (88.90 mm) 8 0.12500 in (3.175 mm)
4" 4.500 in (114.30 mm) 8 0.12500 in (3.175 mm)
5" 5.563 in (141.30 mm) 8 0.12500 in (3.175 mm)
6" 6.625 in (168.28 mm) 8 0.12500 in (3.175 mm)
10" 10.750 in (273.05 mm) 8 0.12500 in (3.175 mm)
213
12" 12.750 in (323.85 mm) 8 0.12500 in (3.175 mm)

14" OD 14 in (355.60 mm) 8 0.12500 in (3.175 mm)
16" OD 16 in (406.40 mm) 8 0.12500 in (3.175 mm)
18" OD 18 in (457.20 mm) 8 0.12500 in (3.175 mm)
20" OD 20 in (508.00 mm) 8 0.12500 in (3.175 mm)
24" OD 24 in (609.60 mm) 8 0.12500 in (3.175 mm)
[edit]
Thread form
NPT and NPS threads have a 60 included angle and have a Sellers thread form (a ened peaks and valleys).
[edit]
Terminology
This sec on may require cleanup to meet Wikipedias quality standards. Please improve this sec on if you can.
The talk page may contain sugges ons. (September 2010)
Further informa on: Gender of connectors and fasteners
Some mes these terms may be used:
MIP: stands for Male Iron Pipe, or Male Interna onal Pipe, or MPT Male Pipe Thread. It is a term for pipe
ngs.
FIP: stands for Female Iron Pipe, or Female Interna onal Pipe, or FPT. It is a term for pipe ngs that t
onto MIP.
The dierence between FIP, MIP and Compression ngs is in the tapering of the thread. FIP has 34 in / foot
taper, or only 116 in / inch taper; Comp has 1 58 in / foot, or only 1396 in / inch taper.
A female iron connec on has a tapered thread, which thins out to the end of the pipe. As the ng is ghtened,
the ever-decreasing thread depth means that the connec on becomes water ght. To properly seal the ng,
paste thread sealant or PTFE (polytetrauoroethylene) tape wrapped around the thread is required.
MIP ngs are usually found in thicker copper pipe, iron pipe, steel pipe, gas pipe, gas stove, gas oven, gas heater,
and gas water heater connec ons.
[edit]
See also
AN thread
Bri sh standard pipe thread
Panzergewinde
Thread angle
Threaded pipe
[edit]
References
214
1. ^ h p://www.hemcoga ges.com/ansi.htm
2. ^ h p://www.micromold.com/threaded _piping.html PTFE threaded pipe and ngs manufacturer
[edit]
Further reading
215
216
3.
2012
217
3.1
218
February
Photosynthesis (2012-02-18 10:48)

Photosynthesis may be broadly dened as the u liza on of solar energy by green plants, algal pro sts and certain
green and purple bacteria for the synthesis of organic compounds. The dominant forms of photosynthesis on this
planet is photosynthesis carried on by unicellular and mul cellular green plants and pro sts. CARBON DIOXIDE
is the main source of carbon and WATER is the source of the hydrogen atoms. The main products of plant
photosynthesis are carbohydrates such as fructose and glucose, and oxygen gas.
light
6CO2 + 12 H2O > C6H12Oox-.6ex6 + 6 H2O + 6 O2
chlorophylls a,b
Photosynthesis is probably the most important chemical process on our planet. The products of photosynthesis
sustain all life by providing food for unicellular and mul cellular organisms, including humans, and by con nually
replacing the atmospheric oxygen that we breathe.
Plant and pro stan photosynthesis may be divided into two phases:
1. a PHOTOCHEMICAL PHASE (aka the LIGHT phase or the LIGHT DEPENDENT phase) in which OXYGEN is set
free when water molecules are split and light energy is trapped and converted into chemical energy; and
2. a CHEMICAL PHASE (aka the DARK phase or LIGHT INDEPENDENT phase) in which the chemical energy
released by phase (a) is u lized to convert carbon dioxide into organic compounds (aka CARBON FIXATION)
by a series of reac ons that are independent of light.
The ability of the photosynthesizing living cell to collect, concentrate, convert and u lize energy depends on the
presence within the cell of a number of highly specialized molecules. These include chlorophyll and other light
capturing pigments, cytochromes, and other electron carriers, and ATP, which is the energy transfer molecule
involved in almost all the energy transac ons of the cell.
The rst step in the conversion of light energy to chemical energy is the ABSORPTION OF LIGHT by a PIGMENT
system. In all photosynthe c cells (except the photosynthe c bacteria) the pigment system includes CHLOROPHYLL A, and it now agreed that this one pigment is essen al for photosynthesis of the type carried out by plants.
CHLOROPHYLL A occurs in all photosynthe c eukaryotes and in the prokaryo c cyanobacteria.
In the vascular plants, bryophytes, green algae, and euglenoid algae, CHLOROPHYLL B is also found. CHLOROPHYLL
B is an accessory pigment, and shares with CHLOROPHYLL A the ability to absorb light energy and produce some
sort of excited state in the molecule . When this occurs in a molecule of CHLOROPHYLL B, the excited molecule
transfers its energy to a molecule of CHLOROPHYLL A, which then proceeds to transform it into chemical energy
during the course of photosynthesis.
Since CHLOROPHYLL B absorbs light of a dierent wavelength from CHLOROPHYLL A, it extends the range of light
that can be used for photosynthesis. In the leaves of green plants, CHLOROPHYLL B generally cons tutes about
25 % of the total chlorophyll content.
Two other classes of accessory pigments are involved in the capture of light energy in photosynthesis - the
CAROTENOIDS. The role of these accessory pigments is noted by Clanton Black of the University of Georgia
in an ar cle in the January/February 1997 issue of Biophotonics Interna onal. The ar cle is en tled "Making
photosynthesis more ecient." The carotenoids are red, orange, or yellow, fat-soluble pigments found in all
chloroplasts. Carotenoids prevent the oxida on of chlorophyll caused by light; thus their most important role in
the chloroplast seems to be a protec ve one. Carotenoids that do NOT contain oxygen are called CAROTENES
and those that do contain oxygen are the XANTHOPHYLLS. Not being water soluble, carotenoids are not found
free in the cytoplasm, but, like chlorophylls, are bound to proteins within the plas ds (on thylakoid membranes).
The structure which houses these light absorbing pigments is the CHLOROPLAST. In higher plants the chloroplasts
are lens or disc-shaped, 2-6 micrometers in diameter, 0.5-1.0 micrometers thick. Chloroplasts may be as much
as 20 % of the total leaf volume. A single leaf cell may contain 40-50 chloroplasts. Chloroplasts seem capable of
219
independent movement within the cytoplasm and orient their surfaces in rela on to the light.
The chloroplast is surrounded by a double membrane and internally there are a series of membranes called
the LAMELLAE. These are joined at the ends to form parallel membrane pairs called THYLAKOIDS. In places the
thylakoids are stacked together in structures called GRANA. All of the chlorophyll and the carotenoids are found
in associa on with the lamella and grana.Light energy is trapped in the grana. The remainder of the chloroplast
is a darkish, somewhat granular solu on called the STROMA. The reac ons in which sugar is formed from carbon
dioxide and water, using energy from the grana, takes place in the stroma. The chloroplasts also contain their
own DNA and nucleic acids as well as RIBOSOMES and are capable of at least semi-autonomous replica on.
ABSORPTION VS. ACTION SPECTRA
When light falls on an object, certain colors are absorbed and others are reected. A red rose absorbs green and
blue light but reects into our eyes the wavelength we interpret as "red." Similarly, chlorophyll is green because it
absorbs blue and red strongly but not green. Green is reected and this is what we see. Obviously, if chlorophyll
is instrumental in capturing light energy, it must rst absorb that energy.
What pigment is used in photosynthesis? What specic wavelengths or colors of visible light are used? These
ques ons were answered by some simple yet elegant studies by T.W. Englemann. He exposed green algae to
various light wavelengths while they were growing in the presence of aerobic bacteria. The aerobic bacteria
clustered around the parts of the green algae that were releasing oxygen. Does chlorophyll absorb light of those
colors or wavelengths which are most eec ve in photosynthesis? This can be answered by determining exactly
WHAT WAVELENGTHS are absorbed by CHLOROPHYLL (the ABSORPTION SPECTRUM) and comparing them with
the wavelengths at which chloroplasts PHOTOSYNTHESIZE best (the ACTION SPECTRUM). Since there is a close
correspondence between the absorp on spectrum of chlorophyll and the ac on spectrum for photosynthesis, it
seems clear that chlorophylls are the major photosynthe c pigments of green plants.
Evidence for two stages of photosynthesis was presented in 1905 by the English plant physiologist, F.F. Blackman.
He measured the individual and combined eects of changes in light intensity and temperature on the rate of
photosynthesis. Based on his experiments, Blackman came to the following conclusions:
1. there is a set of LIGHT DEPENDENT reac ons which are TEMPERATURE INDEPENDENT; the rate of these
reac ons in the dim to moderate light range could be accelerated by increasing the light intensity, but they
were not accelerated by increase in temperature
2. there is a second set of reac ons that are TEMPERATURE DEPENDENT
Both sets of reac ons are required for photosynthesis.RATE CHANGES
When the rate of one set of reac ons increases, the rate of the en re process increases un l the second
set of reac ons begins to hold back the rst (becomes RATE-LIMITING). Photosynthesis was shown to have
a light-dependent stage, the "light reac ons," as well as a light-independent stage, the "dark reac ons." The
so-called dark reac ons occur in the light. They require the products of the "light" reac on. Light is NOT directly
involved in the "dark" reac ons.
At low light intensi es, light is limi ng, temperature and carbon dioxide concentra on are not.
At high light intensi es, the pigment molecules are saturated and the chemical reac ons are limited due to
changes in temperature and carbon dioxide concentra on.
Light independent ("dark") reac ons increase in rate as temperature increases un l about 30-40 degrees C
(dependent upon plant in ques on), a er which the rate begins to decrease. Blackman concluded that these
(dark) reac ons are controlled by enzymes since this is the way enzymes respond to temperature.
In the light dependent phase of photosynthesis, light energy is used to form ATP from ADP and to reduce electron
carrier molecules.
In the light independent phase of photosynthesis, the energy products of the rst stage are used to reduce
carbon from carbon dioxide to a simple hexose sugar.
The conversion of carbon dioxide into organic compounds is known as CARBON FIXATION.
THE PHOTOSYSTEMSChlorophyll and other pigment molecules are embedded in the thylakoids in organiza onal
units called PHOTOSYSTEMS. Each photosystem is an assembly of 250-400 pigment molecules.
All pigments within the photosystem are capable of absorbing photons (par cles of light) but only 1 chlorophyll
molecule per photosystem can use the energy in photochemical reac ons. This single chlorophyll molecule is
220
known as the REACTION CENTER of the photosystem. The other chlorophyll molecules are called ANTENNA
PIGMENTS.
Light energy absorbed by pigment molecules anywhere in the system is transferred to the reac on center which
is a special form ofCHLOROPHYLL A. When this CHLOROPHYLL A molecule absorbs the energy, one electron is
boosted to a higher energy level and transferred to an acceptor molecule to ini ate electron ow. The chlorophyll
molecule becomes oxidized and posi vely charged at this point.
There are two dierent photosystems opera ng in most plants - Photosystem I (P700) and Photosystem II
(P680). P700 and P680 represent op mal absorp on peaks in nanometers. The photosystems probably evolved
independently, with photosystem I evolving rst. See also the ar cle en tled "Mutant Algae Blur Classic Picture
of Photosynthesis" in Science Vol. 273, July 19, 1996, p.310.
MODEL OF THE LIGHT DEPENDENT REACTIONSLight energy enters P680 of Photosystem II causing an electron
pair of the reac on center molecule to become energized. This energized electron pair move to a higher energy
level and are transferred to an acceptor molecule. P680 replaces its electrons by extrac ng them from a water
molecule. Water is dissociated into H+ (protons) and oxygen gas. This light dependent spli ng of water is called
PHOTOLYSIS.
Electrons then pass downhill along an electron transport chain which includes two cytochromes, to Photosystem
I.
As electrons move along the chain ATP is formed. The process is known as PHOTOPHOSPHORYLATION.
In Photosystem I, light energy boosts electrons from P700 to the electron acceptor (X or P430) where they pass
downhill to the coenzyme NADP. Hydrogen ions from the photolysis of H2O are used to reduce NADP ->
NADPH2. P700 becomes oxidized.
NADPH2 provides energy directly to biosynthe c processes in the cell. Electrons removed from Photosystem I
are replaced by electron from Photosystem II.
Thus, in light, there is a con nuous ow of electrons from water to Photosystem II to Photosystem I to NADP. The
overall process involving two Photosystems is called NON CYCLIC PHOTOPHOSPHORYLATION - it is a unidirec onal
electron ow. this is some mes called the "Z" scheme.
Based on 12 pairs of electrons from water to NADP, the energy harvest is 12 ATP and 12 NADPH2. To generate 1
molecule of NADPH2 four photons of light must be absorbed, 2 by Photosystem I and 2 by Photosystem II.
Photosystem I can work independently of Photosystem II. Electrons go from the reac on center to the electron
acceptor downhill back to the reac on center. ATP is generated in this process. This is CYCLIC PHOTOPHOSPHORYLATION and is used by more primi ve plants.
LIGHT INDEPENDENT "DARK" REACTIONSEnergy generated from the light reac ons is used to reduce carbon.
Carbon is available as carbon dioxide. A reac on pathway known as the Calvin or Calvin-Benson Cycle is similiar
to the Krebs Cycle because by the end of each turn of the cycle, the star ng compound has been regenerated.
Six revolu ons of the cycle with the introduc on of 6 CO2 are needed to produce a 6 carbon sugar.
Calvin-Benson Cycle (not balanced)
6 ATP
Ribulose 5-P > Ribulose 1,5 Di or BiP
phosphopentokinase
Diphosphoribulose
Rb 1,5 DiP + 3 CO2 > 2 carboxyl 3ketoributol 6,5DiP

carboxylase
12 ATP
-> 2 Phosphoglyceric Acid (PGA) > Phosphoglyceraldehyde (PGAL)
12 NADPH (from Photosystem I)
-> transformed as needed
10 PGAL molecules are used for the regenera on of Ribulose 5-P
2 PGAL are the net gain and are converted into hexose sugar
221
Overall Reac on on a Per Glucose Basis

6CO2 + 12 NADP+ + 12 H2O + 18 ATP >
C6H12Oox-.6ex6 + 12 NADP+ 18 ADP + 18 Pi + 6 H2O + 6 O2
Regenera on of the Carbon Dioxide Acceptor (Ribulose 5-P)
C3 > / C2 > C5
C3 -> /C \ e6
C3/
C3 >ize\C4 -> |C7 > C5
C3 > |C2 -> C5
Organisms that absorb energy from any form of light must be able to direct the energy absorbed by the chlorophyll molecules into produc ve photochemical reac ons, as men oned above. The release of excess energy into
a cell would cause biochemical damage. In the September 24, 2004 issue of Science, Huq, Al-Sady, Hudson and
others iden fy a factor called Phytochrome-Interac ng Factor 1 (PIF-1) that is regulates chlorophyll biosynthesis,
so necessary as seeds germinate and develop in the light. Phytochrome is a blue pigment that is shown to be of
signicance in the ming of the owering process.
The Fate of PGAL
The principal end product of photosynthesis is PGAL or G3P. (phosphoglyceraldehyde or glyceraldehyde 3-P). It is
a food and forms in the grana. It does not accumulate to any great extent because of 3 main fates:
1. used directly as a nutrient in the cell which produced it
2. it may be packaged for export to other cells
3. it may be packaged for storage
As a nutrient, PGAL is usable immediately in respira on. The reduc on of PGA to PGAL is virtually the exact
opposite of a principal oxida on step in glycolysis, the one in which PGAL is oxidized to PGA. In that oxida on
step ATP and NAD-H are byproducts, and in the present reduc on ATP is used and NADP-H is a raw material.
PGAL is also usable directly as a building material and can form chlorophyll, NADP, Ribulose 5-P or any of the
enzymes taking part in carbon dioxide xa on.
More PGAL is usually manufactured than needed - the bulk is available for export to nonphotosynthesizing cells
of the plant. PGAL is too reac ve to be exported as such but is transformed into sugars such as sucrose, glucose,
or fructose. Sugar is o en the primary endproducts of photosynthesis.Sugars are usualluy moved throght the
plant (translocated) as sucrose and stored as starch.
Storage occurs primarily in roots and stems, some in leaves. Stored materials should take up as li le space as
possible, and should be rela vely unavailable (unreac ve) in constant ac vi es. Storage fats are some mes
manufactured instead of or in addi on to carbohydrate reserves (olive oil, castor oil, peanut oil, coconut oil). The
larger the storage unit, starches for example, the smaller it is in terms of individual units because of the water
loss during dehydra on synthesis.
Take note of the Concept map for studying photosynthesis.
Plant that use ONLY the Calvin-Benson Cycle are known as C3 plants. The Calvin-Benson Cycle is accompanied by
PHOTORESPIRATION - a process that consumes oxygen and releases carbon dioxide in the presence of light. It
involves the oxida on of carbohydrates but no yield of ATP or NADH2. As much as 50 % of photosynthe cally
xed carbon may be reoxidized to carbon dioxide during photorespira on. This reduces the eciency of C3
carbon dioxide xa on.
The Calvin-Benson Cycle is not the only carbon-xa on pathway used in "dark" reac ons. In some plants carbon
dioxide is xed to phosphoenolpyruvate (PEP) rather than Ribulose 1,5 BiP. These plants are known as C4 plants
and the pathway is known as the Hatch-Slack Pathway.
Some of the plants that use this pathway are corn, sugar cane, sugar beets, and crabgrass. These plants make
be er use of carbon dioxide, have photorespira on near zero, reduced water loss, and are adapted to high light
and temperature and dryness. In short, they save more of the photosynthate (sugar) they make.
222
Plant Adapta ons in Desert (2012-02-18 10:58)

The
P
lants have adapta ons to help them survive (live and grow) in dierent areas. Adapta ons are special features
that allow a plant or animal to live in a par cular place or habitat. These adapta ons might make it very dicult
for the plant to survive in a dierent place. This explains why certain plants are found in one area, but not in
another. For example, you wouldnt see a cactus living in the Arc c. Nor would you see lots of really tall trees
living in grasslands.
Click on the dierent biomes or areas below to learn about them and some of the adapta ons plants have to live
there:
Desert
The desert is very dry and o en hot. Annual rainfall averages less than 10 inches per year, and that rain o en
comes all at the same me. The rest of the year is very dry. There is a lot of direct sunlight shining on the plants.
The soil is o en sandy or rocky and unable to hold much water. Winds are o en strong, and dry out plants. Plants
are exposed to extreme temperatures and drought condi ons. Plants must cope with extensive water loss.
Desert Plant Adapta ons
Some plants, called succulents, store water in their stems or leaves;
Some plants have no leaves or small seasonal leaves that only grow a er it rains. The lack of leaves helps
reduce water loss during photosynthesis. Leaess plants conduct photosynthesis in their green stems.
Long root systems spread out wide or go deep into the ground to absorb water;
Some plants have a short life cycle, germina ng in response to rain, growing, owering, and dying within
one year. These plants can evade drought.
Leaves with hair help shade the plant, reducing water loss. Other plants have leaves that turn throughout
the day to expose a minimum surface area to the heat.
Spines to discourage animals from ea ng plants for water;
Waxy coa ng on stems and leaves help reduce water loss.
Flowers that open at night lure pollinators who are more likely to be ac ve during the cooler night.
Slower growing requires less energy. The plants dont have to make as much food and therefore do not lose
as much water.
This cactus displays several desert adapta ons: it has spines rather than leaves and it stores water in its stem.
This cactus displays light-colored hair that helps shade the plant.
This plant has a waxy coa ng on its leaves.
223
Eects of Light on Plants (2012-02-18 11:07)

Light and Chlorophyll
Plants require light in order to survive, but the role of light in the life of a plant is much more complex than
the plant si ng in the sun for several hours each day. It is what is happening inside the plant while its
absorbing those rays. A plant needs food, air, water and light. If you were to take a bucket, or small plas c
swimming pool and place it in the yard on top of green grass for a couple of days and then remove it, you
would no ce whi sh-yellow grass in place of the green grass. Note that the roots of plants, which do not
receive light, are typically white. Chlorophyll is responsible for a plants color and is a direct result of being
exposed to light.
Photosynthesis
Plants use the day me to soak up the energy of the sun. As water is received from the roots of the plant,
the plant processes the water and nutrients to form a type of glucose to be used as fuel. As glucose is being
produced, oxygen is released from the plant. When nigh me approaches, the opposite process begins.
Plants breathe oxygen through roots, stems and leaves and the energy used to "breathe" releases some of
the fuel, or glucose, that allows plants to sprout new foliage. When plants burn stored energy, this process
ac vates the release of carbon dioxide from the plant. This process is called photosynthesis.
Photoperiodism
Light is a factor for another process that plants experience, called photoperiodism. This is a process whereby
the length and extent of light determines the growing processes of plants. An example of some of the
growing processes plants experience include: sprou ng, growing, budding, blooming, owering, and nally
the produc on of seed. If you were to experiment using two or three plants, planted at the same me and
then controlling how much light each one receives, you would no ce that a er a period of me, the plants
would appear to have been planted at dierent mes considering their varying stages of growth.
Light is a Crucial Element
Light is necessary for the survival of plants as light serves as the primary energy source. Without light,
there would be an absence of chlorophyll, and a domino eect would follow. An absence of chlorophyll
would lead to the nonexistence of oxygen and carbon dioxide. With light vital to the survival of plant life,
the trickle-down eect illustrates that lights eect on plants is a crucial element for other living processes,
such as humans.
The Eects of Light on Plant Growth
Plants depend on light to grow. The quan ty, quality and dura on of light aects the health and growth of
all plants.
Benets
Photosynthesis is the process a plant uses to convert light into energy as building blocks for plant growth.
Func on
The more intense the light, the more the plant will be able to use photosynthesis to grow. Photosynthesis
is dependant on the quan ty, quality and dura on of light.
224
Amounts
Some plants require more light for growth, while others need less. Plants that need full sun (quan ty)
require at least 8 hours a day during the most intense (quality) hours between 9 a.m. and 4 p.m. (dura on).
Plants that need less light may shrivel or burn in too much sun.
Types
The quality or color wavelength of light aects plant growth and health. The two most important wavelengths of color are blue (uorescent), which helps leaves grow full and green, and red (incandescent),
which allows the plant to ower. Sunshine has both blue and red wavelengths.
Indoor Plants
If you want to grow plants indoors, use uorescent lights for plant seedlings and healthy leaf growth. Later,
as the plant begins to ower, add incandescent light for short periods of me or put the plant in a window
that gets sun part of the day.
225
Semipermeable membrane (2012-02-18 11:18)

selec vley permeable membranes only allow certain materials to pass through.
A semipermeable membrane, also termed a selec vely permeable membrane, apar ally permeable membrane
or a dieren ally permeable membrane, is a membrane that will allow certain molecules or ions to pass through
it by diusion and occasionally specialized "facilitated diusion".
The rate of passage depends on the pressure, concentra on, and temperature of the molecules or solutes on
either side, as well as the permeability of the membrane to each solute. Depending on the membrane and the
solute, permeability may depend on solute size,solubility,
An example of a semi-permeable membrane is the lipid bilayer, on which is based theplasma membrane that
surrounds all biological cells. A group of phospholipids (consis ng of a phosphate head and two fa y acid tails)
arranged into a double-layer, the phospholipid bilayer is a semipermeable membrane that is very specic in its
permeability.
Membranes used in reverse osmosis are, in general, made out of polyimide, chosen primarily for its permeability
to water and rela ve impermeability to various dissolved impuri es including salt ions and other small molecules
that cannot be ltered. Another example of a semipermeable membrane is dialysis tubing.
Osmosis is the diusion of water through a semipermeable membrane from a region of low solute concentra on
to a solu on with a high solute concentra on, up a solute concentra on gradient. The membrane is what the
water is crossing over. The direc on that the water molecule passes across the membrane is governed by the
solute concentra on. Water goes in the direc on of where the solute is. So if there is a high salt content in the
cell, water will rush in.
Osmo c pressure is the pressure which needs to be applied to a solu on to prevent the inward ow of water
across a semipermeable membrane.[1]
The phenomenon of osmo c pressure arises from the tendency of a pure solvent to move through a semipermeable membrane and into a solu on containing a solute to which the membrane is impermeable.
226
Anaerobic respira on (2012-02-18 11:27)

Anaerobic respira on is a form of respira on using electron acceptors other than oxygen. Although oxygen is not
used as the nal electron acceptor, the process s ll uses a respiratory electron transport chain ; it is respira on
without oxygen.
Anaerobic respira on is used mainly by prokaryotes that live in environments devoid of oxygen. Many anaerobic
organisms are obligate anaerobes , meaning that they can respire only using anaerobic compounds and will die in
the presence of oxygen.
Ecological importance
Anaerobic respira on plays a major role in the global nitrogen, sulfur, and carbon cycles through the reduc on
of the oxyanions of nitrogen, sulfur, and carbon to more-reduced compounds. Dissimilatory denitrica on is the
main route by which biologically xed nitrogen is returned to the atmosphere as molecular nitrogen gas. Hydrogen
sulde, a product of sulfate respira on, is a potent neurotoxin and responsible for the characteris c ro en egg
smell of brackish swamps. Along with volcanic hydrogen sulde, biogenic sulde has the capacity to precipi ate
heavy metal ions from solu on, leading to the deposi on of suldic metal ores.
Economic relevance
Dissimiltory denitrica on is widely used in the removal of nitrate and nitrite from municipal wastewater. An
excess of nitrate can lead toeutrophica on of waterways into which treated water is released. Elevated nitrite
levels in drinking water can lead to problems due to its toxicity. Denitrica on converts both compounds into
harmless nitrogen gas.
Methanogenesis is a form of carbonate respira on that is exploited to produce methane gas by anaerobic digeson. Biogenic methane is used as a sustainable alterna ve to fossil fuels. On the nega ve side, uncontrolled
methanogenesis in landll sites releases large volumes of methane into the atmosphere, where it acts as a powerful greenhouse gas.
Specic types of anaerobic respira on are also used to convert toxic chemicals into less-harmful molecules. For
example, toxic arsenate orselenate can be reduced to less toxic compounds by various bacteria.
227
Factors Aec ng Transpira on (2012-02-18 11:32)

Factors Aec ng Transpira on
Light intensity
Light intensity s mulates stomata opening. This is because an increase in light intensity results in an increase of
rate of photosynthesis. Photosynthesis requires gaseous exchange and the stomata is the pore in which gaseous
exchange takes place.Therefore an increase in photosynthesis results in an increase in stomata opening (increased
gaseous exchange).
Evapora on of water from the plant occurs primarily through the stomata, so as you can understand, an increase
in light intensity results in an increase in transpira on due to an increase stomata opening.
Temperature
Plants transpire faster at higher temperatures. This is because the rate of evapora on increases with temperature.
Humidity
Humidity can be dened as the rela ve amount of water in the atmosphere. If the air is dry, then the diusion
gradient would be greater from the plant to the atmosphere. There would be an increase in the diusion of
water vapour out of the stomata and into the atmosphere. If the air is humid (containing a lot of water in the
atmosphere) then the opposite would be true, and very li le water would diuse out of the atmosphere.
Wind
When there is very li le wind, this means that the layer of water vapour directly surrounding the leaves is not
being swept away. Because of this, there is an increase in humidity of the air directly surrounding the leaves. This
results in a lower rate of transpira on.
228
Water supply
If the plant has li le water available, it will close its stomata. This will of course cause a decrease in the rate of
transpira on.
229
Mineral uptake (2012-02-18 11:37)

In plants, mineral uptake is the process in which minerals enter the cellular material, typically following the same
pathway as water. The most normal entrance portal for mineral uptake is through plant roots.(Roots, 2005) Some
mineral ions diuse in-between the cells. In contrast to water, some minerals are ac vely taken up by plant
cells. Mineral nutrient concentra on in roots may be 10,000 mes more than in surrounding soil. During transport throughout a plant, minerals can exit xylem and enter cells that require them. Mineral ions cross plasma
membranes by a chemiosmo c mechanism. Plants absorb minerals in ionic form: nitrate (NO3 footnotesize),
phosphate (HPO4box.6ex) and potassium ions(K+); all have diculty crossing a charged plasma membrane.
It has long been known plants expend energy to ac vely take up and concentrate mineral ions. Proton pump
hydrolyzes ATP to transport H+ions out of cell; this sets up an electrochemical gradient that causes posi ve ions
to ow into cells. Nega ve ions are carried across the plasma membrane in conjunc on with H+ ions as H+ ions
diuse down their concentra on gradient.
One might have expected that minerals would enter the root dissolved in water. But, in fact, minerals enter
separately:
Even when no water is being absorbed, minerals enter freely mostly through the root hairs.
Minerals can enter against their concentra on gradient; that is, by ac ve transport. For example, plants can
take up K+ from the soil against a ten-thousand-fold concentra on gradient; e.g., from as li le as 10 M in
the soil to 100 mM in the cell.
Anything that interferes with the metabolism of root hairs interferes with mineral absorp on.
The root hairs are also the point of entry of mycorrhizal fungi. These transport minerals especially phosphorus to the root hair in exchange for carbohydrates from the plant.
In legumes, the root hairs are the point of entry of rhizobia that will establish the mutualis c partnership
enabling the plant to convert atmospheric nitrogen into protein. [Link to discussion]
Plants absorb their nutrients in inorganic form.
For examples:
nitrogen enters as nitrate (NO3) or ammonium ions (NH4+)
phosphorus as PO43
potassium as K+
calcium as Ca2+
When you hear of the virtues of organic fer lizers, remember that such materials meet no nutri onal need of the
plant un l their cons tuents have been degraded to inorganic forms. Organic ma er does play an important role
in making good soil texture, but only to the extent that it can yield inorganic ions can it meet the nutri onal needs
of the plant.
Once within the epidermis, inorganic ions pass inward from cell to cell, probably through plasmodesmata. The
nal step from the cytoplasm of the pericycle cells to the xylem is probably accomplished once again by ac ve
transport.
This theory is based on the assump ons that:
i. Mechanism of anion and ca on absorp on is dierent.
ii. Anions are absorbed thorough cytochrome chain by an ac ve process.
iii. Dehydrogenase reac ons on inner side of membrane give rise to H+ ions and (e) ions.
230
iv. The electron travels over the cytochrome chain towards outside themembrane, so that the "Fe" of the cytochrome becomes reduced to Fe++ on the outer surface and "Fe" is oxidises to (Fe+++) on the inner surface.
v. On the outer surface, the reduced cytochrome is oxidised by oxygen relaasing the electron (e) and taking an
anion (A-).
vi. The electron thus released unites with G+ and oxygen to form water.
vii. The anion (A-) travels over the cytochrome chain towards inside.
viii. At the inner surface the oxidised cytochrome become reduced by taking an electron produced through the
dehydrogenase reac ons and the onion (A-) relased.
ix. As a result, a ca on (m+) moves passively from outside to inside to balance the onion.
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March
SKF bearing part number system (2013-03-16 01:25)

h p://www.ahrinterna onal.com/SKF _nomenclature.shtml
Prex
Sux
Deni on
. . ROLLER BRG
..
. -JFT REED TORQUE TEST, AVERAGE TORQUE VALUE OF 1000 MG/MM
. 02 REED BEARING W/O.D. CODED TO 0.0001 INCH INCREMENTS
. 03 REED BEARING W/O.D. CODED TO 0.00005 INCH INCREMENTS
. 20 REED BEARING W/BORE CODED TO 0.0001 INCH INCREMENTS
. 21 REED LUBE COBEHN INC., PRECISION INSTRUMENT OIL/MIL-L-6085
. 22 REED BEARING W/BORE O.D. CODED TO 0.0001 INCH INCREMENTS
. 22 REED LUBE ANDERSON OIL CO, WINDSOR LUBE L-245X/MIL-L-6085
. 23 REED LUBE CODE 4264 AEROSHELL FLUID I12/MIL-L-6085A2/SKF EA
. 24 REED LUBE E.F. HOUGHTON CO. COSMOLUBRIC 270/MIL-L-6085
. 25 REED LUBE STANDARD OIL OF N.J. UNIVIS P-38/MIL-L-6985- A2/SKF DA
. 26 REED LUBE ECLIPSE PIONEER P-10/MIL-L-6085-A2/SKF EB
. 27 REED LUBE ANDEROL L-401-D/MIL-L-6085-A2/SKF EC
. 28 REED LUBE BRAY 885/MIL-L-6085-A2/SKF DH
. 2GS SKF REMOVABLE MOLDED NITRILE SEAL ON BOTH SIDES
. 2GSNR SKF SAME AS -2GS, EXCEPT WITH SNAP-RING
. 2GSP SKF REMOVABLE MOLDED POLYACRYLIC SEAL ON BOTH SIDES
. 2GSV SKF REMOVABLE MOLDED FLUOROCARBON SEAL ON BOTH SIDES
. 2RS SKF SEAL OF PLATE AND SYNTHETIC RUBBER ON BOTH SIDES
. 2RS2 VITON RUBBER SEALS FOR HIGH TEMPERATURE APPLICATIONS
. 2SS REED TWO ARMALON SEALS
. 2SS SKF BACK UP PLATE SEAL ON BOTH SIDES
. 2Z REED TWO STAINLESS STEEL REMOVABLE SHIELDS
. 2Z SKF SHIELD ON BOTH SIDES/EX 6203-2Z
. 30 REED BEARING K/BORE CODED TO 0.00005 INCH INCREMENTS
. 31 REED LUBE SHELL OIL, CODE 4254 AREO SHELL FL I3/MIL-L-7870
. 32 REED LUBE TEXAS 1692 LOW TEMP OIL/MIL-L-7870-A/SKF DD/
. 33 REED BEARING W/BORE O.D. CODED TO 0.00005 INCH INCREMENTS
. 33 REED LUBE STD OIL OF N.J., ESSO AVIATION INSTRU OIL/MIL-L-7870
. 34 REED LUBE WINDSOR L-1018/MIL-L-7870-A/SKF DF
. 35 REED LUBE LEHICRH CHEMICAL PROD., L-407/MIL-L-7870
. 36 REED LUBE GULF OIL CO., GULPHITE OIL 6/MIL-L-7870
. 41 REED LUBE ESSO RUST BAN 334/SKF FA/
. 42 REED LUBE ANDERSON OIL CO, WINDSOR RUST PREV L1384/MIL-L-644
. 43 REED LUBE TEXAS CO., TEXACO PRESERVATIVE OIL, SPEC/MIL-L-644
. 44 REED LUBE STD OIL OF N.J. , PRESERVATIVE OIL 1193/MIL-L-644
. 45 REED LUBE SHELL OIL CO., CODE LG-1-21 SHELL PRESERV/MIL-L-644
. 46 REED LUBE E. F. HOUGHTON CO., COSMOLINE 1044/MIL-L-644
. 51 REED LUBE VERSILUBE F-50/SKF ED
. 52 REED LUBE DOW CORNING CORP., DC 200 FLUID/3.0 CS
. 53 REED LUBE DC-200-20/SKF EF
. 54 REED LUBE DC-200-30/SKF EF
. 55 REED LUBE DC-200-350/SKF EG
. 56 REED LUBE DC-510-20/SKF EG
. 57 REED LUBE DC-510-50/SKF EJ
235
. 58 REED LUBE DC-510-100/SKF EK

. 59 REED LUBE DC-510-500/SKF EL
. 60 REED LUBE VERSILUBE F-44/SKF EM
. 65 REED LUBE TERESSTIC V-78/SKF DG
. 71 REED LUBE STANDARD OIL OF N.J. BEACON M-325/SKF LB
. 72 REED LUBE TEXAS CO., TEXACO 1959 UNITEMP GREASE/MIL-G-32 78 /
. 73 REED LUBE SHELL OIL, CODE 5081 AERO SHELL GREASE LL/MIL-G-3278
. 74 REED LUBE E.F. HOUGHTON CO., COSMOILINE 505 GREASE/MIL-G-32 78
. 75 REED LUBE LEHIGH CHEM. PROD., ANDEROL L-793 GREASE/MIL-G-32 78
. 81 REED LUBE TEXAS 1999 HI TEMP/MIL-G-3545-B/SKF HE
. 82 REED LUBE SHELL OIL, CODE 5076 AERO SHELL GREASE 5A/MIL-L-3545
. 83 REED LUBE SINCLAIR REF. CO., SINCLAIRHI TEMP GREASE /MIL-L-3545
. 85 REED LUBE TEXAS 1996 UNITEMP 500/SKF HD
. 86 REED LUBE AMER. OIL CO. SUPER MIL ASU-M-100/SKF SC/
. 87 REED LUBE DOW CORNING CORP. , DC 33 GREASE/MI55 LIGHT
. 88 REED LUBE DOW CORNING CORP. , DC 55 GREASE
. 89 REED LUBE GENERAL ELECTRIC, VERSILUBE G-300 SILICON GREASE
. 90 REED LUBE G-300 GE VERSILUBE/SKF SF
. 91 REED LUBE TEXACO CO., REGAL STARFAH MIL-L-7711 GREASE
. 92 REED LUBE SHELL OIL CO., ETR GRADE 21176A GREASE
. 93 REED LUBE TEXAS #948-1888 LO TEM/SKF CA
. 94 REED LUBE GENERAL ELECTRIC CO., JF50 VERSILUBE SILICONE OIL
. 95 REED LUBE SHELL ETR-B/SKF JB
. 96 REED LUBE SHELL ETR-D/SKF JC
. 97 REED LUBE SHELL AEROSHELL I15/MIL-G-25013-C1/SKF JA
. A REED 0.0000 RADIAL PLAY
. A SKF BEARING W/ADAPTER FOR AMERICAN SHAFT STANDARD/EX 1606-A
. A SKF COMPLETE PARCO-LUBRIZE OR SULITE COATING
. A SKF CONTACT ANGLE 30 DEGREES/EX 7205-A
. A SKF INTERNAL DESIGN CHANGED/EX 31308-A
. A TYSON DIMENSIONAL VARIATION FORM BASIC CONE OR CUP
. AB TYSON DIMENSIONAL VARIATION FROM BASIC FLANGED CUP
. AC TYSON DIMENSIONAL VARIATION FROM STANDARD CUP
. AS TYSON DIMENSIONAL VARIATION FORM BASIC CONE OR CUP
. AX TYSON DIMENSIONAL VARIATION FROM BASIC CONE OR CUP
. B REED 0.0001 RADIAL PLAY
. B SKF CONTACT ANGLE 40 DEGREES/EX 7208-B
. B SKF INTERNAL DESIGN CHANGED/EX 227850-B
. B TYSON BRASS CAGE CONE
. B TYSON FLANGED CUP
. BA SKF LUBE QUAKER CHEM. CO. FERROCOTE OIL S366-K-1
. BA SKF HIGH-CAPACITY, 40-DEGREES CONTACT ?.NGLE BALL BRG/EX 7219-BA
. BB SKF LUBE QUAKER CHEMICAL CO. FERROCOTE OIL #346
. BC SKF LUBE SHELL ENSIS OIL 30/MIL-L-21260
. BD REED RADIAL PLAY, CATALOG DESIGNATION FOR TIGHT
. BD SKF LUBE TEXAS PRES. OIL I30/MIL-L-21260
. BE SKF LUBE SOCONY MOBIL DTE 797
. BF SKF LUBE QUAKER CHEMICAL CO. TMF-5815
. BG SKF LUBE MOBILE KOTE $501
. BJ SKF LUBE E. F. HOUGHTON CO. COSMOLINE 993/MIL-C-22235 -A
. BW TYSON SLOTTED FLANGED CUP
. C REED 0.0002 RADIAL PLAY
. C SKF CONTACT ANGLE 15 DEGREES/SER 7000 7200 THRU 7208-C
236
. C SKF CONTACT ANGLE 20 DEGREES/SER 7200 FORM 7209-CUP

. C SKF INTERNAL DESIGN CHANGED/EX 23218-C
. C SKF SPHERICAL ROLLER BRG W/GUIDE RING PRESSED TYPE CAGE
. C TYSON SPECIAL HIGH-CAPACITY SERIES CONE
. C02 SKF EXTRA CLOSE INNER RING RUNNING ACCURACY STD INTERNAL CLEAR
. C03 SKF CLOSE OUTER RING RUNNING ACCURACY STD INTERNAL CLEAR
. C04 SKF EXTRA CLOSE OUTER RING RUNNING ACCURACY SDT INTERNAL CLEAR
. C06 SKF COMBINATION OF C02 PLUS C03
. C2 SKF RADIAL CLEARANCE LESS THAN NORMAL
. C20 SKF REDUCED I.D. TOLERANCE APPROACHING NOMINAL DIMENSION
. C3 SKF RADIAL CLEARANCE GREATER THAN NORMAL
. C30 SKF REDUCED I.D. TOLERANCE APPROACHING LOW LIMIT
. C4 SKF RADIAL CLEARANCE GREATER THAN C3
. C40 SKF REDUCED O.D. TOLERANCE APPROACHING NOMINAL DIMENSION
. C481 SKF SUPER PRECISION EQUIV TO RBEC-5 IN BEARINGS/ TAPER BORE/CL FIT
. C4817 SKF EQUIV TO RBEC-5 TOL, CL FIT, C7 EXTRA-SMOOTH RUNNING
. C5 SKF RADIAL CLEARANCE GREATER THAN C4
. C50 SKF REDUCED O.D. TOLERANCE APPROACHING LOW LIMIT
. C7 SKF PRECISION ROLLER TOLERANCE
. C77 SKF SUPER PRECISION ROLLER TOLERANCE
. C78 SKF SUPER PRECIS, ABEC-5 STD INTERNAL CLEARANCE
. C8 SKF SPECS ON EXECUTION INSPECTION APPLY/AIRCRAFT/
. C99177 SKF SUPER PRECISION, ABEC-7 TOL, CL FIT C77 EXTRA-SMOOTH RUNNING
. C997 SKF SUPER-PRECISION, ABEC-7 TOLER C7 EXTRA-SMOOTH RUNNING
. CA SKF LUBE TEXAS 984-1888 LO TEMP
. CA SKF SPHERICAL ROLLER BEARING W/SEPARATE GUIDE RING INTEGRAL SIDE
. CAM SKF SPHERICAL ROLLER BEARING W/MACHINED BRONZE INNER PILOTED CAGE
. CAM2 SKF SPHERICAL ROLLER BEARING W/MACHINED BRONZE ROLLER RIDING CAGE
. CF REED RADIAL PLAY, CATALOG DESIGNATION FOR STANDARD
. CIO SKF I.D. O.D. WITHIN LIMITS OF MEAN DIAMETER
. CJ SKF SPHERICAL ROLLER BEARING PRESSED STEEL INNER PILOTED CAGE
. CK30. SKF C-TYPE SPHERICAL BEARING WITH L-TO-30 TAPERED BORE/GERMANY
. CL SKF RADIAL CLEARANCE LESS THAN C2
. CL3 SKF BORE, O.D. ECCENTRICITY TOLERANCES EQUIV TO ABEC-3
. CO1 SKF CLOSE INNER RING RUNNING ACCURACY STD INTERNAL CLEAR
. COS SKF CLOSE RUNNING ACCURACY OF BOTH INNER OUTER RINGS
. COS SKF EXTRA CLOSE RUNNING ACCURACY OF BOTH INNER OUTER RINGS
. CP TYSON CHROME PLATED CUP OR CONE
. CSV SKF REMOVABLE MOLDED FLUOROCARBON SEAL
. CY SKF PRESS BRASS, WINDOW TYPE CAGE, I.R. CENTERED, FOR C SPHERICAL
. D REED 0.0003 RADIAL PLAY
. D REED WOUND-SPRING TYPE RETAINER
. D SKF MATCHED BOXED IN PAIRS FOR DUPLEX MOUNTING
. D TYSON DOUBLE CONE OR CUP
. D. .B REED BACK-TO-BACK MOUNT, PRELOAD LISTED IN POUNDS BETWEEN LETTERS
. D. .F REED FACE-TO-FACE MOUNT, PRELOAD LISTED IN POUNDS BETWEEN LETTERS
. D..T REED TANDEM MOUNTING, PRELOAD LISTED IN POUNDS BETWEEN LETTERS
. D..U REED UNIV DUPLEX MOUNT, PRELOAD LISTED IN POUNDS BETWEEN LETTERS
. D9 SKF DG BALL BEARING W/GROOVES FOR SEALS SHIELDS BUT W/OUT SAME
. DA SKF LUBE STANDARD OIL OF N.J. UNIVIS P-38/MIL-L-6085-A2/
237
. DA TYSON DIMENSIONAL VARIATION OF BASIC DOUBLE CONE

. DA TYSON DOUBLE CUP WITH SPHERICAL O.D.
. DB SKF LUBE ESSO TURBO OIL 4040/MIL-L-7808-E/
. DB TYSON FLANGED DOUBLE CUP
. DC SKF LUBE ESSO AVIATION INSTRUMENT OIL/MIL-L-7870
. DD SKF LUBE TEXAS 1692 LOW TEMP OIL/MIL-L-7870
. DD TYSON LONG DOUBLE CONE OR DOUBLE CUP
. DE SKF LUBE WINDSOR LUBE L245X/MIL-L-6085-A2
. DE TYSON DIMENSIONAL VARIATION OF BASIC DOUBLE CONE
. DF SKF LUBE WINDSOR LUBE L-1018/MIL-L-7870A
. DG SKF LUBE TERESSTIC V-78
. DH SKF LUBE BRAY 885/MIL-L-6085-A2
. DJ SKF LUBE TERESSTIC V-79
. DK SKF LUBE ALASKAN OIL 143
. DO SKF SEPARABLE BEARING, NON-INTERCHANGEABLE MAIN COMPONENTS
. DS TYSON DIMENSIONAL VARIATION OF BASIC DOUBLE CUP
. DT TYSON DOUBLE CUP, TAPERED O.D.
. DW TYSON DOUBLE CONE OR CUP WITH KEYWAY OR SLOT
. E REED 0.0004 RADIAL PLAY
. E3 REED CORRESPONDS TO ABEC-3 PRECISION
. E4 SKF SEMI-PRECISION LINEAR MOTION ASSEMBLY
. EA SKF LUBE CODE 4264 AERO SHELL FLUID J12/MIL-L-6085-A2
. EA TYSON CUP SPACER
. EB SKF LUBE ECLIPSE PIONEER P-10/MIL-L-6085-A2
. EB TYSON CUP SPACER
. EC SKF LUBE ANDEROL L-401-D/MIL-L-6085-A2
. EC TYSON CUP SPACER
. ED SKF LUBE VERSILUBE F-50
. ED TYSON CUP SPACER
. ED TYSON SHORT DOUBLE CUP
. EE SKF LUBE DC200-20
. EF SKF
. EG SKF
. EH SKF LUBE DC510-20
. EJ SKF LUBE DC510-50
. EK SKF LUBE DC510-100
. EL SKF LUBE DC510-500
. EM SKF LUBE VERSILUBE F-44
. EN SKF LUBE 6 TO 8 PARTS XYLENE PLUS 1 PART DC510-50/EJ/
. EO SKF EXTRA PRECISION LINEAR MOTION ASSEMBLY
. F REED 0.0005 RADIAL PLAY
. F SKF MACHINED STEEL OR MONEL CAGE
. F3 SKF MACHINED DUCTILE IRON CAGE
. FA SKF. LUBE ESSO RUST BAN 334
. FB SKF LUBE WILSON BROWER THIXOTROPIC OIL 832-20
. FC SKF LUBE STANDARD OF N.J. ESSO TURBO 16/MIL-C-8188C
. FC SKF MACHINED STEEL OR MONEL CAGE CENTERED IN I. R. /PHILA
. FN REED RADIAL PLAY, CATALOG DESIGNATION FOR LOOSE
. FP SKF STEEL OR SPECIAL CAST IRON CAGE, SLOT OR BROACH ROLLER CENT
. FPC SKF SAME AS -FP, EXCEPT INNER RING CENTERED
. FPS SKF SAME AS -FB, EXCEPT OUTER RING CENTERED
238
. FR TYSON FULL ROLL TYPE CONE

. FS SKF MACHINED STEEL OR MONEL CAGE CENTERED IN O.R./PHILA
. G REED 0.0006 RADIAL PLAY
. G SKF FLUSH-GROUND SIDE SURFACES FOR DUPLEX MOUNTING
. G02 SKF 20 POUNDS PRELOAD
. GA REED TORQUE TEST, AVERAGE TORQUE VALUE OF 800 MG/MM
. GA SKF LUBE WILSON BROWER 300-1
. GB SKF LUBE WILSON BROWER 300-1-C
. GC SKF LUBE VALVOLINE OIL CO. TECTYL *437/MIL-C-11796B
. GD SKF LUBE GULF PETROLATUM EXTRA AMBER
. GL SKF 100 POUNDS PRELOAD
. GM REED TORQUE TEST, MODAL TORQUE VALUE OF 800 MG/MM
. GP REED TORQUE TEST, PEAK TORQUE VALUE OF 800 MG/MM
. GS SKF REMOVABLE MOLDED NITRILE SEAL ON ONE SIDE
. GSNBR SKF SAME AS -GSNB , EXCEPT WITH SNAP-RING
. GSNR SKF SAME AS -GSN, EXCEPT WITH SNAP-RING
. GSP SKF REMOVABLE MOLDED POLYACRYLIC SEAL
. GSZ SKF GS-SEAL ON ONE SIDE, Z-PLATE ON THE OTHER SIDE
. H REED 0.0007 RADIAL PLAY
. H SKF PRESSED HARDENED STEEL SNAP CAGE
. HA SKF TORQUE TEST, AVERAGE TORQUE VALUE OF 900 MG/MM
. HA SKF LUBE STANDARD OF N.J. ANDOK C
. HB SKF LUBE STANDARD OF N.J. ANDOK-260
. HC REED CROWN TYPE STAINLESS STEEL RETAINER
. HC SKF LUBE STANDARD OF CALIF. KPM AVIATION 42/MIL-G-3545B
. HC SKF PRESSED STEEL SNAP CAGE, INNER RING CENTERED
. HD SKF LUBE TEXAS 1996 UNITEMP 500
. HE SKF LUBE TEXAS 1999 HI-TEMP/MIL-G-3545-B
. HF SKF LUBE STANDARD OF CALIF. CHEVRON OHT/MIL-G-18709-A3
. HG SKF LUBE STANDARD OF INDIANA RYKON $2
. HH SKF LUBE IMPERIAL OIL CO. OF CANADA ESSO MP GREASE 7
. HJ SKF LUBE SHELL AERO SHELL I5/MIL-G-3545B
. HK SKF LUBE N.Y. N.J. S-59
. HL SKF LUBE ROYCO 5-N/MIL-G-3545-B/
. HM REED TORQUE TEST, MODAL TORQUE VALUE OF 900 MG/MM
. HM SKF LUBE TEXACO TG 7016
. HP REED TORQUE TEST, PEAK TORQUE VALUE OF 900 MG/MM
. J REED 0.0008 RADIAL PLAY
. J REED RIBBON TYPE STAINLESS STEEL RETAINER
. J SKF PRESSED UN-HARDENED STEEL CAGE
. JA =C4054SKF LUBE SHELL AEROSHELL S15/MIL-G-25013-C1
. JB SKF LUBE SHELL ETR-B
. JC SKF LUBE SHELL ETR-D
. JM REED TORQUE TEST, MODAL TORQUE VALUE OF 1000 MG/MM
. JP REED TORQUE TEST, PEAK TORQUE VALUE OF 1000 MG/MM
. K REED 0.0009 RADIAL PLAY
. K SKF BEARING WITH L-TO-12 TAPERED BORE/EX 1207-K
. K30 SKF BEARING WITH L-TO-30 TAPERED BORE/EX 24140-CK30
. KA REED TORQUE TEST, AVERAGE TORQUE VALUE OF 1100 MG/MM
. KM REED TORQUE TEST, MODAL TORQUE VALUE OF 1100 MG/MM
. KP REED TORQUE TEST, PEAK TORQUE VALUE OF 1100 MG/MM
239
. L REED 0.0010 RADIAL PLAY

. L SKF MACHINED DURAL CAGE
. LA REED TORQUE TEST, AVERAGE TORQUE VALUE OF 1200 MG/MM
. LA SKF LUBE TEXAS LOW-TEMP EP *1346/MIL-G-13827B
. LB SKF LUBE STD OF N.J. BEACON M-325/MIL-G-32 78
. LC SKF LUBE MID CONTINENT OIL CO. MIDCO 287 INSTRUMENT GREASE
. LC SKF MACHINED DURAL CAGE, CENTERED IN INNER RING
. LD SKF LUBE SHELL AEROSHELL *7A/MIL-G-3278-AL
. LE SKF LUBE ANDEROL L-793
. LF SKF LUBE ANDEROL L-730/MIL-L-19701
. LG SKF LUBE ANDEROL L-795
. LH SKF LUBE SHELL AEROSHELL 7/MIL-G-2 3827-A1
. LJ SKF LUBE MOBILE GREASE 12 8/MIL-G-23827-A1
. LK SKF LUBE ROYCO GREASE T27/MIL-G-23827-AL
. LL SKF LUBE AMERIC OIL CO. SUPERMIL ASU-72832/MIL-G-23827-A1
. LM REED TORQUE TEST, MODAL VALUE OF 1200 MG/MM
. LP REED TORQUE TEST, PEAK TORQUE VALUE OF 1200 MG/MM
. LP SKF MACHINED DURAL CAGE W/BROACHED POCKETS
. LPC SKF MACHINED DURAL CAGE W/BROACHED POCKETS, I.R. CENTERED
. LPS SKF MACHINED DURAL CAGE W/BROACHED POCKETS, O.R. CENTERED
. LW1 TYSON CONE WITH ONE SPECIAL KEYWAY
. M REED 0.0011 RADIAL PLAY
. M SKF MACHINED BRONZE CAGE
. M2 SKF SPHERICAL ROLLER BEARING W/ ROLLER-RIDING CAGE AND NO GUIDE-RING
. M2 SKF TRACTION MTR BEARING W/ SOLID BRASS DRILL CAGE, ROLL-CENTERED
. M5 SKF SOLID SILIC-IRON BRONZE CAGE/ALL VARIATIONS OF M APPLY
. MA SKF LUBE MASTER LUBRICANT M-31
. MB SKF LUBE N.Y. N.J. W-56/MIL-G-18709-A3
. MC SKF LUBE SOCONY VACUUM BRB LIFETIME
. MC SKF MACHINED BRONZE CAGE CENTERED IN INNER RACE
. MC5 SKF CAGE-SAME AS MC, EXC SILICONE IRON BRONZE MATERIAL
. MD SKF LUBE SHELL CYPRINA *3
. MG SKF LUBE SHELL ALVANIA B/AAR SPEC. M-917-56
. MH SKF LUBE FISKE BROS. LUBRIPLATE 107
. MJ SKF LUBE SHELL ALVANIA 13
. MK SKF . LUBE SHELL DARINA F2
. MN SKF - LUBE SHELL DARINA AX
. MO SKF LUBE TEX 1909 JOURNL RB GREASE H/AAR SPEC. M-917-63 GRADE B
. MP SKF MACHINED BRONZE CAGE WITH BROACHED POCKETS
. MPC SKF CAGE-SAME AS -MP EXCEPT CENTERED IN INNER RACE
. MPC5 SKF CAGE-SAME AS -MPC, EXCEPT SILICONE IRON BRONZE MATERIAL
. MPS SKF CAGE-SAME AS -MP EXCEPT CENTERED IN THE OUTER RACE
. MPS5 SKF CAGE-SAME AS -MPS, EXC SILICON IRON BRONZE MATERIAL
. MR SKF LUBE TEXACO 2301 RB GREASE/AAR SPEC M-917-63 GRADE A
. MS SKF LUBE ESSO ARAPEN RB-350/AAR SPEC. M-917-63 GRADE A
. MS SKF MACHINED BRONZE CAGE CENTERED IN THE OUTER RACE
. MS5 SKF CAGE-SAME AS -MS, EXCEPT SILICON IRON BRONZE MATERIAL
. MT SKF LUBE RICHFIELD ROCOLUBE/AAR SPEC M-917-63 GRADE A
. MU SKF LUBE SHELL ALVANIA C/AAR SPEC M-917-63 GRADE B
. MW SKF LUBE MOBIL PLEX EP-2/MIL-G-18709-A3
. MX SKF LUBE NON-FLUID OIL CO. F-924-AF
. MY SKF LUBE UNION OIL OF CALIFORNIA UNOBA $1
. N REED 0.0012 RADIAL PLAY
240
. N SKF GROOVE IN OUTER RACE BUT WITHOUT SNAP-RING/EX 6205-N

. N TYSON TYSON SERIES ONLY
. NA REED TORQUE TEST, AVERAGE VALUE OF 1300 MG/MM
. NA SKF LUBE SHELL B B/MIL-G-10924B
. NB SKF. LUBE AEROSHELL F 14/MIL-G-25537-A1
. NFR TYSON FULL-ROLL CONE IN TYSON SERIES
. NM REED TORQUE TEST, MODAL TORQUE VALUE OF 1300 MG/INM
. NP REED TORQUE TEST, PEAK VALUE OF 1300 MG/MRA
. NR SKF SNAP RING ON OUTER RING
. NW TYSON SLOTTED FRONT FACE ON NA-TYPE CONE
. NW2 TYSON CONE WITH 2 SPECIAL WOODRUFF KEYS
. NW4 TYSON CONE WITH 1 KEYWAY EXTENDED THROUGH CONE BORE
. Q SKF QUIET RUNNING BEARING
. QA REED TORQUE TEST, AVERAGE TORQUE VALUE OF 1400 MG/MM
. QM REED TORQUE TEST, MODAL TORQUE VALUE OF 1400 MG/MM
. QP REED TORQUE TEST, PEAK TORQUE VALUE OF 1400 MG/MM
. RA REED TORQUE TEST, AVERAGE TORQUE VALUE OF 1500 MG/MRA
. RA SKF LUBE DOW CORNING DC-33/LIGHT
. RB SKF LUBE DOW CORNING DC-44/LIGHT/MIL-L-15719-A3
. RB TYSON CUP WITH SNAP RING
. RD SKF LUBE DOW CORNING DC6 SILICONE
. RL SKF FOLLOWED BY NON-SIGNIFICANT NOS/SPEC INTERN RAD CLEAR
. RM REED TORQUE. TEST, MODAL TORQUE VALUE OF 1500 MG/MM
. RP REED TORQUE TEST, PEAK TORQUE VALUE OF 1500 MG/MM
. RS SKF SEAL OF PLATE AND SYNTHETIC RUBBER ON ONE SIDE
. RSNBR SKF SAME AS-RSNB, EXCEPT WITH SNAP-RING
. RSNR SKF SAME AS-RSN, EXCEPT WITH SNAP-RING
. RSZ SKF RS-SEAL ON ONE SIDE, Z -PLATE ON THE OTHER SIDE
. S SKF DIMENSIONAL VARIATION FROM BASIC CONE
. SA REED TORQUE TEST, AVERAGE TORQUE VALUE OF 1600 MG/MM
. SA SKF LUBE KEYSTONE M-89 SILICONE
. SB SKF LUBE DOW CORNING DC-4 SILICONE
. SC SKF LUBE AMERICAN OIL CO. SUPERMIL ASU-M-100
. SD SKF LUBE AMERICAN OIL CO. SUPERMIL ASU-M-40
. SE SKF LUBE DOW CORNING PNEUMATIC GREASE 55-M/MIL-L-4 343
. SF SKF LUBE G-300 GE VERSILUBE
. SG SKF LUBE AMERICAN OIL CO. SUPERMIL M-125
. SH SKF LUBE MOBIL GREASE 24
. SJ SKF LUBE AMERICAN OIL CO. SUPERMIL ASU-31052/MIL-G-25013D
. SK SKF LUBE MOBIL TEMP FL
. SM REED TORQUE TEST, MODAL TORQUE VALUE OF 1600 MG/RAM
. SP REED TORQUE TEST, PEAK TORQUE VALUE OF 1600 MG/MM
. SS REED ONE ARMALON SEAL
. SS SKF BACK-UP PLATE SEAL ON ONE SIDE
. SW TYSON DIMENSIONAL VARIATION FROM BASIC CONE WITH KEYWAY
. SW TYSON NA-TYPE CONE WITH SLOTTED FRONT-FACE
. SWE TYSON NA-CONE, SLOT FRONT-FACE EXTENDED FACE-FACE GROUND FOR SEAL
. T REED SYNTHETIC SNAP-ON TYPE RETAINER
. T SKF PHENOLIC CAGE/EX 6305-T
. T TYSON CUP WITH TAPERED O.D.
. T TYSON TAPERED BORE ON CONE
. TA REED TORQUE TEST, AVERAGE TORQUE VALUE OF 1700 MG/MM
. TA SKF LUBE STANDARD OF N.J. ANDOK B/MIL-G018709-A3
241
. TB SKF LUBE TEXACO 1982 REGAL STARFAK F3

. TC REED SYNTHETIC INNER RING SUPPORTED RETAINER
. TC SKF LUBE STANDARD OF N.J. ESSO AVIATION GENERAL PURPOSE
. TC SKF PHENOLIC CAGE, INNER RING CENTERED/EX 6204-TC
. TD SKF LUBE SOCONY MOBILGREASE AERO GENERAL PURPOSE
. TD TYSON DOUBLE CONE WITH TAPERED BORE
. TE SKF LUBE SHELL ALVANIA J2/MIL-G-18709-A3
. TF SKF LUBE NEW YORK NEW JERSEY S-58/MIL-G-18709-A3
. TG SKF LUBE MASTER LUBRICANT LUBRICO M-24-M/MIL-G-18709-A3
. TH SKF LUBE SHELL CYPRINA RA
. TJ SKF LUBE STANDARD OIL OF N.J. ANDOK BR
. TK SKF LUBE IMPERIAL OIL CO ./CANADA/ANDOK 280
. TL SKF LUBE IMPERIAL OIL CO ./CANADA/ESSO MP GREASE M
. TM REED TORQUE TEST, MODAL TORQUE VALUE OF 1700 MG/MM
. TM SKF LUBE TEXAS REGAL AFB #2/MIL-G-7711A
. TN SKF LUBE KEYSTONE 84-HX LIGHT
. TN SKF NYLON OR NYLAFIL CAGE/EX 6203-TN
. TNC SKF NYLON OR NYLAFIL CAGE, INNER RING CENTERED/EC 6205-TNC
. TNS SKF NYLON OR NYLAFIL CAGE, OUTER RING CENTERED/EX 6205-TNS
. TO SKF LUBE SHELL ALVANIA EP2
. TP REED TORQUE TEST, PEAK TORQUE VALUE OF 1700 MG/MM
. TP SKF LUBE CHEVRON OIL CO. RPM AVIATION GREASE TL
. TS REED SYNTHETIC OUTER RING SUPPORTED RETAINER
. TS SKF PHENOLIC CAGE, OUTER RING CENTERED/EX 6204-TS
. U SKF ALIGNING WASHER FOR THRUST BALL BEARING/EX 708-U/PHILA
. UA REED TORQUE TEST, AVERAGE TORQUE VALUE OF 1800 MG/MM
. UA SKF LUBE AM. OIL CO. SUPERMIL ASU 06752/MIL-G-27560-A3
. UB SKF LUBE CHEVRON OIL CO. BRB-2
. UC SKF LUBE SHELL AEROSHELL F 16/MIL-G-25760
. UD SKF LUBE MOBIL GREASE S38/MIL-G-81322A
. UE SKF LUBE CHEVRON OIL CO. SRI 12
. UM REED TORQUE TEST, MODAL TORQUE VALUE OF 1800 MG/MM
. UP REED TORQUE TEST, PEAK TORQUE VALUE OF 1800 MG/MM
. VAA SKF SPECIAL CHARACTERISTICS IN BASIC SIZE-LETTERS INSIGNIFICANT
. VAB SKF SPECIAL CHARACTERISTICS IN BASIC SIZE-LETTERS INSIGNIFICANT
. VAC SKF SPECIAL CHARACTERISTICS IN BASIC SIZE-LETTERS INSIGNIFICANT
. VSA SKF SPECIAL CHARACTERISTICS IN BEARING SERIES-LETTERS INSIGNIFICANT
. VSB SKF SPECIAL CHARACTERISTICS IN BEARING SERIES-LETTERS INSIGNIFICANT
. VSC SKF SPECIAL CHARACTERISTICS IN BEARING SERIES-LETTERS INSIGNIFICANT
. W REED FULL BALL COMPLEMENT DESIGN -NO RETAINER
. W TYSON 2 ANG SLOTS DIAMETRICALLY OPPOSITE IN CONE BACK-FACE
. W10 SKF BEARING WITH DULITED SURFACES
. W100 REED 1200 NIG/MM MAX STARTING TORQUE, 75 GR. LOAD
. W101 REED 1000 MG/MM MAX STARTING TORQUE, 75 GR . LOAD
. W102 REED 5400 MG/MM MAX STARTING TORQUE, 400 GR. LOAD
. W107 REED 3400 MG/MM MAX STARTING TORQUE, 400 GR . LOAD
. W108 SKF NON-STANDARD SHIELD CLEARANCE OF 0.008 TO 0.009 INCH
. W109 REED EXTREME CORROSION RESISTANCE
. W115 SKF WLL BEARINGS WITH ADDITION OF W5 FEATURES
242
. W12 SKF RACEWAYS AND ROLLING ELEMENTS DULITED. ALL OTHER SURFACES PARCO-LUBRIZED
. W125 SKF W12 BEARINGS WITH ADDITION OF W5 FEATURES
. W13 SKF BEARING WITH PARCO-LUBRIZED BORE AND O.D.
. W14 SKF DULITED RINGS ROLLING ELEMENTS, PARCO-LUBRIZED BORE O.D.
. W15 SKF ALL SUFACES DULITED, EXCEPT LANDS SUPPORTING CAGE RIDE
. W16 SKF PARCO-LUBRIZED INNER RING AND O.D. OF OUTER RING
. W17 SKF DULITED CAPPED BEARING, EXCEPT SHIELD OR SEAL TIN-COATED
. W18 SKF BEARING W/SPECIFIC DULITED SURFACE OR SURFACES
. W19 SKF BEARINGS WITH SPECIAL RADIAL LOOSENESS LIMITS
. W2 SKF BEARING MEETING SPECIAL TORQUE REQUIREMENTS
. W21 SKF FLUSH GROUND BEARING W/INNER OUTER RINGS OF EQUAL WIDTH/ CLOSE CROSS CORNER TOLERANCES./
. W22 SKF SPEC REDUCED O.D. TOLERANCE FOR O.R. -STD TOLER FOR I.R.
. W23 SKF SPECIAL FEATURES FOR TRACTION MOTOR BEARINGS
. W24 SKF SPECIAL TOLERANCE FOR SEAL OR SHIELD LOCATION ON CAPPED BEARINGS
. W25 SKF SPHERICAL ROLLER BEARINGS W/CLOSE OUTER RING WIDTH TOLERANCE
. W26 SKF SPHERICAL ROLLER BEARINGS W/HOLES DRILLED THROUGH THE INNER RING
. W27 SKF SY PILLOW BLOCK BEARINGS WITH A SPECIAL COLLAR
. W29 SKF CYLINDRICAL W/SPECIAL RADIAL LOOSENESS INTERCHANGEABILITY
. W2CX SKF OIL HOLES IN OUTER RING OF SPHERICAL ROLLER BEARING
. W3 SKF BEARING MARKED TO SHOW MEASURED ACCURACY
. W30 SKF BEARINGS WITH SPECIFIED PARTS TIN-PLATED
. W31 SKF SPHER BEARXNGS INSPECTED TO CERTAIN QUALITY CONTROL REQUIREMENT
. W32 SKF PLATES SEALS INSPECTED TO SPECIAL MINIMUM LOOSENESS
. W33 SKF SPHERICAL ROLLER BEARING W/OIL HOLES CIRCUMFERENTIAL GROOVE IN O.D.
. W34 SKF CAGE HAS BEEN 10 PERCENT FLUORESCENT PENETRANT INSPECTED
. W35 SKF SPDG BEARING W/ REDUCED SIDE RUN-OUT OF INNER RING
. W36 SKF BEARINGS THAT HAVE BEEN QUALITY AUDITED FOR BORE AND O.D.
. W37 SKF SPECIAL AIRCRAFT BEARING IDENTIFICATION
. W38 SKF WRIGHT AERO, QUALITY ASSURANCE
. W39 SKF ALLISON QUALITY ASSURANCE
. W4 SKF HI-POINT OF ECCENTRICITY MARKED ON INNER RING OR SLEEVE
. W40 SKF BEARINGS WITH SILVER PLATED CAGE
. W41 SKF BEARINGS WITH SILVER AND LEAD PLATED CAGES
. W42 SKF BEARINGS WITH SILVER AND LEAD-INDIUM PLATED CAGE
. W43 SKF BEARINGS WITH CHROME PLATED CAGE
. W45 SKF CADMIUM PLATED LOCKOUTS AND WASHERS
. W5 SKF CUSTOMERS PART NUMBER MARKED ON BEARING
. W50 SKF BEARINGS W/DOUBLE STABILIZED HEAT TREATED INNER RACES
. W509 SKF W26 BEARINGS WITH ADDITION OF W31 AND W33 FEATURES
. W51 SKF SPECIAL NOISE TEST AND CARTON MARKING
. W510 SKF W33 BEARINGS WITH ADDITION OF K56 FEATURES
243
. W512 SKF W22 BEARINGS WITH ADDITION OF W31 AND W33 FEATURES
. W517 SKF COMBINATION OF W33 PLUS W61
. W519 SKF COMBINATION W81 PLUS W20/USED W/SPECIAL NOS. ONLY/
. W52 SKF SINGLE CAP BEARINGS WITH MARKING ON SIDE OPPOSITE CAP
. W522 SKF COMBINATION OF W81 PLUS W33/USED W/SPECIAL NOS. ONLY/
. W524 SKF COMBINATION C02 W507
. W525 .SKF COMBINATION W31 W77
. W526 SKF COMBINATION W506 W515
. W527 SKF COMBINATION W22 W33 W26
. W53 SKF BALL BEARINGS MODIFIED AND FLUSH GROUND ON ONE FACE ONLY
. W54 SKF SPECIAL QUIET RUNNING BEARINGS
. W55 SKF BEARINGS WITH LOCATING HOLES IN THE OUTER RING
. W56 SKF LIFTING HOLES IN FACE OF BEARINGS RING
. W57 SKF GE MOTOR BEARING QUALITY ASSURANCE
. W58 SKF OUTER RING MARKED TO SHOW HIGH POINT
. W59 SKF SPECIAL FORD MOTOR CO. QUALITY REQUIREMENTS
. W6 SKF GEAR SIDE MARKED ON BEARING
. W60 SKF QUALITY ASSURANCE U.S. NAVY PURCHASE OF G.E. BEARINGS
. W61 SKF BEARINGS W/3 TAPPED HOLES IN THE FACE OF THE OUTER RING
. W62 SKF CYL BEARING-SIDE FLANGES W/15-TO-30 MINUTES RELIEF ANGLE
. W63 SKF MARKING FOR DEVIATION FROM NOMINAL OUTER-DIAMETER SIZE
. W66 SKF BLIND HOLE IN O.D. OF CYLINDRICAL ROLLER BEARINGS
. W67 SKF CYLINDRICAL BEARINGS W/OVERSIZE O.D. FOR GREATER HOUSING FIT
. W7 SKF BEARING BORE DIAMETER INDICATED
. W70 SKF CYLINDRICAL W/INCREASED OUTER RING AXIAL CLEARANCE
. W71 SKF SPECIAL MARKING FOR SIKORSKY BEARINGS PURCHASED BY U.S. NAVY
. W72 SKF CYLINDRICAL BEARING W/ANGLED FLANGE INCREASED AXIAL CLARANCE
. W73 SKF SPHERICAL ROLLER BEARING WITH ONE COUNTERBORED HOLE IN OUTER RING
. W74 SKF BALL BEARING, J-CAGE TYPE WITH CONTROLLED CAGE DROP
. W75 SKF STD CONRAD BALL BEARING W/REPUBLIC ROCKED TUBE HOFORS BALLS
. W76 SKF FOUR TAPED HOLES IN EACH FACE OF OUTER RING
. W77 SKF SPHERICAL ROLLER BEARING WITH W33 GROOVE HOLES/HOLES CIBORED PLUGGED/
. W79 SKF W33 SPHERICAL ROLLER WITH ONE HOLE COUNTERBORED
. W8 SKF NO LUBE-HOLE IN O.K. OF BEARING USED IN SY PILLOW BLOCK
. W80 SKF SPECIAL BEARING-I .R. , O.K. ROLLERS AIR-MELT CARBURIZED GRADE STEEL
. W81 SKF SPECIAL BEARING/I. R. AIR-MELT CARBURIZED GRADE OF STEEL
. W82 SKF SPECIAL BEARING/0. R. AIR-MELT CARBURIZED GRADE OF STEEL
. W83 SKF W81 PLUS W82, PLUS STANDARD THRU HARDENED ROLLERS
. W86 SKF SPECIAL BEARING/I. R. O.R. STD THRU HARD, ROLLERS CARBURIZED GRADE STEEL
. W90 SKF . SAME AS W80 , EX CARBURIZED GRADE STEEL CONSUMABLE VAC-MELTED
. W91 SKF SAME AS W81, EX CARBURIZED GRADE STEEL CONSUMABLE VAC-MELTED
. W92 SKF SAME AS W82 , EX CARBURIZED GRADE STEEL CONSUMABLE VAC-MELTED
. W93 SKF SAME AS VJ83, EX CARBURIZED GRADE STEEL CONSUMABLE VAC-MELTED
. W96 SKF SAME AS W86 , EX CARBURIZED GRADE STEEL CONSUMABLE VAC-MELTED
. WA REED TORQUE TEST, AVERAGE TORQUE VALUE OF 1900 MG/MM
. WA TYSON SLOTTED CONE-SINGLE ANGULAR SLOT IN BACKFACE
244
. WB TYSON TWO SLOTS DIAMETRICALLY OPPOSITE IN BACK-FACE OF CONE

. WD TYSON SPECIAL SLOTTED CONE
. WE TYSON SLOTTED CONE- FULL LENGTH SLOT THROUGH BORE
. WHO REED DENTAL DRILL QUALITY BEARING
. WILL REED BEARING STABILIZED FOR 900-F OPERATION
. WLL SKF BEARING WITH PARCO-LUBRIZED SURFACES
. WM REED TORQUE TEST, MODAL TORQUE VALUE OF 1900 MG/MM
. WP REED TORQUE TEST, PEAK TORQUE VALUE OF 1900 MG/MM
. X SKF BOUNDARY DIMENSIONS CHANGED TO CONFORM TO INTERNAT STD
. X TYSON CONE, WITH KEYWAY
. X TYSON VARIATION FROM BASIC CUP
. XA TYSON CONE SPACER
. XB TYSON CONE SPACER
. XC TYSON CONE SPACER
. XD TYSON DOUBLE CONE OR CUP
. XL TYSON CONE, CUP OR ASSEMBLY SEALED WITH TY-SEAL
. Y SKF PRESSED BRASS OR BRONZE CAGE/EX 6303-Y
. YA REED TORQUE TEST, AVERAGE TORQUE VALUE OF 2000 MG/IRTM
. YC SKF PRESSED BRASS OR BRONZE CAGE CENTERED ON INNER RACE
. YP REED TORQUE TEST, PEAK TORQUE VALUE OF 2000 MG/MM
. Z REED ONE STAINLESS STEEL REMOVABLE SHIELD
. Z SKF SHIELD ON ONE SIDE/EX 6203-Z/
. ZA REED TORQUE TEST, AVERAGE TORQUE VALUE OF 2100 MG/MM
. ZM REED TORQUE TEST, MODAL TORQUE VALUE OF 2100 MG/MM
. ZNBR SKF SHIELD SNAP RING ON SAME SIDE/EX 6206-ZNBR/
. ZNR SKF SHIELD SNAP RING ON OPPOSITE SIDES/EX 6206-ZNR
. ZP REED TORQUE TEST, PEAK TORQUE VALUE OF 2100 MG/MRA
A . REED DEEP GROOVE NARROW SERIES STRAIGHT O.D., FLUSH RINGS
AHA . SKF REMOVAL SLEEVE WITH AMERICAN STD THREAD/PHILA
AN . SKF NUT FOR ADAPTER SLEEVE/PHILA
ARM . SKF REMOVAL NUT FOR ASK-TYPE SLEEVE/EX ARN-18
ASK . SKF REMOVAL SLEEVE/EX ASK-15
B . BREMEN LOOSE NEEDLE ROLLER W/SPHERICAL ENDS/STANDARD/EX B142
B . REED BEARING MATERIAL-BERYLLIUM COPPER ALLOY
B . REED DEEP GROOVE, NARROW SERIES, STRAIGHT O.D., EXTENDED INNER RING
BB . BREMEN DRAWN CUP, OPEN END NEEDLE ROLL BRG/EX BB182212
BB OH BREMEN SAME AS BB-, EXC WITH OIL-HOLE/EX BB- 182212-OH
BBH . BREMEN SAME AS BB- , EXC HEAVY-DUTY/EX BBH-162112
BBH OH BREMEN SAME ASJ3BH-, EXC WITH OIL-HOLE/EX BBH-162112-OH
BD . BREMEN DRAWN CUP, CLOSED END, GREASE RETAINED NEEDLE ROLLER BRG
BDH . BREMEN DRAWN CUP, CLOSED END NEEDLE ROLL BRG/EX BDH-162116
BDH OH BREMEN SAME AS BDH- , EXC WITH OIL-HOLE/EX BDH-162112-OH/
BF . BREMEN DRAWN CUP W/OUTWARD TURNED LIP, GREASE RETAINED NEEDLE
BFF F SKF SPECIAL PILLOW BLOCK FOR BUFFALO FORGE- REPLACES BF-F
BN . BREMEN DRAWN CUP, RETAINER TYPE, CLOSED END ROLL BRG/BN-121608
BNH . BREMEN SAME AS BN-, EXC HEAVY-DUTY/EX BNH-071108
BP . BREMEN CAGE NEEDLE ROLLER ASSEMBLY/EX BP7767
BR . BREMEN DRAWN CUP, RETAINER TYPE, OPEN END ROLLER BRG/BR-121608
BR T BREMEN SAME AS BR- , EXC W/MOLDED NITRILE SEAL ON ONE SIDE
BR TT BREMEN SAME AS BR- , EXC W/MOLDED NITRILE SEAL ON BOTH SIDE
BRH . BREMEN SAME AS BR- , EXC HEAVY-DUTY/EX BRH-071108
BT . BREMEN NEEDLE ROLLER THRUST BEARING/EX BT-9929-5-46
C . REED DEEP GROVE, NARROW SERIES, FLANGED O.D., FLUSH RINGS
245
CR . TYSON RIBBED CUP

D . REED DEEP GROOVE, NARROW SERIES, FLANGED O.D. , EXTENDED INNER RING
E . REED DEEP GROVE, MEDIUM SERIES, STRAIGHT O.D., FLUSH RINGS
ECB . SKF SPHERICAL BEARING/AIRMELT CARBURIZED STEEL I.R. ONLY/PHILA
ECC . SKF SPHERICAL BEARING AIRMELT CARBURIZED STEEL I.R. O.R. ONLY/ PHILA
ECD . SKF SPHERICAL BEARING, AIRMELT CARBURIZED STEEL, COMPLETE/PHILA
EDHP G SKF SYHP IN DUCTILE IRON, RE-LUBE, WITH 478-VSB SERIES BEARING
EE . SKF EXTRA-SMALL, INCH DIMENSION BALL BEARING/EX EE-9
EE . TYSON LARGE BORE DOUBLE RIB TYPE CONSTRUCTION CONE
EEA . SKF SAME AS EE-, EXC REVISED DIMENSIONS/EX EEA2 , EEA2-2Z
EEB . SKF SAME AS EE-, EXC LARGER WIDTH TO ACCOMODATE SEALING
EGA . SKF SPHERICAL BEARING/AIRMELT CARBURIZED STEEL, O.R. ONLY/PHILA
EH . TYSON EXTRA HEAVY SERIES CONE OR CUP
EL . TYSON EXTRA LIGHT SERIES CONE OR CUP
EP . SKF SPHERICAL ROLLER BEARING W/PRECISION TOLERANCES/PHILA/
EPCA . SKF SAME AS ECA-, EXCEPT WITH PRECISION TOLERANCES
EPCB . SKF SAME AS ECB-, EXCEPT WITH PRECISION TOLERANCES
EPCC . SKF SAME AS ECC-, EXCEPT WITH PRECISION TOLERANCES
EPCD . SKF SAME AS ECD-, EXCEPT WITH PRECISION TOLERANCES
EPVA . SKF SAME AS EVA-, EXCEPT WITH PRECISION TOLERANCES
EPVB . SKF SAME AS EVB- , EXCEPT WITH PRECISION TOLERANCES
EPVC . SKF SAME AS EVC-, EXCEPT WITH PRECISION TOLERANCES
EPVD . SKF SAME AS EVD-, EXCEPT WITH PRECISION TOLERANCES
ER . SKF TRIPLE SEAL RING FOR PILLOW BLOCK/EX ER-846
EVA . SKF SPHERICAL BEARING, VACUUM MELT CARBURIZED STEEL, O.R. ONLY/ PHILA
EVB . SKF SPHERICAL BEARING, VACUUM MELT CARBURIZED STEEL, I.R. ONLY/ PHILA
EVC . SKF SPHERICAL BEARING, VACUUM MELT CARBURIZED STEEL, I.R. O.R. ONLY/PHILA
EVD . SKF SPHERICAL BEARING, VACUUM MELT CARBURIZED STEEL, COMPLETE/ PHILA
F . REED DEEP GROOVE, MEDIUM SERIES, CYLINDRICAL O.D., EXTENDED INNER RING
F . SKF PRESSED STEEL FLANGE, 3-BOLTS/EX F-40
FD . SKF FY IN DUCTILE IRON, NON-RELUBE, WITH 479 SERIES BEARING
FD C SKF FALSE TWIST SPINDLE, INTERNAL DES CHANGED/EX FD-630-C
FD G SKF FY IN DUCTILE IRON, RE-LUBE, WITH 479 SERIES BEARING
FD P SKF FY IN DUCTILE IRON, REV. MOUNTED, NON-RELUBE, 479 SERIES BEARING
FD PG SKF FY IN DUCTILE IRON, REV. MOUNTED, RE-LUBE, 479 SERIES BEARING
FDL . SKF FYL IN DUCTILE IRON, NON-RELUBE, WITH 454 SERIES BEARING
FDL G SKF FYL IN DUCTILE IRON, RE-LUBE, WITH 454-VSB SERIES BEARING
FDL P SKF FYL IN DUCTILE IRON, REV. MOUNTED, NON-RELUBE, 454 SERIES BEARING
FDL PG SKF FYL IN DUCTILE IRON, REV. MOUNTED, RE-LUBE, 454-VSB SERIES BEARING
FDP . SKF FYP IN DUCTILE IRON, NON-RELUBE, WITH 478 SERIES BEARING
FDP G SKF FYP IN DUCTILE IRON, RE-LUBE, WITH 478-VSB SERIES BEARING
FDP P SKF FYP IN DUCTILE IRON, REV. MOUNTED, NON-RELUBE, 478 SERIES BEARING
FDP PG SKF FYP IN DUCTILE IRON, REV. MOUNTED, RE-LUBE, 478-VSB SERIES BEARING
FDT . SKF FYT IN DUCTILE IRON, NON-RELUBE, WITH 479 SERIES BEARING
FDT G SKF FYT IN DUCTILE IRON, RE-LUBE, WITH 479 SERIES BEARING
FDT P SKF FYT IN DUCTILE IRON, REV. MOUNTED, NON-RELUBE, 479 SERIES BEARING
FDT PG SKF FYT IN DUCTILE IRON, REV. MOUNTED, RE-LUBE, -479 SERIES BEARING
FDTL . SKF FYTL IN DUCTILE IRON, NON-RELUBE, WITH 454 SERIES BEARING
FDTL G SKF FYTL IN DUCTILE IRON, RE-LUBE, WITH 454-VSB SERIES BEARING
FDTL P SKF FYTL IN DUCTILE IRON, REV. MOUNTED, NON-RELUBE, 454 SERIES BEARING
FDTL PG SKF FYTL IN DUCTILE IRON, REV. MOUNTED, RE-LUBE, 454- VSB SERIES BEARING
FDTP . SKF FYTP IN DUCTILE IRON, NON-RELUBE, WITH 478 SERIES BEARING
FDTP G SKF FYTP IN DUCTILE IRON, RE-LUBE, WITH 478- VSB SERIES BEARING
246
FDTP P SKF FYTP IN DUCTILE IRON, REV. MOUNTED, NON-RELUBE, 478 SERIES BEARING
FDTP PG SKF FYTP IN DUCTILE IRON, REV. MOUNTED, RE-LUBE, 478- VSB SERIES BEARING
FDTX . SKF FYTX IN DUCTILE IRON, NON-RELUBE, WITH 477 SERIES BEARING
FDTX G SKF FYTX IN DUCTILE IRON, RE-LUBE, WITH 477 SERIES BEARING
FDTX P SKF FYTX IN DUCTILE IRON, REV. MOUNTED, NON-RELUBE, 477 SERIES BEARING
FDTX PG SKF FYTX IN DUCTILE IRON, REV. MOUNTED, RE-LUBE, 477 SERIES BEARING
FDX . SKF FYX IN DUCTILE IRON, NON-RELUBE, WITH 477 SERIES BEARING
FDX G SKF FYX IN DUCTILE IRON, RE-LUBE, WITH 477 SERIES BEARING
FDX P SKF FYX IN DUCTILE IRON, REV. MOUNTED, NON-RELUBE, 477 SERIES BEARING
FDX PG SKF FYX IN DUCTILE IRON, REV. MOUNTED, RE-LUBE, 477 SERIES BEARING
FE . SKF BOLSTER SPRINGS/EX FE-148/ TEXTILE APPLICATION
FL . SKF SAME AS FP , EXC WITH 454 AGRICULTURAL SEAL BEARING SERIES
FP . SKF 3-BOLT PRESSED STEEL ROUND FLANGE BEARING/EX FP-102
FP . SKF FIXED BOSS TOP ROLLER/EX FP-2/TEXTILE APPLICATION
FR . SKF BELT GUIDE ROLLER/EX FR-23241/TEXTILE APPLICATION
FT . SKF PRESSED STEEL FLANGE, 2-BOLTS/EX FT-40/
FTL . SKF SAME AS FTP, EXC WITH 454 AGRICULTURAL SEAL BEARING SERIES
FTP . SKF 2-BOLT PRESSED STEEL ELONGATED FLANGE BEARING/EX FTP102
FY . SKF FLANGED HOUSING BEARING W/SET SCREW COLLAR/EX FY-102
FY X SKF FLANGED HOUSING BEARING W/ECCENTRIC COLLAR/EX FY-102-X
FYL . SKF SAME AS FYP, EXC WITH 454 AGRICULTURAL SEAL BEARING SERIES
FYP . SKF FLANGED HOUSING BEARING W/SET SCREW COLLAR/EX FYP-102
FYR . SKF FLANGED ROUND HOUSING SPHERICAL BEARING W/SET SCREW/ EX FYR107
FYR P SKF SAME AS FYR- , EXC REVERSE FLANGE MOUNTING/FYR-107-P
FYTL . SKF SAME AS FYTP EXC WITH 454 AGRICULTURAL SEAL BEARING SERIES
FYTP . SKF TWO BOLTS, CAST IRON FLANGE UNIT WITH 478 SERIES BEARING
G . REED DEEP GROOVE, MEDIUM SERIES, FLANGED O.D., FLUSH RINGS
GL . SKF SAME AS GP , EXC WITH 454 AGRICULTURAL SEAL BEARING SERIES
GN A SKF HI-CAPACITY N-SERIES W/HYATT CORNER RADIUS
GNF A SKF HI-CAPACITY NF-SERIES W/HYATT CORNER RADIUS
GNJ A SKF HI-CAPACITY NJ-SERIES W/HYATT CORNER RADIUS
GNP A SKF HI-CAPACITY NP-SERIES W/HYATT CORNER RADIUS
GNU A SKF HI-CAPACITY NU-SERIES W/HYATT CORNER RADIUS
GNUP A SKF HI-CAPACITY NUP-SERIES W/HYATT CORNER RADIUS
GP . SKF CYL CARTRIDGE W/SPHERED O.D. RUBBER MOUNTING/EX GP-12
H . REED DEEP GROOVE, MEDIUM SERIES, FLANGED O.D., EXTENDED INNER RING
H . TYSON HEAVY SERIES CUP OR CONE
HA . SKF ADAPTER SLEEVE FOR AMERICAN STANDARD SHAFT/EX HA-2313
HF . SKF BOLSTER INSERT/EX HF-4/TEXTILE APPLICATION
HH . TYSON HEAVY-HEAVY SERIES CUP OR CONE
HHC AB SKF SIZE OF SER HNC-A WITH WIDTH NON-CONFORMING ISO STDS
HHJ AB SKF SIZE OF SER HNJ-A WITH WIDTH NON-CONFORMING ISO STDS
HM . SKF BOLSTER INSERT/EX HM-337/OLD STYLE, REPLACEMENT ONLY
HM . TYSON HEAVY-MEDIUM SERIES CUP OR CONE
HMJ A SKF CRB, TWO SNAP-RINGS IN O.R., ONE LIP IN I.R., J-CAGE/HNJ206-A
HMVP . SKF HYDRAULIC NUT/EX HMVP-76
HNC A SKF CRB, TWO SNAP-RINGS IN O.K., TWO LIPS IN I.R., J-CAGE/HNC206A
HNC ABV SKF SIZE OF SER HNC-AV WITH WIDTH NON-CONFORMING ISO STDS
HNC AV SKF CRB, TWO SNAP-RINGS IN O.K., TWO LIPS IN I.R., NO CAGE
HNU . SKF OUTER RING OF SNAP-RING TYPE CYLINDRICAL ROLLER BEARINGS
HNU A SKF CYLINDRICAL ROLLER BEARINGS TWO SNAP-RINGS IN O.R., STRAIGHT I.R. , J-CAGE/HNU-206-A
HUU J SKF CAGE OF SNAP-RING TYPE CYLINDRICAL ROLLER BEARINGS
HZ . SKF BOLSTER BASE UNIT/EX HZ-66/TEXTILE APPLICATION
247
I- . SKF AS PER DRAWING I-.../SER OR SPEC/STAMPED CHANGES TO

J . BREMEN LOOSE NEEDLE ROLLER W/FLAT SHEARED ENDS/EX J-1056
J . REED DEEP GROOVE, EXTRA NARROW SERIES, STRAIGHT O.D., FLUSH RINGS
J . TYSON SIZE EQUIVALENT TO CORRESPONDING IN TIMKEN J-LINE
K . TYSON SPECIAL HEAVY DOUBLE CUP OR ROLLER ASSEMBLY
KNU AB SKF SIZE OF SER HNU-A WITH WIDTH NON-CONFORMING ISO STDS
L . TYSON LIGHT SERIES CUP OR CONE
LER . SKF TRIPLE SEAL RING FOR PILLOW BLOCK/EX LER-14
LHNC AB SKF SAME AS LHNC-A WITH WIDTH NON-CONFORMING TO ISO STDS
LHNJ A SKF INNER RACE OF HNJ-A/EX LHNJ-206-A
LHNJ AB SKF SAME AS LHNJ-A WITH WIDTH NON-CONFORMING TO ISO STDS
LHNU A SKF INNER RACE OF HNU-A/EX LHNU-206-A
LHNU AB SKF SAME AS LHNU-A WITH WIDTH NON-CONFORMING TO ISO STDS
LL . TYSON LIGHT-LIGHT SERIES CONE OR CUP
LM . TYSON LIGHT-MEDIUM SERIES CUP OR CONE
LP . SKF LOOSE BOSS TOP ROLL/EX LP-512-32/TEXTILE APPLICATION
LZ . SKF CAPPED-BAR TYPE TOP ROLLER/EX LZ-512/TEXTILE APPLICATION
M . BREMEN SAME AS B-PREFIX BUT DIFFER HEAT-TREAT O.R. DIMENS DATA
M . REED ANGULAR CONTACT, NARROW SERIES, FLANGED O.D., FLUSH RINGS
M . TYSON MEDIUM SERIES CUP OR CONE
MB . SKF LOCKWASHER/EX MB-18
MBL . SKF LOCKWASHER/EX MBL-36
N . REED DEEP GROOVE, INCH SERIES, STRAIGHT O.D. FLUSH RINGS
N . SKF CYLINDRICAL BEARING W/TWO FLANGES IN I.R. NO FLANGES IN O.R.
N . SKF LOCKNUT/EX N-08/PHILA ONLY
NA . TYSON NON-ADJUSTABLE CONE/ FACTORY ADJUST/USED W/DOUBLE CUP
NF . SKF CYLINDRICAL BEARING W/TWO FLANGES IN I.R. ONE FLANGE IN O.R.
NH . SKF SAME AS N.J.., PLUS STABILIZING RING
NJ . SKF CYLINDRICAL BEARING W/ONE FLANGE IN I.R. TWO FLANGES IN O.R.
NN . SKF 2-OR MORE-ROW CYLINDRICAL BEARING/FLANGED INNER, FLANGLESS OUTER
NN K SKF SAME AS NN-, EXC L-TO-12 TAPER BORE/EX NN-3007-K/
NP . SKF CYL BRG, 2-FLANGE INNER, 1-FLANGE OUTER W/PLATE
NU . SKF CYLINDRICAL BEARING W/NO FLANGES IN I.R. TWO FLANGE IN O.R.
NUP . SKF CYLINDRICAL BEARING, 2-FLANGE OUTER, 1-FLANGE INNER W/PLATE
P . REED DEEP GROOVE, INCH SERIES, FLANGED O.D., FLUSH RINGS
P . SKF LOCK-PLATE FOR LOCKNUT/EX P-76/
P . SKF SPHERICAL ROLLER BEARING W/SPLIT O.R. /EX 22320-P/
PK . SKF PENDULUM WEIGHTING ARM/EX PK-101/TEXTILE APPLICATION
R . REED DEEP GROOVE, INCH SERIES, STRAIGHT O.D., EXTENDED INNER RING
R . SKF SMALL SIZE SINGLE ROW, DEEP-GROOVE BALL BEARING/EX R-9
RGNU-F . SKF OUTER RING CAGE ROLLER ASSEMBLY STAVE TYPE G SERIES BEARINGS
RHNU BJ SKF SAME AS RHNU-J WITH WITH NON-CONFORMING TO ISO STDS
RHNU J SKF OUTER RING ROLLER ASSY OF HNJ-A AND HNU-A/RHNU206-J
RL . SKF SAME AS RP , EXC WITH 454 AGRICULTURAL SEAL BEARING SERIES
RN . SKF CYLINDRICAL ROLLER BEARING, 2-FLANGE INNER, NO OUTER RING/ EX RM-210/
RN . SKF REMOVAL NUT FOR SK-SLEEVE/EX RN-12
RNU . SKF CYLINDRICAL ROLLER BEARING, 2-FLANGE OUTER, NO INNER RING/ EX RNU-210
RP . SKF RUBBER MOUNTED CYLINDRICAL CARTRIDGE UNIT/EX RP-14
S . SKF ADAPTER SLEEVE/EX S-15, PART OF SNW -15
SA . REED SAME AS A-PREFX, EXC 440-C S/STEEL IN LIEU OF STD 52100
SAF . SKF SPLIT PILLOW BLOCK HOUSING W/TRIPLE SEALS/EX SAF-609
SAFS . SKF SAF PILLOW BLOCK OF CAST STEEL
SB . REED SAME AS B-PREFIX, EXC 440-C S/STEEL IN LIEU OF STD 52100
248
SC . REED SAME AS C-PREFIX, EXC 400-C S/STEEL IN LIEU OF STD 52100

SD . REED SAME AS D-PREFIX, EXC 440-C S/STEEL IN LIEU OF STD 52100
SD . SKF SY IN DUCTILE IRON, NON-RELUBE, WITH 479 SERIES BEARING
SD G SKF SY IN DUCTILE IRON, RE-LUBE, WITH 479 SERIES BEARING
SDAF . SKF SPLIT PILLOW BLOCK HOUSING W/TRIPLE SEALS/EX SDAF-530
SDAFS . SKF SDAF PILLOW BLOCK OF CAST STEEL
SDH . SKF SYH IN DUCTILE IRON, NON-RELUBE, WITH 479 SERIES BEARING
SDH G SKF SYH IN DUCTILE IRON, RE-LUBE, WITH 479 SERIES BEARING
SDHL . SKF SYHL IN DUCTILE IRON, NON-RELUBE, WITH 454 SERIES BEARING
SDHL G SKF SYHL IN DUCTILE IRON, RE-LUBE, WITH 454-VSB SERIES BEARING
SDHP . SKF SYHP IN DUCTILE IRON, NON-RELUBE, WITH 478 SERIES BEARING
SDHX . SKF SYHX IN DUCTILE IRON, NON-RELUBE, WITH 477 SERIES BEARING
SDHX G SKF SYHX IN DUCTILE IRON, RE-LUBE, WITH 477 SERIES BEARING
SDK . SKF SYX IN DUCTILE IRON, NON-RELUBE, WITH 477 SERIES BEARING
SDK G SKF SYX IN DUCTILE IRON, RE-LUBE, WITH 477 SERIES BEARING
SDL . SKF SYL IN DUCTILE IRON, NON-RELUBE, WITH 454 SERIES BEARING
SDL G SKF SYL IN DUCTILE IRON, RE-LUBE WITH 454-VSB SERIES BEARING
SDP . SKF SYP IN DUCTILE IRON, NON-RELUBE, WITH 478 SERIES BEARING
SDP G SKF SYP IN DUCTILE IRON, RE-LUBE, WITH 478-VSB SERIES BEARING
SE . REED SAME AS E-PREFIX, EXC 440-C S/STEEL IN LIEU OF STD 52100
SF . REED SAME AS F-PREFIX, EXC 440-C S/STEEL IN LIEU OF STD 52100
SG . REED SAME AS G-PREFIX, EXC 440-C S/STEEL IN LIEU OF STD 52100
SJ . REED SAME AS J-PREFIX, EXC 440-C S/STEEL IN LIEU OF STD. 52100
SK . SKF REMOVABLE SLEEVE/EX SK-28
SL . SKF SAME AS SP, EXC WITH 454 AGRICULTURAL SEAL BEARING SERIES
SN . REED SAME AS N-PREFIX, EXC 440-C S/STEEL IN LIEU OF STD 52100
SNP . SKF ADAPTER WITH NUT AND LOCKPLATE/EX SNP-3098
SNW . SKF ADAPTER WITH NUT AND LOCKWASHER/EX SNW-08
SP . REED SAME AS P-PREFIX, EXC 440-C S/STEEL IN LIEU OF STD 52100
SP . SKF PRESSED STEEL PILLOW BLOCK/EX SP-102
SR . BREMEN LOOSE NEEDLE ROLLER W/FLAT GROUND ENDS/EX SR-902/
SR . REED SAME AS R-PREFIX, EXC 440-C S/STEEL IN LIEU OF STD 52100
SR . SKF SR-23, -24, -25 ARE IDLER PULLEY SPINDLES/TEXTILE APPLICATION/
SR . SKF SR-270, -290, -3120 ARE COMPLETE TENSION PULLEYS/TEXTILE APPLICATION/
SR . SKF STABILIZING RING FOR PILLOW BLOCK/EX SR-20-17, SR-1610
SR . SKF TAPE TENSION PULLEY/EX SR-23/TEXTILE APPLICATION
SR B SKF SAME AS SR- , EXCEPT PARKERIZED SHELL/EX SR-7-B
SR B SKF SAME AS SR- , EXCEPT SPECIAL DIMENSIONS/EX SR-23-B
SR E SKF SAME AS SR-, EXC INTERNAL F LINGER PARKERIZED SHELL
SR H SKF SAME AS SR-, EXCEPT EXTRA WIDTH/EX SR-290-H
SRL . SKF SAME AS SRP, EXC WITH 454 AGRICULTURAL SEAL BEARING SERIES
SRP . SKF PRESSED STEEL PILLOW BLOCK, RUBBER MOUNTED/EX SPR-14
SS . REED SAME AS S-PREFIX, EXC 440-C S/STEEL IN LIEU OF STD 52100
ST . SKF LINEAR MOTION ASSEMBLY, HELD TYPE/EX ST-1232
SW . SKF LINEAR MOTION ASSY, FLOATING TYPE/EX SW-1232
SY . SKF UNIT BALL BEARING PILLOW BLOCK, SET SCREW COLLAR/EX SY-100
SYH X SKF SAME AS SY, EXC ECCENTRIC COLLAR HEIGHT/EX SYH- 104-X
SYHL . SKF SAME AS SYHP EXC WITH 454 AGRICULTURAL SEAL BEARING SERIES
SYHP . SKF SAME AS SYH, EXCEPT WITH 478 BEARING SERIES/EX SYHP-102
SYL . SKF SAME AS SYP, EXC WITH 454 AGRICULTURAL SEAL BEARING SERIES
SYP . SKF SAME AS SY , EXC 478 SER BEARING ECCENTRIC COLLAR/SYP102
SYR . SKF SPHERICAL ROLLER BEARING PILLOW BLOCK UNIT/EX SYR-208
TB . SKF BALL BEARING TAKE-UP UNIT/EX TB-104
249
TBL . SKF SAME AS TBP, EXC WITH 454 AGRICULTURAL SEAL BEARING SERIES
TBP . SKF BALL BEARING TAKE-UP UNIT/EX TBP-104
TBX . SKF BALL BEARING TAKE-UP UNIT/EX TBX-104
TM . REED TORQUE TEST, MODAL TORQUE VALUE OF 2000 MG/IMN
TW . BREMEN NEEDLE ROLLER THRUST RACE/EX TW-1220-2
TY R SKF TAKE-UP UNIT WITHOUT ADJUSTING FRAINE/EX TY-203-R
TY R-PS SKF TAKE-UP UNIT WITH ADJUSTING FRAME/EX TY-203-R-PS-12
UL . SKF BOTTOM ROLLER BEARING/EX UL-LL-28/TEXTILE APPLICATION
VR . SKF SEPARATOR ROLLS/EX VR-2/TEXTILE APPLICATION
W . SKF GREASE SEAL/EX W-2854
W . SKF GREASE LOCK WASHER/EX W-08
X . TYSON EXPERIMENTAL OR LIMITED PRODUCTION/EX X-68-1/
Y A SKF PROPELLER SHAFT BOX/EX Y-5463-A
SH . REED SAME AS H-PREFIX, EXC 440-C S/STEEL IN LIEU OF STD 52100
250
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Edited: March 20, 2016

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Notes 1 (2010-09-08 10:52) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

SOP (2010-09-08 10:53) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Safety (2010-09-08 13:57) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

ISO (2010-09-09 12:26) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

HVAC (2010-09-09 12:39) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

hvachome (2010-09-09 12:44) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

PRODUCTION SYSTEMS (2010-09-12 05:18) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Fabrica on (metal) (2010-09-20 11:00) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Piping (2010-09-20 11:24) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

TPM (2010-09-20 11:28) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Six Sigma (2010-09-20 11:30) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Maintenance (2010-09-20 11:59) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Boiler (2010-09-23 10:05) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

IBR Boilers vs. Non-IBR Boilers (2010-09-23 10:17) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Mul pack M/c (2010-09-23 10:57) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Boiler troubleshoo ng (2010-09-23 14:44) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Pump (2010-09-23 15:32) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Air compressor (2010-09-23 15:42) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Vacuum Pumps (2010-09-23 15:46) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

ETP (2010-09-23 15:58) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Boilers Basic (2010-09-23 16:08) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

RO Plant (2010-09-23 16:16) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Spec (2010-09-27 14:13) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Ceramics Tiles (2010-10-04 11:15) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Seal (mechanical) (2010-10-22 10:13) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Packaging and labeling (2010-10-22 11:21) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Density (2010-10-22 12:29) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Inkjet Printer Cleaning and Maintenance Tips (2010-10-28 00:01) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

EHCL M/c (2010-10-28 00:32) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Current clamp (2010-11-22 12:39) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Bernoullis Equa on (2010-11-29 00:16) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Spanner Selec on (2010-12-04 00:12) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Roller chain (2011-01-26 10:11) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Bearing Nomenclature (2011-03-05 00:07) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Na onal pipe thread (2011-03-05 23:21) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Photosynthesis (2012-02-18 10:48) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Plant Adapta ons in Desert (2012-02-18 10:58) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Eects of Light on Plants (2012-02-18 11:07) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Semipermeable membrane (2012-02-18 11:18) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Anaerobic respira on (2012-02-18 11:27) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Factors Aec ng Transpira on (2012-02-18 11:32) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Mineral uptake (2012-02-18 11:37) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

SKF bearing part number system (2013-03-16 01:25) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Notes 1 (2010-09-08 10:52)

Dryer- Water trap and saperator, absorp on type

Pressure- 20-25bar and Temp- 340C

SOP (2010-09-08 10:53)

2. SWITCH OFF THE COMPRESSOR CONTROL SWITCH

BEFORE STARTING THE PLANT

Safety (2010-09-08 13:57)

ISO (2010-09-09 12:26)

Control of Documents (4.2.3)

ISO 14001Environmental management standards

New, improved ISO 9000 guidelines for health sector

HVAC (2010-09-09 12:39)

hvachome (2010-09-09 12:44)

PRODUCTION SYSTEMS (2010-09-12 05:18)

Fabrica on (metal) (2010-09-20 11:00)

Steel weldments are occasionally

Piping (2010-09-20 11:24)

Piping Material eld