MY LORD!

ADVANCE ME IN KNOWLEDGE
AND TRUE UNDERSTANDING

Modern Control Systems

MCT 4321
Lecture #2: Classical Control: A Review
Prof. Dr. Rini Akmeliawati
Department of Mechatronics Engineering
International Islamic University Malaysia,
E-mail: rakmelia@iium.edu.my

Basic Concept
What is control system?

Basic Concept
What is control system?

Basic Concept
What is control system?

Component or process to be controlled can be
represented by block diagram.

The input/output relationship represents the cause
and effect of the process.

Basic Concept
Control System Classifications
Control systems can be classified into two categories:

Open-loop Control Systems.

Closed-loop Control Systems.

Basic Concept
Control System Classifications

An open-loop control system utilizes an actuating
device to control the process directly without using
feedback.

Basic Concept
Control System Classifications

Example: Missile launcher system

Basic Concept
Control System Classifications

A closed-loop control system uses a measurement
of the output and feedback of the output signal to
compare it with the desired output (reference or
command).

SISO (Single Input Single Output) System

Basic Concept
Control System Classifications

Example: Missile launcher system

Basic Concept
Control System Classifications

MIMO (Multi Input Multi Output) System

Basic Concept
Historical Development of Control Systems

Ancient Greece [1 300 BC]: water float regulation,
water clock, automatic oil lamp.

17th Century: Cornelis Drebbel temperature
control.

18th Century: James Watt Flyball governor

Late 19th Century to mid 20th Century: Development
of Classical Control Theory

1960s present Modern Control Theory

Basic Concept
Historical Development of Control Systems

Watts Flyball Governor

Basic Concept
Heroes and Milestone in the Development of
Control Systems

Late 19th Century: Fathers of Stability Theory - J.C.
Maxwell, E.J. Routh and A.M. Lyapunov.

1920 - 1930 Discover of negative feedback (Black),
Frequency Response Analysis (Bode) and Stability
Theory (H. Nyquist).

1948 Invention of the Root Locus Method (W.R.
Evans)

1960 Development of state-space methods (Kalman
and others)

Basic Concept
Control Systems Example: in Nature

Pancreas: regulate blood sugar.

Adrenalin automatically generated to increase
heart-rate and oxygen intake in times of flight.

Eyes able to follow a moving object.

Hand: able to pick up an object and place it at a
predetermined location

Temperature regulator: 36-370C

Basic Concept
Control System Examples: in Transportation

Basic Concept
Control System Examples: in Transportation

Automotive: Engine regulation, active suspension,
anti-lock braking system (ABS).

Steering of missiles, planes, aircrafts and ships at
sear.

Basic Concept
Control System Examples: in Process Industry

In the process industries, control is used to regulate
level, pressure and temperature of refinery vessel.

In steel rolling mill, the position of the rolls is
controlled according to the measured thickness of
the steel coming off the finishing line.

Basic Concept
Control System Examples: in Process Industry

Basic Concept
Control System Examples: in Manufacturing
Industry

Basic Concept
Control System Examples: in Our Homes

CD Players: controlling the position of the laser spot
in relation to the microscopic pits in a CD.

Video Recorder: Controlling the tracks of the record
and play back head by controlling the velocity of the
tape.

Air conditioning system uses thermostat and
controls the temperature in the room.

Basic Concept
Control System Examples: in Our Homes
CD Player

Basic Concept
Control is the hidden technology that
you meet every day

What are the required knowledge to develop

control system?

Required Knowledge

Plant Modeling
Characteristics of the system to be controlled
Input/output representations for subsystems +
interconnection rules

Analysis
Performance of input/output systems (actual output,
disturbance rejection, robustness)
Stability of feedback systems, including robustness
margins

Controller Design
Controller types
Constructive tools for controller design

Plant Modeling

Why do we need mathematical model of a

system to be controlled?

Plant Modeling
Control Systems in Transportation

How can we control our car performances:

Car speed
Car position

Plant Modeling
Compute
Control Law

Actuate
Gas Pedal/
Brake

Sense
Vehicle Speed

We should know the characteristics or behaviors (inputoutput characteristics) of the controlled object (plant or
system to be controlled) so that we can control the plant
successfully!

Plant Modeling
We should know the characteristics or behaviors (inputoutput characteristics) of the controlled object (plant or
system to be controlled) so that we can control the plant
successfully!

Modeling is the process of representing the behaviors of

a real system (physical system) by collections of
mathematical equations.

Plant Modeling

The term mathematical model, in the control
engineering perspective, implies a set of differential
equations that describe the dynamic behaviors of a
process/plant.

The set of differential equations that describe the
behaviors of physical systems are typically obtained by
utilizing the physical laws of the process.

Plant Modeling
How to obtain the mathematical models?
Physical laws of the process Differential equations

Electrical system Kirchhoff's laws

Mechanical system Newton's laws
Fluid system
?
Thermal System ?

Plant Modeling
Example: Gantry Crane System

(m1 + m 2 )&x& + m 2 l&& = F

&x& + l&& + g = 0

Plant Modeling
Example: Suspension System
x1
m1

k1

b U

x2
m2
W

b(x& 2 x& 1 ) + k1 (x 2 x1 ) + U
&x&1 =
m1
&x& 2 =

k2

A quarter car model

b(x& 2 x& 1 ) k1 (x 2 x1 ) + k 2 (W x 2 ) U
m2

Mathematical Tool
Laplace Transform

A very useful mathematical tool for control system
analysis and design is Laplace Transform.

The Laplace transformation for a function of time,
f(t), is

st

F ( s ) = f (t )e dt
0

Mathematical Tool
Laplace Transform
Impulse function
Step function
Ramp function

Laplace Transform
Table

Mathematical Tool
Laplace Transform

Laplace Transform
Properties

Mathematical Tool
Laplace Transform
The inverse Laplace transform can be obtained by using
the inversion integral as
+ j

1
st
f (t ) =
F
(
s
)
e
ds

2j j
However, the inversion integral is complicated.
A convenient method for obtaining inverse Laplace
transform is to use a table of Laplace transform.
3
F ( s) =
f (t ) = ?
s+4

Mathematical Tool
Laplace Transform
Partial fraction expansion method can be used to find
the inverse Laplace transform of a complicated
function, we can convert the function to a sum of
simpler terms for which we know the inverse Laplace
transform.

B( s)
F ( s) =
A( s )

F ( s) = F1 ( s ) + F2 ( s ) + L + Fn ( s)

f (t ) = l 1 [F1 ( s )] + l 1 [F2 ( s )] + L + l 1 [Fn ( s )]

= f1 (t ) + f 2 (t ) + L + f n (t )

Mathematical Tool
Laplace Transform
We will consider three cases and show a function F(s)
can be expanded into partial fractions:
Case 1: Roots of denominator A(s) are real and
distinct,
Case 2: Roots of denominator A(s) are real and
repeated,
Case 3: Roots of denominator A(s) are complex
conjugates.

Mathematical Tool
Transfer Function
In classical control system, mode of the system is
expressed as a transfer function.

Transfer function G(s) of a linear system is defined as
the ratio of the Laplace transform of the output
variable to the Laplace transform of the input
variable, with all initial conditions assumed to be
zero.

Output ( s )
G (s) =
Input ( s )

Laplace transform?

Mathematical Tool
Example:

Transfer Function
2
Ms Y ( s ) + bsY ( s ) + kY ( s ) = R( s )

Y (s)
1
G (s) =
=
2
R ( s ) Ms + bs + k
Ms
input

1
+ bs + k

Y (s )

Control System Analysis

For a given controller (compensator), how good is the

closed-loop control system?
Performance of control system
Stability of the control system

Control System Analysis

Performance

The transient response is the response of a system as

function of time.
The steady-state error is the error after the transient
response decayed, leaving only a constant (or steady)
response.

Control System Analysis

Performance

To measure the performance of a system we use
standard test input signals. This allows us to compare
the performance of our system for different designs.

The standard test inputs used are the step input,
inpu the
ramp input,
inpu and the parabolic input.
inpu

A unit impulse function is also useful for test signal
purpose.

Control System Analysis

step input
inpu

A, t 0
r (t ) =
0, t < 0
A
R(s) =
s

ramp input
inpu

parabolic input
inpu

At , t 0
r (t ) =
0, t < 0
A
R(s) = 2
s

At 2 , t 0
r (t ) =
0, t < 0
2A
R(s) = 3
s

The step input is the easiest to generate and evaluate and is usually
chosen for performance tests.

Control System Analysis

Performance

Standard transient performance measures are usually

defined in term of the step response of a 2nd order
systems:

Control System Analysis

Performance

Rise time, Tr:
Tr the time required for the waveform to go
from 0.1 of the final value to 0.9 of the final value.

Peak Time, Tp:
Tp the time to reach the first, or maximum,
peak.

Percent Overshoot, PO:
PO the amount of the maximum
peak steady-state value.

Settling time, Ts:
Ts the time required for transients
damped oscillation to reach and stay within 2% of
steady-state value.

Control System Analysis

Performance
-Evaluation of TpTpTp is found by differentiating y(t) and finding the first zero
crossing after t=0.

Tp =
=
d n 1 2

-Evaluation of POPOPercent Overshoot is defined as

PO = 100e

' Peak Value '' Final Value '

P.O. =
x100%
' Final Value '

1 2

Control System Analysis

Performance
-Evaluation of TsTs-

For a second order system, we seek to determine the

time Ts for which the response remains within 2% of the
final
4

Ts = 4 =

-Evaluation of TrTr-

A precise analytical relationship between rise time and

damping ratio cannot be found. However, it can be
found numerically using computer.

Control System Analysis

Performance
The steady-state error is the error after the transient
response decayed, leaving only a constant response.
Final Value Theorem (FVT)

ess = e(t ) = lim sE ( s )

t

s 0

Control System Analysis

Performance
Summary of SteadySteady-State Errors
Number of
integrations in G(s),
Type Number
0

Step input

A
ess =
1+ K p

Ramp input

Infinite

ess = 0

A
ess =
Kv

ess = 0

ess = 0

Parabolic
input

Infinite

Infinite

A
ess =
Ka

Control System Analysis

Performance
The sensitivity of feedback system is
T G
1
T
SG =
=
G T 1 + G ( s ) H ( s )
The sensitivity of feedback system to changes in the
feedback element H(s) is
T H
GH
T
SH =
=
H T 1 + GH
The sensitivity of feedback system to a certain
parameter is obtained based on the chain rule

ST = S GT SG

Control System Analysis

Stability

Stability is the most important system specification.

Many physical systems are inherently open-loop unstable.
Feedback control is introduced by engineers to stabilize
an unstable plant.
Most modern aircraft are openopen-loop unstable,
unstable, without feedback
control assisting the pilot they can not fly.
fly

For an open-loop stable plant, we still need feedback to

adjust performance to meet the design specifications.

Control System Analysis

Stability
How important is stability ?

Tacoma Narrows, Washington 1940

Control System Analysis

Control System Analysis

How important is it ?

Stability

Tacoma Narrows, Washington 1940

Control System Analysis

Stability

The necessary and sufficient condition for a system to be

stable is that all the poles of the systems transfer function
have negative real parts

Control System Analysis

Stability

an

an 2

an 4 L

n 1

an 1

an 3

an 5 L

n2

bn 1

bn 3

bn 5

n 3

cn 1

cn 3

cn 5

M
s

hn 1

First column

RouthRouth-Hurwitz Stability:
The number of roots of q(s)
with positive real parts is
equal to the number of
changes in sign of the first
column of the Routh Table.
q(s) is the characteristic
equation of the system

Control System Design

Definition

Design is the process of conceiving or inventing the
forms, parts, and details of a system to achieve a
specified purpose.

The design of Control System is a specific example
of engineering design.

The goal of control design is to obtain the
configuration, specifications and identification of
the key parameters of a proposed system to meet
an actual need.

Control System Design

Control System Design

Process

Control System Design

Classical Control Design:

Applicable only for Single-Input Single-Output (SISO)
System.

Plant is expressed by its transfer function.

Controller: phase lag/lead, PID controller.

Tools: Laplace, Root Locus, Bode Diagram, Nyquist,
etc.

Control System Design

A feedback system is designed to meet a specified

performance (transient and steady-state performance).
A compensator (or controller) is an additional component
or circuit that is inserted into a feedback control system to
compensate for a deficient performance.
A compensator may be electrical, mechanical, hydraulics or
some other types of device(s) or network(s).

Control System Design

Types of Compensator
The compensator may be chosen to have a transfer function:
M

(s + z )
i

Gc ( s ) = K

i =1
N

(s + p )
j

j =1

Consider first-order compensator:

s+z
Gc ( s ) = K
s+ p
Where z and p are usually negative real numbers. There are
two possible conditions: |z| < |p| and |z| > |p|.

Control System Design

Types of Compensators
Phase-lead compensator
Phase-lag compensator

s+z
Gc ( s ) = K
s+ p

s+z
Gc ( s ) = K
s+ p

z< p

z > p

Controller parameters: K, z and p

Control System Design

PID Controller
One form of controller widely used in industrial automation
is called a three term or PID controller:

KI
Gc ( s ) = K p +
+ KDs
s

de
u (t ) = K p e(t ) + K I e(t )dt + K D
dt

Where the controller parameters are Kp, KI and KD which

are also called as proportional, integral and derivative gain,
respectively.

Control System Design

How to design a controller so that the feedback system has
performance as specified performance?
Controller design consists of two steps:
Design of controller type, such as PID, PI, phase lead, etc
Design of parameters of the chosen controller
Controller design methods:
Root locus method ?????
Frequency method ?????
Analysis method

Control System Design

Root Locus Method
The root locus is the path of the roots of the characteristic
equation traced out in the s-plane as a system parameter is
changed.
Root Locus

2
Imaginary Axis

K
1 + GH ( s ) = 1 +
s ( s + 2)( s + 3)

-2

-4

-6
-10

-8

-6

-4
Real Axis

-2

Control System Design

Frequency Response Method
The frequency response of a system is defined as the steady
state response of the system to a sinusoidal input signal.

R(s)

T(s)

Y(s)
y(t) ?

r (t ) = A sin t
A
R( s) = 2
s +2

T ( s) =

m( s )
n

s+ p

i =1

Control System Design

Frequency Response Method
The steady state response to sinusoidal input is also
sinusoidal, which differs from sinusoidal input only in
amplitude and phase angle.

R(s)

T(s)

Y(s)
y(t) ?

Control System Design

Frequency Response Method
Graphical representations of the frequency response:
 Bode Diagram
 Polar plot (Nyquist Diagram)
 Log magnitude and phase diagrams
(Nichols Diagrams)

Control System Design

Frequency Response Method

Bode Diagram

Control System Design

Frequency Response Method

K
G (s) =
s(s + 1)

Nyquist Plot

Control System Design

Frequency Response Method

Nichols Plot

What can we do using classical

control?

What can we do using classical

control?

What can we do using classical

control?

SoundSound-based Tracking System

5-bar Plotter
encoder

Xr
Yr

controller

plant

Inverse
kinematics

x
Forward
kinematics

controller

plant

encoder

Further Readings
Dorf, Modern Control
Chapter 1 - 10

System

Nise, Control Engineering

Chapter 1 - 10