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1.1 INTRODUCTION
A simplified structure of a transformer is shown in figure 1.1. It has two windings
wound on a core. The winding to which power is fed is called the primary
winding and the winding which delivers power to the load is the secondary
winding. A transformer basically transfers power from the primary to the
secondary. This power transfer is done via the magnetic media i.e., the magnetic
core.
Core
V2
V1
PRI
N1
SEC
N2
(1.1)
where
H
= magnetic field intensity (Amp/m)
lm
= magnetic path length (m)
N1
= no. of turns in the primary winding
Dr.L.Umanand, CEDT, IISc, Bangalore-560012
Imag
If H is uniform along the magnetic path length, then equation 1.1 reduces to
H.lm = N1 Imag
Thus, H =
N1 I mag
lm
(1.2)
The magnetic field intensity gives rise to a certain flux density B (tesla) in the core.
The relationship between B and H is given by
B = H where = o
(1.3)
Where, o is the permeability of free space which is equal to 4.10-7 H/m and ,
is the relative permeability of the core material. , is not a constant, quantity. It
has been found to vary nonlinearly with H. Graphically this relationship between
B and H is as shown in figure 1.2. This relationship can be observed on an
oscilloscope by a suitable measuring circuit. Note that the curve exhibits
hysteresis. A close look at this curve reveals the following observations, which
have a far-reaching effect on the understanding and designing of transformers.
Bsat
F
E
Bsat
dv
m = N dt = NAc dB
dt
(1.4)
B=
lNi
lm
(1.5)
But
Therefore,
B
l
(1.6)
=H
dE = VcB.dH = VcH.dB
Thus the energy per unit volume is B.dH, the integral of which is the area of the
B-H curve as shown in figure 1.2. Thus, in one cycle of applied voltage (or
current ), energy equivalent to the loop area of the B-H curve is lost forever, and
this happens in each cycle. This power loss is called the Hysteresis Loss, which
can be obtained from equation 1.6. and is given by
Ph =
1
2
(1.7)
It is evident that for a particular core volume and flux density, hysteresis loss Ph, is
proportional to rate of change of flux, i.e. higher the frequency of operation,
higher the hysteresis loss. The equation 1.7 can be rewritten as
Ph =
1 (B 2 )
2 l V cf
It is evident from the above equation, that for a given flux density, core volume
and the frequency of operation, higher permeability materials have lower hystersis
loss when compared with lower permeability materials. So, in designing
transformers, the choice of materials is also critical.
When the applied magnetic field H is removed ( i.e. when the primary excitation is
removed ), the core flux is non-zero. As shown in figure 1.2, the flux density can
be anywhere between OC or OF, i.e. positive or negative remnant flux density
can exist. Such an uncertain residual flux density can create surge currents
during switching ON of the transformer.
1.4 INDUCED EMF AND EDDY CURRENTS
The flux in the core is related to the flux density by
= BAc
where
(1.8)
= flux in webers
B = flux density in Tesla
dv
dt
(1.9)
This is a very important relationship, which is central to the entire magnetic circuit
behaviour. It should be noted that the voltage induced as per the equation 1.9,
opposes the applied voltage, thus limiting the input current to a low value at no
load called the magnetising current. In practical transformers this current is kept at
5 to 10% of full load current.
As a consequence of the above relationship, the changing flux established in the
core, links all windings that are wound on the core. In the case of the figure 1.1
there are three induced emfs, as given by the following equations:
E1 = N1
dv
dt
(1.10)
E2 = N2
dv
dt
(1.11)
E3 = N3
dv
dt
(1.12)
Equations 1.10 and 1.11 are perhaps obvious, but not so the equation 1.12. Note
that the core itself acts as one turn winding (a closed turn) in addition to the
primary and secondary windings. Thus, a voltage E3 is also induced in the core.
The cross section of the core of figure 1.1 is redrawn in figure 1.3 As the core is a
closed turn ( N= 1), voltage E3 and hence, current I3 can flow in the closed path
in the cross-section, as shown in figure 1.3 and can heat up the core. Thus, if the
core is a solid mass, it can result in a large current I3 known as eddy current
and this can pose a serious problem with the transformer operation. One of the
ways to minimize such a current flow is to increase the resistance in the current
path. This is done by having a core made up of thin laminations, insulated from
each other. Then the situation will be as shown in figure 1.4.
As can be seen, the effective resistance of the core increases and the eddy
currents go down, thus, reducing the losses and temperature of the core. A
second way of increasing the resistance of the solid core is to have proper
material which has large resistivity, like for e.g. Ferrites come under this category.
They are a solid mass and laminations are not required due to their high inherent
resistivity.
E3
I3
The eddy current loss in the transformer is given by the following empirical
relationship
Pe = Ke f 2 Bm2 watts
(1.13)
The hysteresis and eddy current losses together are called the core losses
Pc = Ph + Pe
(1.14)
N2
N1
=n
(1.15)
Thus, the voltage ratios at the primary and secondary are decided by the turns
ratio 'n'. This turns ratio is an important parameter of the transformer.
1.6 VOLT-SEC PRODUCT
Equation 1.9 can be rewritten using equation 1.8, in the following way:
e = NAc
dB
dt
(1.16)
1
NAc
e.dt
(1.17)
offer very little impedance, which allows huge currents to flow. For example,
consider a transformer with the following rating:
Primary
: 230 V, 50 Hz
Secondary : 15 V
If one applies 25 Hz at 230 V, then as the period at 25 Hz is higher than that at
50 Hz, from equation 1.17, it is clear that the core will tend to saturate. So, one
should never apply a lower frequency ( this of course includes DC also) to a
transformer lower than that it is designed for, at the rated voltage, However, if the
voltage is reduced proportionately, then a lower frequency can be applied. This
means that, as given by equation 1.17, as long as one does not exceed the
volt-time product or the volt-sec product ( for the transformer ), one can safely
operate the transformer.
1.7 STACKING FACTOR
Introduction of laminations for minimizing the eddy current loss increases the
cross-section of the core (and hence the volume). It is quantified by means of
stacking factor Ks as defined below:
Ks =
volume of iron
volume of iron + volume of insulation
(1.18)
Typical values of K S are between 0.8 and 0.95. (This however does not apply in
the case of solid cores like ferrites).
1.8 TRANSFORMER ON LOAD
As soon as the transformer is loaded , a current I2 flows as shown in figure 1.5,
creating a flux 2 so as to oppose 1 . This results in a lower net flux (= 1 - 2 )
. This means that E1 reduces and a larger I 1 will flow. This in turn will increase
1 . Thus in the steady state, the net flux in the core will be (which is equal to
that which existed when the secondary was unloaded ). Therefore, even though
the secondary and primary currents are much more than the magnetizing current,
the resultant flux is still the same since extra fluxes due to load current and that
due to the primary current cancel each other. That is, the net magnetizing force in
the magnetic circuit is given by
N1 I1 - N2 I2 = N1 Imag
(1.19)
I2
I1
N1
N2
1
n
(1.20)
I1
I2
N2
N1
=n
(1.21)
Net = 1 2
1 due to I1
2 due to I2
I2
I1
~
V1 E1
E2
E1
N1
11
N2
E2
dv 11
dt
; e22 = N2
dv 22
dt
PRI
SEC.
e11 = r 1
di 1
dt ;
e22 = r 2
di 2
dt
N2
N1
I1
I2
(1.22)
under most circumstances. For a transformer made up of low losses and having a
high permeability core, one can write:
1 I1 I'1
R1
io
E1
ic i m
V1
R2
E2
V2
Rc
N1
N2
N2
N1
; I 12 =
N2
N1
(1.23)
Bsat
Bm/ m
H/MMF
Bm/ m
Bsat
Fig. 1.9 B.H Curve
Eav =
1
(T/2)
dv
2 T/2
T/2
o e.dt = T o N dt .dt =
2N
T
m
+v
v m dv
Thus
Eav =
2N
T (2v m )
It should be borne in mind that the above equation was derived independently of
any applied voltage waveshape. So this relationship is valid for any waveshape of
the applied voltage. It can also be written as follows:
Eav = 4NfBmAc
(1.25)
Notice that this is the average voltage. One is generally interested in the rms
voltage. RMS and Average voltages are related by form factor Kf which is
defined as follows:
Kf - form factor =
Erms
Eav
(1.26)
(1.27)
E1
4Kf A c Bm f
and N2 =
E2
4Kf A c Bm f
(1.28)
(1.29)
where,
10
J = current density
awire = area of the conductor cross section through which current is flowing
Ac
(a) EI CORE
Aw
(b) C CORE
Aw
Ac
Aw
Ac
(c) TOROID
(1.30)
(1.31)
Where I1 and I2 are the primary and secondary rms currents. Substituting for N1
and N2 from equation 1.28 in equation 1.31, one obtains
Kw Aw J =
[E1 I 1 +E2 I 2 ]
4Kf B m Ac f
i.e.Ap = AcAw =
[E 1I 1 +E2 I 2 ]
4Kf K w Bm A c f
11
P02
g
(1.32)
(1.33)
where, E1 is the rms primary induced voltage and is the efficiency of the
transformer
Thus, Ap = AcAw =
P 02 1+ 1g
4Kf B m JKw f
(1.34)
where
P02
Kf
Bm
J
Kw
f
= Secondary VA
= form factor (1 for square wave, 1.11 for sine wave)
= allowed maximum flux density in tesla
= current density in A/sq.m
= window utilization factor
= frequency of operation in Hz
Equation 1.34 should give a feel as to how, the power to be handled and the size
of the transformer, are related to each other. The factor Kw (which will be
explained in detail a little later can be taken in the order of 0.4). The current
density J is in the order of 3.5x106 to 5x106 Amp/sq.m.
Generally, cores of different dimensions are standardized in the market. All one
has to do, is to calculate the required Ap as given by equation 1.34, compare it
with the value of standard cores and select one whose Ap is greater than the
calculated Ap . The area product approach for designing high frequency
transformers is also along the same lines and is dealt in detail in the next chapter.
1.12 EMPIRICAL FORMULA FOR CHOICE OF CORE FOR A
POWER TRANSFORMER
A simple empirical relation for the choice of the core for 50 Hz power
transformer applications is as follows:
Ac =
P in
Bm
(1.35)
where
Ac = core iron area in sq.cm.
Pin = input power in VA
Bm = allowable maximum flux density in Tesla
12
It should be noted that this formula is applicable for a square core only (a square
core is one in which the depth of stack is same as the width i.e. the tongue width)
and for 50 Hz applications only
Note: This empirical formula can be derived from equation 1.34 as follows:
For a square core Ac=a2 , and Aw =1.5a x 0.5a = 0.75a2 = 0.75Ac where a is the
tongue width. Substituting the above values for Ac and Aw and taking = 1, Kf =
1.11, J = 3x106 A/m2 , Kw = 0.4 and f = 50 Hz, in equation 1.34, one obtains
Ac =
Po
Bm
% 104 m 2
2mm
a/2
2mm
With this limitation in the background, the empirical formula simplifies the design
to a large extent. However, for any other kind of transformer, which operates at
frequencies other than 50 Hz etc., the original formula given by equation 1.34 has
to be used.
a/2
2mm
a/2 (14)
a
1.5a
(42)
a/2
1.5a
a/2
a/2
a
a/2
a/2
(a)
(b)
(c)
13
Coil former/Bobbin effect: A bobbin or coil former that is used to house the
winding has a certain thickness and this reduces the available window area. As
an example, consider a coil former for Type 33 lamination as shown in figure 1.11
Window area = 1.5a x 0.5a = 42 x 14 mm2 = 588 mm2
Actual winding space available (because of coil former dimensions) = (42-4) x
(14-2) mm2 = 456 mm2
Thus the utilization factor Kw1 due to coil former is Kw1 = 456/588 = 0.7755. If
the coil has multiple sections, then the factor further gets reduced.
Space factor: The second factor that causes a reduction in the winding space is
the space factor Kw2 . It can be defined as
K w2 =
conductor area
conductor area + insulation area
(1.36)
This factor depends on the wire gauge. For example, for SWG 45 gauge having
a nominal diameter, dnom, of 0.071 mm, and a maximum diameter with insulation,
dmax, of 0.086 mm
K w2 =
o
4
o
4
d 2nom
d 2max
0.071 2
0.086 2
= 0.68
If the wire gauge is thicker, like say SWG 14, the value of Kw2 comes out to be
0.91. So, thinner the gauge, the lesser is the space factor.
Air gaps between conductors: The third factor which reduces the available
window area is the factor arising from the fact that the adjacent turns are not air
tight. There is always a gap between the conductors (though very small). And
generally wire which is circular in cross section, is wound on flat (square,
rectangular) surface, thus, further deteriorating the utility factor. In practice, this
factor Kw3 is found to be in the order of 0.6 to 0.9
Insulation factor: There is one more factor Kw4 , called the insulation factor.
Generally, when one winds a transformer, there are several insulation layers that
come into picture, like, a layer of insulation between say, the coil former and the
primary winding, between the primary winding and secondary winding, etc. to
meet the breakdown voltage requirements. If there are multiple secondaries,
additional layers are to be used. This insulation requirement further reduces the
area available for winding the wire.
Thus, the actual area finally available is
Available area = Kw x window area
where,
Kw = Kw1 x Kw2 x Kw3 x Kw4
14
(1.37)
Dr.L.Umanand, CEDT, IISc, Bangalore-560012
Typically, a value of Kw = 0.3 to 0.4 can be taken for design purposes. So, the
effective window area available = Kw Aw
(1.38)
core
former
former
creepage distance
15
A
B
C
D
A
(a)
VAB
(1)
B
C
(2)
(b)
B
V a
(1) CD
V
(2) CDb
(c)
(b)
V2
A
V1
D
(a)
(c)
17
2.1 INTRODUCTION
The high frequency transformers are largely used in inverter and converter
applications. The Switched Mode power Supplies (SMPS) require high
frequency transformers, if it has to maintain a significant power/unit volume
advantage over the Linear Power Supplies. Here transformer designs for SMPS
will be discussed, though the general principles hold good for designing high
frequency transformers for any application.
A very brief review of the SMPS configurations that are most widely used will
now be made. The most frequently used configurations are the Forward
Converter, its derivatives and the Flyback Configuration.
They are
1. Forward converter.
2. Half bridge converter
3. Full bridge converter.
4. Push pull converter.
5. Flyback converter
It is expected that the reader is familiar with the above converter topologies. The
operation of the individual configurations will not be discussed, but only the
scheme for each configuration along with the important equation governing the
output voltage in terms of duty cycle will be listed. Subsequently the transformer
design procedure will be discussed.
Forward Converter
The topology is shown in figure 2.1 and the governing equation for this
configuration is given by
18
V cc
D1
D2
D3
R oVo
Vcc
Q1
CW
Q2
D1
D2
C
Vo
Ro
19
N2
N1
(2*Dmax). Vccmin
Vcc
Q1
Q4
CW
Q3
Q2
D1
D2
C
Vo
Ro
N2
N1
Q1
Vcc
(2*Dmax). Vccmin
D1
D2
R oVo
Q2
20
V cc
D
R oVo
Flyback Configuration
This topology is shown in figure 2.5 and the governing equation for this
configuration is given by
Vo + VD =
N2
N1 .
Vccmin.
D max
(1Dmax )
dv
dt
= NAc
dB
dt
(2.1)
In a forward converter when the transistor is ON, a voltage E1m = Vcc is applied
across the transformer. This gives rise to linearly increasing flux as shown in figure
2.6 (d). At the end of the ON time of the transistor, the flux in the transformer
reaches a value m, which should be less than the saturation limit of the core.
During the OFF time, the flux in the core has to be brought back to zero. If this
does not happen, then the core will never be reset and the flux goes on building
up during the successive cycles and will saturate the core. This core resetting is
done by the demagnetising winding N3 shown in figure 2.6 (a).
Dr.L.Umanand, CEDT, IISc, Bangalore-560012
21
For an ON time equal to DTs (D is the Duty Cycle) the primary voltage E1 can be
rewritten using the equation 2.1
Elm = N1 Ac
Bm
DTs
N 1 A cB m f s
D
(2.2)
where fs = 1/Ts
Similarly, secondary induced voltage E2m is given by
E2m =
N2 A c Bm f s
D
(2.3)
DE 1m
Ac B m fs
(2.4)
N2 =
DE 2m
Ac B m fs
(2.5)
Apart from the core area Ac one has to consider the window area, Aw also.
Effective window area available will be much less than Aw by a factor Kw as
discussed in Chapter 1. This area is given by the following equation
Kw Aw = N1 a1 + N2 a2 + N3 a3
Where a1 is the wire cross section area of the primary winding, a2 is the cross
section area of the secondary winding and a3 is that for the demagnetising
winding.
i3
(b)
Elm
e1
L
e1
-E1m
i2
I m
2
N2
N1
i1
N3
(a)
(c)
2 o
(d)
flux o
DT (1-D)T
(e)
Areas a1 , a2 and a3 are related to the respective currents and the current density J
as follows
I
ax = Jx
Where x can take values, 1,2 and 3.
22
(2.6)
From the waveforms shown in figure 2.6, one can arrive at the rms currents as
given below (by neglecting the magnetising slope):
I1 = I1m D
(2.7)
I2 = I2m D
(2.8)
Equation 2.6 can be rewritten using equations 2.4, 2.5, 2.7 and 2.8 as follows:
AcAw =
[I 1mE 1m D+I2m E 2m D]
K wJB m f s
(2.9)
1
T
DT
P01 = I1mE1mD =
Po2
g
Ac Aw =
D P02 1+ 1g
K w JBm f s
D P 02 1+ 1g
K wJB m f s
(2.10)
Typically, for the forward converter, Kw = 0.4, = 0.8 and D = 0.5 (50% being
the maximum possible duty cycle in this converter configuration). Substituting
these values in equation 2.10 one obtains,
Ap =
4P 02
Bm Jf s
CONFIGURATION
Forward Converter
Transformer
AREA PRODUCT
AP = Ac Aw =
D P02 1+ 1g
K w JBm f s
23
Ap = Ac Aw =
P 02 2 + 1g
4K wJB m f s
Ap = Ac Aw =
P 02 2 + 1g
4K wJB m f s
Ap = Ac Aw =
Flyback Converter
Transformer - Incomplete
energy transfer mode
Flyback Converter
Transformer - complete
energy transfer mode
Ap =
Ap =
P02 1g
4Da
3
2 P02 1+ 1g
4K wJB m f s
4(1D)a
3
Kw JDBf s
P02 1g
4D
3
; 0.75 [ a < 1
4(1D)
3
K wJB m f s
24
Ts
1
Ts o
m 2 i 2 dt = V 2m I 0 D max; (V o = DV 2m )
(2.11)
Vcc
V2 m
2
i2
V
2
N1
N3
i1
(b)
DT
i
N2
i
(a)
o
2 o
(c)
(d)
m -
(e)
In practice, one has to account for the diode drop, VD and the resistive drop in
the inductor and transformer windings, Vrl. Dmax is considered to take into account
the lowest supply voltage, Vccmin.
Thus, V2m Dmax = Vo +Vrl + VD
(2.12)
Substituting for V2m in equation 2.11 from 2.12, one can rewrite the secondary
power, P02 as
P02 = (V0 +Vrl + VD )I0
Here after, (V0 +Vrl + VD ) will be denoted as V' 0 , so
P02 = V'0 I0
(2.13)
In the case of multiple secondary windings, the powers of all the secondary
windings must be considered to arrive at the total secondary power, P02 , i.e.
m
P02 =
Core Selection
Now, substitute the value of P02 in the area product equation for forward
converter transformer,
Ap =
D max P 02 1+ 1g
K w JBm f s
(2.14)
From the Ap value calculated from equation 2.14, choose the core from the
appendix - I, which has a Ap value greater than the value calculated.
25
(2.15)
Note that the Duty cycle is minimum only when Vcc is maximum and vice versa.
(Vccmax . Dmin = Vccmin . Dmax)
Knowing the primary number of turns, the secondary number of turns is obtained
by multiplying the primary turns by the transformation ration.
n=
N2
N1
V0
V cc minD max
(2.16)
D max
I2 = I0
(2.17)
I1 = nI2
(2.18)
L1 =
l 0 l r Ac N 21
lm
(2.19)
Where lm is the mean magnetic length for the core which is given in Appendix-I.
L1 is also given by, L1 = AL N2 1 , where AL is in nH/turns2 which is the inductance
factor listed in Appendix - I for different cores.
The primary magnetising current is then given by, (which is derived from
(e = L didt ),)
I mag =
Dmax V ccmin
fs L 1
(2.20)
The demagnetising current, I3 , flows through the demagnetising winding during the
period (1 - D)Ts , as shown in figure 2.7, and the rms value obtained is
I3 = Imag
26
1D max
3
(2.21)
Dr.L.Umanand, CEDT, IISc, Bangalore-560012
The gauge of the wire to be chosen for the windings is found from the following
relationship
a1 =
I1
J
and a2
I2
J
= and a3 =
I3
J
(2.22)
From the values of the required conductor cross section areas a1 , a2 and a3 , one
can choose the gauge of the wires required for the respective winding from
Appendix - II.
Cross Check
Even though the Ap formula takes into account various design parameters, the
final solution needs to be cross checked for the following reasons:
{ Wire gauges are available in discrete areas as per the list given in
Appendix-II. One has to invariably select a wire gauge whose area is
greater than the calculated one. This may necessitate higher window area.
{ When several windings are used (e.g pushpull with primary and secondary
centre tapped, multi output SMPS etc.) the window utilisation factor Kw
may go down as various windings need more insulation layers.
Using the actual conductor areas, check back to see if the turns fit into the
window area Aw of the core by checking for the inequality
m
Aw Kw m S ai Ni
(2.23)
i=1
If the above inequality is not satisfied, then choose a core with a higher Ap and
re-do the calculations till the inequality is satisfied.
The primary winding resistance is given by
ql e N1
ql e N2
a2
12V
1% of V0
3A
20 KHz
24V+10%
27
Before we start solving the above problem, we shall look into the choice of some
design parameters which will affect the design of the transformers. The following
discussion will be valid for all transformer designs.
The converter diodes in the secondary of the transformer will show a significant
drop as they are carrying high currents. The diode drops may be as high as 1.5V
for fast recovery diodes. It is safe to design for the worst case of VD = 1.5V.
Another practical problem is the drops due to the winding resistances of the
inductor and transformer. It has been found that Vrl = 10% of V0 is a safe choice
generally.
At high frequencies, usually the core material choice is ferrite. It has a saturating
flux density, Bs of 0.3 T, so the maximum allowable flux density in the core should
be 0.2 T or less (Bm = 0.2T).
Another important design parameter is the current density J. If the current density
J is chosen very low, then for a given current, a very large conductor cross
section is required (thereby demanding a large window area), which means that
the resistance presented to the current flow will be low. One should not choose a
very low current density with the idea of reducing the conductor resistance
because at high frequencies the skin effect comes into picture and whatever be the
thickness of the gauge, there is no significant change in the conductor resistance.
A current density between 2 and 5 A/mm2 is found to be a good compromise
between conductor resistance and window area. A value of J = 3 A/mm2 is a
reasonable value in most cases.
The maximum duty cycle in isolated converters should not exceed 50% to avoid
core saturation. So, we shall design for Dmax = 0.45 i.e. 45%. The window
utilisation factor, K = O.4 and the efficiency of the transformer is taken to be 0.8.
Vccmin = Vcc - 10% Vcc = 21.6V
Vccmax = Vcc - 10% Vcc = 26.4V
Dmin = (Vccmin x Dmax ) / Vccmax = (21.6 x 0.45) / 26.4 = 0.371 (The calculation of
Dmin for flyback converters is different).
Power calculation: P02 = (V0 + Vrl + VD ) I0
Substituting the values for the variables we have,
P02 = 44.1 watts
Core Selection: The area product for the forward converter configuration is
given by
Ap =
28
D max P 02 1+ 1g
K w JBf s
Dr.L.Umanand, CEDT, IISc, Bangalore-560012
N1 =
Substituting the values for the variables, we have, N1 = 13 turns (taking the
nearest higher integer)
n=
N2
N1
(V 0 +V rl+V D )
V ccmin D max
D max = 2.01 A
I1 = nI2 = 3.03 A
l 0 l r Ac N 21
lm
L1 =
Imag =
= 1.63 mH
Dmax V ccmin
fs L 1
I3 = Imag
= 0.29 A
1D max
3
= 0.12 A
I1
J
and a2 =
I2
J
and a3 =
I3
J
29
a2 = 0.67 mm2
Choose a wire gauge from Appendix - II whose cross section is greater than that
calculated above.
SWG 19 is a proper choice - (a2 = 0.8107 mm2 )
a3 = 0.041 mm2
Choose a wire gauge from Appendix II whose cross section is greater than that
calculated above.
SWG 34 is a proper choice - (a3 = 0.04289 mm2 )
Cross Check : Now check for the inequality,
m
Aw Kw m S ai Ni
i=1
S aiNi = 32 mm2
i=1
Aw Kw = 40.4 mm2
So, the inequality is satisfied, which means that the windings will fit in the available
window area.
30
3. DESIGN OF INDUCTORS
3.1 INTRODUCTION
Even though inductors and transformers are both magnetic components, there is a
very important difference in their functioning and design aspect. In a transformer,
the core flux (or the flux density) is decided by the magnetising current. The load
current virtually has no say in deciding the core flux (the flux due to the load
current is nullified by the counter flux produced by the primary component of the
load current). Where as in an inductor, the core flux is decided only by the load
current. Thus if the load current increases, there is a possibility that the core may
saturate and inductance will come down. So the primary consideration in an
inductor is that one has to know the maximum load current and have the core
which does not saturate at this current. This can lead to a huge core size if the
current to be handled is large. The core size can be reduced considerably by
introducing an appropriate air gap in the magnetic circuit. Figure 4.1 (a) and (b)
show the effect of an air gap on the B-H characteristics of the magnetic material
illustrating clearly that with the airgap, the coil can carry considerably larger
current without saturating the core.
3.2 PRINCIPLES OF INDUCTOR DESIGN
There are several approaches to inductor design, two of which are mentioned
below:
{ Trial and error approach often guided by the "Hanna Curves".
{ Area product approach.
Here the Area Product approach is discussed as it is a sound design technique
and is also easy to follow. Figure 3.2 shows the inductor geometry using an EI
core. Using the Faraday's law one has,
e=N
dv
dt
(3.1)
31
B1
H1
H2
Lg
Ni
mmf
Rc
Rg
32
The equivalent magnetic circuit is shown in figure 3.3. Note that Rc and Rg are
the core and air gap reluctances. They are given by the following relationships,
Rc =
lc
l 0 l r Ac
; Rs =
lg
l0 A c
(3.2)
(assuming the area of cross sections of the core and air gap to be equal i.e.
neglecting the fringing flux.), flux in the circuit of the figure 3.3 is given by
v=
mmf
Rc +R g
Ni
(3.3)
lg
lc
l 0 l r Ac + l 0A c
dv
dt
N2
lg
lc
l 0 l r Ac ;+; l 0A c
di
dt
= L didt
(3.4)
N2
(3.5)
lg
lc
l 0l rA c ;+; l 0 Ac
l 0 l r Ac N 2
lm
(3.6)
l 0 A c N2
lg
i.e. lg =
l 0 A c N2
L
(3.7)
(3.8)
33
E = 1/2 LI2 m
(3.9)
where, E is the energy in joules, L is the inductance in Henrys and Im is the peak
inductor current in amps. The window area of the core should accommodate 'N'
turns of wire cross-section area 'a'. Thus,
Kw Aw = N.a
(3.10)
But, a = J , where I is the rms current through the inductor in amps and J is the
current density in A/mm2 . So, equation 3.10 can be rewritten as
Kw Aw = N
I
J
(3.11)
Kc h
Im
I
(peak )
(rms ) , and substituting for I from equation 3.11, one obtains,
Kw KcAw J = NIm
(3.12)
dv
dt
= NAc dB
dt and
LIm = NAcBm
(3.13)
(3.14)
Substituting for Im in equation 3.14 from equation 3.12 and rearranging, the Area
Product for the core is given by,
Ap = Aw Ac =
2E
Kw K c JBm
(3.15)
As there is only one winding, Kw can be chosen as o.6. The core can be chosen
by comparing the area product value obtained from equation 3.15 with the cores
in Appendix-I.
No. of turns: The number of turns can be calculated from equation 3.13,
which can be rewritten as
N=
LI m
Ac B m
(3.16)
Gauge of wire:The cross-section area of the wire can be calculated from the
formula,
a = I/J
34
(3.17)
Dr.L.Umanand, CEDT, IISc, Bangalore-560012
The gauge of the wire can be decided by comparing the calculated wire cross
section from equation 3.17 with wire gauges given in Appendix-II.
Air gap, lg:
As per section 3.1, air gap, lg , is used to reduce the core size.
LI
NAc
where B =
(3.18)
v
Ac
NI
(3.19)
lm
lAc
lm
lAc
be split into
(3.20)
lc
l 0 l r Ac
lg
+ l 0 Ac ,
where,
lc is the mean magnetic path in the magnetic material, m
lg is the air gap length, m
Ac is the core section, m2
If the material is of high permeability one, then the reluctance is contributed mainly
by the air gap, so
lc
l 0 l r Ac
<<
lg
l 0 Ac
l 0 N 2 Ac
L
(3.21)
35
2E
Kw K c JBm
N=
l 0 N 2 Ac
L
5V
5A
40 KHz
12V + 10%
Solution:
Determine L: The L for this Converter is given by
L=
36
V0 (1D min )
DIfs
ig
iL
VA
i
Io
Vg
VA
L
R oVo
I
io
g
DT (I-D)T
V0
Vg max
DI
2
2E
Kw K c JBm
LI m
Ac B m
37
Substituting the values for the variables, we have N=21 turns (taking the next
higher integer if the calculation does not give an integer value).
Wire gauge: The gauge of the wire can be calculated from the equation given
below, taking
J = 3 A/mm2
I
a = J , where I = I0
Substituting the values of the variables in the above equation, we have,
a = 1.6666 mm2
Now choose the wire gauge from Appendix - II, which has a cross section area
greater than the value calculated above.
SWG 16 is a proper choice ( a = 2.075 mm2 )
Cross check : The inequality AwKw > aN has to be checked.
So AwKw = 101 x 0.6 = 60.60 mm2 and aN = 2.075x21 = 43.57 mm2
So the inequality is satisfied, which means that the windings will fit into the
available window area.
Air gap Length: The air gap length, lg , is given by the equation,
lg =
l 0 N 2 Ac
,
L
39
REFERENCES
40
APPENDIX - I
Cores
without
airgap
mean
mean core cross window
length magnetic section area, A w,
per turn, length lm , area A c ,
cm2
2
mm
mm
cm
area
product,
A p, cm4
effective
AL
relative nH/turns2
permeab- +/- 25%
ility, r
+/-25%
35.6
26
0.43
0.27
0.114
1,480
3,122
P26/16
52
37.5
0.94
0.53
0.498
1,670
5,247
P30/19
60
45.2
1.36
0.75
1.016
1,760
6,703
P36/22
73
53.2
2.01
1.01
2.01
2,030
9,500
P42/29
86
68.6
2.64
1.81
4.778
2,120
10,250
P66/56
130
123
7.15
5.18
37.03
38
42.8
0.31
0.478
0.149
1,770
1,624
E25/9/6
51.2
48.8
0.4
0.78
0.312
1,840
1,895
E25/13/7
52
57.5
0.55
0.87
0.478
1,900
2,285
E30/15/7
56
66.9
0.597
1.19
0.71
E36/18/11
70.6
78
1.31
1.41
1.847
2,000
4,200
E42/21/9
77.6
108.5
1.07
2.56
2.739
2,100
2,613
E42/21/15
93
97.2
1.82
2.56
4.659
2,030
4,778
E42/21/20
99
98
2.35
2.56
6.016
2,058
6,231
E65/32/13
150
146.3
2.66
5.37
14.284
2,115
4,833
UU CORES
UU 15
44
48
0.32
0.59
1.19
1,100
UU 21
55
68
0.55
1.01
0.555
1,425
UU 23
64
74
0.61
1.36
0.823
1,425
UU 60
183
184
1.96
11.65
22.83
1,900
UU 100
29.3
308
6.45
29.14
187.95
3,325
41
Cores
without
airgap
mean
mean core cross window
length magnetic section area, A w,
per turn, length lm , area A c ,
cm2
2
mm
mm
cm
area
product,
A p, cm4
effective
AL
relative nH/turns2
permeab- +/- 25%
ility, r
+/-25%
42
T 10
12.8
23.55
0.062
0.196
0.012
2,300
765
T 12
19.2
30.4
0.12
0.442
0.053
2,300
1,180
T 16
24.2
38.7
0.2
0.785
0.157
2,300
1,482
T 20
25.2
47.3
0.22
0.95
0.213
2,300
1,130
T 27
34.1
65.94
0.42
1.651
0.698
2,300
1,851
T 32
39.6
73
0.61
1.651
1.01
2,300
2,427
T 45
54.7
114.5
0.93
6.157
5.756
2,300
2,367
APPENDIX - II
R/Km @20oC
ohms
Weight
Kg/Km
45
0.086
0.003973
4,340
0.0369
44
0.097
0.005189
3,323
0.0481
43
0.109
0.006567
2,626
0.061
42
0.119
0.008107
2,127
0.075
41
0.132
0.009810
1,758
0.0908
40
0.142
0.011675
1,477
0.1079
39
0.152
0.013700
1,258
0.1262
38
0.175
0.018240
945.2
0.1679
37
0.198
0.023430
735.9
0.2202
36
0.218
0.029270
589.1
0.2686
35
0.241
0.035750
482.2
0.3281
34
0.264
0.042890
402
0.3932
33
0.287
0.050670
340.3
0.465
32
0.307
0.059100
291.7
0.5408
31
0.33
0.06818
252.9
0.6245
30
0.351
0.07791
221.3
0.7121
29
0.384
0.09372
184
0.8559
28
0.417
0.11100
155.3
1.014
27
0.462
0.13630
126.5
1.245
26
0.505
0.16420
105
1.499
25
0.561
0.20270
85.1
1.851
24
0.612
0.24520
70.3
2.233
23
0.665
0.29190
59.1
2.655
22
0.77
0.39730
43.4
3.607
21
0.874
0.51890
33.2
4.702
20
0.978
0.65670
26.3
5.939
19
1.082
0.81070
21.3
7.324
18
1.293
1.16700
14.8
10.537
43
SWG
44
R/Km @20oC
ohms
Weight
Kg/Km
17
1.501
1.589
10.8
14.313
16
1.709
2.075
8.3
18.678
15
1.92
2.627
6.6
23.64
14
2.129
3.243
5.3
29.15
13
2.441
4.289
38.56
12
2.756
5.48
3.1
49.22
11
3.068
6.818
2.5
61
10
3.383
8.302
2.1
74
3.8
10.51
1.6
94
4.219
12.97
1.3
116
APPENDIX - III
A c , cm2
A w, cm2
A p, cm4
17
1.61
1.2
1.95
12A
2.52
1.884
4.75
21
2.52
3.32
8.36
10
2.52
4.43
11.2
10A
2.52
4.43
11.2
2.789
6.543
18.2
74
3.063
2.28
6.98
23
3.63
2.72
9.88
11
3.63
7.26
26.4
11A
3.63
9.07
32.9
3.63
10.89
39.52
30
12
31
4.94
3.71
18.3
45
4.94
3.71
18.3
15
6.45
4.84
31.2
44
6.45
4.84
31.2
14
6.45
6.55
42.2
6.45
15.85
102.2
33
7.84
5.88
46.1
10.08
7.54
76
13
10.08
14.11
142.3
4A
11.12
10.26
114
16
14.5
10.89
158
14.5
12.73
184.5
14.5
19.35
280.8
25.8
18.95
488.9
25.8
51.23
1,322
34
2.5
6.68
16.3
45
46
TYPE No.
A c , cm2
A w, cm2
A p, cm4
4.4
9.1
44.9
9A
4.9
7.9
38.9
4AX
5.6
13.07
74.1
75
6.5
15.26
98.4
35A
14.5
39.34
570.4
8B
58.1
65.52
3,804
100
103.2
116.1
11,988
PROBLEMS
1. Derive the area product relationship for the half bridge converter, full
bridge converter, pushpull converter and the flyback converter
configurations.
2. Design a 50Hz transformer that has the following specifications:
The transformer has one primary and three secondary windings.
Primary voltage
230Vrms
Secondary ratings-1
140Vrms, 16A
Secondary ratings-2
12Vrms, 12A
Secondary ratings-3
12Vrms, 12A
Use CRGO laminations for the core. An operating flux density of 1.2T can
be chosen.
3. Design a 48mH inductor carrying 8Arms current used in a LC filter to filter
fullwave mains rectified waveform. Use CRGO laminations for the core
with operating flux density of 1.2T.
4. For a non-isolated buck converter, the inductance was calculated to be
1mH. The minimum load current is 0.5A and the maximum allowable load
current is 11A. Design the inductor for Bm = 0.25T, J=5A/mm2 , Kw=0.6
and fs=40KHz.
5. Design a transformer for the half bridge converter configuration shown in
figure 2.2 for the following specifications,
output voltage, Vo
12V
output ripple, %
1% of Vo
output current, Io
3A
switching frequency, fs
20KHz
supply voltage, Vcc
24V +/- 10%
6. Design a transformer for the full bridge converter configuration shown in
figure 2.3 for the following specifications,
output voltage, Vo
12V
output ripple, %
1% of Vo
output current, Io
3A
Dr.L.Umanand, CEDT, IISc, Bangalore-560012
47
switching frequency, fs
supply voltage, Vcc
20KHz
24V +/- 10%
48