ME 202: Manufacturing

Technologies
Casting I:
Expendable-Mold Casting
Prepared by
Prof. Dr. S. Engin KILI
Given by
Dr. Volkan Esat
Middle East Technical University

Outline
Introduction
Expendable-Mold Casting
Sand Casting
Shell Molding
Full-Mold Casting
Lost Foam Casting

Plaster Mold Casting

Investment Casting

Rubber Mold Casting

Shaw Process

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Casting
It is a Process in which molten metal
flows by gravity or other force into a
mold where it solidifies in the shape of
the mold cavity

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Casting Process
Melt
Pour / force molten material (liquid) into
hollow cavity (mold) of the desired
shape.
Cool / Solidify
Remove
Finish
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Heating the Metal

Heating furnaces are used to heat the
metal to molten temperature sufficient
for casting
The heat required is the sum of:
Heat to raise temperature to melting point
Heat of fusion to convert from solid to
liquid
Heat to raise molten metal to desired
temperature for pouring
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Pouring the Molten Metal

For this step to be successful, metal
must flow into all regions of the mold,
most importantly the main cavity, before
solidifying
Factors that determine success:
Pouring temperature
Pouring rate
Turbulence
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Solidification of Metals
Transformation of molten metal back into
solid state
Solidification takes time
Total solidification time TST = time required
for casting to solidify after pouring
TST depends on size and shape of casting by
relationship known as Chvorinov's Rule

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Chvorinov's Rule
V
TST = Cm
A

where
TST = total solidification time;
V = volume of the casting;
A = surface area of casting;
n = exponent usually taken to have a value = 2;
Cm is mold constant
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Mold Constant in Chvorinov's

Rule
Cm depends on mold material, thermal
properties of casting metal, and pouring
temperature relative to melting point
Value of Cm for a given casting operation can
be based on experimental data from previous
operations carried out using same mold
material, metal, and pouring temperature,
even though the shape of the part may be
quite different
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What Chvorinov's Rule Tells Us

A casting with a higher volume-to-surface area ratio
cools and solidifies more slowly than one with a lower
ratio
To feed molten metal to main cavity, TST for riser
must be greater than TST for main casting
Since riser and casting mold constants will be equal,
design the riser to have a larger volume-to-area ratio
so that the main casting solidifies first
This minimizes the effects of shrinkage

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Figure 10.8 - Shrinkage of a cylindrical casting during solidification

and cooling: (0) starting level of molten metal immediately after
pouring; (1) reduction in level caused by liquid contraction
during cooling (dimensional reductions are exaggerated for
clarity in sketches)
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Figure 10.8 - (2) reduction in height and formation of shrinkage

cavity caused by solidification shrinkage; (3) further reduction in
height and diameter due to thermal contraction during cooling of
the solid metal (dimensional reductions are exaggerated for
clarity in our sketches)
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Solidification Shrinkage
Occurs in nearly all metals because the solid phase
has a higher density than the liquid phase
Thus, solidification causes a reduction in volume per
unit weight of metal
Exception: cast iron with high C content
Graphitization during final stages of freezing causes
expansion that counteracts volumetric decrease associated
with phase change

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Directional Solidification
To minimize damaging effects of shrinkage, it is
desirable for regions of the casting most distant from
the liquid metal supply to freeze first and for
solidification to progress from these remote regions
toward the riser(s)
Thus, molten metal is continually available from
risers to prevent shrinkage voids
The term directional solidification describes this
aspect of freezing and methods by which it is
controlled
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Achieving Directional
Solidification
Desired directional solidification is achieved using
Chvorinov's Rule to design the casting itself, its
orientation in the mold, and the riser system that
feeds it
Locate sections of the casting with lower V/A ratios
away from riser, so freezing occurs first in these
regions, and the liquid metal supply for the rest of the
casting remains open
Chills - internal or external heat sinks that cause
rapid freezing in certain regions of the casting
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Figure 10.9 - (a) External chill to encourage rapid freezing of the

molten metal in a section of the casting that is difficult to feed with
liquid metal; and (b) the likely result if the external chill were not
used

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Capabilities and Advantages

of Casting
Can create complex and intricate part geometries
with low scrap
Can create both external and internal shapes
Some casting processes are net shape; others are
near net shape
Can produce very large parts with hollow shapes
Some casting methods are suited to mass production

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Capabilities and Advantages of

Casting(2)
A wide variety of sizes can be produced:
As small as 1 mm
As large as you like (with sand casting)!

Tolerances
0.01 mm to 0.1 mm

Surface finish
1-3 m (die casting)
10-25 m (sand casting)
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Disadvantages of Casting
Different disadvantages for different
casting processes:
Limitations on mechanical properties
Poor dimensional accuracy and surface
finish for some processes; e.g., sand
casting
Safety hazards to workers due to hot
molten metals
Environmental problems
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Breakdown of Casting
Ingots for bulk deformation processes
(85%)
Casting of 3D complex shapes(15%)

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Parts Made by Casting

Big parts: engine blocks, machine tool
beds and heads for automotive vehicles,
wood burning stoves, machine frames,
railway wheels, pipes, bells, big statues,
and pump housings
Small parts: dental crowns, jewelry, small
statues, and frying pans
All varieties of metals can be cast,
ferrous and nonferrous
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Elements of Casting Process

Proper mold (cavity)
Desired shape and size
Mold should not restrict shrinkage of metal due to
cooling.

Suitable means for casting

Heating (Furnace)
Transporting / pouring molten material

Casting should be easily removed from the

mold.
After removal, finishing operations may be
needed to remove extra material on the casting.
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Two Categories of Casting

Process

Expendable mold processes uses an expendable

mold which must be destroyed to remove casting
Mold materials: sand, plaster, and similar
materials, plus binders
Permanent mold processes uses a permanent
mold which can be used many times to produce
many castings
Made of metal (or, less commonly, a ceramic
refractory material)

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Sand Casting
Sand is used as mold material.
Sand grains are mixed with small amounts
of other materials:
To improve moldability
To increase cohesive strength

Patterns are used to prepare molds.

To remove pattern, mold should be made,
at least, in two pieces.
A new mold is prepared for each casting.
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Two forms of mold: (a) open mold, simply a container in the shape
of the desired part; and (b) closed mold, in which the mold
geometry is more complex and requires a gating system
(passageway) leading into the cavity

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Terminology
Mold consists of two halves:
Cope = upper half of mold
Drag = bottom half

Mold halves are contained in a box,

called a flask
The two halves separate at the parting
line
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Terminology

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Steps of Sand Casting

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Steps of Sand Casting (2)

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Steps of Sand Casting (3)

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Steps of Sand Casting (4)

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Gating System

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Patterns
Pattern is the duplicate of the part to be
cast.
It should be modified to take the
allowances into consideration.
The most commonly used pattern
materials are wood, aluminium,
magnesium, and certain hard plastics.
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Single Pattern

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Split Pattern

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Match-plate Pattern

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Cope-and-Drag Patterns

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Complex Pattern

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Allowances
Modifications that must be incorporated to
a pattern are called allowances.
Shrinkage allowance: Pattern should be larger than the
desired shape to compensate for shrinkage during
solidification.
Finish allowance: Pattern must be made larger if a better
surface is to be obtained via machining.
Distortion allowance
Rap (shake) allowance: To facilitate removal, pattern is
shaked, which in turn enlarges the mold. Thus, pattern
should be made smaller.
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Allowances (Contd)
Draft (taper) allowance: Taper is necessary to facilitate
patterns withdrawal. Otherwise, sand particles may
break away from the mold due to the interface friction.
Hence, pattern should be made larger.

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Allowances - Example

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Common Types of Sand Molds

Green Molding Sand is a mixture of sand, clay and water.
It is the cheapest of the sand molding processes.
Dry-Sand is made using organic binders other than clay
and baked in oven at temperatures 2000C-3200C.
Skin-Dried is made drying surface of green sand mold to a depth of
10-25mm at the mold cavity surface using torches, heating lamps, etc.
Special bonding materials must be added to strengthen cavity surface.
The molds have high strength which is good for larger casting.
Coldbox mold inorganic and organic binders are mixed into the sand
to chemically hold the sand together.
Nobake mold a synthetic liquid resin is mixed into the sand to harden
the mold at room temp.

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Sand Properties
Refractoriness: The ability to withstand high
temperatures.
Sand itself

Cohesiveness: The ability to retain a given shape when

packed in a mold.
Clay

Permeability: The ability to permit gases to escape

through it. Depends on:
Sizes of sand grains
Size distribution
Moisture content

Collapsibility: The ability to permit metal to shrink after it

solidifies:
Organic materials
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Sand Testing
Standard tests and procedures have been
developed to maintain consistent sand
quality by evaluating:
Grain size
Moisture content
Clay content
Mold hardness
Permeability
Strength
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Making Sand Molds

Mostly sand molds are made with the
utilization of various types of molding
machines as:
Casting with better dimensional accuracy
and consistency is obtained;
Labor (necessity for skilled workers) is
reduced.

Very large molds are made in pits in the

floor. Such molds are called pit-type
molds.
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Pit-type Mold

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ME 202

Squeeze-type

Molding machines are

generally of jolt and
squeeze type.
Generally, match-plate
patterns are used with
molding machines.
For large castings,
sandslinger, which impels
the sand into the mold
with high velocity to pack
it to the desired hardness
is employed.

Jolt-type

Molding Machines

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Other types of Squeezing

Machines

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Molding Machines - Examples

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Sandslinger

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Cores
Cores are used to obtain hollow or reentrant
sections in castings
Sections of sand, which protrude into the hole in
the pattern, are called cores.
There are two basic types of cores used in sand
casting:
Green-sand cores: Made up of the same sand as the
rest of the mold. They are weak.
Dry-sand cores: Made by mixing sand with some
binding agent and then packing it into a core box
containing cavity of the desired shape.
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Core Box

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Core Prints
When dry-sand cores are
used, it is usually
necessary to provide
recesses in the mold into
which the ends of the core
can be placed to provide
support and/or hold them
in position.
These recesses are known
as core prints.
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Chaplets
In cases where the design
of casting does not permit
the core to be supported
from the sides of the mold,
the core can be supported,
can be prevented from
being moved or floated by
the molten material, by
means of small metal
supports, called chaplets.
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Sand Casting Samples

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Shell Molding

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Properties of Shell Molding

Better surface finish than that of sand
casting,
Better dimensional accuracy,
Low labor cost,
Low machining cost,
High productivity,
Requires expensive machines.
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Shell Molding - Example

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Full-Mold Casting
Useful for complex castings when pattern
withdrawal is not easy or pattern cost is too high.
Useful for a single casting or a few castings
The pattern is made of foamed (expanded)
polystyrene, which remains in the mold during
pouring.
When molten material is poured, the heat
vaporizes the pattern almost instantaneously.

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Full-Mold Casting (Contd)

When compared to wood, foamed polystrene is relatively
inexpensive and light. It can be easily cut and glued to
obtain the desired workpiece geometry, sprue, runner,
riser, etc.
Since pattern is not withdrawn, no draft allowance is
required.

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Full Mold - Example

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Lost Foam Casting

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Plaster Mold Casting

Plaster molds are used:
Molds are made from gypsum plaster with
Talc
Terra alba OR
Magnesium oxide

Limited to casting of lower-melting-point alloys(Al,

Mg, Cu, etc.)
Not permeable
Parts with relatively intricate geometry
Better surface finish and dimensional accuracy
Capability to make thinner sections

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Investment Casting
Types
Flask type
Shell type

Complex and expensive process

But unlimited complex shapes can be
obtained.
Intricate shapes
Very thin sections

Dimensional tolerances are excellent.

Very good surface quality.

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Investment Flask-Casting

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Investment Shell-Casting

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Investment Casting - Mold

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Samples Investment Casting

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Shaw Process
Slurry like mixture is poured over the
pattern.
Refractory aggregate
Hydrolyzed ethyl silicate
Jelling agent

Mixture sets in a rubbery jell so that the

pattern can be stripped from the mold.
Mold has sufficient strength to return its
original shape.
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Shaw Process (Contd)

The mold is ignited to burn off the volatile
elements in the mix.
It is then brought to a red heat in a furnace.
This firing makes the mold rigid and hard.
At the same time, micro-cracks are formed.
They provide
Excellent permeability
Good collapsibility
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Properties of the Process

Casting of all sizes,

Produces excellent surface finish,
Excellent detail,
High dimensional accuracy,
Cheaper than investment casting.

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Samples - Shaw Process

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Modified Shaw Process

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Rubber Mold Casting

Several types of artificial rubbers (silicone varieties)
in liquid phase are poured over patterns.
Forms semi-rigid molds upon entering.
The molds retain sufficient flexibility so that the
pattern can be stripped from the mold.
Suitable for small castings.
Only the materials that melt below 260oC could be
cast:
Wax
Plastics
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