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NIDA wishes to thank the following individuals for their guidance and comments during the development
and review of this publication:
Karen L. Bierman, Ph.D.
Pennsylvania State University
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Contents
Acknowledgments
ii
Preface
Introduction
Prevention Principles
What are the early signs of risk that may predict later drug abuse?
What are the highest risk periods for drug abuse among youth?
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12
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How can the community use the prevention principles in prevention planning?
12
How can the community assess the level of risk for drug abuse?
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15
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How can the community assess the effectiveness of current prevention efforts?
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18
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How can the community implement and sustain effective prevention programs?
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How can the community evaluate the impact of its program on drug abuse?
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Elementary School
Caring School Community Program
Classroom-Centered (CC) and Family-School Partnership (FSP) Intervention
Promoting Alternative Thinking Strategies (PATHS)
Skills, Opportunity, And Recognition (SOAR)
Middle School
Guiding Good Choices
Life Skills Training (LST) Program
Lions-Quest Skills for Adolescence (SFA)
Project ALERT
Project STAR
The Strengthening Families Program: For Parents and Youth 1014 (SFP 1014)
High School
Life Skills Training: Booster Program
Lions-Quest Skills for Adolescence
Project ALERT Plus
The Strengthening Families Program: For Parents and Youth 1014
Selective Programs
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Elementary School
Focus on Families (FOF)
The Strengthening Families Program (SFP)
Middle School
Coping Power
High School
Adolescents Training and Learning to Avoid Steroids (ATLAS)
Indicated Programs
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High School
Project Towards No Drug Abuse (Project TND)
Reconnecting Youth Program (RY)
Tiered Programs
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Elementary School
Early Risers Skills for Success Risk Prevention Program
Fast Track Prevention Trial for Conduct Problems
Middle School
Adolescent Transitions Program (ATP)
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Selected Resources
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Selected References
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Preface
Todays youth face many risks, including drug abuse,
violence, and HIV/AIDS. Responding to these risks
before they become problems can be difficult. One
of the goals of the National Institute on Drug Abuse
(NIDA) is to help the public understand the causes
of drug abuse and to prevent its onset. Drug abuse
has serious consequences in our homes, schools,
and communities. From NIDAs perspective, the
use of all illicit drugs and the inappropriate use of
licit drugs is considered drug abuse.
Prevention science has made great progress in recent
years. Many prevention interventions are being tested
in real-world settings so they can be more easily
adapted for community use. Scientists are studying
a broader range of populations and topics. They
have identified, for example, effective interventions
with younger populations to help prevent risk
behaviors before drug abuse occurs.
Introduction
In 1997, the National Institute on Drug Abuse (NIDA)
published the first edition of Preventing Drug Use
among Children and Adolescents: A Research-Based
Guide to share the latest NIDA-funded prevention
research findings with parents, educators, and
community leaders. The guide introduced the concept
of research-based prevention with questions and
answers on risk and protective factors, community
planning and implementation, and 14 prevention
principles derived from effective drug abuse prevention
research. Examples of research-tested prevention
programs were also featured. The purpose was to help
prevention practitioners use the results of prevention
research to address drug abuse among children and
adolescents in communities across the country.
Prevention Principles
These revised prevention principles have emerged from research studies funded by NIDA on the origins of drug
abuse behaviors and the common elements found in research on effective prevention programs. Parents, educators,
and community leaders can use these principles to help guide their thinking, planning, selection, and delivery of
drug abuse prevention programs at the community level. The references following each principle are representative
of current research.
Prevention Planning
School Programs
Family Programs
PRINCIPLE 6
self-control;
emotional awareness;
communication;
social problem-solving; and
academic support, especially in reading.
Prevention programs for middle or
junior high and high school students should increase
academic and social competence with the following
PRINCIPLE 8
Community Programs
PRINCIPLE 9
PRINCIPLE 10
PRINCIPLE 12
This chapter describes how risk and protective factors influence drug abuse behaviors, the early signs of risk,
transitions as high-risk periods, and general patterns of drug abuse among children and adolescents. A major
focus is how prevention programs can strengthen protection or intervene to reduce risks.
Risk Factors
Domain
Protective Factors
Individual
Impulse Control
Family
Parental Monitoring
Substance Abuse
Peer
Academic Competence
Drug Availability
School
Poverty
Community
Chapter 1 Principles
Risk Factors and
Protective Factors
PRINCIPLE 1
Prevention programs should enhance
protective factors and reverse or reduce risk factors.
PRINCIPLE 2
Prevention programs should address all
forms of drug abuse, alone or in combination, including
the underage use of legal drugs (e.g., tobacco or alcohol);
the use of illegal drugs (e.g., marijuana or heroin); and the
inappropriate use of legally obtained substances (e.g., inhalants),
prescription medications, or over-the-counter drugs.
PRINCIPLE 3
In the Family
Childrens earliest interactions occur within the
family and can be positive or negative. For this
reason, factors that affect early development in the
family are probably the most crucial. Children are
more likely to experience risk when there is:
lack of mutual attachment and nurturing
by parents or caregivers;
ineffective parenting;
a chaotic home environment;
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Planning Process
Planning usually starts with an assessment of drug
abuse and other child and adolescent problems,
which includes measuring the level of substance
abuse in the community as well as examining the
level of other community risk factors (e.g., poverty)
[see section on How can the community assess
the level of risk for drug abuse? for more details].
The results of the assessment can be used to raise
community awareness of the nature and seriousness
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Chapter 2 Principles
Principles for Prevention Planning
PRINCIPLE 2
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ASSESSING READINESS*
Readiness Stage
COMMUNITY ACTION
Community Response
Ideas
1. No awareness
2. Denial
3. Vague awareness
4. Preplanning
5. Preparation
6. Initiation
7. Stabilization
8. Confirmation/
Expansion
9. Professionalization
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In the Family
Prevention programs can strengthen protective factors
among young children by teaching parents better
family communication skills, developmentally
appropriate discipline styles, firm and consistent rule
enforcement, and other family management skills.
Parents also can be taught how to increase their
emotional, social, cognitive, and material support,
which includes, for example, meeting their childrens
financial, transportation, health care, and homework
needs. Research confirms the benefit of parents taking
a more active role in their childrens lives, by talking
with them about drugs, monitoring their activities,
getting to know their friends, understanding their
problems and concerns, providing consistent rules
and discipline, and being involved in their learning
and education. The importance of the parent-child
relationship continues through adolescence and beyond.
An example of a universal family-based program is
the Strengthening Families Program For Parents and
Youth, 1014, which provides rural parents guidance
on family management skills, communication,
In School
Prevention programs in schools focus on childrens
social and academic skills, including enhancing
peer relationships, self-control, coping skills, social
behaviors, and drug offer refusal skills. School-based
prevention programs should be integrated within
the schools own goal of enhanced academic
performance. Evidence is emerging that a major risk
for school failure is a childs inability to read by the
third and fourth grades (Barrera et al. 2002), and
school failure is strongly associated with drug abuse.
Integrated programs strengthen students bonding
to school and reduce their likelihood of dropping
out. Most prevention curricula include a normative
education component designed to correct the
misperception that many students are abusing drugs.
Chapter 3 Principles
Principles for Programs
PRINCIPLE 5
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Chapter 3 Principles
Principles for Program Delivery
PRINCIPLE 12
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Structure
Structure addresses program type, audience, and
setting. Several program types have been shown
to be effective in preventing drug abuse. Schoolbased programs, the first to be fully developed
and tested, have become the primary approach
for reaching all children. Family-based programs
have proven effective in reaching both children
and their parents in a variety of settings. Media
and computer technology programs are beginning
to demonstrate effectiveness in reaching people at
the community level as well as the individual level.
Audience
Setting
Community
(Universal)
All Youth
Billboards
School
(Selective)
Middle School
Students
After-School
Family
(Indicated)
High-RiskYouth
and Their Families
Clinic
Content
Content is composed of information, skills
development, methods, and services. Information
can include facts about drugs and their effects, as
well as drug laws and policies. Drug information
alone, however, has not been found to be effective in
deterring drug abuse. Combining information with
skills, methods, and services produces more effective
results. Programs include skills development training
to build and improve behaviors in important areas,
such as communication within the family, social
and emotional development, academic and social
competence in children, and peer resistance
strategies in adolescents.
Methods are oriented toward structural change,
such as establishing and enforcing school rules on
substance abuse, or enforcing existing laws, such
as those on tobacco sales to minors. Services could
include school counseling and assistance, peer
counseling, family therapy, and health care. These
content areas are designed to reduce modifiable risk
factors and strengthen protective factors.
The table below describes the type of content
included in programs.
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Program Types
Information
Skills Development
Methods
Services
Community
Drug Trends
Social Skills
Tolerance Policies
Drug-Free Zones
School
Drug Effects
Resistance Skills
Norms Change
Family
Drug Abuse
Symptoms
Parenting Skills
Home Drug-Testing;
Curfew
Family Therapy
Delivery
Delivery includes program selection or adaptation
and implementation. The following table describes
various delivery approaches.
Program Selection
or Adaptation
Implementation
Features
Community
Spanish-Speaking
Population
Consistent
Multimedia
Messages
School
Gender
Booster Sessions
Family
Rural
Recruitment/
Retention
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Universal Programs
Elementary School
Caring School Community Program (Formerly, Child
Development Project) (Battistich et al. 1997; U.S.
Department of Education 2001). This is a universal
family-plus-school program to reduce risk and bolster
protective factors among elementary school children.
The program focuses on strengthening students
sense of community, or connection, to school.
Research has shown that this sense of community
has been pivotal to reducing drug use, violence,
and mental health problems, while promoting
academic motivation and achievement. The program
consists of a set of mutually reinforcing classroom,
school, and family involvement approaches. These
promote positive peer, teacher-student, and homeschool relationships and the development of social,
emotional, and character-related skills. The program
provides detailed instructional and implementation
materials and accompanying staff development.
Contact for Materials and Research:
Eric Schaps, Ph.D.
Caring School Community Program
Developmental Studies Center
2000 Embarcadero, Suite 305
Oakland, CA 94606-5300
Phone: 510-533-0213
Fax: 510-464-3670
E-mail: Eric_Schaps@devstu.org
Web site: www.devstu.org
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Middle School
Guiding Good Choices (GGC) (Formerly, Preparing
for the Drug-Free Years) (Hawkins et al. 1999;
Kosterman et al. 1997; U.S. Department of Education
2001; Spoth et al. 2002b). This curriculum was first
researched as part of the Seattle Social Development
Project at the University of Washington to educate
parents on how to reduce risk factors and strengthen
bonding in their families. In five 2-hour sessions,
parents are shown how to (1) create age-appropriate
opportunities for family involvement and interaction;
(2) set clear expectations, monitor children, and apply
discipline; (3) teach their children peer coping strategies;
(4) adopt family conflict management approaches;
and (5) express positive feelings to enhance family
bonding. Dr. Richard Spoth of Iowa State University
independently tested this intervention for rural
parents and found the program to be effective in
inhibiting alcohol and marijuana use. Special efforts
were made to ensure recruitment and retention
of study participants.
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High School
Life Skills Training: Booster Program. The 3-year
LST universal classroom program contains 15 booster
sessions during the first year, 10 during the second,
and 5 during the third year. See the Life Skills
Training description above for background and
contact information.
Lions-Quest Skills for Adolescence. (Eisen 2002; U.S.
Department of Education 2001). See description
above for background and contact information.
Project ALERT Plus. An enhanced version of Project
ALERT has been added as a high school component
and is being tested in 45 rural communities. See the
Project ALERT description above for background
and contact information.
The Strengthening Families Program: For Parents
and Youth 1014. (Formerly, the Iowa Strengthening
Families Program). See description above for
background and contact information.
Selective Programs
Elementary School
Focus on Families (FOF) (Catalano et al. 1999,
2002). A selective program for parents receiving
methadone treatment and their children, FOF seeks
to reduce parents use of illegal drugs by teaching
them skills for relapse prevention and coping. Parents
are also taught how to better manage their families
to reduce their childrens risk for future drug abuse.
The parent training consists of a 5-hour family
retreat and 32 parent training sessions of 1.5 hours
each. Children attend 12 of the sessions to practice
developmentally appropriate skills with their parents.
Results from an experimental evaluation of FOF
found positive program effects on parents at the 1-year
followup, especially in parenting skills, rule-setting,
domestic conflict, drug refusal skills, and drug use.
At the 1-year assessment, significantly fewer children
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Middle School
Coping Power (Lochman and Wells 2002). Coping
Power is a multicomponent child and parent preventive
intervention directed at preadolescent children at
high risk for aggressiveness and later drug abuse
and delinquency. The child component is derived
from an anger coping program, primarily tested
with highly aggressive boys and shown to reduce
substance use. The Coping Power Child Component
is a 16-month program for fifth- and sixth-graders.
Group sessions usually occur before or after school
or during nonacademic periods. Training focuses
on teaching children how to identify and cope with
anxiety and anger; controlling impulsiveness; and
developing social, academic, and problemsolving
skills at school and home. Parents are also provided
training throughout the program. Results indicate
that the intervention produced relatively lower rates
of substance use at postintervention than seen among
the controls. Also, children of families receiving
the Coping Power child and parent components
significantly reduced aggressive behavior, as rated
by parents and teachers.
Contact for Materials and Research:
John E. Lochman, Ph.D.
Department of Psychology
University of Alabama
P.O. Box 870348
Tuscaloosa, AL 35487
Phone: 205-348-7678
Fax: 205-348-8648
E-mail: jlochman@gp.as.ua.edu
High School
Indicated Programs
High School
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Tiered Programs
Elementary School
Early Risers Skills for Success Risk Prevention
Program (August et al. 2001; August et al. 2002;
August et al., in press). Early Risers is a selective,
multicomponent, preventive intervention for children
at heightened risk for early onset of serious conduct
problems, including licit and illicit drug use. The
programs focus is on elementary school children
with early aggressive behavior. It is designed to deflect
children from the early starter developmental
pathway toward normal development by effecting
positive change in academic competence, behavioral
self-regulation, social competence, and parent
investment in the child. Early Risers has two
broad components: CORE, a set of child-focused
intervention components delivered continuously
in school and over the summer for 2 or 3 years,
implemented in tandem with FLEX, a family
support and empowerment component tailored to
meet family-specific needs and delivery through
home visits. Recent findings reveal that program
participants showed greater gains in social skills, peer
reputation, prosocial friendship selection, academic
achievement, and parent discipline than did controls.
Contact for Materials and Research:
Gerald J. August, Ph.D.
Division of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry
University of Minnesota Medical School
P256/2B West, 2450 Riverside Avenue
Minneapolis, MN 55454-1495
Phone: 612-273-9711
Fax: 612-273-9779
E-mail: augus001@tc.umn.edu
Middle School
Adolescent Transitions Program (ATP) (Dishion et al.
2002). ATP is a school-based program that uses a
tiered approach to provide prevention services to
students in middle and junior high school and their
parents. The universal intervention level, directed
to parents of all students in a school, establishes a
Family Resource Room to engage parents, establish
norms for parenting practices, and disseminate
information about risks for problem behavior and
substance use. The selective intervention level, the
Family Check-Up, offers family assessment and
professional support to identify families at risk for
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Below are resources relevant to drug abuse prevention. Information on NIDAs Web site is followed by Web sites for
other Federal agencies and private organizations. These resources and the selected references that follow are excellent
sources of information in helping communities plan and implement research-based drug prevention programs.
Selected Resources
National Institute on Drug Abuse (NIDA)
National Institutes of Health (NIH)
U.S. Department of Health and
Human Services (DHHS)
NIDAs Web site (www.drugabuse.gov) provides
factual information on all aspects of drug abuse,
particularly the effects of drugs on the brain and
body, the prevention of drug abuse among children
and adolescents, the latest research on treatment
for addiction, and statistics on the extent of drug
abuse in the United States. The Web site allows
visitors to print or order publications, public service
announcements and posters, science education
curricula, research reports and fact sheets on specific
drugs or classes of drugs, and the NIDA NOTES
newsletter. The site also links to related Web sites
in the public and private sector.
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Join Together
One Appleton Street, 4th Floor
Boston, MA 02116
Phone: 617-437-1500
www.jointogether.org
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Selected References
The following references have been selected as
either summaries of the literature of the past several
years or as the latest findings on specific aspects of
prevention research, which have been cited in this
publication. For a more comprehensive list of research
citations, please consult the NIDA Web site at
www.drugabuse.gov.
Aos, S.; Phipps, P.; Barnoski, R.; and Lieb, R. The Comparative
Costs and Benefits of Programs to Reduce Crime. Vol. 4 (1-05-1201).
Olympia, WA: Washington State Institute for Public Policy,
May 2001.
Ashery, R.S.; Robertson, E.B.; and Kumpfer K.L.; eds. Drug
Abuse Prevention Through Family Interventions. NIDA Research
Monograph No. 177. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing
Office, 1998.
August, G.J.; Realmuto, G.M.; Hektner, J.M.; and Bloomquist, M.L.
An integrated components preventive intervention for aggressive
elementary school children: The Early Risers Program. Journal of
Consulting and Clinical Psychology 69(4):614626, 2001.
August, G.J.; Hektner, J.M.; Egan, E.A.; Realmuto, G.M.; and
Bloomquist, M.L. The Early Risers longitudinal trial: Examination
of 3-year outcomes in aggressive children with intent-to-treat
and as-intended analyses. Psychology of Addictive Behaviors
16(43):827839, 2002.
August, G.J.; Lee, S.S.; Bloomquist, M.L.; Realmuto, G.M.; and
Hektner, J.M. Dissemination of an evidence-based prevention
innovation for aggressive children living in a culturally diverse,
urban neighborhood: The Early Risers effectiveness study.
Prevention Science, in press.
Barrera, M.; Biglan, A.; Taylor, T.K.; Gunn, B.K.; Smolkowski, K.;
Black, C.; Ary, D.V.; and Fowler, R.C. Early elementary school
intervention to reduce conduct problems: A randomized trial with
Hispanic and non-Hispanic children. Prevention Science
3(2):8394, June 2002.
Botvin, G.; Baker, E.; Dusenbury, L.; Botvin, E.; and Diaz, T.
Long-term follow-up results of a randomized drug-abuse prevention
trial in a white middle class population. Journal of the American
Medical Association 273:11061112, 1995.
Botvin, G.; Epstein, J.; Baker, E.; Diaz, T.; and Ifill-Williams, M.
School-based drug abuse prevention with inner-city minority youth.
Journal of Child and Adolescent Substance Abuse 6:519, 1997.
Botvin, G.; Griffin, K.; Diaz, T.; Miller, N.; and Ifill-Williams, M.
Smoking initiation and escalation in early adolescent girls:
One-year follow-up of a school based prevention intervention
for minority youth. Journal of American Medical
Womens Association 54:139143, 152, 1999.
Botvin, G.; Griffin, K.W.; Paul, E.; and Macaulay, A.P. Preventing
tobacco and alcohol use among elementary school students
through Life Skills Training. Journal of Child and Adolescent
Substance Abuse 12(4):118, 2003.
Catalano, R.F.; Gainey, R.R.; Fleming, C.B.; Haggerty, K.P.; and
Johnson, N.O. An experimental intervention with families of
substance abusers: One-year follow-up of the Focus on Families
Project. Addiction 94(2):241254, 1999.
Catalano, R.F.; Haggerty, K.P.; Fleming, C.B.; Brewer, D.D.; and
Gainey, R.R. Children of substance abusing parents: Current
findings from the Focus on Families project. In: McMahon, R.J.,
and Peters, R.D., eds. The Effects of Parental Dysfunction on
Children. New York: Kluwer Academic Press/Plenum Publishers,
pp.179204, 2002.
Chou, C.; Montgomery, S.; Pentz, M.; Rohrbach, L.; Johnson, C.;
Flay, B.; and Mackinnon, D. Effects of a community-based
prevention program in decreasing drug use in high-risk adolescents.
American Journal of Public Health 88:944948, 1998.
Dishion, T. and Kavanagh, K.A. multilevel approach to family-centered prevention in schools: Process and outcome.
Addictive Behaviors 25:899911, 2000.
Dishion, T.; Kavanagh, K.; Schneiger, A.K.J.; Nelson, S.; and
Kaufman, N. Preventing early adolescent substance use: A
family centered strategy for the public middle school.
Prevention Science 3(3):191202, 2002.
Eggert, L.L.; Thompson, E.A.; Herting, J.R.; Nicholas, L.J.; and
Dicker, B. Preventing adolescent drug abuse and high school
dropout through an intensive school-based social network development program. American Journal of Health Promotion
8:201215, 1994.
Eggert, L.L.; Thompson, E.A.; Herting, J.R.; and Nicholas, L.J.
Reducing suicide potential among high-risk youth: Tests of a
school-based prevention program. Suicide & Life-Threatening
Behavior 25(2):276296, 1995.
Eggert, L.L.; Herting, J.; and Thompson, E. The drug involvement
scale for adolescents (DISA). Journal of Drug Education
26:101130, 1996.
Eggert, L.L.; Thompson, E.A.; Herting, J.R.; and Randall, B.P.
Reconnecting youth to prevent drug abuse, school dropout, and
suicidal behaviors among high-risk youth. In Wagner, E., and
Waldron, H.B., eds. Innovations in Adolescent Substance Abuse
Intervention. Oxford: Elsevier Science, pp. 5184, 2001.
Eisen, M.; Zellman, G.L.; Massett, H.A.; and Murray, D.M.
Evaluating the Lions-Quest Skills for Adolescence drug
education program: First-year behavior outcomes.
Addictive Behaviors 27(4):619632, 2002.
Eisen, M.; Zellman, G.L.; and Murray, D.M. Evaluating the
Lions-Quest Skills for Adolescence drug education program:
Second-year behavior outcomes. Addictive Behaviors
28(5):883897, 2003.
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Gerstein, D.R., and Green, L.W., eds. Preventing Drug Abuse: What
Do We Know? Washington, DC: National Academy Press, 1993.
Goldberg, L.; MacKinnon, D.P.; Elliot, D.L.; Moe, E.L.; Clarke, G.;
and Cheong, J.W. The Adolescents Training and Learning to
Avoid Steroids Program. Preventing drug use and promoting
health behaviors. Archives of Pediatric and Adolescent Medicine
154:332338, April 2000.
Greenberg, M.T., and Kusche, C.A. Preventive interventions for
school-age deaf children: The PATHS curriculum. Journal of Deaf
Studies & Deaf Education 3(1):4963, 1998.
Greenberg, M.T. and Kusche, C.A. Promoting Alternative Thinking
Strategies. In Blueprint for Violence Prevention (Book 10).
Institute of Behavioral Sciences, University of Colorado, 1998.
Hansen, W.B.; Giles, S.M.; and Fearnow-Kenney, M.D. Improving
Prevention Effectiveness. Greensboro, NC: Tanglewood
Research, 2000.
Hawkins, J.D. and Catalano, R.F. Communities That Care: Action
for Drug Abuse Prevention. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass, 1992.
Hawkins, J.D.; Catalano, R.F.; Kosterman, R.; Abbott, R.; and
Hill, K.G. Preventing adolescent health-risk behaviors by
strengthening protection during childhood. Archives of Pediatric
and Adolescent Medicine 153:226234, 1999.
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Hawkins, J.D.; Catalano, R.F.; and Arthur, M. Promoting sciencebased prevention in communities. Addictive Behaviors
90(5):126, 2002.
Hecht, M.; Trost, M.; Bator, R.; and MacKinnon, D. Ethnicity and
sex similarities and differences in drug resistance. Journal of
Applied Communication Research 25:7597, 1997.
Ialongo, N.; Werthamer, L.; Kellam, S.; Brown, C.; Wang, S.; and
Lin, Y. Proximal impact of two first-grade preventive
interventions on the early risk behaviors for later substance abuse,
depression, and antisocial behavior. American Journal
of Community Psychology 27:599641, 1999.
Ialongo, N.; Poduska, J.; Werthamer, L.; and Kellam, S. The distal
impact of two first-grade preventive interventions on
conduct problems and disorder in early adolescence. Journal
of Emotional and Behavioral Disorders 9:146160, 2001.
Moon, D.; Hecht, M.; Jackson, K.; and Spellers, R. Ethnic and
gender differences and similarities in adolescent drug use and
refusals of drug offers. Substance Use and Misuse
34(8):10591083, 1999.
ODonnell, J.; Hawkins, J.; Catalano, R.; Abbott, R.; and Day, L.
Preventing school failure, delinquency among low-income
children: Long-term intervention in elementary schools.
American Journal of Orthopsychiatry 65:87100, 1995.
Oetting, E.; Edwards, R.; Kelly, K.; and Beauvais, F. Risk and
protective factors for drug use among rural American youth.
In: Robertson, E.B.; Sloboda, Z.; Boyd, G.M.; Beatty, L.; and
Kozel, N.J., eds. Rural Substance Abuse: State of Knowledge and
Issues. NIDA Research Monograph No. 168. Washington, DC:
U.S. Government Printing Office, pp. 90130, 1997.
41