EVOLUTION AND BIODIVERSITY

CONSERVATION
EVOLUTION
- descent with modification
- complex process by which the characteristics of living organisms change
over many generations as traits are passed from one generation to the next.
- occurs only when there is a change in gene frequency within a population
over time. These genetic differences are heritable and can be passed on to the
next generation, which is what really matters in evolution: long term change.

A. Phylogeny
- family tree,
branching
of
evolutionary
relationships
a hypothesis illustrating the relationships of all
species on earth.
Tree-like not ladder-like therefore does not show
hierarchy
- Uses
o Testing hypotheses about evolution
o Learning about the characteristics of
extinct species and ancestral lineages
o Classifying organisms
Source:
http://evolution.berkeley.edu)

B. Genetic Variation in Populations

1. Gene flow
- when individuals move between one population and another, new
genes may be introduced to populations

2. Mutation
- a random change in a gene or chromosome resulting in a new trait
or characteristic that can be inherited.
- can be a source of beneficial genetic variation, or it can be neutral
or harmful in effect
- For evolution to occur, the forces of natural selection must
distribute an advantageous trait (caused by mutation) to other members
of a population.
- Types
o Somatic - Mutations occurring in cells that do not form
gametes, mutations that do not end up being carried by eggs
or sperm. For example, mutations in your skin, muscle, or
liver tissue are somatic mutations.
o Germ line - Mutation that occurs in reproductive cells and
ends up being carried by gametes (e.g., eggs and sperm).
C. Natural Selection in Populations
- sorts out the useful changes in the gene pool. Beneficial new genes
quickly spread through a population because members who carry them have a
greater reproductive success, or evolutionary fitness, and consequently pass
the beneficial genes to more offspring.

1. Directional - an extreme phenotype is favored over other

phenotypes, causing the allele frequency to shift over time in the direction
of that phenotype.
2. Stabilizing the intermediate version of a characteristic is
favored instead of one of two extremes
3. Disruptive - two extremes are fabvored, causing alleles for
intermediate forms of a trait to become less common in the gene pool
4. Sexual - some individuals out-reproduce others of a population
because they are better at securing mates
D. Artificial Selection
- instead of natural choice of reproducing, only certain plants and

animals with desirable characteristics are allowed to reproduce

E. Co-evolution
- when two species affect each others evolution.
- can occur through a predator/prey or host/ parasite relationship,
competition between species, or between mutualistic species
Through these mechanisms of change, millions and billions of different
species have been born, some have gone extinct while others still evolve
as time goes by. This results in the biodiversity of the planet.

BIODIVERSITY
-the variability among living organisms from all sources including,
terrestrial, marine and other aquatic ecosystems and the ecological
complexes of which they are a part; this includes diversity within species,
between species, and of ecosystems.
A. Levels of Biodiversity
1. Genetic diversity
- variation in the genes within a species
- increases the likelihood that individuals will be able to survive
major disturbances due to inheritance of disease-resistance and other
useful traits for survival
- reduces the incidence of unfavorable inherited traits caused by
inbreeding
2. Species diversity
- a measure of the diversity of a group of organisms capable of
interbreeding and producing fertile offspring called specieswithin an
ecological community
- promotes ecosystem efficiency because each species has a role in
the
ecosystem
3. Ecosystem diversity
- variety of habitats, living communities and ecological processes
called ecosystemsin the living world
- Complex ecosystems with a wide variety of plants and animals
tend
to
be
more
stable
B. Importance of Biodiversity

Biodiversity goes beyond simply a literal list of species; it also

encompasses the interactions between the species, how they survive,
what they do, and the living conditions in which they exist.
1. Ecosystem services
a. Protection of water resources
b. Soils formation and protection
a. Nutrient storage and recycling
b. Pollution breakdown and absorption
c. Contribution to climate stability
d. Maintenance of ecosystems
e. Recovery from unpredictable events
2. Biological resources
a. Food
b. Medicinal resources and pharmaceutical drugs
c. Wood products
d. Ornamental plants
e. Breeding stocks, population reservoirs
f. Future resources
g. Diversity in genes, species and ecosystems
3. Social benefits
a. Research, education and monitoring
b. Recreation and tourism
c. Cultural values
C. Threats to Biodiversity
1. Climate Change Temperature shifts are making it difficult or even
impossible for many species to survive because they diminish polar
habitats, increase sea levels, change flow of currents and disrupt food
chains.
2. Habitat destruction - This occurs when a particular area is converted
from a usable to an unusable habitat. Industrial activities, agriculture,
aquaculture, mining, deforestation, and water extraction are all central
causes of habitat loss.
3. Introduced/invasive animals - New species can parasitize or predate
upon residents, hybridize with them, compete with them for food, bring
unfamiliar diseases, modify habitats, or disrupt important interactions.
4. Pollution - The discharge of toxic synthetic chemicals and heavy
metals into the environment has a huge impact on species abundance,
and can lead to extinctions.
5. Over-harvesting - This includes targeted hunting, gathering or fishing
for a particular species as well as incidental harvesting.
D. Ways to Protect Biodiversity
1. Habitat protection - developing and implementing conservation plans
that will preserve environmentally important areas long into the future
and shaping smart conservation policies for managing national wildlife
refuges, national forests, and other public lands
2. Prevention of Pollution includes the efficient use of raw materials,
water, energy and other resources, use of less harmful substances than
hazardous ones, elimination of toxic substances in production processes

3. Controlling invasive species - employing manual, mechanical,

chemical, biological and cultural components in prevention and control
measures of invasive species
4. Dealing with Climate Change global efforts must be exerted to
reduce greenhouse gas emissions and halt deforestation

RECENT DEVELOPMENTS AND ISSUES IN

BIOTECHNOLOGY AND BIODIVERSITY
A. Biotechnology techniques in Biodiversity Conservation
1. Seed and tissue culture - methods for collecting and storing genes
2. Use of gene banks - facilities where plant genes are stored; also
detection and elimination of diseases in such
i.
Seed bank preservation of dried seeds by storing them at a very
low temperature.
ii.
Tissue bank - buds, protocorm and meristematic cells are
conserved through particular light and temperature arrangements
in a nutrient medium.
iii.
Cryobank - seeds or embryos are preserved at very low
temperatures
iv.
Pollen bank storage of pollen grains.
v.
Field gene bank - plant genetic resources are kept as live plants
3. Use of germplasm refers to living tissues from which new plants can
form; can be a whole plant, or part of a plant such as leaf, stem, pollen,
or even just a number of cells; also its safe and more efficient
distribution to users
4. Genomics evaluation of genetic diversity by using molecular markers
and DNA and protein profiling
5. Creation of improved genetic variations of crops use of
conventional and modern biotechnology techniques such as
hybridization
6. Bioremediation
B. Recent Developments
1. Streetlights into Tree lights (2014)- replacement of electricitydraining conventional streetlights, lit-up road signs and interior lighting
with bioluminescence by splicing genes from bioluminescent firefly and
marine bacteria into trees
2. The Nagoya Protocol (2010) - provides benefits to the
biotechnology industry by creating a legal framework to regulate
access to genetic resources and provide fair and equitable sharing of
benefits.
C. Issues
1. Genetic Erosion - Commercial biotechnology may unleash a new era
of genetic erosion. A commercial venture in Chile, for example, can
propagate up to 10 million eucalyptus seedlings, all identical clones, in
automated nurseries.

2. Biosafety - Ecological risks arise from introducing genetically

engineered plants into centers of diversity. Transgenic varieties, a good
number of them resistant to herbicides, have been produced in more
than 40 crop plants. Gene flow to weeds from resistant plants could
have far-reaching consequences.
3. Ethical aspects - biotechnology is seen by some to interfere with the
workings of nature and creation