Documente Academic
Documente Profesional
Documente Cultură
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Section
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Title
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1.0
INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
2.0
2.1
2.2
2.3
2.4
2.5
2.6
2.7
THEORY . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
BOREHOLE WAVES . . . . .
COMPRESSIONAL WAVES
SHEAR WAVES . . . . . . . .
LEAKY MODE . . . . . . . . .
PSEUDO-RAYLEIGH . . . .
REVERBERANT WAVES . .
STONELEY WAVE . . . . . .
3.0
APPLICATIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
4.0
4.1
4.2
INSTRUMENTATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
ACQUISITION REQUIREMENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
INTERNAL COMMUNICATIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
5.0
5.1
5.2
5.3
5.4
6.0
6.1
6.1.1
7.0
8.0
REFERENCES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
CONFIDENTIAL
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P/N 130394-936
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4
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JUNE 1993
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20
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22
2
DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF SERVICE -- 1670MA DIGITAL ARRAY ACOUSTILOG
Title
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936-1
936-2
936-3
936-4
936-5
936-6
936-7
936-8
936-9
936-10
936-11
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. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
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TABLES
Table
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Title
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936.1
CONFIDENTIAL
P/N 130394-936
JUNE 1993
Page
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3
DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF SERVICE -- 1670MA DIGITAL ARRAY ACOUSTILOG
1.0
INTRODUCTION
Measurement of acoustic wave propagation in the subsurface has been employed in seismic
exploration for several decades. As seismic reflection data proved to be highly valuable in
delineating subsurface structures, the need to convert seismic wave travel times in terms of
depth increased. The idea of continuous velocity logging was originally conceived for this
purpose. However, the acoustic log was also found to be effective in the determination of
porosity, lithological correlation, and detection of secondary porosity. It soon became one
of the standard formation evaluation tools.
Atlas Wireline introduced the Acoustilog as a commercial service in 1954. The
Acoustilog instrument measures the time of transit of a longitudinally propagating
compressional wave through a unit distance of formation. This transit time, t, known as
specific acoustic time, denotes the time in microseconds taken by the compressional wave
to travel through one foot of rock.
The Digital Array Acoustilog (DAC) System was developed to acquire, record, analyze,
and interpret the full acoustic wavetrain. In the borehole environment, this wavetrain is
composed of compressional, shear, normal mode, and Stoneley waves.
The DAC consists of two broadband transmitters and twelve wideband receivers. The
offset (transmitter to receiver spacing) varies from a minimum of 6 feet to a maximum of
19.5 feet. The variations in frequency, velocity, and attenuation of the different types of
propagating acoustic waves, impose stringent requirements on the subsurface data
acquisition system.
CONFIDENTIAL
P/N 130394-936
JUNE 1993
4
DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF SERVICE -- 1670MA DIGITAL ARRAY ACOUSTILOG
2.0
THEORY
F/A
dl/l
Bulk Modulus,
F/A
dv/v
Shear Modulus,
F/A
tan s
where F/A is the force per unit area, dl/l, dv/v, and tan s are the fractional strains of
length, volume, and shape, respectively. Another important elastic constant, called
Poisson's Ratio, is defined as the ratio of strain in a perpendicular direction to the strain in
the direction of the extensional force, such as:
Poisson s Ratio,
dx/x
dy/y
1 VC
2 VS
VC
VS
1
2
where x and y are the original dimension, and dx and dy are the changes in the x and y
direction respectively, as the deforming stress acts in the y direction. VC and VS are the
compressional and shear wave acoustic velocities respectively (see sections 2.2 and 2.3).
Distances between adjacent molecules increase in order from solids to gases. Therefore,
solids have little compressibility as compared to liquids and gases.
CONFIDENTIAL
P/N 130394-936
JUNE 1993
5
DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF SERVICE -- 1670MA DIGITAL ARRAY ACOUSTILOG
2.0
THEORY (CONTINUED)
In fact, the bulk modulus is the reciprocal of compressibility and is therefore sometimes
referred to as the coefficient of incompressibility.
A displacement temporarily imposed upon an elastic medium produces an oscillating
motion of particles after the cause of the displacement is removed. This oscillating motion
is transmitted through the medium over long distances from the origin of displacement.
The vibratory state generated in an elastic medium is called an elastic wave or acoustic
wave. The particles of the medium do not travel with the wave, but only vibrate around
their mean central position. Acoustic waves are classified into two groups, according to
the direction of particle displacement with respect to the direction of wave propagation.
Elastic waves in which the particle displacement is parallel to the direction of propagation
are called longitudinal waves. In transverse waves, the direction of particle displacement
is perpendicular to the direction of propagation.
In acoustic logging, longitudinal waves are referred to as compressional waves, while
transverse waves are known as shear waves. Surface waves can propagate at the surface
of a solid (ie.. Rayleigh and Stoneley waves) and are a combination of shear and
compressional motion.
CONFIDENTIAL
P/N 130394-936
JUNE 1993
6
DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF SERVICE -- 1670MA DIGITAL ARRAY ACOUSTILOG
2.1
BOREHOLE WAVES
CONFIDENTIAL
P/N 130394-936
JUNE 1993
7
DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF SERVICE -- 1670MA DIGITAL ARRAY ACOUSTILOG
2.1
In order to measure the shear or compressional wave, it is necessary that the transmitted
wave's direction of propagation is parallel to the center axis of the borehole. This
requires that the angle of incidence of the compressional wave, is such that the transmitted
shear and transmitted compressional are refracted 90 degrees from normal. These waves
are typically referred to as head waves; body waves that travel vertically in the formation
near the wall at compressional or shear velocity and are radiated into the borehole at the
critical angle.
The propagation constants of the reflected and refracted waves along the surface of the
interface must be equal. This leads to Snell's Law for compressional and shear waves.
VCB
sin(TC)
VCF
sin(IC)
VCB
sin(TS)
VSF
where;
VCB
VCF
VSF
IC
TC
TS
Based on this relationship, it is clear that to generate a measurable shear wave (through
mode conversion) the compressional velocity of the borehole fluid must be slower than the
shear velocity of the formation.
VCB
< 1
VSF
The need for shear wave measurements in "slow" formations has led to the development of
transducers which excite shear waves "directly". Currently, there are two types of direct
shear wave transducers that are used in wireline logging, the dipole transducer and the
quadrupole transducer. Details on the development of these transducers can be found in
the referenced literature.
CONFIDENTIAL
P/N 130394-936
JUNE 1993
8
DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF SERVICE -- 1670MA DIGITAL ARRAY ACOUSTILOG
2.2
COMPRESSIONAL WAVES
The compressional wave (or p-wave) is one of the longitudinal type of elastic waves in that
the direction of propagation is parallel to the direction of particle displacement. The
displacement of a particle toward its neighbor in the direction away from the origin of the
wave creates a zone of compression in an elastic medium. The neighboring particle in
turn moves toward the next one, thus, propagating the compression. After being
displaced, each particle tends to return to its original position because of elasticity. In
doing so, it overshoots its initial position and a zone of rarefaction is created. Thus,
compressional waves consist of a compression and rarefaction traveling in a medium in the
direction away from the source. Such waves can be transmitted through solids, liquids,
and gases, because there exists a resistance to compression in all three states of matter. A
compression together with an adjacent rarefaction, preceding or following it, constitutes a
complete cycle. The number of cycles propagating through a point in the medium in a
unit time is the frequency. High frequency compressional and extensional forces causes
high frequency changes in the pressure of the medium.
The velocity of elastic wave propagation in an isotropic homogeneous medium can be
derived from a combination of the theory of elasticity with Newton's law of motion.
Compressional waves travel faster than other wave types and, therefore, are often referred
to as the first arrival waves. Compressional wave velocity is a function of the density and
elastic moduli of the medium.
K
VC
4G
3
where;
VC
K
G
=
=
=
=
CONFIDENTIAL
P/N 130394-936
JUNE 1993
9
DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF SERVICE -- 1670MA DIGITAL ARRAY ACOUSTILOG
2.2
69 1010
VC
4 (31 1010)
3
2.71
The important point is that the acoustic travel time is explicitly related to the density and
elasticity of the material.
CONFIDENTIAL
P/N 130394-936
JUNE 1993
10
DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF SERVICE -- 1670MA DIGITAL ARRAY ACOUSTILOG
2.3
SHEAR WAVES
The shear wave (or S-wave) is a transverse waves. In such waves, the direction of
propagation is perpendicular to the direction of particle displacement. Particles of a rigid
medium undergo to-and-fro motion around their mean position in a direction perpendicular
to the direction in which the waves travel. Solids have the tendency to oppose shearing
forces, which cause particles to slide relative to each other. Liquids and gases, on the
other hand, do not possess any rigidity; therefore, shear waves cannot be transmitted
through them.
Shear waves are propagated through a solid elastic medium with a velocity,
VS
where;
VS
G
VS
= 31 x 1010
= 2.71
dynes/cm2
g/cm3
31 1010
2.71
90 s/ft.
The first arrival of the acoustic pulse at the receiver denotes the compressional wave,
which has the highest velocity of all the different types of elastic waves. It can be shown
that VC >
VS. In general shear wave velocity is about .5 to .7 times the
compressional wave velocity. Therefore, shear waves arrive at the receiver later than
compressional waves.
CONFIDENTIAL
P/N 130394-936
JUNE 1993
11
DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF SERVICE -- 1670MA DIGITAL ARRAY ACOUSTILOG
2.4
LEAKY MODE
A portion of the approximately spherical wave leaving the transmitter is incident on the
formation wall at an angle between the critical angle of refraction for shear and
compressional waves. This incident wave undergoes both internal reflection and
conversion into shear waves which are refracted into the formation. The reflected part
(ignoring the effects of the tool body) then proceeds vertically in the borehole as a conical
wave by repeated reflection at the wall. Its phase velocity normally lies between the
formation compressional and shear waves. At each reflection, that part of the energy
"leaked" into the formation by the conversion into shear reduces the amount of energy
available for internal reflection. Hence, the amplitude of the leaky mode decreases with
vertical distance from the transmitter. The amplitude of the wave is directly proportional
to Poisson's Ratio, thus the leaky mode is expected to be most visible in soft formations
(large Poisson's ratio). Mode trapping resonance occurs only for wavelengths satisfying
conditions for reinforcement, and not for destructive interference. Thus, for a given value
of compressional critical angle, shear critical angle, borehole size, transmitter frequency,
and tool body, (not quantified at this time) determines whether the leaky mode exists in a
particular case.
CONFIDENTIAL
P/N 130394-936
JUNE 1993
12
DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF SERVICE -- 1670MA DIGITAL ARRAY ACOUSTILOG
2.5
PSEUDO-RAYLEIGH
When the shear wave is present (VSF > VCB ), a phenomenon somewhat analogous to the
leaky mode is permitted. That portion of the wave incident on the borehole at angles
greater than shear critical angle suffers total internal reflection and propagates up the hole
as a conical wave. Since refraction of energy into the borehole is prohibited, there is no
energy leakage on each reflection and the wave does not exhibit the attenuation of the
leaky mode. This wave is referred to by the following names: reflected conical wave,
guided wave, normal mode, and pseudo-Rayleigh wave. When it is excited, it follows the
shear wave arrival in the wave train. The properties of this wave type depend upon the
dispersion characteristics governed by the borehole diameter and the densities and elastic
constants of the borehole fluid and formation, and upon the frequency characteristics of the
transmitter. Because no energy is refracted into the formation, these waves can exhibit
relatively large amplitudes. This wave is dispersive, its low frequency components
propagate at the shear velocity of the formation while its high frequency components
propagate at the borehole fluid velocity. The Pseudo Rayleigh wave has a cutoff
frequency below which the wave will not propagate up the borehole.
2.6
REVERBERANT WAVES
Reverberant waves have some properties that are similar to the leaky and pseudo-Rayleigh
waves, suffering reflection at the compressional and shear critical angles of refraction.
The energy radiated back into the borehole, as a critically refracted compressional and
shear waves moves vertically along the wall, is reflected from the sonde body or both
reflected and critically refracted at the opposite side of the hole. The reflected wave
impinges on the wall again, suffers critical angle refraction, and interferes with its
"parent" wave already traveling along the wall. This interference is constructive for
certain wavelengths and destructive for others depending on the time spent in the borehole
by the reflected wave and the ratio of the fluid velocity to the velocity of the body wave
under consideration.
Since formation head waves are continuously shedding energy into the borehole, this
process is a continuous one as head-waves move along the wall. At the receiver the
reverberant waves appear in the tails following the compressional and shear arrivals.
CONFIDENTIAL
P/N 130394-936
JUNE 1993
13
DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF SERVICE -- 1670MA DIGITAL ARRAY ACOUSTILOG
2.7
STONELEY WAVE
The Stoneley wave better known as a tube wave at low frequencies is a guided wave that
travels on the interface between the formation and borehole fluid. The behavior of the
Stoneley wave is characterized by; (1) No cutoff frequency, (2) Dispersion is very mild,
(3) For all frequencies Stoneley wave velocity is less than fluid velocity, (4) Group
velocity nearly equals phase velocity over the frequency range. Being a surface wave, the
Stoneley wave has a maximum amplitude at the wall of the borehole, and decays radially
away from the wall.
Its velocity at low frequencies is given by
VST
1
K
1)
G
CONFIDENTIAL
P/N 130394-936
JUNE 1993
14
DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF SERVICE -- 1670MA DIGITAL ARRAY ACOUSTILOG
3.0
APPLICATIONS
Porosity Improved porosity estimates can be determined by using both t shear and t
compressional. The addition of the Acoustic Isolator increases the transmitter
to receiver offset further minimizing the effects of enlarged boreholes and the
invaded zone.
Fracture Detection Attenuation of the shear wave amplitude in relation to the
compressional wave amplitude may indicate fracturing. Shear waves cannot
propagate across fluid boundaries, whereas compressional waves can.
Fracture Height Prediction Carbonate reservoirs (dolomite, limestone) normally have very
poor porosity, although when the formations are naturally fractured, they
contain substantial space for hydrocarbon entrapment. These reservoirs are
frequently stimulated by inducing additional fractures near the borehole wall via
the addition of substantial hydrostatic pressure. In order to calculate the
pressures required to be added to the borehole to induce vertical fracturing, it is
critical that the Poisson's ratio of the formation is known. Poisson's ratio is
derived from the ratio of compressional to shear wave velocity. These data are
combined with the other mechanical properties of the rock, and bulk volume
analysis to determine the stress in and around the zones of interest.
Sanding Potential Shear and compressional velocities are a function of the bulk modulus,
shear modulus, and density of the formation being measured. Knowledge of
formation density combined with the measured compressional velocity, and
shear velocity may be used to delineate between the weak and more competent
sands.
Permeability Estimation Several major oil companies and research institutions have been
evaluating and quantifying the relationship of Stoneley wave attenuation to
permeability. The DAC systems offers good low frequency response, with 12
bit resolution on the digitized wavetrains. This combined with the construction
of the DAC (minimal tool interference) has the potential of providing more
answers to the geophysicists on permeability.
CONFIDENTIAL
P/N 130394-936
JUNE 1993
15
DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF SERVICE -- 1670MA DIGITAL ARRAY ACOUSTILOG
3.0
APPLICATIONS (CONTINUED)
CONFIDENTIAL
P/N 130394-936
JUNE 1993
16
DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF SERVICE -- 1670MA DIGITAL ARRAY ACOUSTILOG
4.0
INSTRUMENTATION
The Digital Array Acoustilog (Figure 936-2) consists of five major components, 1667EA
Acoustic Electronics Cartridge, 1670MA Acoustic Receiver, 1670PA Acoustic Isolator,
1670BA Acoustic Transmitter and the 1670FA Transmitter Electronics.
The components of the DAC have been modularized to minimize length and weight of
each section. The modularization of the system allows for custom configurations:
Extended Offsets, Special Transmitters, and Special Receivers (Enhanced Stoneley Wave,
Dipole, etc..).
1670FA Transmitter Electronics
The transmitter electronics provide the high voltage which is switch under the
control of the 1667EA to generate the energy needed to fire the transmitter
crystals. Transmitter selection and firing is controlled by the main CPU via the
acoustic serial channel.
1670BA Acoustic Transmitter
The Transmitter Mandrel houses the two broadband piezoelectric ceramic
crystals (transmitters) and one wideband piezoelectric ceramic crystal. Step up
transformers inside the mandrel are used to convert the high current low
voltage switching signal on the primary to a high voltage (approx. 2800 V)
necessary for exciting the transmitter crystals.
1670PA Acoustic Isolator
This device has no active components. The purpose of this section is to
attenuate and delay the direct tool arrival (sound that is propagated along the
tool body). Variable length isolators allow us to change the offset for a given
application.
1670MA Acoustic Receiver
The Receiver Mandrel houses twelve wideband piezoelectric ceramic crystals
(receivers), receiver preamplifiers, analog filters, automatic gain control (AGC)
amplifiers, multiplexers, and the serial channel interface. The purpose of this
section is to select four of the twelve receivers, condition the signals, and route
the signals to the analog to digital converters. The bandwidth of the receiver
electronics is 500Hz to 25000Hz. The high frequency cutoff serves as the antialias filter for the analog to digital converter. Signal selection and AGC is
controlled by the acoustic serial channel.
CONFIDENTIAL
P/N 130394-936
JUNE 1993
17
DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF SERVICE -- 1670MA DIGITAL ARRAY ACOUSTILOG
4.0
INSTRUMENTATION (CONTINUED)
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4 Simultaneous
12 bits (+/- 1/2 LSB)
3 us
5 - 15 us (programmable).
0 - 4000 (programmable).
Telemetry Specifications:
T2 Mode (receive) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20.83 kbits/sec
T2 Mode (transmit) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41.67 kbits/sec
T5 Mode (transmit) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93.75 kbits/sec
I/O Bus Specifications:
WTS Instrument Bus . . . .
3504 Instrument Bus . . . .
Acoustic Serial Channel . .
Data I/O Channel (Parallel)
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CONFIDENTIAL
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P/N 130394-936
JUNE 1993
18
DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF SERVICE -- 1670MA DIGITAL ARRAY ACOUSTILOG
4.1
ACQUISITION REQUIREMENTS
The dynamic range of a single acoustic wave measured by the DAC is normally less than
50 dB. With a 12 bit A/D convertor (72 dB) we can record the full acoustic wave without
clipping the signal or reaching the signal to noise limitations of the A/D convertor (See
Figure 936-4). While logging, the dynamic range of the acoustic waves can vary by over
30 dB (See Figure 936-5). This variation in signal amplitude is attributed to changes in
formation properties. The attenuation rate of the acoustic signal is a function of the rock's
mechanical properties. To handle these variations, the DAC employs an AGC amplifier to
the signals before they are digitized. The AGC utilizes gain steps of approximately 3 dB
( 2). A total of 24 steps have been incorporated into the receiver amplifier system. An
effective dynamic range of over 120 dB is realized through the combination of the 12 bit
A/D convertor and the 24 step (72 db) AGC.
The DAC System employs sophisticated wave correlation techniques to separate the
different wave components; compressional, shear, and Stoneley. For good correlation it is
important that all acoustic waves recorded are from the same depth (tool is continuously
moving). Four 12 bit A/D convertors are used to simultaneously record data from four
independent receivers. With two transmitter firings (30-80 msec), the DAC has recorded
all the required information for that depth level (See Figure 936-6). During this short time
period the instrument's depth has changed less than 2/100ths of a foot.
The digitized data is buffered in a 4k x 16 bit FIFO (First In First Out) buffer before it is
transferred to the system's main memory for processing, and transmission to the surface
computer. The current system has the capability of subsurface compressional first arrival
detection, and waveform stacking. Stacking is utilized to improve the signal to noise ratio
of the system.
CONFIDENTIAL
P/N 130394-936
JUNE 1993
19
DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF SERVICE -- 1670MA DIGITAL ARRAY ACOUSTILOG
4.2
INTERNAL COMMUNICATIONS
One of the keys in developing a high performance data acquisition system is to provide
means of communicating to peripherals. The DAC has four auxiliary communication
channels.
The Acoustic Serial Channel (ASC) provides an application specific serial link to initialize
and control the acoustic transmitter and the acoustic receiver. This four wire
synchronous channel has the standard clock, data, and read/write lines. The
fourth line provides a synchronization signal to link the event (transmitter
firing) to the systems acquisition clocks (62.5 ns resolution).
The Data I/O Bus is a high speed 8 bit parallel interface to the system (four slots). The
I/O bus allows the interface of Input/Output devices to the main CPU. The
DAC utilizes one slot on the bus to interface to the four channel data
acquisition board. In the future, we plan to improve the signal processing
capabilities of the DAC by the addition of an auxiliary microprocessor to
handle the digital signal processing requirements of the system. The I/O bus
provides a well defined interface for auxiliary I/O devices. The modularity of
this concept allows the system to be upgraded, and/or reconfigured in the future
(flash convertors, pulse height analyzers, event timer, etc..).
The 3504 Instrument Bus is a three wire synchronous serial channel used to communicate
with older 3504 type instruments. The interface is not used with the DAC
system.
WTS Instrument Bus The DAC itself is actually a peripheral of a much larger real time
data acquisition system. The Wireline Telemetry System (WTS) Instrument
Bus is an asynchronous three channel serial communication link with the
surface computer. The WTS utilizes a modified Manchester code to achieve
the high data rates over the wireline cable.
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DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF SERVICE -- 1670MA DIGITAL ARRAY ACOUSTILOG
5.0
The acquisition of data by the DAC System is fully programmable. The operation mode
of the instrument is determined by a table (Waveform Acquisition Table, WAT) that is
downloaded to the instrument by the surface system. System parameters such as sample
period, transmitter number, receiver number, automatic gain control, and interval of the
wavetrain to transmit are all controlled by the surface system.
5.1
In the normal logging mode for the DAC system, eight signatures from eight different
receivers are transmitted to the surface (.5 ft spacing). The first arrival of each of the
transmitter-receiver pairs is also transmitted to the surface. This data is used for the real
time compressional slowness curves, 0.5 ft, 1.0 ft, or 2 ft spacing.
Four subcycles are used to obtain the required data at each level. In the first two
subcycles the AGC is set over the full wavetrain. This data is processed and stored in the
subsurface memory for later transmission. In the next two subcycles the AGC is
optimized for compressional first arrival picking. Data is acquired and processed for real
time compressional t. Only the unsaturated acoustic signatures are transmitted to the
surface.
The full wave signatures are processed for real time correlation picks of compressional,
shear, and Stoneley waves. The data are presented as dots representing the magnitude of
the correlation picks. In the current system both semblance and Nth Root stacking
correlation algorithms are utilized to determine the slowness (reciprocal of velocities) of
the different wave types. These methods eliminate problems such as cycle skipping, but
the bed resolution of these methods are limited by the length of the array.
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DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF SERVICE -- 1670MA DIGITAL ARRAY ACOUSTILOG
5.2
COMPRESSIONAL t MODE
The DAC system is capable of generating real time first arrival picks at logging speeds in
excess of 3600 ft/hr. Two different setups are normally used depending on the
requirements.
Normal Logging (.5 ft level spacing) One subcycle is all that is necessary (4 wavetrains).
AGC is set for arrivals faster than the fluid wave (5000 ft/sec). This allows the
compressional arrival to have maximum amplitude for the first arrival pick
routine. A short section of the wavetrains are transmitted to the surface, along
with the subsurface first arrival time picks. The wavetrains transmitted can be
processed in real time for correlation compressional picks (quality
control,..cycle skipping check).
Thin Bed Logging In this mode it is imperative that we sample at a high level spacing (8
time per foot) and maintain high logging speed. The setup is similar to the
above, but no acoustic signatures are transmitted to the surface. Raw data
(acoustic signatures) are not transmitted to the surface.
5.3
Two subcycles are required for cement bond logging. During the first subcycle,
transmitter 2 is fired and we receive data on the VDL receiver (3 ft offset). The AGC is
enabled over the expected compressional arrival. On the second subcycle, transmitter 1 is
fired and we again receive data on the VDL receiver (5 ft offset). This subcycle provides
the standard 5 ft VDL signature. The DAC provides an excellent uncompensated standard
3 ft - 5 ft Cement Bond Log due to its high signal to noise ratio, and dynamic range.
As with any single transmitter/two receiver cement bond log, instrument centralization and
calibration are critical for quantitative results.
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DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF SERVICE -- 1670MA DIGITAL ARRAY ACOUSTILOG
5.4
COMBINATION MODES
Full Wave/CBL and Full Wave/t combination modes can be implemented with proper
tables. Due to sampling rates and the amount of data transmitted, logging speeds may be
limited.
6.0
The Digital Array Acoustilog interpretation package is a set of computer programs that
handles all the array acoustic processing needs, from reading tapes to obtaining slownesses
and attenuations of the three main wave types (compressional, shear, and Stoneley). Final
results are sent to a disk file, from where they can be plotted on paper, displayed on a
screen, or used for further processing by other programs. Intermediate results such as
frequency spectrums, filtered waveforms, correlograms, and correlogram peak positions
can also be visualized to monitor processing at every stage.
The package is part of the Well Data System (WDS). All of the programs in the package
run in the PC environment under the DOS operating system (refer to "WDS PC
Overview" in the WDS Documentation, volume 1). Screen-display programs support a
large variety of graphic adapters, including most EGA, VGA and Super VGA cards.
Versions that run under VAX-VMS are also available for programs that do not involve
graphic output to a screen.
Input to the programs consists of: (1) data contained in a tape, tape image file, or external
survey file, and (2) control parameters contained in a file prepared by the user using a
conventional ASCII text editor. The data is the actual information processed by the
program, such as acoustic wave traces. The control parameters specify how the
information is to be processed.
Output produced by the programs consists of: (1) processed data, written to an external
survey file or a well data file, (2) program listings and error messages, written to the
user's console or to ASCII files (depending on the parameters used with the DO
command). Graphics programs send additional output to the screen or to a printer or
plotter.
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DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF SERVICE -- 1670MA DIGITAL ARRAY ACOUSTILOG
6.1
PROCESSING OVERVIEW
Array acoustic raw data are provided on a magnetic tape in Atlas Data Tape (or ADT)
format. The first step in array acoustic processing is to transfer the acoustic data from
magnetic tape to an XTF file. Programs ADTSCAN and ADT2XTF are used to perform
copy the data to an XTF file. All the processing programs (except ADTSCAN and
ADT2XTF) read their input from XTF files.
It is convenient to filter the array acoustic traces to eliminate noise. This is done with the
WAVEFIL program. WAVEFIL converts each trace to a frequency spectrum (using a
Fast Fourier Transform technique), eliminates unwanted frequencies, and converts back to
time-domain traces. All subsequent processing should be done on the filtered traces.
Acoustic trace correlation is the fundamental step in array acoustic processing. It is
accomplished by program WAVECOR. The ultimate objective of correlation is to detect
similar wavetrains in traces recorded by different receivers. These wavetrains arrive at
each receiver at different times. Thus, their offset from trace to trace indicates the
velocity (or slowness, which is the inverse of velocity) of each wavetrain. Ideally, three
wavetrains (corresponding to compressional, shear and Stoneley waves) should be present
in each trace. Each of these three has a different slowness.
WAVECOR simply identifies times and offsets with a high correlation value. These high
correlation values indicate that it is likely that a wave with a given velocity has arrived at
a given time. WAVECOR does not identify what wave types these possible arrivals
correspond to. This task is accomplished by WAVELABL. WAVELABL has a simple
set of rules to identify which wave type each peak represents. It attempts to ignore
spurious correlation peaks if they are present. WAVELABL produces three output curves
representing slownesses of each wave type.
Wave attenuations may be found with program WAVEAMP. Besides the acoustic traces,
start times, and gains, this program requires the slownesses produced by WAVELABL, so
it cannot be run before WAVELABL. It also requires the caliper curve.
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DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF SERVICE -- 1670MA DIGITAL ARRAY ACOUSTILOG
6.1
Two types of special processing can be performed with the package. The first is
"transmitter-array" processing, in which traces from consecutive sampling depths are
chosen so as to emulate a transmitter array. This is achieved by simply setting the
transmitter-array option in program WAVECOR, and then running WAVELABL as usual.
The slownesses from this processing can be combined with the slownesses from
conventional (or "receiver-array" processing) to yield depth-derived compensated
slownesses. The combination process is performed by program WAVEAVG.
The second type of special processing is "multi-shot" processing, which may sometimes
help to enhance vertical resolution. It involves doing several processing runs using a
smaller subarray of receivers. Each run uses a consecutive subarray. For example, 5
runs could be made using receivers 1 through 4, 2 through 5, 3 through 6, 4 through 7,
and 5 through 8, respectively. The combined correlograms produced by each run are then
averaged using WAVEAVG to produce an average combined correlogram. Then
WAVELABL is run in the conventional way using the averaged correlogram curve as
input.
The two types of special processing are not mutually exclusive. It is possible (though
seldom necessary) to do "transmitter-array multi-shotpoint processing". Furthermore,
program WAVEAMP also has a transmitter-array option, just as WAVECOR, and all the
special processing options and combinations mentioned above can also be used with
WAVEAMP.
Programs WAVEPLT, XTFPLT, and XTFMAN permit the user to view the raw data,
intermediate results, and final results, allowing to monitor processing quality. XTFMAN
can also be used for "housekeeping", such as deleting renaming, and copying curves.
The final slownesses and attenuations obtained can be written onto a LIS format tape using
the WDS program LIS. They can also be further processed, plotted, etc., using any of the
programs in the WDS package.
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DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF SERVICE -- 1670MA DIGITAL ARRAY ACOUSTILOG
6.1.1
ADTSCAN
ADT2XTF
WAVEFIL
WAVECOR
WAVELABL
WAVEAMP
WAVEAVG
WAVEPLT
XTFMAN
XTFPLT
ADTSCAN Scans a tape to report its contents, and produces a control file to be used by
ADT2XTF.
ADT2XTF Reads a magnetic tape or tape image file on disk, and converts the raw data
into an XTF file. The raw data include as gamma ray, self potential, density,
etc.
WAVEFIL Filters acoustic traces by applying a Fast Fourier Transform algorithm to
convert the acoustic traces to the frequency domain, and then eliminating
undesired frequencies. Frequency range passed is tapered at edges to avoid
"ringing" at cutoff frequencies in filtered traces. Also produces frequency
spectra before and after filtering.
WAVECOR Correlates acoustic traces. Uses semblance or nth root stacking, contains
point-skipping option for extra speed, or point-interpolation option for extra
precision. Can also process using transmitter-array option.
WAVELABL Identifies and labels correlogram peaks and writes slowness curves for each
of the three main wave types.
WAVEAMP Determines amplitudes and attenuations of each of the three main wave types
at every level.
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DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF SERVICE -- 1670MA DIGITAL ARRAY ACOUSTILOG
6.1.1
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DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF SERVICE -- 1670MA DIGITAL ARRAY ACOUSTILOG
7.0
In practice, the Digital Array Acoustilog is normally logged at 2100 ft/hr. Data is
sampled every half of foot. Normal logging runs range from 200 to 4000 feet. In Figure
936-7, we see a plot of eight acoustic signatures. This data is representative of a half foot
data sample [WAVEPLT]. One can observe the different wave types, compressional,
shear, and Stoneley in this plot. As stated previously, the wave types differ in frequency,
amplitude, and velocity.
In Figure 936-8, we see the three dimensional surface generated by correlating the eight
signatures with semblance processing [WAVCOR] (Figure 936-9 is a contour map of the
same data). The peaks represent maximum correlation. The three major peaks are in fact
compressional, shear, and Stoneley wave slowness.
In a continuous log, the processes is repeated for each half foot and is combined to
generate a dot plot log. Each dot at a given depth represents a "peak" in the correlation.
Figure 936-10 illustrates a continuous dot plot [XTFPLT]. The correlation surfaces are
plotted as a waterfall plot to identify the relative magnitude of the correlation peaks.
Other post processing routines are utilized to generate and label continuous curves from
the dot plot [WAVLABL] (Figure's 936-10 and 936-11). The raw data; compressional,
shear, and Stoneley slowness, is then entered into a Log Analysis data base to perform
higher level formation evaluation: porosity analysis, sand production analysis, fracture
migration analysis, and rock property analysis.
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DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF SERVICE -- 1670MA DIGITAL ARRAY ACOUSTILOG
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DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF SERVICE -- 1670MA DIGITAL ARRAY ACOUSTILOG
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DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF SERVICE -- 1670MA DIGITAL ARRAY ACOUSTILOG
Figure 936-5
12-ft Transmitter-to-Receiver
Signature Over Logged Interval
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DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF SERVICE -- 1670MA DIGITAL ARRAY ACOUSTILOG
Figure 936-6
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DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF SERVICE -- 1670MA DIGITAL ARRAY ACOUSTILOG
Figure 936-8
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DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF SERVICE -- 1670MA DIGITAL ARRAY ACOUSTILOG
Figure 936-9
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DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF SERVICE -- 1670MA DIGITAL ARRAY ACOUSTILOG
Figure 936-10
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DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF SERVICE -- 1670MA DIGITAL ARRAY ACOUSTILOG
Figure 936-11
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DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF SERVICE -- 1670MA DIGITAL ARRAY ACOUSTILOG
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DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF SERVICE -- 1670MA DIGITAL ARRAY ACOUSTILOG
8.0
REFERENCES
Figure 936-2
Figure 936-3
Figure 936-4
Figure 936-5
Figure 936-6
Figure 936-7
Figure 936-8
Figure 936-9
Figure 936-10
Figure 946-11
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Technique