Data Communication

Meaning of Communication

Communication is the exchange and flow of information and ideas from one person to another.
The exchange of thoughts, messages, or information, as by speech, signals, writing, or behavior.
The art and technique of using words effectively to impart information or ideas.

Two types of Communication

Local communicating parties are present in the same building a similarly restricted geographical area.
Remote communicating parties are present farther apart or distant places.

Telecommunication & Data Communication

Two important streams of Communication:
Telecommunication
refers primarily to human-to-human communication, facilitated by the global telephone system.
Tele came from a Greek word, meaning far off.

Data Communication

refers to the communication between digital computers, facilitated by computer networks.

is a subset of telecommunication, the information that are to be transferred between two devices are
mainly consist of digital data or the binary 1s and 0s.

The difference of these two streams are mainly due to historical reasons. Telecommunication is increasingly relying on digital computer
technology. While Data Communication is relying more than ever on telecommunication networks. The two streams are rapidly
merging/converging.

What is Data Communication?

Data Communication is the exchange of data between two devices (computers) via some form of transmission medium such as wire
cable, wireless system, microwave system, satellite system etc. The communicating devices must be the part of a communication system.
Exchange of data
Data
Devices
Transmission Medium

- can be in one direction, can be both directions, exchange information format.

- info can be in different format like text, photograph, image.
- devices, computers that contribute in the exchange of information
- wireless system, microwave, satellite, wires, fiber optics cable, coaxial cable.

The data transmitted from one place to another in form electromagnetic or light waves through communication medium. The electromagnetic
or light waves representing data are called signals. Data communication signals can be in analog or digital form.

Therefore, data transmission is divided into:

Analog data transmission

Digital data transmission

Historically, the telephone network has been analog. The voice is an analog sound.
1. Analog Data Transmission
The transfer of data from one place to another in the form of analog signals or in the form of continuous waves is called analog
data transmission. The analog signal consists of a continuous electrical wave. The light waves, sound waves or radio waves are examples of
analog signals. The transmission through telephone line, microwave system or satellite is the example of analog data transmission. An
analog signal is shown in figure below.

2. Digital Data Transmission

The transfer of data from one place to another in the form of digital signals is called digital data transmission: A digital signal
consists of individual electrical pulses that represent bits grouped together into bytes. Computer accepts and processes data in the form of
digital signals. Data is also transmitted from one computer to another through telephone line, microwave system or satellite. In this system, a
modem is used on both sides. A modem is an electronic device that can convert the analog signal to digital and vice versa. A digital signal is
shown in figure below.

Computers are digital. Computer networks communicate by exchanging digital signals. The number of networked computers has
increased dramatically in recent years, many of them connecting with other networks to make up what we call the Internet.
Many of these digital computer networks communicate with one another over telephone lines. Sometimes these lines are analog;
sometimes they are digital.
Because a mix of analog and digital technology can make it difficult to understand how data is transmitted, we will divide all data
communications into three large categories based on transmission speed:

Low-speed data communications using analog transmission

Medium-speed data communications using either analog or digital transmission
High-speed data communications using strictly digital transmission

Bandwidth is a common synonym for speed.

Bandwidth
The information-carrying capacity of a communication channel. Analog bandwidth (Hertz) is the range of signal
frequencies that can be transmitted by a communication channel or network. Hertz, abbreviated Hz, refers to the number
of cycles that a particular wave completes in a single second.

A cycle is the distance from one peak of an analog wave to the next

Digital bandwidth (bits per second) is the rate at which bits can be transmitted. Digital signals are represented
by numbers. The numbers are encoded with a binary numbering systema system that uses only two digits, one and
zero.

Each binary digit in a signal is called a bit.

binary
A number system that uses only two digits: 0 and 1.

bit
Binary digit. A binary digit has a value of 0 or 1, and is often represented by the presence (1) or absence (0) of
a voltage on a transmission medium. The bit is the basic unit of data communications and the smallest unit of
information a computer can process.

A bit is a single binary digit of a digital signal

Binary numbering makes it easy to transmit a digital signal. A digital signal is a series of zeros and ones, ONs
and OFFs, high voltages and low voltages. It can be nothing else.
Regardless of signal type or bandwidth, the original signal has to be translated or encoded for transmission.

Encoded
Converted into a group of ones and zeros that is the binary representation of the numerical value; used to describe a
numerical value.

Characteristics of Communication System

The communication system may consist of hardware and software. In data communication process data is transmitted electronically from
one system to other system using standard methods.
The communication system depends on the following characteristics:
Delivery
Accuracy

Timeliness

The data must be delivered from source device to destination device.

The data must be delivered accurately. If there is any error occurred during transmission, the data must be retransmitted.
Data must be delivered within time. It is very important in real time systems because data becomes useless if it
is delivered late. For example, in television transmission, the video signals must be delivered within time as
they are produced without any significant delay. This kind of delivery is called real-time transmission. Never
is better than late rather Better late than never

Best example is the Postal Mail System

Components of Communication System

The basic components of a communication system are:
Message
Sender
Medium
Receiver
Protocol

Message -

The message is the information or data that is to be transferred from one location to another. It may consist of
text, numbers, pictures, sounds, videos or any combination of these.

Sender -

A device used in a communication system to send or transmit messages to another device is called Sender, or
Transmitter or Source. A sender may be a computer, workstation, telephone handset, video camera and mobile phone.

Medium -

Medium is a path or channel through which message is transmitted (or sent) from one location to another in a
communication system. The twisted wire, fiber optic, microwave, satellite system etc. are used as medium.

Receiver -

A device used in a communication system to receive messages from another device (sender) is called Receiver or Sink.
A receiver may be a computer, workstation, telephone handset, mobile phone, television set, printer, fax machine, and so
on.

Protocol -

A set of rules that guides (or governs) data communication is called protocol. It represents an agreement between the
communicating devices. Without a proper protocol, the devices may be connected but they cannot communicate
with
each other. For example, a person whose mother language is English cannot communicate with a person who can speak
only French.

Note: Today, all type of computers and mobile devices serve as senders and receivers in communication system.
Packets
In data communication, data is broken into small group or data segment before being transmitted from one computer to another.
These small groups or data segments are called packets. The packet includes the following information:
Payload Header -

It is the part of the packet that contains the actual data being sent.
It contains the information about the type of data in the payload, the source and destination of data and a sequence
number so that data from multiple packets can be re-assembled at the receiving computer in a proper order.

Brief History of Data Communication Evolution

Data communications history reflects a blend of histories, including the history of the telecommunications industry, the history of data
communications and the history of the Internet.
History is divided into 3 fields
Telecommunication
Data Communication
Internet
Telegraph 1837 - Samuel Morse
Telephone 1876 - Alexander Graham Bell
Radio 1895 (Wireless Communication) - Guglielmo Marconi
By 1950s
Telephone & Telegraph Companies developed network communication facilities throughout the world.
1970s
The invention of databases, languages, operating systems, hardware and software. The field of Data Communication and
Computer Science merged took place. People started thinking Why not data, why just voice? to communicate between two
parties that are far apart.

Data Communication & Computer Science field were merged and fasten 3 Major Development
Very Large Scale Integration of Electronic components becomes available the size was reduce, and the price as well.
Evolution of New Software becomes available
Competition among providers

Today we are in need of better, secure and the most important of all is fast-based communication.

Data Transmission Modes

The term transmission mode defines the direction of data flow between two linked devices. The manner or way in which data is
transmitted from one place to another is called Data Transmission Mode. There are three ways for transmitting data from one location to
another. These are:

Simplex mode
Half-Duplex mode
Full-Duplex mode

1. Simplex Mode
In Simplex mode, the communication can take place in only one direction. In this mode, a terminal can only send data and cannot
receive it or it can only receive data but cannot send it. It means that in this mode communication is uni-directional. Today, this mode of data
communication is not popular, because most of the modem communications require two-way exchange of data. However, this mode of
communication is used in business field at certain point-of-sale terminals in which sales data is entered without a corresponding reply. The
other examples of simplex communication modes are Radio and T.V transmissions.

In computer system, the keyboard, monitor and printer are examples of simplex devices. The keyboard can only be used to enter
data into computer, while monitor and printer can only accept (display/print) output.
2. Half-Duplex Mode
In Half-duplex mode, the communication can take place in both directions, but only in one direction at a time. In this mode, data is
sent and received alternatively. It is like a one-lane bridge where two-way traffic must give way in order to cross the other.
In half-duplex mode, at a time only one end transmits data while other end receives. In addition, it is possible to perform error
detection and request the sender to re-transmit information. The Internet browsing is an example of half duplex. When we issue a request to
download a web document, then that document is downloaded and displayed before we issue another request.

3. Full-Duplex Mode
In Full-duplex mode, the communication can take place in both directions simultaneously, i.e. at the same time on the same
channel. It is the fastest directional mode of communication. Example of this mode is conversation of the persons through telephone. This
type of communication is similar to automobile traffic on a two-lane road. The telephone communication system is an example of Full-duplex
communication mode.

Types of Data Transmission Modes

There are two types of data transmission modes. These are:
Parallel Transmission
Serial Transmission
1. Parallel Transmission
In parallel transmission, bits of data flow concurrently through separate communication lines. Parallel transmission is shown in
figure below. The automobile traffic on a multi-lane highway is an example of parallel transmission. Inside the computer binary data flows
from one unit to another using parallel mode. If the computer uses 32-bk internal structure, all the 32-bits of data are transferred
simultaneously on 32-lane connections. Similarly, parallel transmission is commonly used to transfer data from computer to printer. The
printer is connected to the parallel port of computer and parallel cable that has many wires is used to connect the printer to computer. It is
very fast data transmission mode.
2. Serial Transmission
In serial data transmission, bits of data flow in sequential order through single communication line. The flow of traffic on one-lane
residential street is an example of serial data transmission mode. Serial transmission is typically slower than parallel transmission, because
data is sent sequentially in a bit-by-bit fashion. Serial mouse uses serial transmission mode in computer.

Communication Channel
A path through which information are transmitted from one place to another is called communication channel. It is also referred to
as communication medium or link. In network communication, the communication media are wires, cables arid other means through which
information travels from its source to its destination. The examples of communication media are twisted-pair cable, coaxial cable, fiber-optic
cable and wireless links. In communication channel, data is transmitted in the form of signals (analog signal). The data transmission is
measured in bandwidth. The bandwidth will be higher if more signals can be transmitted. Actually, the bandwidth measures the amount of
information that can be transmitted through the media within the given period of time. For analog signals bandwidth is represented in hertz
(Hz). It means number of signals transmitted per second. For digital signals, it is represented in bits per second (bps). Different transmission
media have different bandwidth. The higher the bandwidth of the transmission media, the more information can be transmitted.
Transmission media are divided into:
Physical Transmission Media
Wireless Transmission Media

Physical Transmission Media

In Physical Transmission Media, communication devices are directly linked with each other via cables or other physical materials
for data communication. These are also referred to as wired channels. The physical transmission media are usually used in LAN.
Physical transmission media used in transmission are:
Twisted-Pair Cable
Coaxial Cable
Fiber-Optic Cable
Twisted-Pair Cable
Twisted-pair cable is one of the most commonly used communication media for network cabling. It consists of two separate copper
wires that are covered by insulating material such as plastic and are twisted together to form a cable. One of the wires is used to carry
signals to the receiver, and other is used only as ground reference.

The wires are twisted together to reduce the noise. The noise is created due to high-voltage equipment or due to light energy of
sun. The noise creates disturbance in the signal when it is received. It means that noise creates problem in communication.
The telephone cable wiring at wire is often called the telephone wire. 10 Mbps (Mega bits per second) to 100 home uses twistedpair wire, so this type, the data transmission speed of twisted pair is Mbps or up to 1Gbps (Giga bits per second).
Outer Jacket
Twisted Pair
w/ color-coded plastic insulation

Unshielded Twisted Pair Cable (UTP)

Shielded Twisted Pair Cable (STP)

Coaxial Cable
Coaxial cable is also referred to as Coax. It carries signals of higher frequency ranges than twisted-pair cable. Coaxial cable
consists of a single solid copper wire, which is called the inner conductor. Usually, the inner conductor is surrounded by three layers:
An insulating material, which covers the inner conductor.
An outer conductor of solid metal foil (shield). The outer conductor (shield) serves both as a shield against noise and as a second conductor,
which completes the circuit.
An insulating material, which covers the outer conductor.
The whole cable is protected by an external plastic cover. The structure of coaxial cable is shown in figure below.

Coaxial cable can be used for telephone lines for voice and data transmission with very high frequency. The bandwidth of coaxial
cable is 80 times greater than twisted pair media, Coaxial cable is also widely used in local area network (LAN). It is more expensive than
twisted-pair wire. The main advantages of coaxial cable are:
It creates less noise and protects the cable from interference of external electromagnetic waves. Therefore coaxial cable has low
transmission error rates.
These cables can transmit data over longer distances than that of twisted pair.
The data transmission speed of coax is from 10 Mbps to 200 Mbps. Now-a-days, this transmission medium is not used in computer
network because other transmission media such as fiber-optic cables have higher transmission speed.
Fiber-Optic Cable
In twisted-pair cable and coaxial cable, data is transmitted in the form of electric frequencies. So copper wire has to be protected
from water and electromagnetic waves. In fiber optic cable, these types of problems are not occurred. A fiber optic cable is made of glass or
plastic and transmits signals in the form of light. A fiber optic cable consists of tubes of glass (or thin glass fibers) through which data is
transmitted as pulses of light. A typical optical fiber consists of a very narrow strand or fiber of glass called the core (It is as thin as a human

hair). The core is surrounded by a concentric layer of glass called Cladding. The diameter of a core is 62.5 microns. (1 micron l0-6 meters).
The diameter of cladding is about 125 microns. Optic-fiber cable uses reflection phenomena to guide light through a channel. The data
transmission in fiber optic cable is shown below.

The structure of a typical single-mode fiber.

1. Core: 8 m diameter
2. Cladding: 125 m dia.
3. Buffer: 250 m dia.
4. Jacket: 400 m dia.

However, the fiber-optic cable is becoming more popular. Now-a-days, telephone and television companies are replacing their
existing telephone and coaxial cables with fiber-optic cables.
Advantages
The major advantages of fiber-optical media are:
The data transmission speed is very high because fiber-optic cable uses light to transmit data. The data transmission speed is up
to billions bits per second.
It is not affected by electromagnetic waves.
It is more reliable and has lower data transmission errors.
Disadvantages
The disadvantages of fiber optic cable are:
It is more costly.
It is difficult to install and modify.

Wireless Transmission Media

In wireless transmission media, communication devices communicate with each other and data is communicated through the air or
space using broadcast radio signals, microwave signals and infrared signals. This transmission medium is used when it is impossible to
install the cables. The data can be transmitted all over the world through this medium. The commonly used wireless transmission media are
discussed below.
Broadcast Radio
It is a wireless transmission medium that is used to communicate information through radio signals in air, over long
distance such as between cities and countries. In this medium, a transmitter is required to send messages (signals) and receiver is
required to receive them. To receive the broadcast radio signal, the receiver has an antenna that is located in the range of signal.
Some networks use a special device called transceiver used to send and to receive messages in the form of radio signals. The
data transmission speed of broadcast radio is up to 54Mbps.

Cellular Radio
Cellular radio is a form of broadcast radio that is used for mobile communications such as cellular telephones and
wireless modems. A cellular telephone is a telephone device that uses high frequency radio waves to transmit voice and digital
messages. Some mobile users connect their laptop computer or other mobile device to a cellular telephone to access the Web,
send and receive e-mail etc. while away from a standard telephone line.

Microwaves
Microwaves are radio waves that provide a high speed transmission. In Microwaves transmission, data is transmitted
from one station to another. Microwave station contains an antenna, transceiver (transmitter & receiver) and other equipments that
are required for microwave communication. Microwave uses the line-of-sight transmission, which means that in microwave
transmission system the data signals travel in a straight path and cannot bend. Microwave stations or antennas are usually
installed on the high towers or buildings. Thus microwave stations need to be placed within 20 to 30 miles of each other. Each
microwave station receives signals from the previous stations. In this way, data is transmitted from one place to another.
The data transmission speed of microwave transmission is up to 150 Mbps. Microwave transmission is used in environments
where installing physical transmission media is impossible and where line-of-sight transmission is available. It is used in wide-open
areas. Today, it is used by telephone companies, cable television providers, universities etc.

Communication Satellite
A communication satellite is a space station that receives microwave signals from earth microwave station (earth based
station). The earth based stations often are microwave stations. Other devices, such as PDAs and OPS receivers, also functions
as earth based stations. Transmitting a signal from ground or earth station to a satellite station in space is called up-linking and the
reverse is called the down- linking.

Now-a-days, television & radio broadcast, global positioning systems and Internet also use the communication satellites. The
communication satellite is launched about 22300 miles (or more) above the earth into space. The communication satellite consists
of solar powered, transceiver that receives and sends signals. The signals are transmitted from one earth station to the satellite.
The satellite receives and amplifies the signals and sends them to another earth station. This entire process takes only a few
seconds. To communicate information from one country to another country more than one satellites are required. The data
transmission speed of communication satellite is very high such as up to 1 Gbps.

Communication Devices
An electronic device that can send and receive data on the network is called the communication device. The communication
devices are used on both ends of the connections. Most of the communication devices have the ability to convert the digital signal of
computer into analog signal so that the signals can be transmitted on the communication line to another end. The reverse is also true. The
most important communication devices are described below.

Modem
Modem stands for Modulator and Demodulator. The modem (dialup modem) is an electronic device that can convert the
digital signals into analog signals and analog signals into digital signals. It is used on both ends of the computers for data
communication between, computers through telephone line. We knew that data is communicated through telephone line in the
form of analog signals. So data in the form of digital signal from one computer must be converted into analog signals before to
transmit it to another computer through telephone line. Similarly, to receive the data from another computer through telephone line
in the form of analog signals must be converted to digital before to store into the computer. The modem can be external or internal.
The external modem is a separate device that is attached to the computer through RS-232 serial port. It can be easily moved from,
one computer to another. It has also many functions but it is very costly.
An internal modem is an expansion card that is installed into the expansion slot on the computers motherboard. Most of
the computers at home and offices use the internal modem because it is less expensive than external modem. The Fax machine
also uses the internal card; it is because internal modem is also known as Fax Card.

Digital Modem
The modem that is used to send and to receive data to and from a digital telephone line is called digital modem. The
examples of digital modems are ISDN and DSL. These modems send and receive the digital signals to and from the digital line.
This modem does not convert the digital signals into analog because digital lines already use the digital signals. Therefore, in this

case he definition of modem confuses the users, however manufacturers still use the term modem for devices used in digital line
for data communication.
Network Interface Card
It is also referred to as LAN adapter or simply LAN card. It is used in Local Area Network to establish the communication
between the devices (computers, printers and other devices) attached on the network. Usually, the personal computers use the
network interface card (NIC) in Local Area Network (LAN). The Ethernet card is the most common type of network interface card.
The data transmission speed of Ethernet card is from 10 Mbps to 1,000 Mbps. Some of the network interface cards also, have the
combined features of Ethernet card and dialup modem card.
Bridge
It is an electronic device that connects two similar networks and controls the data flow between them.

A bridge looks at the information in each packet header and forwards data (that is traveling) from one LRN to another.

Router
An electronic device that connects multiple computers together and transmits data to its correct destination using the
available path on the network is called router. It stores the routing information of each node or computer on the network and to use
these information to transfer data between nodes. Like a bridge, a router looks at each packets header to determine where the
packet should go and then determines a route for, the packet to take and thus reach its destination; some routers also have built-in
antivirus protection. Similarly, some routers also support wireless communications.

Gateway
A gate is an electronic device that can perform logical function. A gateway is a device or system (collection of hardware
and software resources) that connects two networks and translates information from one to the other so that data can be
transmitted between two dissimilar networks.
Packets from different networks have different kinds of information in their headers, and information can be of different
formats. The gateway can take a packet from one type. of network, read the header, and then encapsulates the entire packet into a
new one, adding a header that is understood by the second network.

Repeater
A device, which is used to join same type of networks to extend the length of the communication medium, is called
repeater. It also amplifies the signals received from one network and sends the amplified signals to another network.

INCREASE THE LENGTH BY ELIMINATING THE EFFECT OF ATTENUATION/FADING

ON THE SIGNAL
Data Communication Protocol
All machine-base communications must follow certain set of rules for exchange of data between nodes connected to a network.
The rules to send and receive data are called protocols. These rules are defined in the network software. A protocol defines;
Which is communicated?
How it is communicated?
When it is communicated?
Elements of Protocol
The key elements of protocol are described below.
1. Syntax
Syntax refers to the format or structure of data. The protocol accepts the data according to the predefined format. For example, a
protocol may expect the format of data as;
First 8-bits of the stream to be the address of sender.
Second 8-bits of the stream to be the address of receiver.
Rest of the stream to be the actual data.
2. Semantics
Semantic means meaning. Semantics refers to the meaning of each section of the bits stream. It includes: how is a particular
pattern of bits to be interpreted, and what action is to be taken based on that interpretation.

DOES AN ADDRESS IDENTIFY THE PATH/ROUTE TO BE TAKEN OR THE FINAL

DESTINATION OF THE MESSAGE?
3. Timing
Timing refers to:
When data should be sent?
How fast it can be sent?

IF SENDER PRODUCES DATA AT 100 Mbps BUT THE RECEIVER CAN ONLY PROCESS DATA AT 1 Mbps,
>> TRANSMISSION WILL OVERLOAD THE RECEIVER AND SOME DATA WILL BE LOST.

Functions of Communication Protocol

The data transmission software or protocols perform the following functions for the efficient and error free transmission of data.
Data Sequencing The function of a protocol to divide the long message into smaller packets of fixed size that are to be
transmitted for error free data transmission, called Data Sequencing.
TO DETECT LOSS OR DUPLICATE PACKETS
Data Routing

The function of a protocol to find the most efficient path or route between the sender and the receiver before
sending the data is called Data Routing.

Flow Control

The function of a protocol to control the rate of data transmission from the sender to the receiver is called Flow
Control. It regulates/BALANCES the process of sending data between fast sender and slow receiver.

Error Control

The function of a protocol to detect and recover errors for successful data communication between the sender
and the receiver is called Error Control. Successful data communication means that data is transmitted without
any error.

Important Communication Protocols

The most common and popular communication protocols are:
Ethernet
Token Ring
TCP/IP Protocol
Wireless Application Protocol (WAP)
1. Ethernet
Ethernet is a technology/protocol that is used over Local Area Network (LAN). Ethernet is based on bus topology but can also be
used in star topology. It uses cables to transmit data, most common in LAN networks, and is easy to install and maintain. Another
version of Ethernet called Fast Ethernet is 10 times faster than original Ethernet. Gigabit Ethernet is even 10 times faster than Fast
Ethernet.
2. Token Ring
Token Ring is based on ring topology although it can also be used in bus topology. A special signal called token is used to access
any computer in the network. The token continues to circulate over the network. Any computer that needs to transmit data must
first take the token and then it can start transmission. This avoids collision in which two computers simultaneously try to transmit
data and therefore error occurs.
3. Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol (TCP/IP)
In this protocol, data transmission is managed by dividing the data into different pieces called packets. Each packet of data
contains a part of actual data, source computers address, destination computers address, and information for reassembling data
at destination computer. These packets of data travel along the fastest available path in the network. This type of data transmission
is called packet switching and is commonly used in Internet communications. This is the reason that the protocol is also called
Internet Protocol (IP).

TCP/IP is used on many local area networks

When information is sent over the Internet, it is generally broken up into smaller
pieces or "packets".
TCP is the means/PARAAN for creating the packets,
putting them back together in the correct order at the end,
and checking to make sure that no packets got lost in transmission.
If necessary, TCP will request that a packet be resent.

Internet Protocol (IP) is the method used to route information to the proper address.
- Every computer on the Internet has to have its own unique address known as
the IP address.
- Every packet sent will contain an IP address showing where it is supposed to
go.
- A packet may go through a number of computer routers before arriving at its
final destination,
- and IP controls the process of getting everything to the designated computer.

4. Wireless Application Protocol (WAP)

Wireless application protocol is used by mobile users to access the Internet and e-mail services. In WAP, client-server network
architecture is used. Mobile device uses client software to connect to the server computer of Internet Service Provider (ISP).
Mobile devices that support WAP are called WAP-enabled devices. The demand of WAP-enabled devices is increasing day by
day.
HTTP (Hypertext Transfer Protocol)
-

Web pages are constructed according to a standard method called Hypertext

Markup Language (HTML)
An HTML page is transmitted over the Web in a standard way and format
known as Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP).
A related protocol is "Hypertext Transfer Protocol over Secure Socket Layer"
(HTTPS)
It provides for the transmission in encrypted form to provide security for
sensitive data.

Computer Network
A network consists of two or more computers that are linked in order to share resources (such as printers and CD-ROMs), exchange files, or
allow electronic communications. The computers on a network may be linked through cables, telephone lines, radio waves, satellites, or
infrared light beams.
Networks are collections of computers, software, and hardware that are all connected to help their users work together. A network connects
computers by means of cabling systems, specialized software, and devices that manage data traffic. A network enables users to share files
and resources, such as printers, as well as send messages electronically (e-mail) to each other.
Computer networks fall into two main types: client/server networks and peer-to-peer networks. A client/server network uses one or more
dedicated machines (the server) to share the files, printers, and applications. A peer-to-peer network allows any user to share files with any
other user and doesnt require a central, dedicated server.

The most common networks are Local Area Networks or LANs for short. A LAN connects computers within a single geographical location,
such as one office building, office suite, or home. By contrast, Wide Area Networks (WANs) span different cities or even countries, using
phone lines or satellite links.
Networks are often categorized in other ways, too. You can refer to a network by what sort of circuit boards the computers use to link to each
other Ethernet and Token-Ring are the most popular choices. You can also refer to a network by how it packages data for transmission
across the cable, with terms such as TCP/IP (Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol) and IPX/SPX (Internet Package
Exchange/Sequenced Package Exchange).

Advantages (Benefits) of Networking

You have undoubtedly heard the the whole is greater than the sum of its parts. This phrase describes networking very well, and explains
why it has become so popular. A network isn't just a bunch of computers with wires running between them. Properly implemented, a network
is a system that provides its users with unique capabilities, above and beyond what the individual machines and their software applications
can provide.
Most of the benefits of networking can be divided into two generic categories: connectivity and sharing. Networks allow computers, and
hence their users, to be connected together. They also allow for the easy sharing of information and resources, and cooperation between the
devices in other ways. Since modern business depends so much on the intelligent flow and management of information, this tells you a lot
about why networking is so valuable.
Here, in no particular order, are some of the specific advantages generally associated with networking:

Connectivity and Communication: Networks connect computers and the users of those computers.
Individuals within a building or work group can be connected into local area networks (LANs); LANs in distant locations can be
interconnected into larger wide area networks (WANs). Once connected, it is possible for network users to communicate with each
other using technologies such as electronic mail. This makes the transmission of business (or non-business) information easier,
more efficient and less expensive than it would be without the network.

Data Sharing: One of the most important uses of networking is to allow the sharing of data. Before networking was
common, an accounting employee who wanted to prepare a report for her manager would have to produce it on his PC, put it on a
floppy disk, and then walk it over to the manager, who would transfer the data to her PC's hard disk. (This sort of shoe-based
network was sometimes sarcastically called a sneakernet.)
True networking allows thousands of employees to share data much more easily and quickly than this. More so, it makes possible
applications that rely on the ability of many people to access and share the same data, such as databases, group software
development, and much more. Intranets and extranets can be used to distribute corporate information between sites and to
business partners.

Hardware Sharing: Networks facilitate the sharing of hardware devices. For example, instead of giving each of 10
employees in a department an expensive color printer, only one printer can be placed on the network for everyone to share.

Internet Access: The Internet is itself an enormous network, so whenever you access the Internet, you are using a
network. The significance of the Internet on modern society is hard to exaggerate, especially for those of us in technical fields.

Internet Access Sharing: Small computer networks allow multiple users to share a single Internet
connection. Special hardware devices allow the bandwidth of the connection to be easily allocated to various individuals as they
need it, and permit an organization to purchase one high-speed connection instead of many slower ones.

Data Security and Management: In a business environment, a network allows the administrators to much
better manage the company's critical data. Instead of having this data spread over dozens or even hundreds of small computers in
a haphazard fashion as their users create it, data can be centralized on shared servers. This makes it easy for everyone to find the
data, makes it possible for the administrators to ensure that the data is regularly backed up, and also allows for the implementation
of security measures to control who can read or change various pieces of critical information.
Performance Enhancement and Balancing: Under some circumstances, a network can be used
to enhance the overall performance of some applications by distributing the computation tasks to various computers on the
network.

Entertainment: Networks facilitate many types of games and entertainment. The Internet itself offers many sources of
entertainment, of course. In addition, many multi-player games exist that operate over a local area network. Many home networks
are set up for this reason, and gaming across wide area networks (including the Internet) has also become quite popular. Of
course, if you are running a business and have easily-amused employees, you might insist that this is really a disadvantage of
networking and not an advantage!

Key Concept: At a high level, networks are advantageous because they allow computers and people to be connected together, so
they can share resources. Some of the specific benefits of networking include communication, data sharing, Internet access, data security
and management, application performance enhancement, and entertainment.
Well, if that list isn't enough to convince you that networking is worthwhile, then I have no idea what it is you do with your computers! At
any rate, it's quite possible that only some of the above items will match your particular circumstances, but at least one will definitely apply to
almost every situation, assuming you own or manage more than one computer.

Steps in Setting-Up a Network

All networks go through roughly the same steps in terms of:
Design
Rollout
Configuration
Management.

Designing Your Network

Plan on the design phase to take anywhere from one to three working days, depending on how much help you have ad how big your network
is. Here are the key tasks:
Settle on a peer-to-peer network or a client/server network.
Pick you network system software.
Pick a network language.
Figure out what hardware you need.
Decide on what degree of information security you need.
Choose software and hardware solutions to handle day-to-day management chores.

Rolling Out Your Network

Rolling out your network requires the following steps:
Run and test network cables.
Install the server or servers if youre setting up a client/server network. (If you are setting up a peer-to-peer network, you typically
dont have to worry about any dedicated servers.)
Set up the workstation hardware.
Plug in and cable the Network Interface Cards (NICs these connect the network to the LAN).
Install the hub or hubs (if you are using twisted-pair cable).
Install printers.
Load up the server software (the NOS, or Network Operating System) if your network is a client/server type.
Install the workstation software.
Install modem hardware for remote dial-up (if you want the users to be able to dial into the network).
Install the programs you want to run (application software).

Configuring Your Network

Network configuration means customizing the network for your own use.
Creating network accounts for your users (names, passwords, and groups).
Creating areas on shared disk drives for users to share data files.
Creating areas on shared disk drives for users to share programs (unless everyone runs programs from their own computer).
Setting up print queues (the software that lets users share networked printers).
Installing network support on user workstations, so they can "talk" to your network.

Managing Your Network

The work you do right after your LAN is up and running and configured can save you huge amounts of time in the coming months.
Mapping your network for easier management and troubleshooting.
Setting up appropriate security measures to protect against accidental and intentional harm.
Tuning up your LAN so that you get the best possible speed from it.
Creating company standards for adding hardware and software, so you dont have nagging compatibility problems later.
Putting backup systems in place so that you have copies of data and programs if your hardware fails.
Installing some monitoring and diagnostic software so that you can check on your networks health and get an early warning of
impending problems.
Figuring out how you plan to handle troubleshooting educating your LAN administrator, setting up a support contract with a
software vendor, and so on.

Network Standards
The standards are the precise documents containing technical and physical specifications about the network being designed.
Normally those standards are taken into consideration and are worldwide acceptable.

The primary reason for standards is to ensure that hardware and software produced by
different vendors can work together. Without networking standards, it would be difficultif not
impossibleto develop networks that easily share information.
By following the network standards, the networks can be reliable and efficient. Normally, two types of standards are followed. These are:
De Facto standard
De Jure standard
1. De Facto Standard
De facto means by tradition or by facts. These standards were developed without any formal plan and came to existence
because of historical developments. These standards have not been approved by on organized networks governing body. These standards
are often established by manufacturer that defines the functionality of a new technology or product.
2. De Jure Standard
De jure means according to law or regulation. These standards have been properly approved by the networks governing body.
There are several international organizations that are involved in establishing communication standards and protocols. Few of these
governing bodies are:
i) CCITT
CCITT stands for Consultative Committee on International Telegraph and Telephone. CCITT is United Nations agency. It is
responsible for defining standards. for telephone, telegraph and data communication. The most important standard defined by
CCITT is known as X25, which is used in Wide Area Network. The X25 standard is mostly used by the telephone companies of the
world.
The X25 standard is also used to connect local area networks to form a large wide-area network. A network of networks in which
individual local area networks are joined together is called wide area network.
ii) IEEE
IEEE stands for Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers. IEEE is another largest organization of the world that defines the
communication protocols. There are four main communication protocols, which are used in local area networks. IEEE has
published three of these four protocols. These are:
Ethernet also known as IEEE 802.3
Token Bus also known as IEEE 802.4
Token Ring also known as IEEE 802.5
iii) ISO (International Standard Organization)
ISO is the most popular international organization and is responsible for publishing standards in various fields. It also publishes the
communication standards.

Network Architectures
Network architecture means design of computers, devices and media in a network. The computer network can be designed using
different ways. The most popular network architectures are described below.
Client/Server Network
In Client/Server network, the clients are the nodes, or computers on the network and a Server is a central computer that controls
the network. A server, sometimes called the host computer controls the, hardware and software on the network and provides a centralized
storage area for programs and data in Client/Server arrangement, processing is usually done by the Server, and only the results are sent to
the client. The clients request to the Server to access, to store or to process data. This type of arrangement requires special software for
both individual nodes and the Server. Client/Server network may be LAN or WAN.

In a client/server environment, each computer still holds (or can still hold) its (or some)
resources and files. Other computers can also access the resources stored in a computer, as in
a peer-to-peer scenario. One of the particularities of a client/server network is that the files
and resources are centralized. This means that a computer, the server, can hold them and other
computers can access them.

A server Is a computer that is dedicated to providing some kind of service to users across a
network.
-File server
-email server
-web server

For example, in a Client/Server network, a database is stored on the Server and the Client computers access the database. The
Server portion of the DBMS (Database Management system) is stored on the Server that allows the Clients to add information in database or
extract information from database. Similarly, the client portion of DBMS is stored on each Client computer through which request is sent to
the Server to access the database. The Server processes the data and sends the result to the Client computer. Using the Client software, the
user sends a request to the Server. The Server software searches the database and sends the result back to the Client computer.
File-Server Network
In File-Server computer network, a powerful computer having disk with large storage capacity and processing power is installed as
central computer. This central computer is known as File-Server, Network Server, Application Server or simply a Server. A File-Server stores
and manages files. The data files and software are stored on the Server. The individual computers on a network, called nodes, access the
data files and software on the Server. It means that, the File-Server is used to store files and to forward them to nodes that request for them.
Peer-to-Peer Network
Peer-to-Peer (P2P) network is also known as workgroup. In this arrangement all nodes on the network have equal status or
relationships to all others. Each computer stores files on its own storage devices or resources as and when required.

Peer-to-Peer network is used in small offices or schools, where primary purpose of the network is to share storage and printers. A Peer-toPeer network can also include a Server. In this case, a Peer-to-Peer local area network is similar to a File Server network.

a peer-to-peer (P2P) network is created when two or more PCs are connected and share
resources without going through a separate server computer.

In other words, every computer acts as both a client and server,

allowing every computer to exchange data and services with every other
computer in the network.
Line Configuration
Line configuration refers to the way two or more communication devices attached to a link. Line configuration is also referred to as
connection. A link is a communication medium through which data is communicated between devices. For communication to occur between
two devices, they must be connected to the same link at the same time. There are two possible types of line configurations or connections.
These connections are.
Point-to-point connection
Multipoint connection
Point-to-Point Connection
The point-to-point connection provides a dedicated link between two communication devices. The entire link or channel is reserved
for two devices for data communication, and no other devices can use the dedicated link. Usually, in this type of connection, the two devices
are connected together with a cable.
It must be noted that microwave and satellite dedicated links are also possible. Two computers connected together (point-to-point)
through microwave link.
When you change the television channel by remote control, you are establishing a point-to-point connection between the remote
control and the televisions control system.
Multipoint Connection
Multipoint connection is also referred to as multi-drop connection. This type of connection allows multiple devices (more than two
devices) to share a single link. The multipoint connection or line configuration is shown below.

Types of Network
Networks are of four types. These are:
Local Area Network (LAN)
Wide Area Network (WAN)
Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)
Virtual Private Network (VPN)
Local Area Network (LAN)
A Local Area Network (LAN) is a network system in which computers interconnected in a limited geographical area, such as
network of computers college computer laboratory or network of computers in office building etc. LANs designed to allow resources (such as

printers and application programs, secondary storage etc.) to be shared between personal computers or workstations. The size LAN is
limited to a few kilometers (typically it is 1 km).
In networked environment, a powerful computer called the Server or computer is used that controls all the computers connected to
the network. The so and important data (database) is stored on the central server and they can be shared between users when needed. The
devices other than server within the network are called nodes. A node may be a personal computer, printer, storage device, monitor etc.
The computers used in LAN also require network interface cards. A network interface card enables the computer to send and to receive
information over a cable network. In a LAN, the nodes are connected via cables. A LAN may use the star topology, ring topology or bus
topology. In general, a LAN uses only one type of transmission medium. The data transmission rate through LAN is very fast. Today, the data
transmission rate over LAN is up to 100 mega bits per second (Mbps)
LAN is created in a single office, building or campus. In case of a single building, the LAN consists of few nodes and uses a single
topology. The LAN may be expanded into multiple buildings or rooms. In this case, different small networks (or LANs) are connected together
through a central backbone. The single building LAN and Multiple building LAN are shown below.

Advantages of LAN
LAN has many advantages, but the main advantages are:
The resources can be shared among different users. For example, many users on the network can use a single printer. Similarly,
storage media and software located in central server can be shared between all users on the networks.
LAN is not very expensive and the small businesses, firms and educational institutes can afford and easily design the LAN.
Users can share messages and communicate with each other through e-mails and chatting.
All the data is stored and updated on the central server through nodes. So it becomes very easy to take backup of database at
regular interval.
Multiple users can access the Internet using a single Internet connection. The Internet connection is established at central sewer.
In this way, all the users can access the Internet.
Data security can be implemented very easily, because users are granted data access rights. The authorized users can connect to
the server and can access specific portion of the data.
Disadvantages of LAN
Although, LAN has many advantages, but it also has some disadvantages. The main disadvantages are:
If central server is infected by virus, then the important data stored on server may be corrupted and the entire network may also be
held.
All nodes depends on the central computer (or Hub), if any component of the server fails, then entire network will stop working.
A trained and competent network manager is required to run the LAN, so handsome salaries have to be paid to him. Therefore, it
becomes very expensive to run the LAN.

Mostly in a LAN, one or two printers are shared among several users. In this way, lengthy print queues are created, so the users
have to wait for a long period of time to take print on the printer.

Wide Area Network (WAN)

A Wide Area Network (WAN) is a network system that covers a large (wide) geographical area such as different cities of country or
different countries of the world. Most telephone companies are WANs. A WAN that is wholly owned and used by a single company is often
referred to as enterprise network.
In WAN, usually the personal computers as remote terminals are connected to the larger computer (such as mainframe) through
public networks such as the telephone system, to send and receive data. The larger computer to which the terminal (or PC) is attached is
called Host computer.
Typically, a WAN may consist of two or more LANs connected together. The Internet is the worlds largest WAN, In WAN telephone
lines, satellites, microwave, fiber optic etc. are used as transmission media.
The electronic device modem is used computers establish communication over long distance through telephone line. A modem
converts the digital signals into analog signals and vice versa. The modem enables the computer to send and to receive information over
long distance through telephone line or microwave system.
Many large organizations make use of WAN as enterprise network. For example, in Pakistan, the large organizations such as PL4,
WAPDA, ARMY, NADRA and BANKS etc. use the WAN.

Most of the advantages of WAN are similar to LAN. But additional advantage of WAN is that information or messages may be shared and
communicated all over the world. Similarly, disadvantages of WAN are also similar to LAN.
Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)
A Metropolitan Area Network (MAN) is a network system that covers area of a single city. Usually, MAN connects more than one
LANS in a city or town and covers a smaller geographical area than a WAN. For example, a company may design a MAN by connecting all
the LANs in all its office throughout the city. The cable television, telephone companies or local corporations use MAN.

Virtual Private Network (VPN)

Virtual Private Network is used by mobile company users who frequently travel around or want to access their office Computers
while sitting at home. The connection to the company network serviced by some Internet Service Provider (ISP) and is always a secure
connection just like a private line connection.

Network Topologies
In networking, the term topology is the way of connecting computers or nodes on a network. There are many ways in which
computers are connected together in a computer network. Therefore network topology is defined as: the schemes of joining a number of
computers in the form of a network are called Network Topologies.
We know that two or more devices are connected to a link for data communication. Similarly, two or more links form a topology.
The topology of a network is the geometric representation of the relationship of all the links and the nodes (communication devices) to one
another.
There are three commonly used network topologies. These are:
Star topology
Ring topology
Bus topology
1. Star Topology
In a star network, each node (computer or other device) is directly connected to the central computer or Hub that provides connection points
for nodes on the network. The star topology is the most common topology in use today. In star network, information or data is communicated
from one computer to another through Hub. This form of network configuration looks like a star as shown in figure below.

Advantages
The main advantages of star topology are:
It is easy to install and to maintain.
You can easily add and remove nodes to and from the network without affecting the network.
If any node fails, other nodes are not affected.
Disadvantages
The main disadvantages of star topology are:
This type of network depends upon the central Hub. If Hub fails the entire network is failed.
Each computer is directly connected to the Hub through a cable, so it becomes more costly.
2. Ring Topology
In ring network, each node is connected to two adjacent nodes in the form a closed ring or loop. In ring topology, the last node
connects to the first node to complete the ring. In ring topology, each node has a dedicated point-to-point connection only with the two
devices on either side of it.
In this network, data is communicated in one direction from node to node around the entire ring. When a computer in ring network
sends message to another computer on the network, the message travels to each node or computer until it reaches its destination. The ring
network configuration is shown in figure below.

Advantages
The main advantages of ring topology are:
It is less expensive than star topology.
Nodes can be easily added or removed.
Disadvantages
The main disadvantages of ring topology are:
It is more difficult to install and maintain.
If a node fails, it affects the entire network.
3. Bus Topology
In bus network, all nodes are connected to a common communication medium or central cable. The central physical cable that
connects the nodes is called Bus. The data is communicated between nodes in both directions through bus. A bus topology uses the
multipoint connection. The central single cable (or bus) acts as backbone to link all the devices to the network.
In bus network, when a computer sends a message to another computer it also attaches the address of the destination computer.
In bus topology, a special device called a terminator is attached at the cables start and end points. A terminator stops the network signals.
In LAN, bus topology is mostly used. In this topology, each computer is assigned a unique address. The bus network configuration is given in
figure image.

Advantages
The main advantages of bus topology are:
It is less expensive and easy to install and maintain.
When nodes are added and removed to and from the network, the network is not affected.
If one node fails other nodes are not affected.
Disadvantages
The main disadvantages of bus topology are:
It supports only a small number of nodes.
Entire network fails if there is any problem in the central cable.

Mesh Topology, Tree Topology and Hybrid Topology

Mesh Topology

In this topology, every node has a dedicated point-to-point connection to every other node on the network. A fully connected mesh
network has n(n-1)/2 channels to link 'n' devices. Therefore, every device on the network must have 'n-1' input/output (I/O) ports.
In mesh network, each node is directly connected to all nodes on the network. This type of network involves the concept of routes.
In this type of network, each node may send message to destination through multiple paths. It means that each node of mesh network has
several possible paths to send (or to receive) message, but in Bus, Star, Ring and Tree topologies each node has only one path.

Advantages
Mesh topology has the following advantages:
It has multiple links, so if one route is blocked then other routes can be used for data communication.
Each connection can have its own data load, so the traffic problem is eliminated.
It ensures the data privacy or security, because every message travels along a dedicated link.
Troubleshooting of this topology is easy as compared to other networks.
Its performance is not affected with heavy load of data transmission.
Disadvantages
Mesh topology has the following disadvantages:
It becomes very expensive because a large number of cabling and 110 ports are required.
It is difficult to install.
Tree Topology
In tree network, the nodes are connected to each other in such a way that forms a tree like structure. Typically to form a tree
network, multiple star topologies are combined together. This type of network has combined features of bus and star topology.
On tree topology the hubs of each star topology are connected to the central hub that controls the entire network. However, some
nodes can be directly connected to the central hub. The tree topology configuration is shown in figure below.
The central Hub in the tree network is an active hub. It contains a repeater (a hardware device), which re-generates the received
bit patterns. The secondary hubs usually are passive hubs. The passive hub controls the nodes directly connected to it and exchange data to
other devices connected to the other secondary hubs (or same hub) through the central hub. The secondary hub may also be active hub if
another secondary hub is directly connected to it. The cable TV network is an example of tree topology, where main cable is divided into,
branches and each branch is further divided into smaller branches and so on. The hub is used when a branch is created.

Advantages
The tree topology has the same advantages as star topology but it has some additional advantages. These are.

It allows more devices to be connected to the central Hub.

Disadvantages
The tree topology also has the same disadvantages as star topology built has some additional disadvantages such as:
It because more expansive because more hubs are required to install the network.
Hybrid Topology
Hybrid network is the combination of different topologies such as star, Ring, Mesh, Bus etc. For example, if a department uses a
Bus network, second department uses the ring network, third department uses the Mesh network and fourth department uses the star
network. All the networks of different types (of four departments) can be connected together through a central hub (in the form of star
network) as shown in the figure below.

The Telephone Network

The public switched telephone network (PSTN) is the world-wide telephone system and usually this network system uses the
digital technology. In the past, it was used for voice communication only but now it is playing very important role for data communication in
the computer network such as in the Internet. There are different types of telephone lines that are used for data communication in the
network. These are discussed below.
1. Dial-Up Lines
It is a temporary connection that uses one or more analog telephone lines for communication. Modem is used at the sending end
as well as at the receiving end. A telephone number is dialed from the sending end through modem and the modem at the receiving end
answers the call. In this way, connection is established for data communication between computers or electronic devices. In dial up line
connection, the cost of data communication is very low. The mobile users can also access the Internet through this connection.
2. Dedicated Lines
It is a permanent connection that is used to establish connection between two devices permanently. It is better than dial-up line
connection because dedicated lines provide a constant connection. These types of connections may be digital or analog. The data
transmission speed, of digital lines is very fast as compare to analog dedicated line. The data transmission speed is also measured in bits
per second (bps). In dial-up and dedicated lines, it is up to 56 Kbps. The dedicated lines are mostly used for business purposes. The most
important digital dedicated lines are described below.
1) ISDN Lines
ISDN stands for Integrated Services Digital Network. It is a set of standards used for digital transmission over telephone
line. The ISDN uses the multiplexing technique to carry three or more data signals at once through the telephone line. It is because
the data transmission speed of ISDN line is very fast. In ISDN line, both ends of connections require the ISDN modem and a
special telephone set for voice communication. Its data transmission speed is up to 128 Kbps.
2) DSL
DSL stands for Digital Subscriber Line. It is another digital line. In DSL, both ends of connections require the network
cards and DSL modems for data communication. The data transmission speed and other functions are similar as ISDN line. DSL
transmits data on existing standard copper telephone wiring. Some DSLs provide a dial tone, which allows both voice an4 data
communication.
3) ADSL

The ADSL (Asymmetric Digital Subscriber Line) is another digital connection. It is faster than DSL. ADSL is much easier
to install and provides much faster data transfer rate. Its data transmission speed is from 128 Kbps up to 10 Mbps. This connection
is ideal for Internet access.
4) Cable Television Line
The Cable Television (CATV) line is not a standard telephone line. It is a dedicated line used to access the Internet. Its
data transmission speed is 128 Kbps to 3 Mbps.
A cable modem is used with the CATV. it provides a high speed Internet connections through the cable television
network. A cable modem sends and receives digital data over the cable television network.
To access the Internet using the CATV network, the CATV Company installs a splitter inside your house. From the
splitter, one part of the cable runs to your television and other part connects to the cable modem. A cable modem usually is an
external device, in which one end of a cable connects to a CATV wall outlet while the other end plugs into a port (such as on an
Ethernet card) in the system unit.

5) T-Carrier Lines
It is very fast digital line that can carry multiple signals over a single communication line whereas a standard dialup
telephone line carries only one signal. T-carrier lines use multiplexing so that multiple signals share the line. T-carrier lines provide
very fast data transfer rates. The T-carrier lines are very expensive and large companies can afford these lines. The most popular
T-carrier lines are:
TI Line
T3 Line

i) T1 Line
The most popular T-carrier line is the Ti line (dedicated line). Its data transmission speed is 1.5 Mbps. Businesses often use Ti lines
to connect to the Internet. Many ISPs use Ti, lines to connect to the Internet backbone. Another type of TI line is the fractional TI line. It is
slower than TI line but it is less expensive. The home and business users use this line to connect to the Internet and share a connection to
the Ti line with other users.
ii) T3 Line
Another most popular and faster T-carrier line is T3 line. Its data transmission speed is 44 Mbps. It is more expensive than Ti line.
The main users of T3 line are telephone companies and ISPs. The Internet backbone itself also uses T3 lines.
6) Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM)
It is very, fast data transmission connection line that can carry data, voice, video, multimedia etc. Telephone networks, Internet and
other network use ATM. In near future, ATM will become the Internet standard for data transmission instead of T3 lines. Its data transmission
speed is from 155 Mbps to 600 Mbps.

Communication Devices
Network Interface Cards (NICs)
NIC provides the link between your computer and your network.
provide the physical connection between the network and the
workstation
most are internal, with the card fitting into an expansion slot inside the
computer
some build on the motherboard
affect the speed and performance of a network
three common network interface connections: Ethernet cards,
LocalTalk connectors, Token Ring cards

Hubs/Concentrators
A hub is a device whose primary function is to send and receive signals along
the network between the nodes connected to it.
connect multiple devices to the network
commonly found in star and star-wired ring topology networks
entire network shuts down if there is a problem on a hub
serve as a central meeting place for cables from computers, servers

and peripherals
usually configured with 4, 8, 12, or 24 RJ-45 ports

Repeaters
A repeater is a device that regenerates and amplifies signals to create longdistance networks.
simply receive, amplify and rebroadcast the signals
some repeaters provide basic error-checking
can be separate devices or they can be incorporated into a
concentrator
inexpensive, used to overcome distance limitations

Bridges
A bridge is a device that links two homogenous packet-broadcast local
networks. It accepts all packets from each network addressed to devices on the
other, buffers them, and retransmits them to the other network.
connect two or more networks using the same address method or
protocol
can provide some addressing information
monitor and manage the traffic to maintain optimum performance on
both sides of the network
often used when LANs reach their capacity of nodes

Switches
A switch is a high-speed multi-port bridge. Today, switches are replacing multiport repeaters or concentrators in a UTP environment.
an intelligent hub that maintains a bridging table, keeping track of
which hardware addresses are located on which network segment
more efficient than with any other type of hub
ability to dedicate bandwidth to each port on the switch

Routers

Linksys Wireless-G Broadband Router

WRT54GL Bridges & Routers
Manufacturer Sku WRT54GL
Brand Linksys by Cisco
Device Type Switch, Router, Access Point,
Bridge/Router, Wireless Router, Wireless
access point.

Routers are similar to bridges in that they link two or more physically separate
network segments. The network segments linked by a router, however, remain
logically separate and can function as independent networks.
translate information from one network to another; similar to a superintelligent bridge
maintain a map of the network, select the best route for data
access to more network level knowledge than is available to bridges
information on source addresses, destination addresses, path
distances, and in some cases,
segment bandwidth and segment status are contained in the router's
routing table
translates local addresses (eg. "spot") into network addresses (eg.
131.44.99.12)
can translate messages with different addressing methods
can act as firewalls (many ISP's block traffic at the router level)
direct signal traffic efficiently
route messages between any two protocols
can route messages between linear bus, star, and token ring
topologies
can route messages across fiber optic, coaxial, and twisted-pair
cabling

Media Access Method

How computing devices access the network cable and send data is known as the media access method. There are four commonly used
media access methods: Ethernet, Token Ring, Local Talk, and FDDI.

Ethernet

most popular media access method

use access method called CSMA/CD (Carrier Sense Multiple Access/Collision Detection)
allow for linear bus, star, or tree topologies
transmit data over UTP, thin-coaxial, thick-coaxial and fiber optic cables at rates of 10 Mbps
Fast Ethernet supports 100 Mbps, but requires faster hubs and network interface cards

Token Ring

developed by IBM in the mid 1980s

use a star-wired ring topology over shielded and unshielded twisted-pair wiring
a central hub (referred to as a "MAU" Mutli-station Access Unit) is at the center of the ring
Two versions of Token Ring: 4 Mbps and 16 Mbps
use a token passing process to circulate packets around the ring.
more expensive than Ethernet
good option for PC networks

Local Talk

developed by Apple Computer, Inc. for Macintosh computers

best suited to small networks of Macs
allow for linear bus, star, or tree topologies using twisted pair cable
up to 32 devices (computers, printers, and file server)
slow, data transmits at only 230 Kbps
use the CSMA/CA (Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Avoidance) process for transmitting data. CSMA/CA is similar to
CSMA/CD
single network can be up to 1,000 feet (305 meters)

FDDI (Fiber Distributed Data Interface)

ANSI standard
use fiber optics for speeds of up to 100 Mbps
use primarily to interconnect two or more LANs, often over long distances
also employ Token Ring passing process to transmit data; but use a dual counter-rotating ring topology, meaning there are two
rings of cable with two tokens circulating in opposite directions
use a token passing process to circulate packets around the ring

What is Network Cabling?

Cable is the medium through which information usually moves from one network device to another. There are several types of cable which
are commonly used with LANs. In some cases, a network will utilize only one type of cable, other networks will use a variety of cable types.
The type of cable chosen for a network is related to the network's topology, protocol, and size. Understanding the characteristics of different
types of cable and how they relate to other aspects of a network is necessary for the development of a successful network.

Types of cables used in networks

Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP) Cable

Shielded Twisted Pair (STP) Cable

Coaxial Cable
Fiber Optic Cable
Wireless LANs
Cable Installation Guides

Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP) Cable

Twisted pair cabling comes in two varieties: Shielded and Unshielded, Unshielded twisted pair (UTP) is the most popular and is generally the
best option for school networks (See fig. 1).

Fig.1. Unshielded twisted pair

The quality of UTP may vary from telephone-grade wire to extremely high-speed cable. The cable has four pairs of wires inside the jacket.
Each pair is twisted with a different number of twists per inch to help eliminate interference from adjacent pairs and other electrical devices.
The tighter the twisting, the higher the supported transmission rate and the greater the cost per foot. The EIA/TIA (Electronic Industry
Association/Telecommunication Industry Association) has established standards of UTP and rated five categories of wire.
Categories of Unshielded Twisted Pair
Type
Use
Category 1
Voice Only (Telephone Wire)
Category 2
Data to 4 Mbps (LocalTalk)
Category 3
Data to 10 Mbps (Ethernet)
Category 4
Data to 20 Mbps (16 Mbps Token Ring)
Category 5
Data to 100 Mbps (Fast Ethernet)
Buy the best cable you can afford; most schools purchase Category 3 or Category 5. If you are designing a 10 Mbps Ethernet network and
are considering the cost savings of buying Category 3 wire instead of Category 5, remember that the Category 5 cable will provide more
"room to grow" as transmission technologies increase. Both Category 3 and Category 5 UTP have a maximum segment length of 100
meters. In Florida, Category 5 cable is required for retrofit grants. 10BaseT refers to the specifications for unshielded twisted pair cable
(Category 3, 4, or 5) carrying Ethernet signals. Category 6 is relatively new and is used for gigabit connections.

Unshielded Twisted Pair Connector

The standard connector for unshielded twisted pair cabling is an RJ-45 connector. This is a plastic connector that looks like a large
telephone-style connector (See fig. 2). A slot allows the RJ-45 to be inserted only one way. RJ stands for Registered Jack,
implying that the connector follows a standard borrowed from the telephone industry. This standard designates which wire goes with each pin
inside the connector.

Fig. 2. RJ-45 connector

Shielded Twisted Pair (STP) Cable

A disadvantage of UTP is that it may be susceptible to radio and electrical frequency interference. Shielded twisted pair (STP) is suitable for
environments with electrical interference; however, the extra shielding can make the cables quite bulky. Shielded twisted pair is often used
on networks using Token Ring topology.

Coaxial Cable
Coaxial cabling has a single copper conductor at its center. A plastic layer provides insulation between the center conductor and a braided
metal shield (See fig. 3). The metal shield helps to block any outside interference from fluorescent lights, motors, and other computers.

Fig. 3. Coaxial cable

Although coaxial cabling is difficult to install, it is highly resistant to signal interference. In addition, it can support greater cable lengths
between network devices than twisted pair cable. The two types of coaxial cabling are thick coaxial and thin coaxial.
Thin coaxial cable is also referred to as thinnet. 10Base2 refers to the specifications for thin coaxial cable carrying Ethernet signals. The 2
refers to the approximate maximum segment length being 200 meters. In actual fact the maximum segment length is 185 meters. Thin
coaxial cable is popular in school networks, especially linear bus networks.
Thick coaxial cable is also referred to as thicknet. 10Base5 refers to the specifications for thick coaxial cable carrying Ethernet signals. The 5
refers to the maximum segment length being 500 meters. Thick coaxial cable has an extra protective plastic cover that helps keep moisture
away from the center conductor. This makes thick coaxial a great choice when running longer lengths in a linear bus network. One
disadvantage of thick coaxial is that it does not bend easily and is difficult to install.

Coaxial Cable Connectors

The most common type of connector used with coaxial cables is the Bayone-Neill-Concelman (BNC) connector (See
fig. 4). Different types of adapters are available for BNC connectors, including a T-connector, barrel connector, and terminator. Connectors on
the cable are the weakest points in any network. To help avoid problems with your network, always use the BNC connectors that crimp,
rather than screw, onto the cable.

Fig. 4. BNC connector

Fiber Optic Cable

Fiber optic cabling consists of a center glass core surrounded by several layers of protective materials (See fig. 5). It transmits light rather
than electronic signals eliminating the problem of electrical interference. This makes it ideal for certain environments that contain a large
amount of electrical interference. It has also made it the standard for connecting networks between buildings, due to its immunity to the
effects of moisture and lighting.
Fiber optic cable has the ability to transmit signals over much longer distances than coaxial and twisted pair. It also has the capability to carry
information at vastly greater speeds. This capacity broadens communication possibilities to include services such as video conferencing and
interactive services. The cost of fiber optic cabling is comparable to copper cabling; however, it is more difficult to install and modify. 10BaseF
refers to the specifications for fiber optic cable carrying Ethernet signals.

Fig.5. Fiber optic cable

Facts about fiber optic cables:

Outer insulating jacket is made of Teflon or PVC.

Kevlar fiber helps to strengthen the cable and prevent breakage.
A plastic coating is used to cushion the fiber center.
Center (core) is made of glass or plastic fibers.

Fiber Optic Connector

The most common connector used with fiber optic cable is an ST connector. It is barrel shaped, similar to a BNC connector. A newer
connector, the SC, is becoming more popular. It has a squared face and is easier to connect in a confined space.

Ethernet Cable Summary

Specification
10BaseT
10Base2
10Base5
10BaseF
100BaseT
100BaseTX

Cable Type
Unshielded Twisted Pair
Thin Coaxial
Thick Coaxial
Fiber Optic
Unshielded Twisted Pair
Unshielded Twisted Pair

Maximum length
100 meters
185 meters
500 meters
2000 meters
100 meters
220 meters

Installing Cable - Some Guidelines

When running cable, it is best to follow a few simple rules:
Always use more cable than you need. Leave plenty of slack.
Test every part of a network as you install it. Even if it is brand new, it may have problems that will be difficult to isolate later.
Stay at least 3 feet away from fluorescent light boxes and other sources of electrical interference.
If it is necessary to run cable across the floor, cover the cable with cable protectors.
Label both ends of each cable.
Use cable ties (not tape) to keep cables in the same location together.

Wireless LANs

Not all networks are connected with cabling; some networks are wireless. Wireless LANs use high frequency radio signals, infrared light
beams, or lasers to communicate between the workstations and the file server or hubs. Each workstation and file server on a wireless
network has some sort of transceiver/antenna to send and receive the data. Information is relayed between transceivers as if they were
physically connected. For longer distance, wireless communications can also take place through cellular telephone technology, microwave
transmission, or by satellite.
Wireless networks are great for allowing laptop computers or remote computers to connect to the LAN. Wireless networks are also beneficial
in older buildings where it may be difficult or impossible to install cables.
The two most common types of infrared communications used in schools are line-of-sight and scattered broadcast. Line-of-sight
communication means that there must be an unblocked direct line between the workstation and the transceiver. If a person walks within the
line-of-sight while there is a transmission, the information would need to be sent again. This kind of obstruction can slow down the wireless
network.
Scattered infrared communication is a broadcast of infrared transmissions sent out in multiple directions that bounces off walls and ceilings
until it eventually hits the receiver. Networking communications with laser are virtually the same as line-of-sight infrared networks.

Wireless LANs have several disadvantages

They provide poor security,

Susceptible to interference from lights and electronic devices.

They are also slower than LANs using cabling.

What is a Topology?
The physical topology of a network refers to the configuration of cables, computers, and other peripherals. Physical topology should not be
confused with logical topology which is the method used to pass information between workstations.

Main Types of Physical Topologies

The following sections discuss the physical topologies used in networks and other related topics.
Linear Bus
Star
Star-Wired Ring
Tree
Considerations When Choosing a Topology

Linear Bus
A linear bus topology consists of a main run of cable with a terminator at each end (See fig. 1). All nodes (file server, workstations, and
peripherals) are connected to the linear cable. Ethernet and LocalTalk networks use a linear bus topology.

Fig. 1. Linear Bus topology

Advantages of a Linear Bus Topology

Easy to connect a computer or peripheral to a linear bus.

Requires less cable length than a star topology.

Disadvantages of a Linear Bus Topology

Entire network shuts down if there is a break in the main cable.

Terminators are required at both ends of the backbone cable.
Difficult to identify the problem if the entire network shuts down.
Not meant to be used as a stand-alone solution in a large building.

Star
A star topology is designed with each node (file server, workstations, and peripherals) connected directly to a central network hub or
concentrator (See fig. 2).
Data on a star network passes through the hub or concentrator before continuing to its destination. The hub or concentrator manages and
controls all functions of the network. It also acts as a repeater for the data flow. This configuration is common with twisted pair cable;
however, it can also be used with coaxial cable or fiber optic cable.

Fig. 2. Star topology

Advantages of a Star Topology

Easy to install and wire.

No disruptions to the network then connecting or removing devices.
Easy to detect faults and to remove parts.

Disadvantages of a Star Topology

Requires more cable length than a linear topology.

If the hub or concentrator fails, nodes attached are disabled.
More expensive than linear bus topologies because of the cost of the concentrators.
The protocols used with star configurations are usually Ethernet or LocalTalk. Token Ring uses a similar topology, called the starwired ring.

Star-Wired Ring
A star-wired ring topology may appear (externally) to be the same as a star topology. Internally, the MAU (multi-station access unit) of a starwired ring contains wiring that allows information to pass from one device to another in a circle or ring (See fig. 3). The Token Ring protocol
uses a star-wired ring topology.

Tree
A tree topology combines characteristics of linear bus and star topologies. It consists of groups of star-configured workstations connected to
a linear bus backbone cable (See fig. 4). Tree topologies allow for the expansion of an existing network, and enable schools to configure a
network to meet their needs.

Fig. 4. Tree topology

Advantages of a Tree Topology

Point-to-point wiring for individual segments.

Supported by several hardware and software venders.

Disadvantages of a Tree Topology

Overall length of each segment is limited by the type of cabling used.

If the backbone line breaks, the entire segment goes down.
More difficult to configure and wire than other topologies.

5-4-3 Rule
A consideration in setting up a tree topology using Ethernet protocol is the 5-4-3 rule. One aspect of the Ethernet protocol requires that a
signal sent out on the network cable reach every part of the network within a specified length of time. Each concentrator or repeater that a
signal goes through adds a small amount of time. This leads to the rule that between any two nodes on the network there can only be a
maximum of 5 segments, connected through 4 repeaters/concentrators. In addition, only 3 of the segments may be populated (trunk)
segments if they are made of coaxial cable. A populated segment is one which has one or more nodes attached to it . In Figure 4, the 5-4-3
rule is adhered to. The furthest two nodes on the network have 4 segments and 3 repeaters/concentrators between them.
This rule does not apply to other network protocols or Ethernet networks where all fiber optic cabling or a combination of a fiber backbone
with UTP cabling is used. If there is a combination of fiber optic backbone and UTP cabling, the rule is simply translated to 7-6-5 rule.

Considerations When Choosing a Topology:

Money. A linear bus network may be the least expensive way to install a network; you do not have to purchase concentrators.
Length of cable needed. The linear bus network uses shorter lengths of cable.
Future growth. With a star topology, expanding a network is easily done by adding another concentrator.
Cable type. The most common cable in schools is unshielded twisted pair, which is most often used with star topologies.
Summary Chart:
Physical Topology

Common Cable

Common Protocol

Linear Bus

Twisted Pair
Coaxial
Fiber

Ethernet
LocalTalk

Star

Twisted Pair
Fiber

Ethernet
LocalTalk

Star-Wired Ring

Twisted Pair

Token Ring

Tree

Twisted Pair
Coaxial
Fiber

Ethernet

7 Layers of the OSI Model

The OSI, or Open System Interconnection, model defines a networking framework for implementing protocols in
seven layers. Control is passed from one layer to the next, starting at the application layer in one station, proceeding to the bottom layer,
over the channel to the next station and back up the hierarchy.

Introduction
When computers were first linked together into networks, moving information between different types of computers was a very difficult task.
In the early 1980s, the International Standards Organization (ISO) recognized the need for a standard network model. This would help
vendors to create interpretable network devices. The Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) reference model, released in 1984, addressed
this need.
The OSI model describes how information makes its way from application programs through a network medium to another application
program in another computer. It divides this one big problem into seven smaller problems.
Each of these seven problems is reasonably self-contained and therefore more easily solved without excessive reliance on external
information. Each problem is addressed by one of the seven layers of the OSI model. The seven layers of the OSI model are:

The acronym used to remember these layers is:

People Seem To Need Data Processing.

All

The lower two OSI model layers are implemented with

hardware and software.
The upper five are generally implemented only in
software.

Advantages of Layered Approach

The layered approach to network communications provides the following benefits:
reduced complexity
improved teaching and learning

modular engineering
accelerated evolution
interoperable technology
standard interfaces

As the information to be sent descends through the layers of a system it looks less and less like human language and more and more like
the 1s and 0s that a computer understands.

Example
Let's look at an example of OSI-type communication. Assume that System A has information to send to System B. System A's application
program communicates with System A's layer seven (Application Layer). Layer seven communicates with layer six which communicates with
layer five and so on until System A's layer one is reached. The information traverses the physical medium and is received by System B's
layer one.
It then ascends through System B's layers in reverse order until it finally reaches System B's application program. Each of System A's layers
has certain tasks it must perform. Each layer communicates directly with its adjacent layers. However, its primary concern in carrying out its
tasks is to communicate with its peer layer in System B.

Layer Functions
Application
(Layer 7)

This layer supports application and end-user processes. Communication partners are identified,
quality of service is identified, user authentication and privacy are considered, and any constraints
on data syntax are identified. Everything at this layer is application-specific. This layer provides
application services for file transfers, e-mail, and other network software services. Telnet and FTP
are applications that exist entirely in the application level. Tiered application architectures are part of
this layer.

Presentation
(Layer 6)

This layer provides independence from differences in data representation (e.g., encryption) by
translating from application to network format, and vice versa. The presentation layer works to
transform data into the form that the application layer can accept. This layer formats and encrypts
data to be sent across a network, providing freedom from compatibility problems. It is sometimes

called the syntax layer.

Session
(Layer 5)

This layer establishes, manages and terminates connections between applications. The session
layer sets up, coordinates, and terminates conversations, exchanges, and dialogues between the
applications at each end. It deals with session and connection coordination.

Transport
(Layer 4)

This layer provides transparent transfer of data between end systems, or hosts, and is responsible
for end-to-end error recovery and flow control. It ensures complete data transfer.

Network
(Layer 3)

This layer provides switching and routing technologies, creating logical paths, known as virtual
circuits, for transmitting data from node to node. Routing and forwarding are functions of this layer,
as well as addressing, internetworking, error handling, congestion control and packet sequencing.

Data Link
(Layer 2)

At this layer, data packets are encoded and decoded into bits. It furnishes transmission protocol
knowledge and management and handles errors in the physical layer, flow control and frame
synchronization. The data link layer is divided into two sub layers: The Media Access Control (MAC)
layer and the Logical Link Control (LLC) layer. The MAC sub layer controls how a computer on the
network gains access to the data and permission to transmit it. The LLC layer controls frame
synchronization, flow control and error checking.

Physical
(Layer 1)

This layer conveys the bit stream - electrical impulse, light or radio signal -- through the network at
the electrical and mechanical level. It provides the hardware means of sending and receiving data
on a carrier, including defining cables, cards and physical aspects. Fast Ethernet, RS232, and ATM
are protocols with physical layer components.

DSL vs Cable Internet

Differences between DSL and Cable Internet

DSL internet

Cable internet

Data transmission via phone line

Data transmission via coaxial cable line

Connected through DSL modem

Connected through cable modem

Dedicated phone line

Shared cable television line

Connection speed not affected by number of

users in the neighborhood

Connection speed affected by number of users in

your neighborhood

Not all phone lines are equipped for DSL

service

Not all cable networks are capable of cable internet

service

Available to more homes than cable

Availability is limited to certain areas where two-way

cable modem transmission is supported

Connection speed is affected by distance

from ISP operation center

Connection speed is not affected by the distance

Maximum connection speed: up to 10 Mbps*

Maximum connection speed up to 30 Mbps*

Bundled with local phone service

Bundled with cable television service

Both cable Internet and DSL are last mile technologies, by which we mean that they bridge the last mile between
the subscriber and the service provider. Cable Internet uses the cable network while DSL makes use of the existing
telephone network. Cable Internet connectivity offers higher speeds than DSL connection. Theoretically, cable
connection offers higher bandwidths than DSL. But a cable connection is shared between a number of subscribers
due to which its performance drops when many users connect to it. This is also why the speed of cable connection
drops during times of peak traffic.

Although cable internet is capable of a higher connection speed, the actual speed difference between DSL and
cable may be small. Most ISPs have imposed bandwidth / speed caps for residential users, which limit the
maximum connection speed depending on service plans. For cable internet users, the number of people sharing
the same cable line at the same time also affects the connection speed.

EIA/TIA Standard

Procedures on how to make UTP Patch Cable using

EIA/TIA Standard
Materials Needed:

UTP Cable
RJ 45 Connectors
Crimping Tool
Patch Cable Tester
Cable Stripper/Wire Stripper
Cable/Wire Cutter

Procedure:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.

Cut UTP cable at specified length.

Stripped cable insulator at least 1 in length
Separate wires by color.
Arrange wires by using EIA/TIA Standard and make them straight by twisting them
upward-downward, and left right movement.
Again double check if wires are in proper order.
Cut wires at least inch.
Crimp wires with the use crimping tool, make sure that all wires are properly inserted
inside the RJ 45 connector.
Do procedure 1 to 7 to the other end of the cable.
Test the patch cable by using Patch Cable Tester.