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History of Atomic Theory

Alchemy ~ Before 400 B.C.


Experiment: Pseudoscience concerned with:
Changing metal to gold
Finding an eternal life elixir

Aristotle

Beliefs:
All matter was made up of a combination of the four elements
Four elements: fire, wind, earth, water

History of Atomic Theory


Democritus ~ 400 B.C.
Experiment: None. He had beliefs that were disregarded.
Beliefs:
Named the atom "Atomos." It means indivisible
Matter is composed of atoms too small to be seen.
Empty space between atoms
Atoms are solid and homogeneous
Different atoms have different sizes and shapes

Democritus

Model: Sphere

History of Atomic Theory


Dalton ~ early 1803 English School Teacher
John Dalton

Experiment: Studied chemical reactions, making observations and measurements


Beliefs:

Five Principles-Dalton's Atomic Theory

1. All matter is made of indestructible atoms.

2. Atoms of the same element are identical in their physical and chemical properties.

3. Atoms of different elements have different physical and chemical properties.

4. Atoms of different elements combine in simple whole number ratios to form chemical
compounds.

5. In chemical reactions, atoms cannot be subdivided, created, or destroyed. They are


combined, separated, or rearranged.

Model: Sphere-Billiard balls

Which principles remain true today?

History of Atomic Theory

Experiment: Cathode Ray Tube


Electricity is passed through a gas tube. The gas
beam can be bent with a magnet.

Joseph John Thomson

J.J. Thomson ~ 1897 English Physicist

Discoveries:
Atoms consist of charged particles
The negatively charged particles are called electrons (1897)
The positively charged particles are called protons (1920)

Model: Plum Pudding or Chocolate Chip Cookies


The chocolate chips are electrons stuck in positive dough

History of Atomic Theory


Rutherford ~ 1911 English Physicist

(a student of Thomson)

Experiment: Gold Foil Experiment


Positively charged alpha particles are shot
at a piece of thin gold foil. Most alpha
particles had little deflection. Some were
deflected at large angles.

Ernest Rutherford

Discoveries:
A positively charged core of an atom called the nucleus
Electrons surround the nucleus
The rest of the atom is empty space

Model: Nuclear atom


Quote: "It was about as believable as if you had fired a 15 inch shell at a
piece of tissue paper, and it came back and hit you."- Rutherford

History of Atomic Theory


James Chadwick ~ 1932 English Physicist

(Student of Rutherford)

Experiment:

Beryllium foil was bombarded with alpha particles


Sir James Chadwick
A neutral radiation was emitted
Emitted radiation would then knock protons out of the nuclei of other substances
The radiation was a stream of neutral particles having the same mass as a proton

Discoveries:
A neutrally charged subatomic particle
The particle was called a neutron

Model: Same as Rutherford

Review History of Atom


http://glencoe.mcgrawhill.com/sites/dl/free/0078759864/164155/00044672.html

History of Atomic Theory


Bohr ~ 1913 Danish Physicist

(a student of Rutherford)

Problem: According to the laws of physics, charged particles


will radiate energy when orbiting and spiral into the
nucleus. Rutherford's atoms would all collapse.

Niels Bohr

Experiment: Light Spectrums


Electrons give off energy in the form of colored
light by falling from an excited state to a
ground state.

Discoveries:

Electrons can only be found at certain energy


levels
Each energy level requires a certain amount of
energy
Lower (closer) levels have lower energy
Higher (farther) levels have higher energy

Model:

PhotocourtesyNASA

Hydrogen Spectrum

Helium Spectrum

Ladder Rungs-Cannot stand in between rungs

Vocabulary:
ground state- all electrons in their lowest possible
energy levels

excited state-electrons absorbed energy & jump to


a higher energy level

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History of Atomic Theory


Quantum Mechanics

Erwin Schrodinger ~ 1926 Austrian Physicist


Problem: Bohr's model works well for Hydrogen, but fails for
every other element

Mathematical Equation:

Experiment:

Erwin Schrodinger

NONE! It is a mathematical model. It cannot be


represented by anything that exists in the real world.

Discoveries:
Mathematical model that deals with the probability of finding an electron within a given
space
The probability is 90%
The given space are called orbitals (or electron clouds)
There are four orbitals with different shapes s p d f
These orbitals can be related to the periodic table
Electrons have wave properties

Model:

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Electromagnetic Radiation: waves that are produced by electrically charged


particles
Ex: sunlight, X rays, microwaves
Electromagnetic Spectrum

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All electromagnetic radiation exhibits wave like behavior


(wavelength, frequency, and speed)

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Quantum Numbers: Specify the properties of atomic orbitals and the properties of electrons
in those orbitals. Each e- has a set of four numbers no two electrons in
the same atom can have the same four numbers.

Four Quantum Numbers:

Principal

Angular

Magnetic

Spin

1. Principal Quantum Number (n)- Refers to the distance of the orbital from the
nucleus (says which of the main energy levels an
e- is in)
When n=1 is closest to the nucleus and has the least energy
n=1,2,3,4,5, etc.

2. Angular Quantum Number (l)- Refers to the shape of the orbital (also associated
a. Possible Shapes

with angular momentum)

s, p, d, f (in order of increasing energy)


l=integer values from 0 to n-1

b. Number of possible shapes is limited by the principal quantum number

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3. Magnetic Quantum Number (m)- Orientation of orbital(s) (direction of angular


momentum)

- m=any integer from -l to +l

4. Spin Quantum Number (s)- State of the electron that occupies an orbital
-Electrons are assigned one of the two possible directions it can be spinning
- + spin or - spin

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Heisenberg's Uncertainty Principle: you can


never know how fast an electron is moving and
where an electron is at the same time. In
other words, you can find out where the
electron started and you can see where the
electron ended up but how it got there WE
DON'T KNOW!

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Electron Configuration: The arrangement of electrons in an atom


is known as the atoms electron configuration.

Rules:

1. Aufbau Principle: An electron occupies the lowest energy level that can receive it.
2. Pauli Exculsion Principle: No two electrons in the same atom can have the same
set of four quantum numbers.
If two electrons have the same n, m, and l values they have to have different spins
Two electrons fit into each orbital

3. Hund's Rule: Orbitals of equal energy are each occupied by one electron before
any orbital is occupied by a second electron, and all electrons in singly occupied
orbitals must have the same spin

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4p

3d
4thenergylevel

4s
3p
3rdenergylevel

3s

2ndenergylevel

2p

2s
1stenergylevel

1s

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Attachments

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Chadwickapparatus
Timelineofscientists
Schrodingerequation
Conversationwithscience
orbitals

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