I.

Discussion of theory

Amplifier is the generic term used to describe a circuit which

increases its input signal, but not all amplifiers are the same as they
are classified according to their circuit configurations and methods of
operation.
In Electronics, small signal amplifiers are commonly used
devices as they have the ability to amplify a relatively small input
signal, for example from a SENSOR such as a photo-device, into a
much larger output signal to drive a relay, lamp or loudspeaker for
example.
There are many forms of electronic circuits classed as amplifiers,
from Operational Amplifiers and Small Signal Amplifiers up to Large
Signal and Power Amplifiers. The classification of an amplifier

BJT Voltage
Audio Input Divider Bias Darlington
Signal Configurati Connection
on

Output
Sound

depends upon the size of the signal, large or small, its physical
configuration and how it processes the input signal that is the
relationship between input signal and current flowing in the load.

Block Diagram

Input Signal
For the input of these amplifier, sound wave are acquired through
different mobile devices or any digital sound.
BJT Voltage Divider Bias
The common emitter transistor is biased using a voltage divider
network to increase stability. The name of this biasing configuration
comes from the fact that the two resistors RB1 and RB2 form a
voltage or potential divider network with their center point
connecting the transistors base terminal directly across the supply.

This voltage divider configuration is the most widely used

transistor biasing method, as the emitter diode of the transistor is
forward biased by the voltage dropped across resistor RB2. Also,
voltage divider network biasing makes the transistor circuit
independent of changes in beta as the voltages at the transistors
base, emitter, and collector are dependent on external circuit values.
Darlington Connection
One transistor circuit configuration that can be used to very good
effect in many instances is the Darlington Pair. It normally consists of
two transistors. The emitter of the input transistor is connected
directly to the base of the second. Both collectors are connected
together. In this way the base current from the first transistor enters
the base of the second.
The Darlington transistor pair is a very useful circuit in many
applications. It provides a high level of current gain which can be
used in many power applications. Although the Darlington pair has
some limitations, it is nevertheless used in many areas, especially
where high frequency response in not needed. In particular
Darlington transistors are used for applications including audio
outputs, power supply outputs, display drivers and the like.

II.

Schematic Diagrams

R1
8k

R4
200

R5
8.5k

C4
Q1

D2
1N4148

500F

C3
V1
24V

470F
V2

R2
806

500mVrms
1kHz
0

R8
1k

Q3

D1
1N4148

TIP31A
C1

2N3904

470F
R6
806

R3
100

Q4

2N3904
R7
100

Q2

TIP32A

(PCB layout design)

III.

Materials
Printed PreSensitized P.C.B.
(4x6)

Acrylic Glass
(CASE)
Transistor
o TIP31A

Speaker
8

o TIP32A
o 2N3904
Zener Diode
(1N4148)
Resistors
o 8K (3) ,
1K ,806
(2), 200,
100 (2)
o

Capacitor
o 470F (3)
Potentiometer
Power Switch
3.5mm Audio
Receptacle
Drill and Drill Bit
Lead
Ferric Chloride

IV.

V.

Procedures

1.)

Prepare the materials needed in making the amplifier

2.)

Create a schematic diagram (Darlington Connection)

3.)
Test the schematic diagram in a breadboard to see if
it is working.

4.)
Convert the schematic diagram to ultiboard for
etching.

5.)

6.)
Drill the Pre-Sensitized P.C.B according to the holes
presented in the ultiboard.

7.)

Place the components and solder it.

8.)

Place the finished work in acrylic glass case

Etch the Pre-Sensitized P.C.B.

Data and Results

R1
8k

R4
200
C4
Q1

R5
8.5k

D2
1N4148

500F

C3
V1
24V

470F

R2
806

V2

500mVrms
1kHz
0

Q3

D1
1N4148

TIP31A
C1

2N3904

R3
100

Voltage Divider
Configuration

R8
1k

470F
R6
806

Q4

2N3904
R7
100

Q2

TIP32A

Darlington

Speaker
8

Our circuit is mainly composed of transformer, rectifier, filter

and voltage regulator to achieve our desired output voltage of 18
VD.C. .

The first stage is the transformer. Our group used a coil ratio
of 9:1 with a 1A capacity and basically reduce a 220V to 24V. We
decided to use this transformer because it is commonly available in
the market and close in our desired output for us to regulate easier.
After stepping down a high voltage input, a bridge type rectifier
circuit is present to convert an A.C to D.C. voltage. We decided to use
this because the rectification efficiency of full-wave rectifier is double
of that of a half-wave rectifier. Similarly we use a four highly reliable
and small-sized silicon diode in order to create the rectification.

The output from a rectifier circuit is technically isnt stable.

Thats where filtering comes. The pulsing current cause by an A.C
source isnt suitable for most electronic circuits. Filtering is usually
accomplished by introducing a capacitor into the power supply circuit
and our group used 470 and 47F.

Lastly, we add a Zener diode to regulate our desired output.

Its function is to provide a constant output voltage to a load
connected in parallel with it in spite of the ripples in the supply
voltage or the variation in the load current and the Zener diode will
continue to regulate the voltage until the diodes current falls below
the minimum IZ(min) value in the reverse breakdown region. Hence,
our group use 1N4471 Zener diode that regulates at 18V constantly.

XMM1

XSC1
Ext Trig
+

XMM3

_
B

A
+

V1
220Vrms
60Hz
0

T1

9:1

D1

D2

R3

1N4001

1N4001

1k

D3

D4

1N4001

1N4001

XMM2

C1
470F

C2
47F

R1
5k

D5
1N4471

R4
2k

OSCILLOSCOPE READING

At the first stage of simulation, the reading of the

multimeter after the transformer is 24.47VD.C and it has no
discrepancies in comparison with the calculated value which is
24.44VD.C. Nonetheless, it is 1/9 of the input voltage.

Moreover, the voltage at the rectified circuit is 22.872V D.C.

The voltage is subtracted by the threshold voltage of the two forward
biased diode at both alternation. Hence, the calculated value of
23.044VD.Cand has a percentage error of 0.75 .

the

Thefiltered circuit has a voltage reading of 32.771V D.C and

true is 32.537VD.Chaving a percentage error of 0.72 .

Nonetheless, the approximate ripple voltage at the output is

and the resulting ripple factor is

0.32

0.105 V

which suggest more effective

filtering.

Lastly, the Zener diode has a value of 18V and with the
32.54VD.Cas an input voltage, the maximum and minimum R Lis
33.33k and 1238 respectively. Our group used a 2000 resistor
that is sufficient to activate the Zener diode and to have a constant
output of 18VD.C. . Nevertheless, the output voltage at the simulated
circuit is 17.923VD.C and have a percentage error of 0.43 .

VI.

COMPUTATION:

Av =

B=

Ic
Ib

B=

14.059 mA
70.087 A

R 1 R2 Rc Bre

IE=Ic

26 mv
14.059 mA

=1.85

Avvd =

1
1.85
1
1
1
1
+
+
+
8000 806 200 200 (1.85)

Avvd=-59.61

Pout=0.25IcsatVcc

Icsat=

Vcc
RL

Pout=0.25(

Pout=18W

Pdc=

24 x 24
)
8

IcsatxVcc

Pdc=

Vcc
RL

Pdc=

24 2
(8)

Pdc=22.92W

eff =

eff =

18
100
22.92

Eff=79%

Conclusion

With the design made and the circuit tested, the group
concludes that a power supply produce a constant voltage output
through the proper combination, connection, and configuration of
resistors, diodes, capacitors and a transformer with an appropriate
value rating.

With it, the group concludes that a transformer may

either step down or step up the input voltage for the required output.
In connection to this, the group also concludes that in a power supply
design, a bridge type diode configuration is the best to use in order to
convert an ac input into a rectified dc output.

In a transformed dc output, the group concludes that

capacitors are used in the circuit in order to maintain a constant dc
output. In line to it, the group can say that the higher capacitor value,

Po
100
Pdc

the longer the time the capacitor to be charge thus having an output
the output that gradually approach a consistent value. Similarly, a
lower capacitor value will have a faster charging time and abrupt
voltage output but a lesser consistent one.

In order for the power supply to produce the desired

output, the group concludes that a regulator must be used to attain
the voltage needed. The group concludes that a Zener diode
maintains the output leaving it with respect to its voltage rating. The
group also concludes that resistors play an important role in keeping
the current and voltage in an optimum safe value for the circuit.

With the project done, the group concludes that

polarity, connection, configuration and mathematical values are the
most important thing to consider in designing a power supply.

Documentation