TWO-DIMENSIONAL VERSUS THREE-DIMENSIONAL CONCEPTUALIZATION

IN ASTRONOMY EDUCATION

MICHAEL DAVID REYNOLDS

A DISSERTATION PRESENTED TO THE GRADUATE SCHOO.

OF THE UNIVERSITY OF FLORIDA IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT
OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE Cf
DOCTOR OF PHILOSOmY
UNIVERSITY OF aORIDA

Copyright 1990

by
Michael David Reynolds

ACKNCWUlDGaiENTB

The author would

committee

chairperson,

dedication.

The

helped to make

insight
this

like

to

and

his

thank

of

author, but the beginning of

for

that has

a new quest

molded the author.

has always supported him at

of

knowledge: without

been possible.

their

his doctoral

in

life.

friendship of the author's chairperson cannot

an experience

doctoral

his

family

and guidance

committee,
support

and

committee has

research not only a valuable experience for the

their

all

The guidance and

be overstated,

The

for

it

is

family of the author

turns of his quest for the expansion

support this research would not have

TABLE OF CONTENTS
pane

ACKNOWLECXBMB^
ABSTRACT
CHAPTERS
1

INTRODUCTION

REVIEW OF UTERATURE

MATERIALS AND METHODS

24

Population

26
28

Study Design
Final Study Design and Implementation
Pilot

31

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

40
40
42
46

Introduction and Overview

Participant Sun/ey Data
Lunar Phases Sequence Proposal
Pair Explanations of Sequence Proposals
Analysis of Model Dimension and Explanation
Analysis of Type of Model versus Additional

S3

65

Variables

Review
5

of the

68
Results

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS

Overview
Implications of this Study for the

74

75
75
78

Classroom

APPENDICES

A
B

PARENTAL LETTER AND STUDENT PERMISSION FORM

80

...

STUDSVr SURVEY FORM

DATA CODING FORMS

SAMPLE STUDENT DRAWINGS

CODED DATA

82

83
.

85

88

REFEFeJCES

91

BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH

95

Abstract of Dissertation Presented to tfie Graduate School

of the ClniversiW of Florida in Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy

TWO-DIMENSIONAL VERSUS THREE-DIMENSIONAL CONCEPTUALIZATION

IN ASTRONOMY EDUCATION
By
Michael David Reynolds

December, 1990
Chairman: Mary Budd Rowe, Ph.D.
Major Department: Instruction and Curriculum

Numerous

science

conceptual

Classroom

three-dimensional.

issues

topics are of this nature, e. g.

such

is

often the

This study
pairs

case

in

11th

is

more

to

examine conceptions exhibited by

minimizes needs

likely

often

two-dimensions;

physics

students

as

they

Student pairs, 13 male and 13 female,

were randomly selected and assigned.

classroom emulation,

in

the classroom.

grade standard

modeled the lunar phases.

discussion

naturally

are

Several astronomy

mechanics of the phases of the moon.

three-dimensional topic

was conducted

like-sex

of

this

are

presentations

two-dimensional or at best multidimensional.

Textbooks present

to display

Pairing
for

variety

direct

comes

closer

probes,

to

and pair

and depth.

Four hypotheses were addressed:

Participants

1.
likely

who

model

three-dimensionally

achieve a higher explanation score.

will

more

who experienced more

Students

2.

exposure

more

will

Pairs

3.

preference

Males

4.

Students

provided

set representing two complete

to explain

use.

including

Activities

were

was a

choice

why

information,

videotaped

correlation

was determined

It

.05

level.

who

were

not

Pairs with

case

of

pairs

and

likely

of

The

a 16-card

was

pair

were provided

pen,

and

evaluation.

for

fiashlight.

Statistics

of

between course preference

hypotheses.

who modeled

three-dimensionally

phases mechanics explanation

their

at

p <

science or physical science exposure,

earth

to

science

including

pair laid out

Materials

science or mathematics,

prefer

more

reasons for lack

later

for the other

that

achieved a higher score on

those

for

determination

ANOVA

and model type and

paper

spheres,

Each

phase changes.

lunar

phases occur.

the

disks,

mathematics

or

three dimensions more than females.

in

background

course exposure and subject preference.

asked

science

strong

model three-dimensionally.

likely

model

will

exhibit

more

earth or physical science

model three-dimensionally.

likely

that

will

model

significance

and male participants

three-dimensionally.

was

Possible

small sample size and

course preferences, small differences

in

in

the

course preference

means.

Based

on

dimensionality

this

and

study,

student

instructors

should

misconceptions.

Whenever

three-dimensional concepts should be modeled as such.

publishers

should

three-dimensional

consider

ancillaries.

modeling

aware

be

of

possible,

Authors and

suggestions

and

CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
The conceptual Issues
difficulties

troubles
Involved

In

to

be addressed

learning astronomy.

from

arising

the

coordinate

polar

Involve

systems

moon phenomena are

Concepts associated with phases

of

focus

like-sex,

of

study relate to

this

In

particular these issues

In

unfamiliar

explanations of three-dimensional dynamic phenomena.

in

this

introductory

Pairs

study.

physics

of

the

were

students

11th-grads
the

high

subjects

the

school
in

this

Investigation.

Discussion and understanding of astronomical concepts depends

how

on

students

well

three-dimensional

i.e.,

and

The

teachers

rely

of

develop

coordinate

In

on

astronomical

particular.

phenomena and

Typically

two-dimensional

static

system

Is

In

a polar

phenomena are time-based,

the teaching of astronomy, however, texts

diagrams,

three-dimensional

supplement texts with demonstrations,

Illustrate

working

facility

systems where the objects are

celestial

In addition, celestial

they are dynamic.

representations

can

polar coordinate

constant motion.

In

coordinate system.

there

i.e.,

static

two-dimensional

phenomena.
i.e.,

Teachers may

models which

physical

the lunar phase sequence

are

three

diagrams,

such

genre
as

in

of

in

models:

textbooks;

two-dimensional dynamic diagrams (components can be moved); and

three-dimensional models, either static or dynamic.

phenomenon

This study focuses on the astronomical

as the phases of the moon.

It

students taking physics as they

moon

occur.

The

some

investigate

will

and misconceptions exhibited by pairs

of

intent of the study

how

concepts

the phases of the

twofold: (a) to

is

referred to

of the

grade high school

11th

explain

to

try

conceptions and misconceptions the pairs invoke and

examine the

how they weave

ideas together to produce an explanation; and (b) to examine what

materials,

If

any, students choose to help them think through and

represent their

Materials

ideas.

available to

subjects

the

permit

choices for either two- or three-dimensional demonstrations of the

moon phase dynamics,

if

they elect

use them.

to

The research methodology employed

students

explore the conceptions

to

use to explain the earth-moon-sun

following

elements:

pairs

(a)

relationship

has the

grade

physics

11 th

like-sex

of

students (13 male and 13 female pairs):

a stimulus problem:

(b)

(c)

materials for modeling relationships; and (d) video documentation of

actions and discussions for each pair.
It

is

perhaps unusual

to

use student

however, the selection of a

pairs

advantages:

the pair

variety

(c)

(a)

discussion

and depth

situation

comes

of

in

pairs.

this

case

like-sex;

is

more

concepts students think

likely

may be

closer to emulating the class

mode

to

display the

involved; (b> the

of working;

and

the technique minimizes the necessity for direct probes from the

investigator that are such a source of variation

studies
actions
for

In

methodology has the following

on science misconceptions.

and discussions of each

analysis.

Video

and bias
tape

in

cognitive

records

of

the

pair provide the basic source of data

The major hypotheses

to

be addressed

in

study were the

this

following:

Students who devise and use a three-dimensional model are

1.

more

likely

to

achieve a higher score on an explanation

who use a combination

two-

of

thart

those

and three-dimensional model, a

two-dimertsional model, or no model at

rely

i.e.,

all,

exclusively

on

words-

The independent
model

used

by

two-dimensional,

Models

pair.

combination

three-dimensional,

hypothesis was the type of

variable for this

the

of

Included

three-

no

are

The

model.

the pair's answer.

of

that

and two-dimensional,

a verbal explanation using

or

dependent variable was a scoring

those

Statistical

examination employed a one-way analysis of variance or

ANOVA.

post-hoc

differences

analysis

Tukey)

(specifically,

contrasting

between those pairs that employ a three-dimensional model and each

of the other types of
will

models used

to

moon

also be examined.
In

addition,

between the

comparisons of concepts and reasoning was made

pairs

who used

three-dimensional

who used two-dimensional modeling

of the processes
their

explain the phases of the

to

in

modeling and those

gain a deeper understanding

and reasoning involved,

grasp of dynamics

particularly

In

relation to

the three-dimensional coordinate system

over time.
2.

Pairs

in

which one or both members have had significant

course experience
will

more

explanation.

likely

in

the earth

exhibit

sciences or the physical sciences

three-dimensional

modeling

in

their

The independent

variable

or

physical

earth

the

either

number

used

was

the pair's course experience

determined

sciences,

by the

in

total

of course experiences for the pair for the earth or physical

The dependent

sciences.

for its

explanation.

variable

was

the type of model each pair

A one-way ANOVA was

the statistic of

choice.
3.

Pairs

which

in

either

preference for science or math

modeling

three-dimensional

member
subjects

combination of three- and two-dimensional,

stronger

more

explanation

their

in

exhibits
will

exhibit

likely

rather

than

two-dimensional,

the
or

verbal explanation using no model over those for which the subject

preference rating favors the English, social studies, arts or music.

The

was

independent variable

mean

the

of

student's subject preference ranking

(averaged

dependent variable was the type

model each

explanation.

An examination

of

of the correlation

the
the

for

pair

was

Individual

The

pair).

used

for

its

the statistic of

choice.
4.

than

Male pairs

female pairs

will

will,

be more

due

likely

to

model

the overall

to

net

in

three-dimensions

number

of

science

courses taken.

Although
science,
subject,

i.e.,

all

the

they

students

in

were taking

the

sample were accelerated

physics,

typically

12th

in

grade

presumably those pairs with more extensive science course

exposure were more

iikely

to

produce a correct lunar sequence and

provide a criterion explanation.

The independent
variable

was the type

variable
of

was

the sex of the pair.

model each pair used

for

its

The dependent
explanation.

one-way

ANOVA was

analysis

using

used

Additional

hypothesis.

the

test

to

ANOVAs ware employed

two-way

to

examine

relationships.

Variables

course

for

of

model employed

moon phenomenon.

following;
subjects,

A sample

of

all

that

astronomy

in

instruction

that

the materials

is

was given

reliability

of

case.

relies

also applicable.

the
to

same grade

the

was

In

to

results

and

for

and preconceptions

addition,

independent

lines

tests

implications for instruction appear

of

of
in

in

is

science,

relevant research on astronomy

on physical models

These

a panel

devised.

was determined.

to

research

Chapter 3 presents the design and methodology

4 describes the

directions

In

research on which this investigation

misconceptions

of

this

taped

subjects

evaluating explanations and models

for

The primary genre

is

all

included

like-sex pairs.

and an Intercoder

rating

based

science

design

They were drawn from seven classes and

course.
to

the

for

environment,

Caucasian subjects, and

same

randomly assigned

A system

sex,

subjects'

the explanation of the phases of

for

Controls

work

standardized
all

level in the

the

subject preference rating, score on the explanation,

history,

and the type

the

Included

study

this

represent relationships

appear

in

Chapter

of the study.

hypotheses.

Chapter

S.

2.

Chapter

Conclusions and

CHAPTER 2
REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE
reviewed

Literature

Investigation

this

for

conceptions and explanations of the phases of the

is

The

divided into four groups.

that directly

relate to

astronomy

and

first

on

student

moon phenomena

group includes those papers

the study such as misconception research in

physics.

citations

All

group

this

in

are

research-based studies.

The second group

document

includes those which

citations

of

the scops of misunderstandings and particularly those that bear on

the content pertinent to

where the

this

instructional effectiveness of physical

or another are

The

compared.

efficacy of planetarium

relevant to this

are

empirical

The
2-4,

not

includes studies

models of one kind

group inoludes citations on the

The

group

of citations

are

Important

and

study based on current instructional practice

but

necessarily

final

make claims which

supported

by

are

substrate

of

focused

investigations.
following tables, Table 2-1, Table 2-2, Table 2-3,

group each type of

target

third

instruction.

miscellaneous papers that

which

This group

study.

population,

the

citation

citation's

claims or findings.

and Table

by the investigator and date, the

topic,

and

the

citation's

main

Table 2-1
Misconception Research
Investigator:

Dale

Target

Topic

Main

Preconceptions

Preconceptions are

Claiin or Finding

Population

Students

in Physics such
as motion implies

to

difficult

change: students should

predictions based on

make

their conceptions.

Darch, Eaves;
1

986

Slow
Learning

Effectiveness of

Use

visual displays

significantiy-more effective

Linear motion

Students held misconceptions

Disability

of visual display Is

device.

students

College

Hailoun,

Hestenes;

students

misconceptions

1985

about motion:

when

challenged they would

successfully rethink the

conception.

Lightman,
Sadler;

988

Elementary

Astronomy

teachers,

Preconceptions;

students

Earth's

shape

Most teachers believed that

their second grade students
understood that the Earth
round, but the students

is

did not.

Lord;

1985

College
students

Visuo-spatlal

enhancement

Visuo-spatial understanding

can be enhanced through

the student's classroom
environment.

Sneider,

Pulos;l983

3rd

8th

Misconceptions;

grade

Earth's shape,

students

gravity

Most misconceived earth's

shape and physics of gravity.

Table 2-2
Misunderstanding, Models

Investigator:

Date
Bishop;

1980

Target

Topic

Main Claim or Finding

Projective

Students

Population
8lh grade

students

spatial abilities

models

who employed
addition to the

in

planetarium performed
significantly better.

College

astronomy

Spatal learning
in

astronomy

Spatial Learning

is

due

to

general olass environment

rather than to spatial

exercises.

College

Three-dimensional

astronomy

topics

Students

Two-dimensional

Students could not easily go

from two-dimensional to
three-dimensional astronomy

Pod more,
Reeh 1985

Three-dimensional model

versus three-

more

dimensional

to time.

effective

and can

is

relate

comet
models

Halley's
orbit

Rosenquist,

McDermott;

High school

Graphing concept

Students had a

Commercial
versus

Students performed

students

relating

1987
Shrigley;

1971

difficult

time

a graph and physics

concepts.

6th grade

students

homemade models

significantly higher

exposed

to

when

commercial

models.

Sonntag;
1981

College
seniors

Spatial orientation

versus teaching

methods

Model

instruction

produced

significantly higher scores,

Main Claim or Finding

Planetarijm

There

is

no

significant

versus class

difference In treatments;

teaching

females do better

in

planetarium and males

In

classroom; 5th grades cannot

master dimensional thinking.

Use of celestial globe

Reed,
Campbell:

Is

more

Is

mo

effective than the

planetarium.

1972

Use of celestial globe

effective short

term than

the planetarium.

Roberts;

1970

Preschool;

Planetarium for

disadvant-

astronomy

aged

education
Planetarium for

Planetarium

made an

impression on participants,

There

Is

no

significant

understanding

instruct'on of

difference

three-dimensional

the moon's phases, eclipses,

in

and celestial sphere

mechanics as a result

of

using the planetarium In

three-dimensional teaching.

Planetarium

Students performed better

in

the

versus classroom

classroom than

lecture

planetarium at the knowledge

in

and comprehension

levels.

Table 2-4
Miscellaneous Papers
Investigator;

Dale
Bishop;

1977,1980

Target

Main Claim or Finding

Topic

Population

Astronomy

Astronomy

teachers

education

Review

of

astronomy

education and research

history.

Retcher;

1977

8th

and

9th

grade
students

Traditional versus
participatory

planetarium
presentations

Giles;

1981

High school
students

Planetarium
clustering

and

advanced

There

is

no signifcant

difference

in

student

achievement due

to

presentation.

Clustering and

advanced

organizers significantly

Improved learning outcomes.

organizers

Hashweh;
1988

Teachers

Science

Klopfer;

5th grade

Effectiveness of

1969

misconceptions

students

ESSP

astronomy

Some textbooks and

teachers

reinforce misconceptions.

ESSP

is

moderately

successful;

knowl^e also

gained in other non-ESSP

astronomy topics.
Mallon, Bruce;

3rd-5th

1982

grads

Reaves;
1984-1985

College

Russo;

Junior high

students

Traditional versus
participant-

oriented

Participant-oriented

Planetarium classes the

superior treatment.

planetarium

Astronomy course
popularity;

teaching methods

1983

students

Solar astronomy
lab

Instructon styles are

important, astronomy

is

popular college course.

Through solar labs students

learned about the sun, data
collection, plotting, and
calculations.

Table 2-4--continijed

InvestigaKr

Date
Sadler:

1987

Target

students,

teachers

Sadon;
1980

Main Claim or Finding

Topic

Popuiallon

Astronomy

High school

astronomy

Project

STAR;

new emphasis
on astronomy
Lunar astronomy
lab

Importance of Astronomy and

the educational approach ci
Project

more
Smitti;

1966

6th grade

Planetarium

students

versus classroom

College

Factual versus

students

conceptual

students

Astronomy

1973

teachers

Wright;

Secondary

in

in

the

in

addifion^ science but no

Conceptual change
instruction

classroom than

Concept-instructed students

difference

Instruction

Astronomy

Students performed better

showed greater Interest

astronomy

1988
Wall;

realistic.

planetarium.

lecture

Targan;

STAR.

Lunar measurements and

calculations were made by
the students; astronomy

model

Astronomy
education

In

performance.

Students proposed and

changed
Little
in

their

own

models.

research has been done

astronomy education and

teaching.

1969

students

Use

of the

planetarium

There

is

no

difference

significant

on pre- and post

exposure: students attending

the planetarium performed
signifcantly better.

12
Preconception and misconception research

a great deal

received

of attention

investigation

this
is

which the dynamics

in

as the idea that motion implies a force, are

an exposure

the

to

motion
Laws).

a straight

In

line

(e.g.,

the

in

during

instruction.

The

two groups.

of

concepts using the text

taught the

constant

determine the

to

comprehension

It

for the course.

displays,

appears from

in

9th-,

a classroom

The students were randomly placed

was

control group

same concepts; however,

by visuo-spatial display.
visuo-spatial
charts.

physics.

students

The population used was

and 11th-grade students who had been placed

learning-disabled students.

one

in

Newton's 1st Law, Keplers

Galileo,

Darch and Eaves (1986) reported on a study

for

be

to

Ordinary observational experience contradicts the view.

information

10th-,

of

difficulty
is

effectiveness of visuo-spatial displays in enhancing

of

change even

difficult to

accepted viewpoint

currently

believing that the natural state of things

in

in

which bears on

of

an astronomical system

The basic force-motion problem concerns

have

This concern

some

of

Clement (1982) found that certain preconceptions, such

involved.

with

the sciences has

in

recent years.

in

physics has prompted a variety of research,

taught key astronomical

The experimental group was

was presented

the information

Even though the experimental group used

the

displays

their

article

were
that

static

two-dimensional

no attempt was made

to

use any type of three-dimensional visuals or modeling.

Three

units

were taught

to the

two groups.

planets, meteors

and comets, and the sun.

used

was presented a

the

text,

experimental

group,

receiving

the

text

same

The
with

The

units included

control group, which

no

pictures.

information,

The

used visual

13
displays

as the primary source

presenting

supplemental

of

by the display.

based

study,

on

their

significantly-more

the

effective

students than use of the

information,

designed

content

instruction provided

teacher

the

with

expand

to

on

the

Darch and Eaves concluded

use

teachirrg

of

display

visual

device

for

that,
is

disabled

learning

text.

Astronomy preconception research has focused on concepts such

as the cause
gravitational

found that

the

of

attraction

95%

seasons,
of the

the

earth.

shape

the

of

and the

earth,

Lightman and Sadler (198B)

second-grade teachers

of

in

study predicted

their

was a

believed the shape of the earth

that their students

After completing their study, they found

sphere.

5%

that fewer than

of the

second graders queried held a correct perception of the shape

of the

earth.

The authors noted

world

but are told that

that students
it

see what appears

round or a sphere.

is

to

This

be a

flat

another

is

example of an apparent mismatch between what students come

believe

based on experience and the accepted view

in

science.

to

The

authors suggest an analogy that would help students deal with the

apparent

view the

appears

to

balloon

be a

from a distance,

When

Take

inconsistency.

(approximately 3 to

close to

flat

it

4 meters

is

surface.

in

its

large

diameter)

surface.

weather

balloon

and allow students

Students

will

to

see what

However, when examining the balloon

obviously a sphere.

considering the teaching of astronomy, one must include

the idea that the systems studied are not simply two-dimensional.
Spatial

aptitude of the student,

therefore,

could

become a

factor

that helps or hinders

research conducted
students.

agree

the

In

learning

astronomy.

Some

through practice.

phenomenon and
visuo-spatlal

noted that researchers cannot

Lord

ability

can be influenced

claim that spatial awareness

therefore cannot be learned.

Lord's overall

purpose was

an innate

is

Others contend that

exposure

through

acquired

are

abilities

environment.

Lord (1985) reported on

regarding the status ot the spatial aptitude of

introduction

on whether or not visuo-spatlal

see

to

one's

to

an Intervention

If

could be devised that would develop visuo-spatlal understanding

in

student population.

During

the

semester,

Lord

ran

an experiment

matched college student groups followed an

routine

seminar,

of

experimental group

lecture,

and

was exposed

identical

laboratory.

to

shape

to

Additionally,

figures.

of the

visualization
of paper.

These required

were required

to

post

the control

tests.

visuo-spatial cognition did

visualization

and

the

geometric

envision

the
This

the experimental group on a piece

control group received

end,

the

addition,

mentally bisect three-dimensional

participants

was then drawn by

The

administered

weekly biology

In

two-dimensional surface formed by the bisection.

At the semester's

spatial

which two

a 30-mlnute weekly Interaction

which involved practice doing spatial exercises.

experimental group

in

Results

no such

interaction or grouping.

and experimental groups were

indicated

an

improvement

occur for the experimental group

in

in

both

orientation.

Sneider and Pulos (1983) designed a study using

eighth graders to examine conceptions students

the earth and to try to determine

why

had

third

of the

through

shape

of

they believed any particular

model

selected.

misconceptions.
flat

flat,

Their

demonstrated

results

range

of

Students interviewed believed that the earth was

(versus a sphere or round), that the section they lived on

and that the

rest of the

planet

was round,

was

or that people lived

only on a small, relatively-upright section of the earth.

Bishop (I960)

reported on

results

eighth-grade

These

students

included

planetarium,

model

student

versus

initial

students

spatial

significant

and

manipulations

final

spatial

better

on the

was found

ability

experience

with

of the

98

of

total

groups.

three

drawings

the

and

experimental

addition

in

the

to

more than females when

was measured.

Additionally,

the planetarium treatment performed

unit
to

favoring

significantly

ability

be

test

than

the

"significantly

performance on the astronomy posttests'

prior

to

and a control treatment.

unit,

(p.

concluded that such variables as spatial

and

and the use

work).

manipulation-drawings

difference

who had experienced

significantly

model

planetarium

Males improved

pianetarium.

abilities

Piaget's

randomly assigned

experimental

traditional

showed a

Results

were

research on planetarium

of

lessons that required projective spatial

Karplus Learning Cycle (based on

model

group

control

correlated

1010A).

did;

with

the

The researcher

the subject's sex.

ability,

manipulation

were

Important

variables that affected performance.

Hill

(1989)

investigated

the

instruction

college-level

astronomy students.

using models

and diagrams appeared

were apprehensive about

It

of

spatial

was stated
to

be

concluded that overall spatial learning

that

thinking

in

experiences

helpful for students

who

However, the researcher

particular topics.
is

apparently

due

to

the

16
general class environment (e.g teacher presentation of topics, class

arrangement,

student

Interaction)

rather

than

specific

course

exercises and demonstrations.

With too college students

population,

moon

two

of

Piagets

projective

space"

"could

(p-

Grasp

not

2539A).

figures found

12%

Results demonstrated the majority of the target

concepts.

population

only

an astronomy course as the target

in

investigated

(1980)

groupings and studied their relationships to the phases of

spatial

the

Kelsey

use

the

When

mental

referring

most textbooks

in

to

structures

the

detailing the

for

projective

drawings and

top-on

phases of the moon,

could correctly detail and explain the phases of the moon.

many

of

three-dimensional

topics

astronomy

in

relationships:

thus,

requires

projected

Kelsey concluded that

many

college students do not have the mental development to accomplish

this

task.

The 1985-86 apparition

with

an opportunity

Podmore and

Is

Their

to

orbit

much more
spatial

student

comet

parameters
in

innovative

educational

apparatus
to

(p.

490).

helped

those

who

particular,

comets and the

and

to

constructed

understand why the 1985-86 passage

as favorable as past apparitions,

of

programs.

They stated that "a three dimensional

informative than a two-dimensional drawing to

three-dimensional models

orbital

Comet provided educators

discussed the student construction of a

model.

relationships'

of Halleys wasnt

Halleys

some

try

Fleet (1985)

Comet

Halley's

model

illustrate

of

provide

orbital

the

to

introduce the

parameters of Halleys
student

representing the orbits of the earth and the comet.

with

model

Since the earth

17
and

Comet do

Halley's

not

lie

the

In

same two-dimensional

plane, the

three-dimensional model supposedly provided the student with an

understanding

pertinent

of

system

concepts:

taught the three-dimensional

only

time-frame

to

they

Unfortunately,

some

same

the

of

earth's

gave no empirical evidence

claims regarding the model.

learning

incorporates

addressed

challenges

position.

support their

to

however,

model,

Their

an

in

model not

presented

also

It

and

comet's

the

relate

cast

relationships

Their physical

frame representation.

time

appropriate

solar

In

this

commercial

and

investigation.

Shrigley

(1971)

examined the influence

of

homemade models and equipment on achievement

sixth-grade

students

Results

students.

taught

models scored

with

of the

higher on

homemade equipment

is

methods

in

ability

The teaching

of

and

and
than

style

versus

seniors

the

enrolled

in

of

three

student

different

spatial

science methods

methods or environments included the

planetarium, the use of the celestial globe

in

in

the planetarium.

each student participants spatial orientation

as high, medium, or low.

items

lesser quality

to

versus the commercial equipment.

astronomy

college

use of the celestial globe

equipment

constructed equipment and

due

Sonntag (1981) examined the effectiveness

orientation

courses.

astronomy of

a test of recall

homemade

Shrigley believes that this

teaching

in

research demonstrated that

the

commercially-constructed

significantly

those students taught with

models.

of

Based on

assigned to three different groups.

this

a classroom, and the

Pretests determined

ranking

each

ranking, students

were

ability,

18

The researcher concluded

factor

must

that

astronomy

be

course

taken

Students with low

posttest.

observable

more

planetarium.'
In

To accomplish

and the learning

three

of

and the phases

Dobson
due

found

no

in

not

and males seemed

to

that

in

rotation,

to
to

do better

do

better

most students

master

and

learning

However, the researcher

which females seemed

able

the

the
school

concepts:

differences

environments.

Dobson also reported

were

versus
middle

and classroom-planetarium

relationship of these environments

treatments,

level

135

of

researcher used participatory

moon,

planetarium

grade

require

by the

Investigated

(1983)

major astronomical

of the

olassroom.

two-dimensional

higher on

ability

planetarium

environments

planetarium,

significant

to the learning

found an interaction

Dobson

the

of

Dobson evaluated the

combined.

the

provided

spatial

instruction

this task, the

the classroom,

in

revolution,

is

positional

of

significantly

medium

to

concrete

design,

classroom

more-traditional

retention

and

environments

learning

activities

ability

when designing

instruction

4783A)

(p.

pretest-posttest

students.

the

method performed

classroom-celestial globe

'the

orientation

spatial

consideration

for

Results demonstrated that students exposed to

astronomy.

the

that
into

techniques

concepts

at

that

in

in

the

the
the
fifth

required

and three-dimensional applications and reasoning

abilities.

The effectiveness

method

for

observer's

teaching
latitude

of the planetarium

selected

versus

method and

astronomical

celestial

pole

celestial

concepts

altitude,

globe

such

ecliptic,

as
right

19
ascension and declination was compared by Reed (1970) and Reed and

Campbeil (1972).

Resuits

was more

effective

globe

of

studies

the

than

was

differences

the

indicated

pianetarium

the

celestiai

presentation

No expianation

producing immediate cognitive changes.

in

for these

postuiated.

Reed (1970) evaiuated

the effectiveness of the planetarium

in

teaching compared to teaching with the classroom chalkboard and

celestial

globe.

758 college physical science students

of

total

The astronomical

over two semesters were the target population.

concepts that were studied include the motions of the sun, superior
planets,
celestial

and the

was
in

the affective

significantly

sixth-grade

precession

earth's

domain between

in

either

classroom
as

students

the

term

short

the

the

visual

target

difference

in

treatment.

effects

of

presentation

population

Astronomy topics taught included the phases

than

retention

was no

instruction

compared

(1967)

with

and

motion:

that the chalkboard-celestial globe

better

the pianetarium and that there

Rosemergy
planetarium

the

stars;

Reed concluded

sphere.

instruction
instruction

of

the

apparent diurnal and annual motions of the sky.

of

using

the

with

339

the

study.

moon and

the

Students were

divided into three groups based on a division between the classroom

and the planetarium

20%

planetarium;

20%

planetarium; and

to

for

20%

a 225 minute lesson:

planetarium followed by

100% classroom

exposure.

80%

60%

classroom, then

classroom then

ANCOVA was

used

determine that there was no significant difference between the

three exposures.

chance.

Any apparent differences could be explained by

Rosemergy found, however,

that

males demonstrated a

20

females

moon

the

of

then

did.

Twiest

investigated

(1989)

differences

among 432

fourth,

astronomy

curriculum

which

comprehension

used

respect

to

And

at

the

for fourth

and

and

an

versus

the

and

favoring

the

grade students

fifth

comprehension-level

were found

differences

in

knowledge

differences

knowledge-level

both

significant

cognitive

grade students

planetarium

the

analyzed

classroom curriculum were found

questions.

sixth

Significant

levels.

and

attitudinal

and

fifth,

Achievement was

classroom.

with

phases

of the

significantly greater understanding

for

three

all

grade levels favoring the classroom curriculum for comprehension

level

questions.

Hashweh's (1988) review

textbooks

certain

misconceptions

student conceptions

of

some

reinforce

motion of an

include

object,

and the weight of an object.

shown

that

some

high

notes

object,

force

Additionally

school teachers

hold

placed

on an
has

research

same

the

that

These

misconceptions.

incorrect

preconceptions as their students do.

Klopfer (1969) conducted a

Elementary School Science

ESSP was

Klopfer stated that

and studied the

successful
taught.

Project

the

effectiveness

(ESSP) astronomy

in

mastering

The

fifth

graders

ESSP astronomy

students

some
also

astronomical topics that were

program.

of

of

the

materials.

a program that relied heavily on visuals-both diagrams

and models.
with

study

who were presented

materials

were moderately

of the astronomical

gained

topics that

knowledge

about

not specifically taught by the

were

certain

ESSP

However,

Klopfer's

article

was vague

several

irt

aspects.

Information and data on topics mastered and methods of evaluation

were not detailed enough

to

tell

whether concepts

like

the phases of

moon were addressed.

the

Russo (1983) discussed Student observations

use

of junior

of the

high school student-collected data.

how

data students learned

set

to

sun and the

Before collecting

up and use a telescope.

Data

collected by students

included sunspot counts and daily longitudinal

sunspot progression.

With the collected data, the students were

able to determine the period of rotation of the sun from the velocity
of

sunspot movement.

Students learned about solar temperatures

through procedures developed by the author.

measured solar

declination, or altitude, at local

data they determined where

this

solar

the

Additionally,

students

noon each day.

From

were the most

rays

concentrated on the earth at a particular time of year.

From data

collection

and

direct observations,

students learned not only about the sun,

graphs, and collect data,

telescope.

(Science Teaching Through

examine the problem

National

to

this

make

of

Science

use

its

for Astrophysics

of

the

how

the

of this

Astronomical

misconceptions

in

Roots)

astronomy.

Foundation-funded

Project

STAR

has begun
Project

astronomy

to

STAR

education

program that develops activity-based astronomy exercises

high school classroom.

that

calculations,

reading

unknown.

The Harvard-Smithsonian Center

in

was assessed, thus the achievement value

kind of participation remains

is

how

but also about time and the

However, Russo never stated

student learning

Russo stated

for

the

22
Sadler (1987),

Accorfling to

commencement

spring

research began with the 1987

this

A random

Harvard University.

exercise at

selection of Harvard graduates

was asked one

what caused seasonal changes on the

at a time to explain

The videotaped

Earth.

responses demonstrated that each gave a significant amount of

However, no one answered the

thought to the answer proposed.

question

Most

correctly.

was

Earth

closer to

the

of

sun

the

in

Astronomically, just the opposite

orbit

to

the

tut

earth on

of the

rays of sunlight

than

the earth

true:

the

in

winter.

closer

is

in

its

The

hemisphere's winter.

the earth experiences seasons relates to

axis which produces indirect

rotational

its

the winter and more direct rays

In

STAR

Project

why

Interviewed thought the

summer

the

sun during the Northern

correct explanation for

the

students

is

personnel

have

also

In

the summer.

astronomy

studied

misconceptions at the middle school/junior high school and senior

This study has been conducted

high school level.

level of research

used a student

test covering

In

two levels.

One

such astronomy topics

as the distance from the earth to the moon and time of moonrise
certain phases.

The second

level of

student discussions of certain astronomical concepts.

did

not

use

materials

models,

for

at

research involved videotaping of

the

Although they

Harvard group

felt

that

spontaneous hand motions and gestures might mirror something

of

the spatial relationships that drove the discussions.

Sarton (1980) reported on a project at a

high school where students
visually

New England

made measurements

of the

and photographically, using a telescope.

they were

able to

construct

a three-dimensional

private

moon, both

From

this

data,

polar coordinate

23
model

the moon's orbit.

of

moon from

by knowing the distance to the

First,

the earth at the time the photographs were taken, the

students could use the photographs to mathematically determine the

moon's diameter.

Students were also able to determine the moon's

angular diameter, period and eccentricity of the moons orbit and

to

demonstrate the moon's minimum (perigee) and maximum (apogee)

point from the earth,

the moon's sidereal and synodic periods, and

the semi-major axis of the moons

assessment

of student

There was no additional

orbit.

performance by the researcher.

This collection of studies are for the most part too general to
give

useful

astronomical

insight

into

how students cope

relationships.

They

yield

which

have

relations

some

usefulness

show such mixed

The major goal

for

little

why

students reach the claimed results or

with

time

dependent

understanding of

how

studies using planetaria

illustrating

time

and

spatial

results.

of this investigat'on

was

to

do a careful study

of

the processes and content of student explanations of lunar phases

and thus

to

associated
students

arrive at

with

the

decisions

to

better understanding of the learning issues

phenomena.
use

This

materials

for

either two-dimensions or three-dimensions

employ a polar coordinate system

in

investigation

modeling

examines

phenomena

in

and whether or not they

the process.

CHAPTERS
MATERIALS AND METHODS
The teaching and
due

to

the

learning

astronomy

of

made

often

is

difficult

a mismatch between preconceptions or conceptions brought

by both the student and the teacher and the concepts of

into class

discipline.

presents

the

Additionally,

three-dimensional

topics

problem

of

that

change

correct
cyclic

in

representation

instruction

astronomy

in

instruction

where a polar coordinate system rather than the more

coordinate

Cartesian

fundamentally

knowledge
the design

system

of

employed.

Is

three-dimensional

of the thought

with

familiar

astronomy

Since

time

of

over time

fashion

subject,

This

study

examine one

will

is

additional

processes of students should be helpful

instruction.

of

in

these

preconceptions or misconceptions and evaluate causes and possible

solutions.

The study was conducted with

11th

grade enrolled

in

like-sex pairs of students in the

Fundamental

Physics.

Participants

completed a survey which collected data on the age

science course experience,

student

plans

after

first

of the student,

high

school,

and

subject preference.

To

familiarize subjects with the

with the lunar

sequence

procedure

to

be used

phase cards, each randomly-assigned

of four

cards of an apple

24

in

in

dealing

pair laid out

various stages of being eaten.

25
The purpose

was

of this

to

make

certain that

each

pair understood

member

the procedures and directions.

Next, each pair

package

phase photographs or cards, a

of eight different

of 16 cards.

The

was asked

pair

moon phase sequence.

iunar

combine

to

develop an explanation of the sequence.

them

help included items which permit

three-dimensional

pencil,

received a
total

cards into one

agreeing on a lunar phase sequence, the pair tried to

After

or

their

Several possibiiities were correct.

flat

Resources they could use

to

illustrate

either

in

styrofoam spheres, and a flashlight,

use

for

to

a two-

They included paper and

representation.

circular disks,

be made available the pairs

in

explanation,

their

if

will

they

desire.

The

layout of the lunar

phases sequence, development of the

explanation of the proposed sequence, and the explanation

be videotaped

for later

The population
The

students.

participants by

of

the study

like-sex pairs

random

itself

was

review and coding.

11th grade Physics

is

were formed from the pool

selection.

In

this

study

all

Standard

of potential

participants are

Caucasian.

The design
following
1.

play a part
2.

of the study allows the researcher to

In their

to

which three-dimensional coordinate systems

explanation of a lunar phase sequence;

how those who achieve a

three-dimensional explanation
their

approach or
3.

examine the

topics:

the degree

in

of

correct

sequence and a correct

the phases of the

background from

their less

moon

differ

successful peers.

what students think the lunar phase sequence

is;

in

26
student

prior

4.

science

course

how

and

experience

it

infiuences their expianations;

whether student subject preference reiates

5.

the choice of

to

sequence and an acceptabie expianation; and

correct

deveiopment of an expianation

6.

identification

of resources

for

used where choice

sequence and

the
of

materiais

to

ieft

to

research

in

is

the students:

PoDuiation

As demonstrated by

the

review of the literature,

astronomy education has occurred, generaiiy speaking,

at

ali

grade ieveis and over a variety of popuiation types,

age and

topics

and

backgrounds.

The
courses

many

state of Florida, as in
in

astronomy

states,

has two-one semester

at the high schooi (grades

9 through 12)

ievei.

Most schoois combine these two courses, soiar system astronomy

and
at

steilar/gaiactic

aii

ieveis

No

Other courses

astronomy

devotes

25%

into

one year-iong course.

are aiiowed to take the course, which

iaboratory-based.

cover

astronomy,

of

science courses

in

is

the state curricuium at the high schooi ievei

and

astronomy-reiated

the course to

include a

astronomy.

number

of

Earth

topics.

in

topics,

addition,

high schooi or middie schooi courses in earth science or

science,

usuaily

taught

astronomy and astronomy-reiated

at

the

topics.

science

Physics and physicai

astronomy

Newton's Laws, Kepier's Laws, and optics,

earth

Students

considered

prerequisites are required.

eighth-grade

inciuding

the Junior

advanced

ievei,

cover

27
permission was granted by the Duval County School

Written

Board

Jacksonville,

in

and by the schools

Florida,

principal

to

use

students at Duncan U. Fletcher Senior High School in Neptune Beach,

Fletcher Senior High

Florida.

twelve,

during
year,

School serves grades ten through

had a school population

it

of

1938-1969 school year.

the

During the 1988-1989 school

had seven sections

school

the

approximately 2100 students

Physics

of

Standard,

year-long course.

Studv_PoDulation

Pilot

Two

classes of Chemistry

and two classes of Astronomy:

Solar/Galactic

population pool for the

studies.

assigned

initial

pilot

the

refine

to

permission

Study

was secured

Population

a qualitative study and

for

Student

procedures.

final

video taping

for

Final

for

pool

for

of

parent

Physics

the final study and

Only 11th grade students were a part of the potential

those to be used

of

and

each student taped.

The seven sections

Standard were used as the population pool

experiment.

Standard

used as a

sets of two students per group for the pilot studies.

in

Student responses were video taped

analysis

were

Students were randomly

in

the final study,

thus controlling for

possible grade level effects.

The names
district's
instructors.

of

additional

candidates were taken

possible
rolls

of

Students were coded as

in

the

final

the
to

two

Physics

sex and race.

study,

from

the

Standard

Only Caucasian

again eliminating a possible

variable.

After coding,

number

all

computerized

students were used

selection

all

possible student codes

were input

in

a random

computer program, which produced like-sex

pairs.

26
Study Design

Pilot

The

pilot

study design, performed

basic design proposal of the study.

were paired by the course teacher.

question

was asked

each

of

noticed the changes

in

the

first

pilot

study phase one

safe to say that

appearance of the moon

in

even during the daytime.

changes

three phases, tested the

in

Students selected for this phase

In

pair: "It Is

The question

is

in

You may answer

appearance or phases?

of us

all

have

the night sky, or

this--what causes these

this question

separately or together.

Students were seated side-by-sIde, with

no table

front

in

of

The video camera was placed diagonally across from the

them.

students, approximately three meters away.

Students then responded with a verbal answer and description.

Responses were video taped

the

for

play back and analysis, with

later

camera placed the maximum distance possible from the students

so as not to Interfere with the development of

answer
initial

itself.

total

phase of the

In

that several

needed

to

researcher

of

their

students

answers and the

was used

preliminary pilot study,

changes needed

reading

be made.

to

the

instructions

researcher from

second change had

it

for

this

was determined

Rrst, student instructions

to

do with

and questions.

interfering
pairing.

It

with

the

of

the

This

would

process.

The

was determined

that group

should be male-male or female-female, due to the fact that

males tended
studies

first

be prerecorded on audio cassette tape instead

prevent the

pairing

10 pairs

of

pilot study.

review of the

to

dominate the discussion

when a male-female

pair

was

in

the

interviewed.

preliminary
Finally,

pilot

a set of

29
lunar phases cards or photos

box,

provide

to

students

was designed, along

with

materials

with

a resource
the

lunar

weaknesses

ot the

illustrate

to

phases sequence proposed.

The second phase

phase

first

Into

of the pilot study took the

account.

Directions for students

cassette tape for students

a female

In

front

to

The

play.

directions

The room design was arranged so

voice.

would be seated
table

were recorded on

chairs behind

In

students

the

of

were recorded

in

that the students

with the materials

table,

and the video tape camera

on the
the

in

corner opposite of the students.

A
phases
first

was designed

set of cards
for

use by the student

set of four cards

These were used

to

on the moon task.

students

In

correct lunar

The phases
sequences,

is

with

of

to

pairs.

illustrate

Two

sets

of the

of

phase sequence.

moon cards

included two complete lunar phase

each card oriented with the word

blue cardboard

one through

was

sixteen.

The

16 cards had to be arranged by

correct position, the north polar region of the

sixteen cards,

the moon's various

were prepared.

a sequence of an apple being eaten.

teach the procedures that the student would use

The second set

line,

divided and

This

'top'

numbered with white

was made

the

at

moon.

30 centimeters wide and the length

of the

lettering

from

provide a uniform setting

in

which to arrange the proposed card sequences as well as to aid

In

later

coding of data.
Additionally,

the video tape recorder appeared to be wired so

that the students could begin

had

to

arrived

at

taping their explanations

an agreement on how

to

explain

once the

their

pair

proposed

30
sequences.

Even though the

determined from the

were seif-conscious

first

the

one responsible

this

would possibly

of the

student

pairs

proposed sequence included a rechargeable

spheres including marbles and golf

was

disk

survey

student

modified and used

in

form,

on

tried

upon

student participants

the

be

in

their

a variety of
to

draw

The

and

pilot

group and then

background

was completed by
room

the

largest

third

to collect

This survey

arrival

explain

cardboard disks.

blue,

was designed

the study,

to

tiashlight,

flat

largest

from each participant.

information

the

second

yellow,

to

sequence then

paper and pencil

balls,

the proposed explanation, and three round

largest

they appeared

if

the video taping

potential problem.

the

for

was

it

study that the students

pilot

camera and

for activating
alleviate

provided

Materials

sequence was video taped,

entire

phase

of the video

used

for

the

experiment and prior to engagement wi^ the tasks.

From the
pairs,

final

study of 6 pairs, 3 female pairs and 3 male

pilot

several changes were

changes

in

taped

the

microphone was added

the video tape.

made

instructions
to

were

study.

made.

An

record more clearly student

Several changes

These included a

for the final

in

the resource

regular, simple tiashlight

students wanted to play with the

due

Soma

minor

on-the-table

comments on

package were made.

to the fact that

some

rechargeable flashlight's blinking

feature and three three-inch white styrofoam spheres replacing the

golf

balls

and marbles due

playing with the marbles.

trom the

pilot

to

students'

bouncing the golf balls or

The three colored disks were

study to the

final

study: the colors

not

changed

and sizes could

31
imply the

sun (yellow), earth

and the moon

(blue),

(white)

the

If

students so desired.
It

was determined from

who picked up

the student

or no Input from the pair

did the majority of work, seeking

member.

moon phases were broken

the

Influence a pair's

of the pilot study that

envelope containing the cards or

the

moon phases

photos with the

second phase

Uils

To attempt
Into

to solve this problem,

two packages

teamwork and cooperation.

both would have one each of the

final

In

attempt

phase

of

the

new moon
study

pilot

to

arrangement

For example, one package would have both

cards, the second would have both waxing gibbous

The

to

Each package had eight

cards or photos, with each package being different

and make-up.

little

full

moon

phase cards, and

cards.

tested

these design and

methodology changes with two sets of students, one male pair and

one female

pair.

After reviewing the video tapes,

changes made

that

In

it

was determined

second phase had accomplished the

the

established criteria and met

some methodological concerns.

Study Desian and Implementation

Final

Upon

selection

and random

pairing

were a part of the candidate pool

for

by computer, students who

use were given a

letter

of

explanation of the experiment from the researcher and a permission

form for the

student and

complete and

return.

parent or guardian

Several events occurred

arrival

for

an experimental

recorded on the video tape.

In

run.

of

the

student to

preparation for each student pairs

The student code numbers were

Materials

were returned

to

the resource

32
a kitchen-type

box,

closed

as

so

plastic

not

to

ordered and placed

in

sealable

divert

its

during

was then

which

container,

attention

moon sequence.

proposal of the phases of the

the

lay-out

pair's

Each set of cards was

respective envelope.

By arranging the cards

the

In

same sequence

each

in

of the two

envelopes for each pair of students, a possible additional variable

was

The manner

from the study.

elimirrated

which the moon

in

phases cards or photos were arranged gave the participants no clues

to

the

sequence or

correct

sequence.

In addition,

participation

When
students'

first

between the

the researcher

explanatory

letter

parents or guardians.

seated and asked

taped version

to

that

to

students

for

Upon

arrival

to

the

to the
library.

the library covered a review of

were given
at the

take

to

home

to

room, the students were

play the audio tape.

The

script

for the

final

Stop the tape at

this

[pause of three seconds].

This study

occurs

in

is

based on teamwork.

to the

You

These are

problem presented.

agree on decisions so you should feel free to

on a

final

and the defense

sequence.

of the

receive

will

This includes determining

nature and an explanation.

a sequence according

settling

proposed

he would go

pair,

as follows:

is

cards with drawings on them.

that

the

members.

pair

was ready

Complete the Participant Survey Sheet.

time.'

begin

to

classrooms and escort the two students

Conversation from the classroom

the

phase

the arrangement encouraged and even required

to

a set

You

talk things

of

a sequence

be arranged
will

need

in

to

over before

You must both agree on the sequence

sequence.

Once a sequence

is

agreed upon, be

33
ready to explain the reasons for your sequence.
other

normal tones,

in

enough time

to

You may

talk to

You

not necessary to whisper.

its

will

each

have

on a sequence and develop and prepare an

settle

explanation.

The

package

first

cards,

of

practice

for

understand the procedure, deals with the apple.

number one and remove the cards

for the
will

sequence and both

feel

you

sure

Pick up package

[pause of three seconds].

When you

the cards along the blue strip on the table.

satisfied with the

he

to

Lay out
are both

ready to defend the reason

sequence proposed then signal by pushing the button and we

record your explanation.

Stop the tape at

[pause of

this time.'

three seconds].

'The

sequence deals with packages number two, the phases

last

moon.

of the

Each

sequence, lay out

will

need

to

that both of

of

you

will

have a package.

cards on the blue

of the

all

work together and combine your cards

you agree upon.

sequence and

to

You

to

make an

push the button and your explanation

'In

explain

sequence

the

for

will

be recorded.

the results invalid.

untit

find

will

a sequence

to

work out a
an

Stop the tape

materials with which

proposed-again,

at this time."

your assistance

discuss this with others

make

into

When you have reached

of three seconds],

Stop the tape

Thank you

However, you

explanation you both support,

resource box number two you

you can
happen?

^ause

with the apple

have enough time

will

develop an explanation.

agreement and are ready

at this time,

As

strip.

why does

this

[pause of three seconds].

in

this

the project

Stop the tape at

is

project.

Please do not

completed, for

this time.

it

could

34
The

The

school,

high

after

was

part of the study

first

participant survey form.

plans

science courses,

and a

No student name was entered on

ranking of subject preferences.

form; the student code

the individual completion of the

information called for included current

previously-taken

was used

Refer

Instead.

to

the

the Appendix for

sample participant survey form.

the

After

completion

the

of

them

in

in

all

students

The next task was

again played the cassette instruction tape.

take the four apple sequence cards,

the

survey,

participant

to

one envelope, and arrange

proper order.

completion

After

of

the

order

apple

the

of

sequence and

defending their sequence, the students played the cassette tape.

Directions

instructed

them

take

to

out

sequence and work together, combining

cards for the

the

their

moon

two sets of cards

into

one sequence.
At

stage of the experiment, the researcher would discretely

this

begin the video tape recorder.

to

This would later allow the researcher

determine sequence arrangement, teamwork success, and thought

processes

in

the preparation of the explanation or defense of their

proposed sequence of the phases of the moon.

As the students worked during

make

researcher would
reading a book.

himself

The room the

as

trials

three meters by two meters, thus not

was seated
experimental

directly
rur).

experimental runs.

the

experimental

inconspicuous

were run

In

run,

the

as possible by

was

much space.

approximately

The researcher

across the table from the students during an

Refer

to

Figure

3-1

for

room

set-up

for

35

Experimental

Figure 3-1

Room Arrangement

Occasionally during an experimental run, students would ask the

researcher

correctness

of

answer.

the question

If

question.

researcher would
initially

the

If

reply.

misunderstood

had

One

potential

that

they
to

was

of

to

do

with

students,

combine

their

the
not

pairs

two

make one sequence.

dropped from the analysis due

black.

because the school

him as Caucasian.

needed

problem that never occurred was invalidating a

group due to student absenteeism.

students

to

do with the directions, then the

to

Of the 26 groups

envelopes of lunar phases cards

later

had

question

proposed sequence, the researcher would

the

His

name was

districrs

One group

that participated

to the fact that

included

computer

listing

in

for

was

one of the male

the population pool

Physics

showed

36
The 26

were run over a 4-day period, thus eliminating a

pairs

problem with potential candidates learning about the research from

a member

of

pair

that

had been interviewed.

This

potential

problem was a concern from the beginning of the design of

this

research, and the solution appeared to be to run the experiment as

quickly as possible.

time

Sufficient

was allowed

group

to

complete a

An average

of

30 minutes per group

to

code data from each

used.

experimental
of

each

coding form was designed and revised

sequence and develop a defense.

was

for

the

trial

or run.

The coding form focused on

developed, and a qualitative estimation of teamwork.

form

itself

took place.

score

the placement

phases cards or photos, the explanation or defense

lunar

went through several revisions as

each

trial

lunar phases scoring procedure form

explanation,

assigning

points

for

The coding

coding of data

was developed

each

part

of

to

the

Refer to the Appendix for a sample of the coding form

explanation.

and lunar phases scoring procedure form.

Data collected on the

coding forms Included correctness of phase cards layout, dimension

of

model used

scoring

of

the

to

explain the lunar

explanation

of

observation of pair teamwork.

the

phase sequence proposed, a

lunar

phase sequence, and an

The lunar phases scoring procedure

form allowed the assignment of a raw score based on the relative

value of each item necessary for a correct explanation.

Correctness of the phase cards layout could be coded one of four

ways.

First,

did the

students

propose one paired lunar phases

sequence or two lunar phase sequences?

Cards were included

for

37
two complete phase changes; however, the direction did not specify
that two

phases were

Waxing

and

differentiated

to

be part of the proposed sequence.

waning

are

determined

of
If

It

appears that

A waxing

illuminated.

appear to be mirror images

quadrants

second

the

point

As the moon moves through

between.

phase changes from the earth,

moon

was

phases

of

each other.

the

moon are

the

sequence was correct

So

Illuminated.
in

to

be

natural

its

different parts of the

crescent and waning

However
In

terms

crescent
different
It

was

waxing

and

coding,
of

waning phases.
With the two points being examined, four proposed sequences

were possible.

If

sequence was

the

went though the

correctly

moon's waxing and waning phases and went through two lunar phases
or
If

one paired lunar phase, then the sequence was coded as

correct.

the sequence reversed the waxing and waning phases through one

paired or two complete lunar phases, then the sequence

was coded as

incorrect.

The type

of explanation for the

major point coded.

proposed sequence was the next

The explanation could be coded one

a complete three-dimensional model;

2.

a combination

of

of four

ways:

a two-dimensional and three-dimensional

model:
3.

a two-dimensional model; and

4.

a verbal explanation (no model whatsoever).

The explanation was given a score on

the lunar

procedure form, based on the elements necessary

phases of the

moon

with

time

are

seen

to

from

phases scoring
explain

an

why the

earth-based

36
reference point.

Elements Included

depending

weight,

on

was awarded two

points

of

revolving around the earth

Upon completion

Two

of

Individuals

given

element

that

was given

six

the

to

the

moon

video

tapes

of

points.

the final data coding

In

the

forms,

reduction

of

data for

reviewed four of the student pairs on the

tapes to allow a determination of Intercoder

both the

scoring were

whereas knowledge

each,

were reviewed three separate times

coding.

the

In

importance

the

For example, identification of the earth, moon, and sun

explanation.

reliability.

Data from

survey and from the proposed sequence and

participant

explanation were put into a computer spreadsheet format.

Two spreadsheets were produced

The

examine data.

to

first

spreadsheet reduced data from each student participant survey form.

Numerical data provided by the student

work data was coded as a zero

If

had not taken the course and a one

course.

Course experience

determined by summing
earth or physical

was coded as

such.

Course

the student Indicated that he or she

If

the student had taken the

for the earth or physical sciences

Individual

sciences for the

total
pair.

was

course experience for the

Subject preferences were

coded as indicated by each student, with one being the student's

most

course and

liked

preference

mean

for

each

five

the

pair

was then determined.

least

liked

course.

subject

Coding of data from the sequence proposal and explanation was

similar.
pair.

This spreadsheet

Each

explain the
if

indicator

was coded on each video tape

was coded

sequence were coded as

used, with

Materials

accordingly.
either a zero

more than one possible answer

If

of one.

for

each

used

to

not used or a one

39
The

coded

data

participant survey, the

from

(he

spreadsheets

for

the

student

proposed sequence, and explanation produced

the basis of data for the studys evaluation.

CHAPTER 4
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Introduction

The overview
will

be presented

the student

The

five

In

participant

student

and Overview

the data collected, analysis,

of

sections.

and implications

be an examination

First will

of

survey data from the Participant Surveys.

survey

participant

data

provide

will

the

basic

demographics.

The

second

and

third

examination of the student

pairs'

taken from the videotapes.

proposal
the

made as
The

moon

of the

include

an

third

section

(e.g.,

This

correctness

performance based on observations

the second section, each student pair's

The student

pair

proposals

Include

will

selected to begin the sequence and changes

will

examine the explanations made and

three-dimensional,

Includes

section
of

an

of

two-dimensional,
evaluation

and

explanation

their

Use

explanations.

terminology

an

by each

model each pair proposes and defends.

of

the

degree
of

will

be

to

the

relation

Any changes made

In

sequence during the development of the explanation are noted.

will

be

any

employment
40

of

the

material

aids

of

incorrect

student pair
Its

their

by the

etc.)

analysis

evaluated for appropriateness of the term and

noted

and

overview

the sequence developed.

dimensions
pairs.

In

be discussed.

will

phase

sections

which

the

Also
will

provide the dimensional implications as pairs explain their proposed

phase sequence

moon

of the

with time.

Student pairs could explain their proposed sequence

ways, yet they group

several

in

After discussing

four possibilities.

into

their

sequence, each pair was asked to explain how

their

One way a

verbally, with no visual

A second

aids or drawings of any type.

choose
also

option

was

sequence occurs.

that

circular disks

flat,

resource

This

box.

type

pair could

were provided as a part

tfrat

explanation

of

a pair could

The

explain a proposed sequence by drawing.

to

use

sequence was

pair could explain a

Is

of

the

a two-dimensional

representation of a three-dimensional event.

Styrofoam spheres and a flashlight were made available.

pair

could use a combination of these to explain the pair's proposed lunar

phase sequence by invoking a three-dimensional model.

will

be

particular

of

explanation's

interest

its

represents a multidimensional

dynamics

the

explanation

to

the

of

the

disks and the

of

materials

as the pair attempts

three-dimensional,

of

flat

Such a combination

styrofoam spheres.

or

This process

relationship

use a combination of any

The combination would Include using the

flashlight

mirror

for

quality.

student pairs could

Finally,

above.

to

time-related

phenomenon.

The

fourth

section

type

of

model
of

compare the correctness

why

the

used

by

the

the model.

explanation as to

dimensions

will

phases

of the

pair,

moon occur

specifically

of the

with time to the

the

dimension or

question of particular interest

use of three-dimensional materials

to

explain

pair's

is

the

a proposed sequence;

42
would students be more

likely

explain correctly their proposal

to

if

they modeled the sequence using the styrofoam spheres?

the final section,

In

links

These variables Include a

will

be examined between variables.

rating

score on

or

their

phase

lunar

explanation, science course exposure, subject preference, sex, and

the dimension of the model used

pair

member

science

point of

or both pair

background,

explanation

in

the phases of the

Participant Survey

Upon being

For example,

the explanation.

members had a

would they be

likely

earth

entered prior

to

reference

Data

seated, each student pair

asked each student

was asked

play the

to

The

first

set

complete the participant survey

to

The student code number on the

form.

propose an

to

from an

moon occur over time?

cassette player and follow directions on the recording.

of directions

if

strong earth or physical

more

three-dimensions as seen

in

why

the students' being seated

participant
in

survey was

the room.

This step

assured complete student anonymity.

Three
sought.

categories

of

Background

information,

prior

personal

background

information

included

science course experience,

information

general

were

participant

and a subject-area

preference ranking.

Genera]

Participant

indicate their sex, grade in

currently taking,

Twenty-six
male,

and plans
eleventh

participated

in

IntormaMon
school,

like

to

age, science course or courses

after high

grade

Students were asked

school.

sex

the experiment-

pairs,

13

female and

The average age

for

13

both

43
female and male participants was 16.6 years.
all

participants
All

was from

participants

The range

of

ages

for

sixteen to eighteen years.

were taking Physics

I,

Standard.

In

addition,

two females and four males were concurrently taking Astronomy;

Solar/Galactic

and one male was taking Marine Biology.

As represented
plans

after

technical

high

school,

specific plans),

in

Figure 4-1, students were asked

school.

Included

military,

other

and not decided.

in

plans

The

to

(with

a space

to

25-

Schooling

I Females
Figure 4-1

give their

choices were college,

the

indicate

majority of both sexes plans to

attend college after high school.

^9H

Participant Plans After High School

fletss

44
Student

participants

also

indicated

previously-taken

science

courses from the middle school or junior high school level to the

was

present (see Figure 4*2} and the year the course

participants

males

had taken either Biology

females

than

Indicated

taking

comparing the history of exposure

grade course,

42% more

taken the course.

results.

had

or

Biology

the

Marine

Biology

to Life Science,

taken.

All

More

Honors.

Honors.

In

usually a seventh

males than females Indicated that they had

Other Biology-related courses exhibited varying

One female had taken Anatomy and

taken

exposure.

Biology,

with

no

Physiology.

females

Six males

indicating

course

45
ChemisttY

were about the same as Biology

results

more femaies

siightiy

taking Chemistry

Honors.

grade

ninth

with

I,

Femaies and males

indicated simiiar exposure to Physicai Science.

This course, usuaiiy

covers introductory chemistry and physics

offering,

concepts.

Two females
astronomy,

sample

the

in

indicated

that

had taken

they

whereas 4 males reported taking astronomy.

Seven

females and 9 males had taken Earth Science, usuaiiy an eighth grade

Two males had

course.

Oceanography.

Nine

taken

females

Oceanography-no females took

took

Sciences

Earth

courses

(Astronomy, Earth Science, and Oceanography) compared to 15 males.

the last section of the participant survey participants ranked

In

subject area preferences.

music,

language

from one

least-liked.

these

to

One

to five.

The

five

and social studies.

and coding of the participant surveys,

numbers were reversed

subject and

science,

rank their preferences using a Likert scale

represented the most-liked course and five the

reduction

In

subject areas were art and/or

five

mathematics,

arts,

Students were asked

representing

shows a representation

of

to

the

one representing the

most-liked

subject.

student subject preference

least-liked

Figure 4-3

means

for

females and males.

The

student

The most-liked

preferences.

female

participants

indicated

subject

their

of

participants,

responses

was

most-liked

female

the

indicated

subject,
arts

subject

participants

mathematics.

extremes

irt

subject

represented by the mean, of

and/or

was

was

music,

science.

science

whereas

males

The

least

liked

and

for

male

46
The response

of

female participants

especially considering each

of prior science coitrse
surprising.

was

to

science

taking Physics

experience, the

I,

was

interesting,

Standard.

In

light

response was not entirely

Male attitudes toward mathematics were unexpected,

considering the ranking of the sciences as the most-liked subject.

Figure 4-3

Subject Course Preference Rafings

Lunar Phases Sequence Proposal

Once students completed the

played the cassette tape.

participant

The next stage

student pairs lay out four cards

that

survey,

of the

they

again

experiment had

represented an apple being

47
The

eatan.

purpose

of

the

student

sequence

naturally-occurring

to

on

was

see

gave the

Data from

step

this

not recorded and examined.

At the completion of

this step,

proposed

phase

their

it

important to the outcome of this research and

not considered

therefore

and

out
Finally,

student pairs an opportunity to work together.

was

allowed

additionally

lay

development.

in

student

ascertain

to

The exercise

opportunity

an

pairs

was

step

this

understanding of the directions.

lunar

began

the student pairs

to

work

The work involved

sequence.

combining the eight cards from each of the two envelopes and laying
out the cards
pair to think

on the numbered reference

phases from new

to

full

back

line.

moon and

about the phases of the

This step allowed the

the progression of Uie

new over time

to

this

(in

case, one

complete phase change or 29 1/2 days).

Three points were examined while coding the data:

changes made by the

number

of

was

on the reference

pair

the

set

noted.

once

second, the phase of the

their

sequence;

first,

the

proposed sequence

their

finally,

moon

that the

the correctness of

sequence proposal.

Changes Made

made by

or

line;

decided upon to begin

final

pair

in

Phas es Seouence Proposal

the pair after completing the

Female and male

more changes.

the pair are presented

in

Male pairs appeared

sequence was

in

pairs

were coded

Changes made

in

initial

was

Figure 4-4.
to

be less

likely to

make changes once

place than did female pairs.

made no changes, and

Any layout changes

sixteen-card set

for none, one, two, or three

the phase sequence proposal by

3 pairs

Two

made one change.

their

pairs of males

No female groups

left

the original

change

In

phases sequertce the same or made only

lunar

the proposed sequence.

compared

to

the

The number

sequence

layout

of

proposal,

made was

changes

not

significant

in

the

changes made was

dimension

explanation, and the correctness of the explanation.

layout

the

of

The number
proposal,

of

the

explanation's dimension, or the explanation of the sequence.

10

Changes
Females
Figure 4-4

Changes Made

Becinnino

Phase

in

the

Males

Phase Sequence Proposal

Explanation of the

moon phases

on people recognizing a cyclic phenomenon.

cycle people enter

and how the entry point

relies In part

At what point

relates to the

In

the

sequence

49
finally

selected

is

explanations related

of
to

interest.

In

where one

moon

(either

the

student pairs

different

cards),

phases as

as

and

was

Even though eight

phases could be selected from the cards by

the

starting

student pairs

their starting

rates

moon, and crescent

full

waxing or waning crescent phases).

different representative

error

the pair's starting point

Three points were coded: new moon,

noted.

are

short,

starts to represent the cycle?

The beginning phase selected as

point

selected

(since
only

there

one

of

were eight
these three

point.

Figure 4-5 represents the distribution of the phase with which

the pairs began.

Figure 4-5

The

majority of

male and female

Beginning Phase of Proposed Sequence

pairs

began

their

50

69%

phase sequence with the new moon,

remainder of the male

pairs,

started their phases'

77%

females and

31%, started with the

female pairs, 15%, started with the

full

full

The

males.

moon.

Two

pairs,

15%,

moon, and 2

proposed sequence with a crescent phase moon.

The conclusion drawn here

is

that the majority of pairs

began

their

sequence with the new moon and concluded with a crescent moon.
Most astronomy texts consider the new moon as the

when

discussing the phases of the moon.

sunset,

the

first

phase seen

In the

starting

point

evening skies

new moon

the

after

is

the

after

waxing

crescent moon.

Examination of the Final Sequence Proposal

changes made and the beginning phase

proposal were coded, the
preliminary coding sheet

sequence.

final

final

was designed

Upon

Once

of the lunar

the

number

to

examination

of

phases sequence

sequence proposal was examined.

The

code a correct or incorrect

of

videotape.

the

It

was

determined that there were four possible ways to categorize a pair's

sequence.

The

first

possibility

is

sequence proposal could be

that a

out that ran through two complete lunar phases

The beginning phase was not taken

Into

laid

the correct order.

in

consideration at this point

in

the coding.

Second, the pair could have

order,

except pairing

laid

up the cards.

out the sequence

Matching

example new moon and new moon) would be

laid

in

the correct

phase cards

out

in

order.

There were two possible incorrect sequence proposals.

notice

was given

to the correct lunar

waxing and waning phases.

To be

(for

phase development;

that

First
Is,

the

correct the pair had to propose the

51
sequence
order,

proper waxing and waning order.

in

that

phases

waning

is

sequence would be coded as

If

the pair reversed the

waxing

before

incorrect: reversed

phases,

then

the

waxing and waning

phases.

The

category

final

sequence paired

In

These

for

those

pairs

that

These were coded as

reverse.

and reversed sequence.

not observed.

was

the

out

laid

incorrect: paired

Other incorrect sequences were possible but

incorrect

sequences included a random card

and a mixing of phases (such as crescent waxing and

distribution

crescent waning).

As seen
correctly

30.8%

in

Figure 4-6,

up

set

correctly set

2 male

two complete

a sequence

pairs proposed

phases,

lunar

and

that

mala pairs

These males represented

up paired lunar sequence.

of the male pairs involved (a total of 4 of the 13 male pairs).

No female

two complete lunar phases, and

pairs correctly set up

female pair correctly set up a paired lunar sequence.

represented 7.7% of the female groups involved (a

These females
out of

total of 1

the 13 female pair groups).

The reversed phases represented the most common

laying out the cards in opposite

pair's

phase

phases go from waxing (waxing crescent

waning

moon.

(full

to

third

quarter

to

(waning crescent to third quarter

first

quarter

to

waxing crescent)

distinguish the waxing

to

order.
first

In

to

is

full

back

just the

moon)
to

the

nature the

quarter to

waning crescent) back

A reversed phases sequence

error in the

to

full)

the

to

new

opposite: waning
to

waxing

(full

new moon.

to

To

and waning cards, the top of each card was

labeled to represent lunar north.

52

Figure 4-6

Final Lunar

Phase Sequence Proposal

Reversing the phases was coded as incorrect.

interest to
their

see

proposals and develop a model

their reversal

would

be

especially

moon and

Four female
laid

to

pairs,

if

the

was
to

also of

examine

explain the proposal, would

and change the sequence.

possible

represent the

It

pair

was thought

used

the

that this

spheres

to

earth and the flashlight to represent the sun.

representing

out their lunar phase sequence

pairs, or

It

see whether or not students, as they began

30.8%
in

of the female population,

reverse order.

Three male

23.1%, of the male population reversed their sequence.

53
Eight female pairs and 6

male pairs incorrectly reversed and

paired their proposed sequence.

males, or 69.2%, proposed an

sequence proposal did not

explain

why

the phases of the

Nine of 13

An

sequence.

Incorrect

incorrect

whether or not the explanation

affect

sequence was correct or the type

the

12 of 13 female groups,

total of

proposed Incorrect lunar phase sequences.

or 92.3%,

of

for

model or dimension used

moon occur over

to

time.

Four points of interest were coded from the development

an

of

explanation of the lunar phase sequence proposals for each pair.

These included the materials used by each

sequence proposed, the explanation
to

describe and

explain

pair

to

explain

the

astronomical terms used

itself,

proposed

the

sequence,

and correct

or

use of terms.

Incorrect

Use

Materials

of

in

Explanation

the

After being

given the

resource materials box, each student pair had the option to use the
materials or not to help develop an explanation.

provided a

means

for alternate

could use pen and paper

Flat circular disks

moon.

moon

relative to the

that each

position

that could be

used

ways

to

These materials

of representing

diagram aspects

ideas.

Pairs

of their explanations.

represent the sun, earth, and

to

show

the positions of the

sun and the earth and the phases of the moon

represented.
to represent

also Included that could

light

to

could be used

These disks could be arranged

be used

Styrofoam spheres were available

any

of the bodies.

to represent the

with the styrofoam spheres.

flashlight

was

sun as a source

of

54
were

Students

resource box or
told

explain their

not

sequence by

other materials

In

to

any

in

an

for

earth and the

moon; the

would

the

in

were
to

two
the

sun as the source

moon sphere

source and moving the

light

been

have

The spheres represent

flashlight represents the

By positioning the

light.

materials

One group attempted

explanation

styrofoam spheres and the flashlight.

of

use the

particular combination; they

drawing the sequence and then using

first

the box to support their drawings.

materials

Ideal

instructed

use them

to

materials were available.

the

that

around the earth sphere, students would easily see the phases that
the

moon sphere was

Any

reference.

obvious

to

from the earth sphere frame of

exhibiting

errors in the proposed

a pair at

sequence could have been

Including

this point,

reversal

the proposed

in

sequence provided:

the

1.

They used the three-dimensional

2.

They could correspond the two-dimensional

three-dimensional
In

materials.

representation.

coding the materials used, multiple usages were recorded.

For Instance,

if

the group used

in

materials

were coded as used

materials were used and only

verbal only

flat disk,

styrofoam sphere, and the

addition to a drawing for the explanation, then

flashlight,

lor

the

explanation.

all

Yet

four

if

no

a verbal explanation was developed,

was coded.

The coded data from the materials used

proposed lunar phase sequence
will

pattern with

test

not equal

the

13

pairs

combination use of materials.

is

of

shown

in

pair,

explain

Figure 4-7.

each sex due

Only

to

to

students'

These

the

figures

multiple

or

a male group, used solely

55
a pen and pencil

produce a diagram

to

for the final explanation.

drawing, with others that pairs began to develop,

Is

This

reproduced

in

the Appendix.

The

circular flat disks

were used by 6 female and 6 male groups.

This included only the disks themselves and disks

with

the

styrofoam spheres and the

styrofoam spheres
females.
pairs, or

the

was more

Nine of the 13 male

model and explanation.

Materials

Used

flashlight.

prevalent
pairs, or

38.5%, used the spheres

in

spheres indicates an attempt

among

the

combination

The use

of

the

males than the

69.2%, and 5 of the 13 female

some
to

irt

combination.

The use

of

develop a three-dimensional

56
The

flashlight,

a three-dimensional

representation

of the

was used by

8 female pairs and 8 male pairs, representing

each

Of the

sex.

who modeled

pairs

sun,

61.5%

explanation

their

of
In

three-dimensions, 6 chose to use the flashlight to represent the sun.

One female

Choosing

were 4

used a styrofoam sphere

pair

to represent the sun.

use no materials and develop a verbal explanation

to

13 female groups, or 30.1%, and 2 of the 13 male

of the

groups, or 15.4%.

Dimensions

of

used by each

pair.

characteristics

of

their

Each
It

Explanation

Pair's

was then possible

to

Based on the materials

determine the dimensional

a pair's explanation.

Implications are outlined

dimensions and

Possible

Table 4-1.

in

Table 4-1
Possible Dimensions and Implications of Pair Explanation

Dimensionfsl

Implications

Three-dimensional

Pair

used styrofoam spheres

in their

explanation: could also use flashlight to

represent the sun

Two- and

Pair

Three-dimensional

used both styrofoam spheres and

disks

in

their explanation;

flashlight to represent the

Two-dimensional

Pair

used

sun

disks or a drawing

flat

flat

could also use

in their

explanation: no use of flashlight

No

Verbal

materials

were used

In

proposing an

explanation

Each
listed in

pair

was observed and coded

Table 4-1.

in

Results of this appear

one of the 4 categories

in

Figure 4-8.

Three

of

the 13 female pairs, or 23.1%, and 2 of the 13 male pairs, or 15.4%,

choose

to

explain verbally

why

lunar

phases occur. Four of the 13

57
female

pairs,

explained

In

pairs,

or 23.1%,

three-dimensions
or 30.8%,

and 3

of the 13

of

female

the

pairs,

13 male pairs, or 23.1%,

for

seeing the phases of

or 15.4%,

and 2

of the 13

Dlmer^sion of Lunar Phases Explanation

Figure 4-8

male

or 30.8%,

two-dimenslons the reasons

Two

the moon.

used a combination

the explanation.

in

and 5

of the

And 4

of

two-dimensions and

of the

13 female pairs,

13 male pairs, or 38.5%, explained with a

three-dimensional model and approach the reasons for the phases of

the moon.

ProDosBfl Seouenee Explanation

was the next

step.

the process; from

Coding

of the pair's explanation

The explanation was seen as an important step

it

one could imply a number of

things.

First,

in

it

would indicate the degree to which the pairs actually understood the
lunar

phase sequence they had proposed.

When

developing the

58
the

explanation,

would

explanation

the

provide

an

with

pair

opportunity to change or modify their proposal, and their explanation

would provide a look

three-dimensional
After

the development of student insight on

at

review

initial

the

of

videotapes,

observational categories or elements were

explanations.

mechanics

could develop

Pairs

shadow

of

shadows

of the earth or in

be

describe

to

of

the

Three basic categories of

These included:

identified.

phases of the moon

for the

possible

four

established

a correct explanation

the phases of the moon.

of

Incorrect explanations could

responsibility

process with time.

one case, the shadow

the

t)

(either

the

of the sun); 2} the

motion of the earth, or the sun: and 3) a miscellaneous category

called

other

which

reasons,

includes

several

one-of-the-kind

explanations such as clouds.

review of the coded data

Further

development

of

a scoring procedure.

score to be assigned
reflect

the

explanation

quality

to

each

of

the

Table 4-2

the script.

pair's

lists

of the

moon

script

look

for

visibility

the
of the

why

Individual

each item coded and

the phases of the

Items

lunar

necessary

its

moon
to

over

time

the

a raw

correct

raw score value.

to

review each

are visible and to

correctly

phases of the moon as detailed

revolution

of

in

around the earth,

explain

Table 4-2.

scoring procedure included the identification of the earth,

sun,

for

for

explanation to

scoring procedure developed from

The scoring procedure allowed the researcher

pair's explanation of

need

indicated

Such a scale allowed

phases

explanation.

was prepared and a

the

The

moon, and

lunar

visibility,

59

Table 4-2
Explanation of Lunar Phases Scorinp Procedure

Score Value

Item Descriptor

Representation of the Sun

2 points

Representation of the Earth

2 points

Representation of the

Moon

2 points

Sun as the source of

points

iight
2
Demonstrates Lunar Revolution around the Earth over time 6
2
Phase observed dependent on earth-sun-moon positions
6
Demonstrates Lunar visibility from earth-reference
4
Demonstrates changes in amount of the moon visible
6

points

Sunlight reflection from the Moon; visible on Earth

Maximum

The
given

in

mean

related to

of

how

the

point-of-reference.
this

necessary

To

These

Table 4-3.

phases

score;

each

results of rating

to

male

pair

Only

rating

pair

appear
1

results

as

pair of the

failed

to

points
points
points

by raw and percentage scores are

show

that the

raw score

the pair modeled the explanation of

moon

points

32 points

Ravr Score:

viewed

from

why

an

the

earth

26 was given a zero as a

identify

any of the

descriptors

describe the mechanics behind the phases of the moon.

assure

intercoder

taped interviews.

reliability,

two

individuals

viewed

the

The researcher explained the dimension coding

and explanation scoring procedure.

four pairs: two males

The observers coded and scored

and two females.

One

of the individuals

is

planetarium instructor and the second a middle school earth science

teacher.
in

Results of dimension rating and explanation scores appear

Table 4-4.

high percent of

researcher and each observer.

agreement was found between the

60
Table 4-3
Results of Pair Explanations

Model

Females

Males

Range

14-32

28-4

24-32

18

12-32

16-7

14-20

2-d

12

8-16

15-3

4-30

Verbal

10

6-12

0-12

i
3-d

22

2/3-d

Range

All

Range

14-32

80%

17-2

12-32

13-4

4-30

8.4

0-12

53.8%
41.9%
26.3%

25-6

17
1

Pairs

Iff

Key to Table 4-3

Model - 3-d: three-dimensional explanation; 2/3-d: combination of twoand three-dimensional explanation: 2-d: two-dimensional explanation;

Verbal: verbal explanation only

- Number of pairs in that category

- Mean for that number of pairs
Ranoe - Range of raw scores for that category
- percent score for model category for both females and males

*ff

Si

Table 4-4
Intercoder Reliability of Dimension Rating

and Explanation Scoring

Pair

Researcher

12

10

12

32

32

32

Dimension

Rnnre

Observer #1
Dimension Score

Observer #2
Dimension

Score

12

12

10

22

22

20

Researcher-Observer

Score Percent Agreement:

number

of

incorrect

96.86%

statements

was

96.88%

made

describing the mechanics of the phases of the moon.

proposed that the phases of the moon were due

by

pairs

in

Several pairs
to

shadows or

61
Statements made by pairs included the following:

eclipses.

'Phases occur because of the earth and sun; you can see
shadows (of Uie earth) on the moon;*
that

'Isn't

the

the earth and the sun line up, the earth blocks

when

out the moon?;"

'Earth is covering up the moon; as the
the moon Is revealed to the earth;'

Sequence occurs due

to

it

(the

moon)

and

up;'

moon Is directly behind the earth, no

as
comes toward the sun, full moon.'

Die

brighter

Other

of

shadows:

'Shadows gradually cover

'When

moon goes around, more

light

gets

it

made

and statements

explanations

Incorrect

by

pairs

focused Oh the mechanics of the moon's revolution around the earth

and

the

earth's

revolution

around

the

These

sun.

incorrect

explanations and statements included:

New moon always

'The sun stays
the phases; the

in

starts the next

one

moon

morning on the other side;'

place, the earth is

in one place;'

moving and

that

causes

stays

'The sun rotates around the moon from

of the moon;'

left

to

right,

showing

more and more

'The moon would keep on

circling faster than the earth;'

and

'The earth affects the sun and how it (the sun) rotates.
don't
know a whole lot about this, hate this. I've never been good at
the solar system ever.'
I

Use
phrases

of Astronomical
in

Terms

The use

the pairs explanation

viewed as one possible indicator

of
of

the

of astronomical

proposed

previous

Several astronomical terms could be applied

the proposed

phase

sequence-

identification.

These included

to

terms and

sequence was

course experience.
the explanation of

rotation,

revolution,

and

62
Rotation

the spinning of

Is

a body on

the day and night sequence.

and the moon revolves around the

year,

moon around
is

on earth

axis, producing

its

Revolution

the orbiting of a body

is

The earth revolves about the sun, creating the

about a central body.

the earth, with the sun

This revolution of the

earth.

as the source of illumination,

the part of the physical explanation for the phases of the moon.

astronomy or earth science course experience

Prior

necessary

for

terminology

news weather reports

Data

from

sections.

was

moon

was

First,

revolution,

in

the

Illumination,

were used

common

This

were examined

Other

to

terms,

such

as

use

to

and

rotation

of the

and

eclipses

a limited way, often by a single

was

in

pairs:

phase

the particular

pair.

revolution

There the video tapes helped because one can often

meant

the concept

is

correct although the label

see what students' hands did

presented the

so,

If

Both of these categories are shown

in

error

two

in

there any use of astronomical terms?

and references

sequence.

Interchangeably.
tell

category

Three terms were primarily used by student

4-9.

rotation,

not

is

moon.

the

of

newspapers, and television

often note the correct lunar phase.

usage correct?

the

Figure

daily

in

terminology

the

phases

the

with

familiarity

commonly found

is

materials,

to

mirror motion

when used.

not.

is

or the

Rotation

One

way

can

the pair

was used

the

in

explanation by 7 female pairs, or 53.8%, and 8 male pairs, or 61.5%.

When
pairs

used, the term

and 75%

rotation

of

the

used that term

the earth).

Two

pairs,

was

incorrectiy

male

pairs.

for revolution

used by 57.1%
All

pairs

(e.g.,

the

who

of the

female

incorrectly

moon

used

rotates around

one female and one male, juxtaposed

rotation

and

revolution

astronomical
It

is

for

term

the

revolution.

Rotation

Is

vrith;

most apparent

Is

day and

rotation

However,

used by a number of

rotation wras Incorrectly

one

the

should be the most familiar

term that students

the one natural astronomical motion that

even the casual observer (earth

resulting in

to

night).

pairs.

10

Number
of

Pairs

Females; term used

Females; correct term use

Figure 4-9

Use

Revolution
pairs, or

30.8%.

of Astronomical

was used by

When

Lid

Males; correct term use

3 female pairs, or 23.1%,

using the term revolution,

the term did so correctly.

phase terminology and

bB Hales; term used

Terms

Correct term use

identification

all

was

and 4 male

pairs

who used

also the case

in

and other astronomical terms

64
used,

eclipse

i.e.,

and

Four of 13 female

illumination.

or

pairs,

30.6%, correctly identified lunar phases compared to 8 of 13 male

pairs, or 61 .5%.

Conoeratian.

Pair

The

The possible

cooperation.

measure examined was

last

of

relation

performance might be a factor

in

pair

a cooperation indicator to

whether the Knowledge, ideas, or

team member could be brought

relevant past experience of each

effectively to the task.

Each

pair

as shown

in

was observed and then coded on a basis

on

In

of cooperation

was compiled, on discussion between

presentation

final

appears

These observations were based on teamwork

Table 4-5.

as the sequence

Summary

the explanation.

of

the pair, and

the results

of

Figure 4-10.

Table 4-5
Qualitative

Observabon

Code

of

Teamwork

Explanation

Excellent

Equal sharing of

Good

60% -40% division

80% - 20% division

Fair

Poor

Little

In all

or

either excellent or good,

pairs.

All

cooperation

pairs,

tasks and discussion

of

tasks and discussion

of

tasks and discussion

attempted

fair

pairs

and

female

pair,

explain

for

male
which

provided both an incorrect lunar phase

incorrect explanation of the sequence.

to

was coded as

representing 12 female pairs and 11

2 male

was coded as

sequence and an
pairs

all

no cooperation

but 3 of the pairs (23 of the 26), cooperation

the

sequence

verbally

Two
(no

of the

use

3
of

65
materials from the resource box).

use three-dimensiortal
lunar phases sequence.

phases

of the

moon

The

pair,

third

a male

did

pair,

modeling to attempt an explanation of the

In this

case, the one

while the second

member

member

explained the

listened.

Analysis of Model Dimension and Exnlanation

The major conceptual hypothesis

who

of this

research, that students

devise and use a three-dimensional model are more

likely

to

achieve a higher score on an explanation than those

who use any

form

all,

of

a two-dimensional

exclusively on

words,

was

model or no model
first

examined.

at

Statistical

i.e.,

rely

examination

66
employed a one-way analysis

computer

was

[Hq]

there

variance

of

ANOVA,

or

The

SAS.

package

statistical

hypothesis

the

using
or

statistical

be no difference

will

null

the explanation

in

score as a function of the dimension of the model used.

The Independent

model the pair used.

explanation

models

that

and

three-dimensional
verbal explanation

presented

in

this

Possible

The dependent

choice of
reference

presented

In

how

the phases of the

Data from

point.

statistical

determine

if

there

was a

model and the explanation score.

Graphing

fashion.
relationship

of

was a

of

Each
scoring

the resource box of the

in

moon occur as seen from an

this

statistical

relaticnshlp

the model, a graph plotting the variables

to

variable

examination are

Tables 4-6 and 4-7.

To ascertain the

was

or

These data were

(also detailed in this chapter

on page 57) using materials provided

earth

the type of

two-dimensional,

chapter under the section Dimensions

of the quality of the pair's explanation

pair's

was

model types included

were three-dimensional, a combination

two-dimensional,

using no model or resouroes.

Explanation on page 56.

Pair's

hypothesis

variable for this

explanation

the

data

of

the

explanation

was generated.

relationship

The data should graph

demonstrated

that

to

The reason

between the type

In

the

of

a linear
correct

between the independent and dependent variables were

used.

Examination of the
a level of p <
score

is

.05.

related

explanation

when

to

statistical

analysis

shows a

significance

at

Therefore the conceptual hypothesis, a pair's

the

type

of

model

attempting to explain

that

how

is

employed

for

the phases of ie

the

moon

67
can be accepted and the

occur over time,

There

rejected.

explanation of

null

hypothesis [Hg)

a relationship between the correctness of an

Is

how

the phases of the

moon occur over

dimensionality or type of the model used

In

time and the

the explanation.

Table 4-6

Group Mean and Standard Deviation

Standard Deviation
Three-dimensional modeling

25.56

6.15

Two- and Three-dimensional modeling

17.20

2.26

Two-dimensional modeling

13.43

8.30

17.38

8.87

Verbal

All

Groups

Table 4-7
Statistical

Analysis of Model Dimension and Correctness of Explanation

ANOVA Source Table

Source
Dimension
ElICI
Total

Sum of Squares

Mean Square F Value

Degrees of Freedom

1114.22

371.41

851.94

22

38.72

1966.16

25

9.59*

*Slgnlfcant at p < .05

To determine where the

model dimension
follow-up

versus

was done.

the

significant differences occurred

pair's

A Tukey

score,

studentized

post-hoc

in

the

statistical

range test was

the

68

modeled

In

combination

three-dimensions and those pairs

three-

of

showed a

significant difference

their explanation for the

who

explanation.

presented

In

modeled

who modeled

in

and two-dimenslons, two-dimensions, or a

post-hoc

Analysis of this

verbal explanation.

those

who

choice to contrast differences between those pairs

of

statistic

phases
in

Data from

between those pairs who modeled

moon

of the

two-dimenslons
this

follow-up

statistical

post-hoc

in

or

three-dimensions and

provided

statistical

verbal

examination

are

Table 4-8.

Table 4-8
Differences Between Pairs that Modeled

In

Three-Dimensions and

Other Models or Proposals

Model Comoarison:
Ibfee.-Dimension
Model Prooosals and:
Two- and Threedimensional modeling

Two-dimensional

Lower

Difference

Confidence
Limit
-1.283

Between
Means

3.419

12.127

20.835'

7.517

17.156

26.794

modeling

Verbal

Inner

Confidence
imit

17.994

8.356

Significant at p < .05

Analysis of Tvoe of

Three
hypotheses

M odel

additional

were

versus Additional Variables

hypotheses

developed

were

around

the

Investigated.

These

independent

variables

physical or earth science exposure, student preference for science

or

math subjects, and the sex

three-dimensions.

of the pair versus

tendency

to

model

in

69
Physical and Earth Science ExposuCfl

was hypothesized

It

have had

sciences

physical

modeling
variable

In

was

each

Individual

used

pair

analyze this

will

more

in

likely

variable

for their explanation.

hypothesis.

earth sciences

three-dimensional

student course experience

The dependent

was

the earth and

in

the type of model

A one-way ANOVA was used

An analysis was done

science and physical science courses.

for

the earth sciences or the

exhibit

For this hypothesis, the independent

their explanation.

physical sciences.

one or both members

that pairs in which

course experience

significant

for

both

to

earth

Student course experiences

and physical sciences were grouped according

Table 4-9 as taken from prior course experience (discussed

in

to

this

chapter beginning on page 44).

Table 4-9
Earth and Physical Science Courses

Earth Sciences: Level

Astronomy; high school

Physical Sciences: Level

Chemistry

1;

high school

I,

hionors: high school

Earth Science: middle school

Chemistry

Earth-Space Science: high school

AP

Oceanography: high school

Physical Science: high school

Chemistry; high school

Physics

I;

high school

Key
Level: High Sdiool:

AP -

grades 9-12:
Advanced Placement

The
and

statistical

its

presented

analysis of the dimension of the model chosen

relationship
in

US - Middle School: grades 6-8

to

Table 4-10.

prior

earth

science

course

Examination of the

exposure

statistical

is

analysis

70
shows no

employed
Since

the

of

therefore

Is

to

[Hq],

any

p <

of

level

not

related

.05.

as

stated

moon

modeling

model

of

scheme

that

Is

occurring over time.

then

accepted,

not

science experience

that earth

particular

Is

Earth science course

the type

to

explain the phases of the

hypothesis

hypothesis

use

significance at

experience

will

the

can

dimension,

or

null

not affect the

be

accepted.

how would

question that one might pose:

taking of astronomy

(an earth science) affect the type of model that a pair

all

the

exposures

science

earth

which

In

employed?

students

Of

Indicated

experience, astronomy had 6 exposures (2 female, 4 male) versus 2

(male) experiences in Oceanography, and 15

in

Earth Sciences (7

females, 9 males).

Table 4-10
Statistical

Analysis of Model Dimension and Earth Science Exposure

ANOVA Source Table

Sum of Squares
Source

Earth Sci
Error
Total

4.17
29.36

Degrees

of

Freedom

Mean Square F Value

3.41*

4,17

21
25

33.53

-22

Not Significant at p < .05

Analysis

of

the

hypothesis

experience provided the

exposure.

Statistical

same

for

results

analysis

for

physical

as

Table 4-11.

From the analysis

It

sciences

course

sciences course

for earth

physical

experience versus the type of model employed

science
Is

course

represented

in

can be seen that the hypothesis

71

was

not significant at the p < .05 level.

that

physical

particular

science experience

The
not

will

hypothesis [Hq],

null

affect

use of any

the

modeling scheme or dimension, can be accepted.

appearance

this

might

conclusion

be

multidimensionatity aspects of physics

time as a variable).

puzzling,
(I.e.,

At

first

considering

the

curvilinear

motion and

However, one must cortsider that the base

the studys population pool

came from Physics

science course experience.

Therefore,

all

which

I,

for

a physical

Is

students Involved

In

the

study had at least one physical science exposure.

Table 4-11
Statistical

Analysis of Model Dimension and Physical Science

Exposure

ANOVA Source Table

Sum of Squares
SlMCe

PhysSci

1.72

Deorees

of

Freedom

Total

Mean Square F Value

1.30*

1.72

31.62

Error

33

25

18.68

'Not Significant at p < .05

Subject Preference Ranking vers us Tvoe

The
either

hypothesis

third

member

mathematics

exhibit

subjects

of

Model

examined was whether pairs

stronger

would

preference

outperform

those

for

In

science

for

which

preference rating favors English, social studies, art and music.

which

and
the

The

independent variables were the means of the individual student's

subject

preference ranking

five subjects.

(averaged

for

the pair) for each of the

The dependent variable was the type of model each

72
used

pair

for

4-12

Table

choice.

explanation.

its

and the type

preference

significance for each

were found between any

model used
will

in

not

affect

the

between each subject

statistical

null

use

was

there

Is

first

the

is

particular

Generally,

modeling
no

relation

that the

large

not

much

difference

sample size

enough

to

scheme

make

for

for

or

was found
As the data

examined, two things become obvious.

of the subjects (see Figure 4-3,

first In

been

The

between mean rankings

page

45).

^Is study

much

The second
(n

in

the

subject

Table 4-12
Correlations between Model Dimension and Pair

Mean Course

Preferences

Omun

Correlation Coefficient

and Music
Language Arts

26

Mathematics

26

-0.019*

Science

26
26

-0.178*

Arts

Social Studies

*No correlation

26

for

relates to

- 26) may not have

difference

preference means.

Courses- Total

of

the

Therefore, the conceptual hypothesis

any

between subject preference and modeling dimension.

any

and

no correlations

hypothesis [Hq], that subject preference

of

be accepted.

from this hypothesis

statistic

data

analysis,

statistical

course preferences and the type of

of the

the explanation.

be rejected and the

dimension, can

the

subject.

Based on the data from the

will

correlation

model employed was the

of

overviews

0.175*
0.077*

-0.109*

73
Sex versus Model Dimension

The
would

difference

be

hypothesis

final

model

In

explainable

more than female

In

terms of difference

In

science courses taken.

accelerated

research predicted that male pairs

The

pairs.

modeling tendencies of male versus female pairs would

In

largely

this

in

three-dimensions

Although

science,

all

In

the students

net

In

number

they are taking physics, typically

I.e.,

of

the sample are

12th

grade subject, presumably those pairs with more extensive science

course exposure

will

be

sequence and provide a

For

test

was employed

to

variable

moon over

hypothesis.

the

more

likely

was

Additional

A one-way
analysis

Is.

was

the sex of the

ANOVA was

using

two-way

used

to

ANOVAs

examine relationships between the score on the

Analysis of the data

that

produce a correct lunar

the type of model used to explain

time.

explanation, the type of model used

level;

to

criterion explanation.

hypothesis, the Independent variable

this

The dependent

pair.

the phases of the

there

showed no

was no

the proposal's dimension.

in

the explanation, and the sex.

significant

relationship

results at the

between the

Data are presented

In

pair's

< .05

sex and

Table 4-13.

Table 4-13
Statistical

Analysis of Model Dimension and Sex of the Pair

ANOVA Source Table

Sum of Squares

SOUIOe
Sex
Error
Total

0.62

Decrees of Freedom
1

32.92

24

33.54

25

*Not Significant at p < .05

Mean Square F Value

0.62
1

.37

0.45

74
Analysis

Additional

not hypothesized, the researcher

Though
between the

lunar

pair's initial

dimension used

to

in

examined possible

links

phase 16-card layout and the model

the

explain

Results, as presented

lunar

phase sequence with time.

Table 4-14, were not significant at the p <

.05 level.

Table 4-14
Statistical

Analysis of Model Dimension and Phase Layout

ANQVA Source Table

Sum of Squares

Degrees

Source
Error
Total

of

Freedom

Mean Square F Value

2.07

2.07

31.46

22

1-31

33.53

25

Layout

1.59*

Not Significant at p < .05

Review
In

of

system.

the Results

short,

mechanics

use of three-dimensional models help to understand the

of the

phases

of the

Course exposure

in

had no bearing on the type

were equally

likely

to

moon over

time

in

polar coordinate

the earth sciences or physical sciences

of

model

model employed.
in

Males and females

three-dimensions.

And student

course preference had no Influence on the likelihood that a student

will

model

in

three-dimensional
findings

and

three-dimensions
over time

in

system

that

is

nature

in

These

a polar coordinate system.

their implications will

be discussed

in

Chapter

5.

CHAPTER 5
SUMMARY AND CC^gCLUSIONS
Ovary law
Four hypotheses were the focus of
Students

1.

more

likely

who use a two-dimensional model

exclusively on words.

p<

or

study:

was found

This

to

model

no

be

at

all,

significant at

i.e

are

rely

level of

.05.

2.

Pairs

in

which one or both members have had significant

course experience
will

this

who devise and use a three-dimensional model

achieve a higher score on an explanation than those

to

more

likely

sciences

was

student

pairs

sequence
3.

at

the

earth

exhibit

sciences or the physical sciences

three-dimensional
the earth

in

modeling

for

for

their

explanation

level of significance of
in

which

science

three-dimensional

or

modeling

either

of

the

p <

.05.

member

math subjects
in

their

their

in

sciences or physical

not found to effect the type of model

Pairs

preference

in

Course experience

explanation.

employed by the

phases

exhibits
will

more

explanation

moon

the

of

stronger

likely

rather

exhibit

than

combination of three- and two-dimensional, two-dimensional,

the
or

verbal explanation using no model over

those for which the science

75

76
preference rating favors the English, social studies, arts or music.

was determined

This

not to be the case.

Male pairs

4.

than female

pairs

courses taken.

be more

will

due

will,

was

This

Many systems

to

likely

model

to

the overall

The one system examined by

with time.

phases of the moon.

time systems

in

of

science

Other such three-dimensional

in

of

nature

in

was

research

this

astronomy include the revolution

in

three-dimensions

number

net

also determined not to be true.

astronomy are three-dimensional

in

the

nature with

solar system

bodies around the sun, planetary ring and satellite systems, binary

and multiple

stars,

and

galactic rotation.

Additionally,

these are

all

systems that are defined with polar coordinates, rather than the
Cartesian coordinates

The treatment
textbooks,

Though

due

the

to

earth-moon-sun

the

nature

available,

the

it

transition

left

is

from

to

system

textbooks,

of

many computer programs

becoming

make

which most students have had experience.

in

of

ancillaries

three-dimensions

to

in

are

and the student

instructor

two-dimensions

time

two-dimensional.

is

textbook

in

the

over

to
in

such systems.
If

the transition

from

two- to

three-dimensions

is

the student have a better understanding of the system?

results of this study, the

student

teams

three-dimensions

who

answer

modeled

were

is

the

significantly

made,

Based on

The scores

positive.

phases
higher

of

the

than

of

moon
any

will

the

those
in

other

dimensional combination.

How do

students

three-dimensions?

learn

One

to

make

possibility

is

the
prior

transition

from two-

experiences

in

to

making

77
such

Another

a transition.

student experiences,

However,

was

this

hypothesized

course

that

the

is

course exposure the

of

be true

to

experience

sciences would be a key

physical

type

such as earth sciences or physical sciences.

not found

this

in

the

In

modeling

In

The earth sciences cover many astronomy

phases

the

of

moon,

which

circular

some

orbits.

in

or

the

nature.

possibly-relevent concepts,

this

In

was

including

study,

everyone

the

In

one physical science course experience-the

least

Two concerns
results

and

physics
at

was

entire population pool

It

sciences

three-dimensions.

three-dimensional

are

Physical sciences typically covers

e.g.,

sample had

study.

earth
In

topics,

taken from Physics

I,

Standard.

study examined which provided no significant

this

included that of a sex

bias and course preference.

It

Is

possible that a larger or different population pool would have given

results

different

course

for

preference

those with different course preferences.

means

significance could be found

One

the pairs.

in
in

this

with

sculpturing,

dimension

to

might

more

be

typical

another
likely

often

in

the dimension of model employed by

two-dimensional

art.

deal

their work.

to

and

Artists,

with
It

is

diagrams

future

study are

especially those

who

from

one

transition

possible that this group

make a successful
text

The

were so close that no

consideration for instruction

those who show a bias toward

work

study

to

transition

from

the

three-dimensional

system.

As a

part of the final hypothesis, males would tend to

model

in

three-dimensions more than females, an unequal course

experience
in

favor of male

participants

was

the key.

Examination of female

78
male science course

versus

showed a

S tudy

Imolicalions ol this

Based on the
sensitive

to

of

dimensionality
ability

study,

this

study

this

projected

of

an

sample

studys

instructor

should be

Sonntag (1981) reported

issues.

must be taken

designing positional astronomy oourses.

In

for

the Classroom

lor

results

orientation

spatial

experience

equal science course experience distribution.

fairly

consideration

into

that

when

Kelsey (I960) reported that

three-dimensional

relationships

college

astronomy students could not make the transition from twothree-dimensions.

earth

These issues apply not only

who

science teacher, but to those

and physics as

This

well.

is

due

Results indicated that those

significantly

when

tested

each

In

pair's

the lunar phase

of

to

astronomy and

biology,

chemistry,

as a

who

received special tutoring improved

on topics there are three-dimensional

These issues include the

nature.

presentation,

sequence layout

styrofoam

phenomena.

two-dimensional

system was

each prepared, much

like

The three-dimensional presentation was

textbooks.

in

the

represent the sun.

the
that

spheres,

Teachers

with
in

in

instruction of topics that mirrors

the qualities ol actual dimensionality of the

found

to the

teach

to the issue of dimensionality

Lord (1988) examined spatial aptitude of biology students.

factor.

or

without

the

those

the use

flashlight

to

astronomy, earth science, and other

courses should consider modeling true three-dimensional

systems

whenever
In

possible.

astronomy,

students

astronomical systems.

should

rely

Apparently from this

heavily

on

research

modeling

and

that

of

79

many cannot make

others

the

translation

from the two-dimensional

text presentation to the actual three-dimensional system.

should avoid adding

transform

and

the

two-dimensional drawings and

drawings

their

the confusion by avoiding

to

three-dimensional

on

board

the

representations.

such as styrofoam spheres,

employed

for students to

Bishop

models

significantly

on

model

reported
the

to

good

their

that the

substitute for three-dimensional modeling.

of

relative

position

was

teaching

in

the

system and Milky

solar

significantly

better

in

the

is

Reed (1970)
of the

representation

in

who

topics.

planetarium

globe,

three-dimensional

into

performed

astronomy

and Reed and Campbell (1972) stated that the use

a type of

to

texts

systems.

students

that

planetarium

three-dimensional

However several researchers have reported

not a

in

projector

should be available,

enforce modeling systems

to

(1980)

addition

in

better

Teachers

many chances

illustrations

overhead

Materials

The planetarium can be used

three-dimensions.

or

Way

teaching

celestial

the

earths

Galaxy,
of

in

celestial

mechanics.

Textbook writers and publishers also should be sensitive

issue.

the

It

illustrations

include

In

their

out

of

notes

textbooks.
to

Publishers

teachers

suggestions

oould,

on

of the

text

itself.

The publishers should take the

develop computer software that

the

system

viewed

three-dimensional.

on

is

the

realistic

in

computer

its

in

in

the

in

initiative

modeling

monitor

all

however,

modeling

three-dimensions and also could include such suggestions

body

to this

should be obvious that one cannot and should not take

to

that

appears

PARENTAL LETTER AND STUDENT PERMISSION FORM

15 May 1989

Dear Parents.

Much has been done to focus attention on improving science

instruction.
One of the ways to do this is that we need to listen to
students explain certain common science events and the rationale as
why they occur.
As a doctoral candidate at the University of
Florida,
will
be undertaking such a study as part of my
dissertation.
There will be no or a minimum loss of cfass time, in
fact we believe that this exposure will actually enhance the
to

students perception.

Your son or daughter, by virtue of the science courses theyre taking,

In
a group of students who are qualified to participate in a
science activity.
Each selected student that takes part In the extra
science activity will require no more than 30 minutes of their time.
Students will work in pairs and their work will be recorded on video
tape.
Participation will in no way effect a student's grade.
IS

Student confidentiality will be assured at all times.

General
information forms and all data collected will be through a code
number assigned to each student-no names will be used. All the
will be available for you to review. If you wish, at any time
during the projects run.
You may contact me at any time at the

work

Alexander

Brest

Tapes

(396-7062).

Planetarium during normal working hours

only be shown to my doctoral committee at

will

the University of Florida.

be stored at

my

residence

At the completion of the study, tapes

Jacksonville Beach.

will

in

arn seeking permission for your son/daughter to participate.

There
WIN be no monetary compensation to those who participate, and each
individual is free to withdraw his/her consent and to discontinue
participation In the project as any time without prejudice
or effect
'
i-*upon his/her grades.
If you
agre"' "
participate, pfease complete the
son/daughter return it to his/her science teacher.
I

Thank you

for

participate

in

your consideration
this

activity.

Sincerely yours.

Mike 0. Reynolds
Doctoral Candidate
University of Florida

in

allowino vour son/daughter to

INFORMED CONSBJr
Science Events and

their Rationale

Study

Student Permission Form

Student's

Name

School

Science Instructor

We
in

have read and understood the procedure and description described

the

letter

to

the Parents.

We

agree

to

allow our son/daughter

to participate in this study

We

will

receive a copy of this completed form

submitted to the Researcher.

Student's Signature

Parent's Signature

Date

Parent's Signature

Michael D. Reynolds, Researcher

Date

and procedure.

once signed and

APPENDIX 8
STUOENfT SURVEY FORM
Student Code Number

Age
3.

(to

Grade

be entered by Researcher)

in

School: 9 10 11

Sex: Female Male

12

Science Course(s) Currenfly taking:

Plans After High School:

[

6.

Work

Other;

4.

College

2.

Technical schooling

Military

5.

Previously-taken Science Courses and Year taken (check

year: Junior High School/Middle School

1.

Anatomy and Physiology;

2.

Astronomy;

3.

Bioiogy

I;

4.

Bioiogy

I,

5.
6.
7.

[
[
i

8.

9-

Chemistry

i;

Chemistry

I,

A. P. Chemistry;

Honors;

Life

Physicai Science;

12.

Physics

i;

Physics

I,

i
[

15.

16.

and

Earth Science or Earth-Space Science;

[
[

14.

off

up):

A. P. Bioiogy;

10.
11-

13.

and

Honors;

Undecided

iist:

Science:

Honors:

A. P. Physics B/C;

Other, Course:

Other, Course:

Of the

following, rate the

most

to least iiked (1-most to 5-ieast):

A.

Art and/or

Music

B.

Language

Arts

C.

Mathematics

Science

Sociai Studies

82

iist

DATA CODING FORMS

that

b^an

Full

Sequence:

Moon

Crescent Phase
Rnal Sequence:
[
'

(either

waxing or waning)

Correct Two Corrtplete Lunar Phases

Correct Paired Sequence; one sequence

'

Incorrect -- Reversed Waxing & Waning phases

Incorrect -- Paired and Reversed Sequence
..
^
Explanation of Sequence Proposed
*1.
Materials Used to Defend/Explain Sequence Proposed:

Papers Pen/Pencil Drawing

Circular (Flat) Disks

Styrofoam

Ball(s)

Flashlight

None, verbal explanation only

Incorrect; shadows caused phases

Incorrect; earth moved/rotated-revolved
Incorrect; sun moved/rotated-revolved

Incorrect; other explanation

No explanaton given
id

revolution

to describe/defend sequence proposed:

Correctly used:
lyes
[
[
Correctly used:
1 yes
Correctly used:
yes
Correctly used:
1 yes
[

phase(s) ident'fication
other;
ice and explanation:

Correct explanation of correct sequence

Incorrect explanation of correct sequence

Excellent; SO-50 contribution

Good; 60-40 contribution
Fair; 75-25 contribution
Poor; little or no teamwork

83

EXPLANATION OF PHASES SCORING CHART

Eart^ Representation

Moon Representation
Sun as Vie source

of light

Sunlight reflection from the

(visible

on the

RAWSCORE;
Dimension of explanation:
Flashlight

used? Yes

Comments

No

earth)

PERCENT SCORE:

/32

3/2

Explanation only

APPENDIX 0
SAMPLE STUDENT DRAWINGS
Pair:

101-119

Ssx: Female
Notes:
Started with a two-dimensional drawing: explained sequence
with three-dimensional representation (raw score of 32; 100%).

Pair:

004-020

Sex: Male

Notes:

drawing
reflection

Explanation of phase sequence made with two-dimensional

(raw score of 30; 93.75%); tailed to identify sunlight
from the moon visible on the earth.

87
Pair:

016-022

Sex: Male

Explanation of phase sequence made with two-dimensional

drawing (raw score of 16; 50%); failed to Identify sunlight
reflection from the moon visible on the earth, correct lunar
visibility from earth-reference, and changes in the amount of moon

Notes:

visible.

liiiilsiiiiid
a
I s ~ a s

*'

s a

" ' ^ " ' ' ~

s =

"

|l,

"jlllliifiiliili
iiiiiiiiiiiii!

HfiHifiiifii
88

Percent

Raw;

Model

Layout^

Preference^

3
3 s s s

Course

B--p2

REFEFIBCES
Bishop,

E.

J,

present,

United States astronomy education:

Seienne Rdueation 61f3\ 295-305.

(1977).

and

future.

Past,

Bishop,

J. E. (1980a).
Astronomy education in the United States: Out
from under a black cloud- Griffith Observer 41 3V 2-10.
.

Bishop,

The development and

E. (1980b).

J.

planetarium

unit

emphasizing

testing of

projective

a participatory

astronomy concepts

and utilizing the Karplus learning cycle, student model

manipulation, and student drawing with eighth grade students.
(Doctoral dissertation. University of Akron). Dissertation
International 41

Abstracts

Clement,

Darch,

Students

(1982).

J.

C-,

&

1010A.

Eaves,

R,

comprehension

of

Dobson, H. D. (1983).

preconceptions

(1986).

high

school

Visual

in

displays

introductory

to

learning-disabled

increase
students.

An experimental study

of the effectiveness of
teaching selected science concepts in the
middle school. (Doctoral dissertation, Pennsylvania State
University). Pissertation Abstracts Internationfll ii
1315A.

the

planetarium

In

Fletcher,

J.
K.
(1977).
An experimental comparison of the
effectiveness of a traditional type planetarium program and a

participatory

Giles,

type

dissertation.

University

International

39

planetarium
of

Virginia).

program.
Dissertation

(Doctoral
Abstracts

796A-797A.

W. (1981).
A comparison of effectiveness of advance
and clustering singly and in combination upon
in
the
planetarium.
(Doctoral
dissertation,
Pennsylvania Slate University). Dissertation
Abstrartrs
T.

organizers
learning

International

42 70A.
..

91

92
Halloun,

& Hestenes,

A.,

I.

D. (1985).

American Journal

motion.

Hashweh, M. (1988).
science.

Common sense

concepts about
1056-1085.

Physics sa,

of

Descriptive studies of students' conceptions

Journal

Research

of

in

In

Science Teaching 25(3)

121-134.
Hill,

L.

C.

(1989).

University

International

Kelsey,

L.

3543A.

G.

J.

and the astronomical endeavor:

pedagcgical implementations. (Doctoral
of lovra).
Dissertation
Ab-strartg

Spatial thinking

Theoretical issues and

dissertation.

(1980).

The performance

of

college

astronomy

students on tviro of Piagets projective infralogical grouping

tasks and their relationship to problems dealing with phases
of the moon.
(Doctoral dissertation. University of Iowa).

Klopfer,

(1969).

L.

materials:

An

development
(1),

Effectiveness and effects of

illustrative

study of evaluation

ESSP astronomy
In

a curriculum

project.

64-75.

Lightman, A.,

Sadler, P. (1988).

The earth

Is

round?

Who

are you

Science and Chilriran 2, 24-26.

kidding?

Lord, T. H. (1985).

Enhancing the visuo-spatial aptitude of students.

in S cience Teachino ggfsi
395-405.

Journal of Research
Mallon, G.,

&

Bruce, M. (1982).

astronomy; An

Student achievement and attitudes in

experimental comparison of two planetarium

Science Teaching, 12(1

),

53-61.
PoOmore,

F.,

&

Fleet, R. (1985).

Reaves, G. (1984-1985).
222-223.'*'''*'^"^'

Make a

Halley's

comet

orbit

model.

Astronomy for undergraduate nonscience

seioncg Teaching, 12d.(158),

Reed, G. (1970). Is the planetarium a more effective teaching device

than the combination of the classroom chalkboard and celestial
globe?
i, 70(6), 487-492.

G & Campbell, J. (1972). A comparison of the effectiveness

and the classroom chalkboard and celestial
in
the teaching of specific astronomical concepts.
School Science and Mathematins 7PIS1 368-374.

Reed,

of the planetarium

globe

Reed,

J. C. (1970).
A comparison of the effectiveness of the
planetarium and the classroom chalkboard and celestial globe
in the teaching of specific astronomical concepts,
(Doctoral

dissertation.

University
i,

Pennsylvania).

of

Diesertatinn

ai, 4580A.

Roberts,

D. (1970).
Education under the stars.
Journal 40f8V 21.

Junior

ftniiarja

Rosemergy, J. C. (1967). An experimental study of the effectiveness

of a planetarium in teaching selected astronomical phenomena
to sixth grade children. (Doctoral dissertation. University of
Michigan).

Dissertation

Hosenquist. M. L,
to

Abstracts. 28

S McDermott,

teaching kinematics.

4959A-4960A.

L. C. (1987).

Americar!

.Inumal

conceptual approach
of Phvgfng 5(5)

407-415.
Russo,

R.

Sun

(1983).

[.

Sadler, P. (1987).

Sarton,

E.

Teacher.
Shrigley,

R.

science.

The

(1980).

J,

18(7),

(1971),

tracking:

More daytime astronomy.

The

50(5), 72-74.

roots of Project Star.

.STARnawc

Measuring the moon's

orbit.

The

i,

Phvsics

504-509.

Handmade equipment

Science Edunetinn

irtrar

in

361-369.

elementary school

94
Smith, B. A. (1967).

An experimental comparison of two techniques

lecture-demonstration
and
classroom

(planetarium

lecture-demonstration)

concepts

teaching

grade

sixth

to

of

Arizona State University).

selected

astronomical
(Doctoral dissertation,
Abstrantg 2, 887A.

students.
Dissertation

C..
& Pulos, S. (1983). Children's cosmographies:
Understanding the earth's shape and gravity. Seienne Educatinn
fil(2), 205-221.

Sneider,

Sonntag, M. S. (1981).
spatial
of

An experimental study

orientation

of teaching

and achievement

ability,

astronomy.

positional

(Doctoral

in

method,

selected topics

dissertation.

University

of

International, 42.

4783A.
Strope,

M.

E.

A comparison

(1966).

teaching

introductory

in

dissertation,

Utah

and conceptual
astronomy. (Doctoral

of

factual

college

University).

Dissertation

assimilation

and accommodation

State

Ahstrants

International 27. 2457A.

Targan,

D. M.
concepts

Twiest,

M.

G.

astronomy.

integration

concepts

fourth,

to

International
C.

Wright.

A.

D.

(Doctoral

C.

of

of

University

of

and cognitive effects

of

teaching

selected

astronomical

and sixth-grade students. (Doctoral

Dissartation

Georgia).

Ahstraots

473A.

review of

(1969).

methods

of

dissertation.

Dissertation

dissertation.

altitudinal
in

fifth,

University

(1973).

L.

different

(Doctoral

The

(1989).

dissertation.

Wall,

The

(1988).
in

planetarium

Abstracts

research

Effectiveness
its

of

utilization

University

in

of

International 21.

related

astronomy

to

the

planetarium and
teaching astronomy.

Nebraska
4580A.

Lincoln).

BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH
Michael

was

Reynolds

David

Jacksonville,

March

born

1954,

30,

He attended elementary and

Florida.

schools at Jacksonville

junior

Beach, Florida, before graduating

in

high

1972

in

from Fletcher Senior High School.

He received

Associate's

his

Florida,

also

New

Trenton,

in

Jacksonville

Jersey,

the University of North

and Thomas Edison

before being

natural sciences from

In

general college from

in

He attended

Florida Junior College in 1972.

degree

degree

awarded

Edison

in

his

State

College,

Bachelor of Arts

He

1979.

received his

Master of Education degree

in

of North Florida in 1983.

1983 he entered the doctoral program

the

University

of

In

Florida.

minor was astronomy with

committee

science education from the University

major was science education and

Dr.

Mary Budd Rowe serving as

years as an astronomy, physios, and chemistry instructor.

also

served

as

an

Community College
Florida.

at

His

his

chair.

Reynolds professional career as a science teacher spans

He

Planetarium

at

adjunct
at

the

professor

Jacksonville

currently

is

Museum

the
of

of

astronomy

and the

director

of

He has

at

University

the

11

Florida

of

North

Alexander

Brest

Science and History

in

Jacksonville,

Florida.

Reynolds work
including

in

education has been recognized several times,

selection as the

1986 Florida Teacher

of the

Year,

1985

American Chemical Society Florida Teacher of the Year,

and Florida's
National Aeronautics and

Space Administration Teacher

95

in

Space.

He

96
has been honored by several

civic

organizations, including selection

as 1987 Outstanding Young Floridian by the Florida Jaycees and the

1984 Citizen of the Year by the Jacksonville Beaches Chamber

of

Commerce.
Reynolds has authored and presented many papers on science
education and astronomy.

addition,

In

he coauthored a book

amateur astronomers on lunar and solar eclipse astronomy.

many

for

His

presentations and workshops have included numerous teacher

organizations and conventions.

Reynolds

is

involved

in

numerous professional organizations.

He

has been a member of the National Science Teachers Association

since 1977, and

is

currently serving

his

final

term on the Space Sciences Advisory Board.

of

the

Florida

Association

Science Teachers

of

secretary from 1984 to 1985.

astronomical

year of a three year

He has been a member

He

organizations,

is

also

having

and served

member

served

of

as

Convention
Florida

the
in

chairman

July,

of

1983.

He

the
is

National

as

numerous
National

as

Vice-President of the Astronomical League from 1977 to 1979.

served

Astronomical

He

League

the co-founder of the Northeast

Astronomer Society and has served as president.

Reynolds
children,

Is

married to the former Debra

Aimee and Jeremy.

Beach, Florida.

They

currently

Thompson and has two

reside

in

Jacksonville

certify that
have react this study and that in my opinion it
to acceptable standards of scholarly presentation and is
adequate, in scope and quality, as a dissertation for the degree
I

conforms
fully

of Doctor of Philosophy.

Mary Budd Rowe, Chair

Professor of Instruction and Curriculum
I

certify that
have read this study and that in my opinion it
to acceptable standards of scholarly presentation and is
adequate, In scope and quality, as a dissertation for the degree
I

conforms
fully

of Doctor of Philosophy.

Elroy Bolduc

Professor of Instruction and Curriculum

certify

conforms
fully

to

have read this study and that in my opinion

acceptable standards of scholarly presentation and

that

adequate,

In

scope and

quality,

it

is

as a dissertation for the degree

of Doctor of Philosophy.

Alexander Smith
Distinguished Service
Astronomy

Professor

of

This dissertation was submitted to the Graduate Faculty of the

College of Education and to the Graduate School and was accepted
as
partial

fulfillment

of

the

requirements for the degree of Doctor or

Philosophy.

December 1990
Dean, College of Education

Dean, Graduate School