ECE 2054 Lab 04

Thevenin Equivalent Circuit

Lon Charles Thvenin

1857 - 1926

You will need:

Multimeter with clip leads

Wires with the ends stripped
Several Resistors
Andy board and power supply
LTspice (or Pspice)

Thevenin Equivalent

Thevenin and Norton Circuit Models

Linear circuits can be modeled as

a simple source voltage with a series impedance (Thevenin).
a simple source current with a parallel impedance (Norton).
(non-Linear circuits can not be modeled this way!)
The source may have a phase, the impedance may be complex.
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Stereo Amp Example: 10V, 2 Source

8 Speaker

(It's a voltage divider!)

Vspkr = 10 x [8 / (8+2)] = 8V
Pspkr = 82 / 8 = 8W
Pamp = 22 / 2 = 2W (internal)
Efficiency = 80%

2 Speaker

Vspkr = 10 x [2 / (2+2)] = 5V
Pspkr = 52 / 2 = 12.5W (max power)
Pamp = 52 / 2 = 12.5W (internal)
Efficiency = 50%

1 Speaker

Vspkr = 10 x [1 / (1+2)] = 3.3V

Pspkr = 3.32 / 1 = 10.9W (power is down)
Pamp = 6.72 / 2 = 22W (ouch!)
Efficiency = 33%
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Why cant we measure the Thevenin Equivalent of

an ANDY board regulated supply?
Unlike the +12V and -12V ANDY board supplies (which can be modeled with
a Thevenin equivalent), the +9V, -9V, and +5V supplies are regulated,
which makes them non-linear.

The output tries to act as an ideal voltage source.

When the regulators current limit is reached, voltage regulation ceases
and the supply can only supply its maximum current (which is temperature dependant!).

Thevenin models only work for linear circuits and sources.

Thevenin Source Model

A circuits VOC and ISC may be calculated or measured to determine the

Thevenin equivalent. (Measuring ISC not recommended for high current sources
such as vehicle starting batteries.)

Vth = VOC (the open circuit voltage at the terminals)

ISC = Voc / Rth (the maximum current possible at the terminals)

Rth = VOC / ISC (follows Ohms Law)
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Thevenin Source & Load = voltage division

IL = Vth / (Rth + RL) and VL = IL * RL,
which leads to
The Voltage division equation for
resistors is
VL = Vth * RL / (Rth + RL)

Notice how the load voltage is

dependant on the load resistance.

Finding the values for Vth and Rth

If you can't safely measure ISC,
a circuits VOC and a load voltage (VL) may be measured across a
known resistance (RL) to determine the Thevenin equivalent.
1. Vth = VOC measured
2. IL = VL / RL (Ohm's law!)
Rth = (VOC VL) / IL (Ohm's law!)
Rth = (VOC VL) * RL / VL

Voltage Dividers as Thevenin Sources

Voltage dividers are frequently used to reduce a voltage by dividing
the voltage between two resistors (or impedances if a phase change
is desired).
The output voltage depends on how much current the load draws
from the divider output.
To predict Vo, voltage dividers may be modeled as a Thevenin
circuit.
a. Vth = Vo = V1 * R2 / (R1 + R2)
b. Isc = V1 / R1
c. Rth = Vo / Isc = R1 * R2 / (R1 + R2) = R1 || R2

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Load Power PL
PL is the real part of VL * I. The Maximum Power Theorem says:

PL is maximum when RL = Rth (in the DC world!)

We saw that in the stereo amplifier example at the beginning of class.

In AC, PL is maximum when ZL is a conjugate match for Zth

(Zth = R +jX matches max power to ZL = R jX)
NOTE: We will not go there, just be aware that it exists if you ever need it.

For our measurements, PL = VL * IL and PL = VL2 / RL

Combining VL = Vth * RL / (Rth + RL) with IL = Vth / (Rth +RL)
gives PL = Vth 2 * RL / (Rth + RL)2

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Lab Procedure Tips

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How do I find ISC of the original circuit?

Short circuit means RL = 0

What is IL (= ISC)
KCL at node X:
IR1 + IR2 + IL = 0
We know that VX = VY
so
IR2 = VX / R2, IR1 = [VX - V1] / R1
or
KCL at node Y: IR3 + IR4 - IL = 0
IR3 = VY / R3, IR4 = [VY - V2] / R4
NOTE: Some voltages and currents may be
negative; polarity depends on how you
define the voltage and current directions!
(IL should be a little over 8 mA)
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How do I find VOC of the circuit?

Open circuit means RL =
IL = 0
KVL around R2, RL and R3:
VX + VL + VY = 0
Treat V1, R1 and R2 as a voltage
divider, find VX (= VR2)

Treat V2, R4 and R3 as a voltage

divider , find VY (= VR3)
OTE: Some voltages may be negative;
polarity depends on how you define
the voltage directions!
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Determine the Thevenin Equivalent

of the original circuit
1. R5 is the load for the original circuit.
2. Use the open circuit voltage and short circuit current values
measured last week in Lab 03 Part C-3. Check your values
against the calculations in Lab 04 Part A.

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How do we make an equivalent circuit?

The ANDY board has +5V, +9V +12V raw, -9V, and -12V raw power
supplies, not the Vth that you need. What do we do?

We know that a voltage divider also has a Thevenin equivalent circuit.

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Three Equivalent Circuits

These three circuits all have the same VL and IL for any load resistor value.
You will design a voltage divider using one of the ANDY board power supplies
and resistors from your parts kit. This divider will have the same Thevenin
equivalent circuit as the original circuit from Lab 03, so the two circuits should
produce the same load voltage and current for any load resistor value.
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Construct a Voltage Divider that is the

equivalent of the original circuit
1. You will need to select an ANDY power supply (+12 raw, +9, +5,
-9, or -12 raw) for VA . Before you begin your design, measure the
actual voltage of your chosen power supply!
Important Tip: Pay attention to the required source polarity!

2. Use several kit resistors (up to two in series) to get the values for
R1 and R2 within 10% of the design values.
3. Measure the VRL and IRL with RL = R5 from the original circuit.

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Multimeter Measurements
The DMM voltage input impedance is 10 M, which does not load a
low impedance circuit. 10 M can become significant to very high
impedance circuits, and the loading effects can produce inaccurate
measurements.
The DMM current measurement is actually a voltage measurement
across a low resistance shunt. This shunt adds a series resistance
to the circuit you are measuring. While this series resistance is low,
it can be significant in low voltage circuits.

On the 10A scale, Rs = 0.2

On the 200mA scale, Rs = 10.2
On the 20mA scale, Rs = 20
On the 2mA scale, Rs = 110

The 20mA current shunt has a very

small effect (<2%) on the 680 load current measurement.
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Voltage Measurement Review

VR2 = V1 *R2 / (R1 + R2)

R2' = R2 || Rmeter = R2 || 10M

VR2 = V1 *R2' / (R1 + R2')
If R2 = 1k, R2' 1k, no affect from meter.
If R2 = 10M, R2' = 10M || 10M = 5M!!

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Current Measurement Review

I = V1 / (R1 + R2)

To measure current, open the circuit and insert the meter in series.

I = V1 / ( R1 + Rmeter + R2)
For R1 and R2 > 500, error < 2%.
For R1 and R2 < 500, the error may bite you.

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The Voltage Divider in LTspice

(The Thevenin Equivalent of this voltage divider is the same as the
Thevenin Equivalent of the original circuit)

First: build your circuit with RL = 680 and run the op point simulation.
Check your V1 and R values if VL and IL are not close to expected!

If the circuit works correctly, then set up a parameter sweep.

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Info: LT Spice Parameter Sweep Simulation

Calculates circuit voltages and currents as the value of one or more
components are varied in our case, RL.
The component can be a voltage or current source, a resistor or
other part, a parameter within a device model, or the ambient
temperature, which causes changes in all temperature sensitive
components.
Plots of voltages and currents as a function of the changing
value of the component are automatically made when voltage or
current markers are placed on the schematic.
For this lab, you are going to simulate a circuit as the load resistor
value changes.

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LTspice simulation
Edit your LTspice voltage divider circuit to use:
The correct ANDY voltage source.
The R1 and R2 values calculated to produce
the equivalent of the original circuit.
a variable resistor for RL.
A voltage and a current probe to measure VL
and IL.
V1 and VL node labels.
A text box containing your name,
class, and lab number.
Run a parameter sweep to vary
RL from .001 to 22k with a
10 increment.
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LTspice Variable Resistors

Click on a resistor and set the
resistance value to a name such
as {RL}. Note the curly brackets!
Click the .op tool
on the toolbar

on the far right

Set the directive to

.step param RL 0.001 22k 10
RL = variable resistor value
0.001 = resistor starting value (in )
(0 not allowed)
22k = resistor ending value (in )
10 = incremental step size (in )
Tips: See YouTube Stepping Parameters in LTspice IV (5 min)
- but realize that this uses an AC source and transient simulation.

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Run the parameter sweep Analysis

Click

Simulate
Edit Simulation Command
DC op point
OK

Click the Run command

A blank simulation window will
appear.

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Set probes in the sweep Analysis

Set probes to measure VL and IL.

You should see something that
looks similar to the display below,
but your values will be different.

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Add a PL trace to the simulation

Load power PL = VRL * IRL
On the simulation result

1. Click Plot Settings Add trace

or
Right click top of simulation
window and click "Add trace
2. In the popup, multiply VRL by IRL
to get PL Your text should be
something like: V(vl)* I(Rl)
(Your label names may be different)

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Info: Use the cursors to measure values

Right Click one of the trace
labels and attach a cursor
Move the mouse to the cursor
and drag it to the power peak

Read the value for the

selected trace.
Click the other trace label to
measure the second value

Example only!
This is NOT your circuit.
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Tip: To mark a cursor position

To label a cursor position, click
Plot Settings >
Notes & Annotations >
Label Curs. Pos
the measurement values will appear

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Measure With Cursors

Use the cursor to add measurements to the Voltage and Power traces.
Right Click the trace labels for Power and VRL, and attach the two
cursors.

Move the cursors to the point where RL = Rth, and measure and
mark the values for PL and VRL. Repeat for
other values of RL.
[Tip: to make a simulation load quickly for a
validation, click File > Save Plot Settings

When you run the simulation, LTspice

will load any added traces and labels.]
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You should now have a trace similar to this:

Speaker Demo only - your Lab values WILL be different.

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Real world Thevenin example

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Car Battery and Starter Load

Battery VOC = 12.8V charged, no load

Battery VL = 11.6V while starting

IL starting = 100A
Vth = VOC = 12.8V
Rth = VRth / IRth (by Ohms law)
= (VOC-VL) / Istart
= (12.8 11.6) / 100 = 0.012

ISC = Vth / Rth = 12.8 / 0.012

= 1067A
Cold Weather, I Starter = 200A
Vbattery = Vth IL x Rth = 10.4V
(and you need to run fuel pump and ignition!)
(and Rth as temperature !)

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Safety under the hood

Popular mechanics article:
Car Battery Do's and Don'ts
Be careful with jumper cables!
Whats the current if you connect
the cables backwards?!?!

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Submit your LTspice schematic to

Assignment 04
After you have successfully competed the schematic and simulation
Have a text box with your name, class, and lab number on the
LTspice schematic.
Upload the schematic to the assignment.
The schematic will have .asc for the file extension
If your .asc extensions are not visible and you cant find the schematic, open
windows explorer and click tools > folder options > view >
uncheck the box for Hide extensions for known file types > Apply > OK

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Copy bitmap captures of your LTspice schematic

and simulation into the Assignment 04 worksheet
After you have successfully competed the schematic and simulation
Copy a bitmap image of the schematic (with your name and
assignment information added and the nodes labeled) to your
worksheet in place of the supplied image.
Copy a bitmap image of the simulation results (with the trace values
labeled) to your worksheet in place of the supplied image.
There is no validation in the OPEL for this experiment.

Images shown are only examples,

Values are incorrect ,
traces and labels are missing.

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Next Week: Wheatstone Bridge

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