CHAPTER -1

INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background
A Pozzolan is defined by the American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) as a
siliceous or siliceous and aluminous material which in itself possesses little or no
cementitious value but which will, in finely divided form and in the presence of moisture,
chemically react with calcium hydroxide at ordinary temperature to form compounds
possessing cementitious properties. (ASTM, 1975). Pozzolans ensure the setting of concrete
and plaster and provide concrete with more protection from wet conditions and chemical
attack. Pozzolanic concretes are used extensively throughout the world where oil, gas,
nuclear and power industries are among the major users. The applications of such concretes
are increasing day by day due to their superior structural performance, environmental
friendliness, and energy conserving implications. Apart from the usual risk of fire, these
concretes are exposed to high temperatures for considerable periods of time. Although
concrete is generally believed to be an excellent fireproofing material, but there is extensive
damage or even catastrophic failure at high temperatures. At high temperatures, chemical
transformation of the gel weakened the matrix bonding, which brought about a loss of
strength of fly ash concrete.
The search for alternative binders, or cement replacement materials, has been carried out for
decades. Research has been conducted on the use of fly ash, volcanic ash, volcanic pumice,
pulverized-fuel ash, blast slag and silica fume as cement replacement material. Fly ash and
others are pozzolanic materials because of their reaction with lime liberated during the
hydration of cement.
Concretes containing mineral admixtures are used extensively throughout the world for their
good performance and for ecological and economic reason. These materials

can also

improve the durability of concrete and the rate of gain of strength and can reduce the rate of
liberation of heat which is beneficial for mass concrete. There are changes in the properties of
concretes, particularly in the range of 100300C above 300C, there is decrease in
mechanical characteristics. The behaviour of concrete subjected to high temperatures is a
result of many factors; such as heating rate, peak temperatures, dehydration of CSH gel,
phase transformations, and thermal incompatibility between aggregates and cement paste. On
the other hand, quality control of concrete, by means of non-destructive methods, in

structures subjected to fire or not so high temperature exposure conditions, is not particularly
easy to be carried out (D.K. Soni and Jasbir Saini, 2014).
1.2 Effect of temperature on concrete
At high temperature, concrete microstructure is negatively affected. Poor microstructure is
associated with generation of undesirable configuration of C-S-H crystals, reduced degree of
hydration, and increased cracking at high temperature curing. Generally, the C-S-H crystals
grow long and thin/narrow and occupy less space in the matrix at high temperatures, resulting
in decreased density of the microstructure. The reduced degree of hydration at elevated
temperature occurs as a result of rapid water loss due to evaporation, leaving un-hydrated
cement particles within the concrete matrix. The increased micro cracking is the result of
high thermal stresses that are generated due to the induced temperature gradients. Thus,
homogeneity and density of concrete microstructure are adversely affected due to the
aforementioned factors. Consequently, long-term strength and durability-related properties
are negatively affected for concrete subjected to curing at high temperatures (Tarun R.Naik
and Rudolph N. Kraur, 2002).
Another problem is that air entrainment is more difficult at higher temperatures, although this
can be remedied by simply using larger quantities of entraining agent. A related problem is
that, if relatively cool concrete is allowed to expand when placed at a higher air temperature,
then the air voids expand and the strength of the concrete is reduced. All this indicates that
concrete temperature disturbs its properties at all stages of the concrete (Usman Ghani et al.
2006).
The physical and chemical changes in concrete under high temperatures depend not only on
the matrix composition but also on the type of aggregate (mineralogical characteristics,
dilatation etc.). Other factors that have influence are the water/cement ratio, the porosity,
humidity and age of concrete. At the structural level, the behaviour of concrete elements
exposed to high temperatures is characterized spalling, that is a brittle failure with most
cracks parallel to the heated surface. The mechanical properties of concrete in general are
adversely affected by thermal exposure.
1.3 Damage Mechanisms of Concrete under Fire: The effects of high temperatures on high
strength concrete (HSC) materials have also been studied since the past decade. Although
there are significant differences between normal and high strength concretes in fire
performance, their thermal damages (crack formation, explosive spelling, and degradation of

mechanical/durability properties) are similar and mainly arise from (i) thermal mismatch, (ii)
decomposition of hydrates, and (iii) pore pressure (D.K Soni & Jasbir Saini,2014).
1.3.1 Thermal mismatch: When a concrete member is exposed to fire, the temperature
gradient across the depth of the section will be built up. The thermal expansion of the outer
layer of concrete under a high temperature is partially restrained by the inner layer of
concrete under a lower elevated temperature, and this generates tensile thermal stresses in the
concrete.
Another situation is that even a concrete member is subjected to an ideal uniform temperature
field across its thickness, thermal stresses can still be developed because of the
incompatibility of the coefficients of thermal expansion of the constitutive materials in
concrete.
1.3.2 Decomposition of hydrates: The mechanical properties of concrete depend largely on
the hydration products (calcium silicate hydrate gel, calcium hydroxide, and ettringite)
formed during the hydration reaction between the cementituous constituents and water. When
concrete is exposed to a fire attack, free water in the concrete matrix will firstly be removed
through a physical process such as evaporation at a lower elevated temperature. As the
temperature further increases, disintegration of hydrates and loss of chemically bonded water
will take place.
1.3.3 Pore pressure: The pore pressure developed in a heated concrete is derived from the
evaporation of water within the porous media (free water) and from the decomposition of CS-H gel and calcium hydroxide (chemically combined water). The highest pore pressure
occurred between 220C and 240C in high strength concrete (HSC) and between 190C and
210C in normal strength concrete (NSC). The magnitude of the pore pressure depends on (i)
the moisture level (degree of saturation), (ii) the permeability of concrete, and (iii) the heating
rate. The maximum pore pressure could reach 3 MPa and 1 MPa in unsealed heated HSC and
NSC respectively. Low permeability and dense microstructure of HSC are probably the
causes for creating high pore pressure that has been considered as a key factor for explosive
spalling of concrete.
1.4 Fly Ash
Fly ash is an inorganic, non-combustible by-product of coal - burning power plants. As coal
is burnt at high temperatures, carbon is burnt off and most of the mineral impurities carried

away by the flue gas in the form of ash. The molten ash is cooled rapidly and solidifies as
spherical, glassy particles). Fly ash is removed from the flue gas by means of a series of
mechanical separators followed by electrostatic precipitators or bag filters (Malhotra and
Mehta, 2002). Fly ash particles range in diameter from <1 microns up to 150 microns
(Malhotra and Ramezanianpour, 1994).
Fly ash is a fine, powdery material that would fly out of the power plants stacks if it were
not captured. Most of the fly ash contains compounds from the elements silicon, aluminium,
iron, calcium, and magnesium. Fly ash produced from the burning of subbituminous coal
contains more calcium and less iron than fly ash from bituminous coal. Fly ash is a
pozzolanic material. Fly ash is a valuable resource to the construction industry as it can be
used together with Portland cement to produce concrete. It is available in large quantities in
the country, as a waste product, from a number of thermal power stations and industrial
plants. Its availability is likely to increase with the increased industrialisation in the country.
Fly ash is grey in colour and alkaline in nature (M.D.A. Thomas et al, 1986).
Fly ash is used as a mineral addition in concrete to improve its strength and durability
characteristics. Fly ash can be used either as an admixture or as a partial replacement of
cement or as a partial replacement of fine aggregates or total replacement of fine aggregate
and as supplementary addition to achieve different properties of concrete(D.k soni &Jasbir
Saini,2014).
Advantages of using fly ash in concrete
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.

It generally increases the workability of the fresh concrete.

Decreases the hydration temperature.
Increases resistance of the concrete to the chemical attacks.
Decreases the bleeding.
It is generally cheaper than Portland cement.
It decreases the permeability of the hardened concrete.
It increases the strength and durability characteristics of concrete.
Fly ash increases compactness in the concrete or mortar and causes filling of the
spaces.

Today, there is a general trend to replace higher levels of Portland cement with fly ash in
concrete. The increased pressure to use higher levels of fly ash in concrete arises from three
main aspects. The first aspect is economics. In most markets fly ash is less expensive than
Portland cement. Therefore, as the replacement level of fly ash increases, the cost to produce
concrete decreases. The second and the most important aspect is the environment. Fly ash is

an industrial by-product, much of which is deposited in landfills if not used in concrete. Also
from an environmental perspective, the more fly ash being utilized in concrete, the less the
demand for Portland cement, the less Portland cement production, and therefore the lower
CO2 emissions. The third and final aspect influencing the use of higher replacement levels is
the technical benefits of high volume fly ash concrete (HVFAC). HVFAC has improved
performance over ordinary Portland cement concrete, especially in terms of durability when
appropriately used.
1.4.1 Classification of Fly ash
ASTM-C 618-93 categorises natural pozzolans and fly ash into following three general
classes:1) Class N fly ash: Raw or calcined natural pozzolans such as some diatomaceous
earths, opaline chert and shale, stuffs, volcanic ashes and pumice come in this
category. Calcined kaolin clay and laterite shale also fall in this category of pozzolans.
2) Class C fly ash: Fly ash normally produced from lignite or sub bituminous coals is
the only material included in this category. Class C fly ash contain higher levels of
calcium. This class of fly ash has both pozzolanic and varying degree of self
cementitious properties.
Historically, class C fly ash has been used much more in construction applications
than class F, primarily due to the self- hardening characteristics in the class C fly ash.
3) Class F fly ash: Fly ash normally produced from burning anthracite or bituminous
coal falls in this category. This class of fly ash exhibits pozzolanic property but rarely
if any, self-hardening property.
The main criterion for classification are its chemical requirements for class F are:
Sio2 +Al2o3+Fe2o3>70% and Sio2+Al2o3+Fe2o3>50% for class F. However, many
sub-bituminous and lignite coal ashes meet the chemical requirements of class F.
Table 1. Requirements for fly ash and natural pozzolans for use as a mineral
admixture in Portland cement concrete as per ASTM C 618-93

Table 1.1 Chemical Requirements

1.5 High Volume Fly Ash

The term high volume fly ash HVFA was coined in 1985 by Malhotra in CANMET.
HVFAC is defined as concrete containing greater than 30% fly ash by mass of total
cement material. HVFAC has improved performance over ordinary Portland cement
concrete, especially in terms of durability when approximately used. This concrete has
very low water content and at least 50% of the Portland cement by mass is replaced
with fly ash. HFVA concrete has generally been found to be an economical and
durable concrete system for structural concrete and many other concreting projects
(Donald Burden). HVFA concrete can be mixed, transported, placed, and finished by
conventional means (Langley and Leaman, 1998). However, in order to achieve the
full benefits of HVFA concrete particular attention has to be paid to certain design and
placement issues when using high levels of fly ash. The two most important factors
that have to be addressed in order to ensure HVFA concrete be durable is a low water
to cementitious materials ratio and an extended period of moist curing.

HVFAC is one of the green concrete alternatives indirectly reducing the co2
emission and energy consumption related to the production of cement (Estakhri and
Saylak, 2004).
Fly ash, a principal by-product of the coal-fired power plants, is well accepted as a
pozzolanic material that may be used either as a component of blended Portland
cements or as a mineral admixture in concrete. In commercial practice, the dosage of
fly ash is limited to 15%-20% by mass of the total cementitious material. Usually, this
amount has a beneficial effect on the workability and cost economy of concrete but it
may not be enough to sufficiently improve the durability to sulphate attack, alkalisilica
Expansion, and thermal cracking. For this purpose, larger amounts of fly ash, on the
order of 25%-35% are being used.
From theoretical considerations and practical experience the authors have determined
that, with 50% or more cement replacement by fly ash, it is possible to produce
sustainable, high-performance concrete mixtures that show high workability, high
ultimate strength, and high durability (P.K. Mehta).
High volume fly ash concrete is designated as Eco-Smart or Green concrete and have
following properties:
1. Structural capability
2. Durability
3. Cost efficiency
4. Aesthetics
5. Schedule of construction
6. Better utilisation of large volume of co-product
7. Sustainability of depleting resources
1.5.1 Mechanisms by which fly ash improves the properties of concrete
Fly ash as a water reducer: Too much mixing-water is probably the most important
cause for many problems that are encountered with concrete mixtures. There are two
reasons why typical concrete mixtures contain too much mixing-water. Firstly, the
water demand and workability are influenced greatly by particle size distribution,
particle packing effect, and voids present in the solid system. Secondly, to plasticize a
cement paste for achieving a satisfactory consistency, much larger amounts of water
than necessary for the hydration of cement have to be used because Portland cement
particles, due to the presence of electric charge on the surface, tend to form flocs that
trap volumes of the mixing water.
It is generally observed that a partial substitution of Portland cement by fly ash in a
mortar or concrete mixture reduces that water requirement for obtaining a given

consistency. This means that good fly ash can act as a super plasticizing admixture
when used in high-volume. The phenomenon is attributable to three mechanisms.
First, fine particles of fly ash get absorbed on the oppositely charged surfaces of
cement particles and prevent them from flocculation. Secondly, the spherical shape
and the smooth surface of fly ash particles help to reduce the inter particle friction and
thus facilitates mobility. Thirdly, the particle packing effect is also responsible for
the reduced water demand in plasticizing the system.
Drying shrinkage:

The greatest disadvantage associated with the use of neat

Portland-cement concrete is cracking due to drying shrinkage. The drying shrinkage

of concrete is directly influenced by the amount and the quality of the cement paste
present. It increases with an increase in the cement paste-to-aggregate ratio in the
concrete mixture, and also increases with the water content of the paste.
Clearly, the water-reducing property of fly ash can be advantageously used for
achieving a considerable reduction in the drying shrinkage of concrete mixtures.
Thermal cracking: Thermal cracking is of serious concern in massive concrete
structures. It is generally assumed that this is not a problem with reinforced-concrete
structures of moderate thickness, e.g. 50-cm thick or less. The physical-chemical
characteristics of ordinary Portland cements today are such that very high heat-ofhydration is produced at an early age compared with that of normal Portland cements
available 40 years ago.

Also, high- early strength requirements in modern

construction practice are usually satisfied by an increase in the cement content of the
concrete mixture.
For unreinforced mass-concrete construction, several methods are employed to
prevent thermal cracking, and some of these techniques can be successfully used for
mitigation of thermal cracks in massive reinforced-concrete structures. For instance, a
40-MPa concrete mixture containing 350 kg/m3 Portland cement can raise the
temperature of concrete by approximately 55-60C within a week if there is no heat
loss to the environment. As a rule of thumb, the maximum temperature difference
between the interior and exterior concrete should not exceed 25C to avoid thermal
cracking. This is because higher temperature differentials are accomplished by rapid
cooling rates that usually result in cracking.
Water-tightness and durability: - In general, the resistance of a reinforced-concrete
structure to corrosion, alkali- aggregate expansion, sulfate and other forms of

chemical attack depends on the water-tightness of the concrete. The water-tightness is

greatly influenced by the amount of mixing-water, type and amount of supplementary
cementing materials, curing, and cracking resistance of concrete. High-volume fly ash
concrete mixtures, when properly cured, are able to provide excellent water-tightness
and durability. The mechanisms responsible for this phenomenon are discussed briefly
below.
When a concrete mixture is consolidated after placement, along with entrapped air, a
part of the mixing-water is also released. As water has low density, it tends to travel to
the surface of concrete. However, not all of this bleed water is able to find its way
to the surface. Due to the wall effect of coarse aggregate particles, some of it
accumulates in the vicinity of aggregate surfaces, causing a heterogeneous
distribution of water in the system.
It has been suggested that micro cracks in the interfacial transition zone play an
important part in determining not only the mechanical properties but also the
permeability and durability of concrete exposed to severe environmental conditions.
The heterogeneities in the microstructure of the hydrated Portland-cement paste,
especially the existence of large pores and large crystalline products in the transition
zone, are greatly reduced by the introduction of fine particles of fly ash. In
conclusion, a combination of particle packing effect, low water content, and
pozzolanic reaction accounts for the eventual disappearance of the interfacial
transition zone in HVFA concrete, and thus enables the development of a highly
crack-resistant and durable product.
1.6 MECHANICAL PROPERTIES
Mechanical properties are the characteristics that indicate the either elastic or
inelastic, behaviour of a material under pressure (force) such as bending, brittleness,
elongation, hardness and tensile strength, impact strength. Mechanical properties are
used to classify and identify material.
In this thesis report the mechanical properties studied are:
Compressive strength
Split tensile strength
Modulus of rupture
Abrasion resistance test
Rebound hammer test
Ultrasonic pulse velocity test
Out of the above mentioned mechanical properties rebound hammer and ultrasonic
pulse velocity test are non -destructive tests.

1.7 Non Destructive Testing

Non Destructive Testing is defined as testing that causes no structurally significant damage
to concrete. Non Destructive Testing (NDT) refers to a wide group of techniques used in
science and industry to determine the properties of materials. Non Destructive Testing
methods are used to determine hardened concrete properties and to evaluate the conditions of
concrete in deep foundations, bridges, buildings, dams and other concrete construction. Most
NDT methods are based on sound or electromagnetic radiation principles.
Non Destructive test methods are applied to concrete construction for four primary reasons:
Quality control of new construction;
Troubleshooting of problems with new construction;
Condition evaluation of older concrete for rehabilitation purposes; and
Quality assurance of concrete repairs.
Non Destructive test methods are increasingly applied for the investigation of concrete
structures. This increase in the application of NDT methods is due to a number of factors:
Technological improvements in hardware and software for data collection and analysis;
The economic advantages in assessing large volumes of concrete compared with coring;
Ability to perform rapid, comprehensive assessments of existing construction; and
Specification of NDT methods for quality assurance of deep foundation and concrete
repairs.
Traditionally, quality assurance of concrete construction has been performed largely by visual
inspection of the construction process and by sampling the concrete for performing standard

tests on fresh and hardened specimens. This approach does not provide data on the in-place
properties of concrete. NDT methods offer the advantage of providing information on the inplace properties of hardened concrete, such as the elastic constants, density, resistivity,
moisture content, and penetrability characteristics.
Condition assessment of concrete for structural evaluation purposes has been performed
mostly by visual examination, surface sounding, and coring to examine internal concrete
conditions and obtain specimens for testing. Condition assessments can be made with NDT
methods to provide important information for the structural performance of the concrete, such
as:
Member dimensions;
Location of cracking, delamination, and de-bonding;
Degree of consolidation, and presence of voids and honey comb;
Steel reinforcement location and size;
Corrosion activity of reinforcement; and
Extent of damage from freezing and thawing, fire, or chemical exposure.
Concrete strength
Density.
NDT methods that are used today for concrete inspection are visual inspection, stress wave
methods for structures and deep foundations, nuclear methods, magnetic and electrical
method, infrared thermography and radar technique (ACI Committee 228, 1998).
Uses of NDT during all stages of manufacturing results in the following benefits:1. It increases the safety and reliability of the product during operation.
2. It decreases the cost of the product by reducing scrap and conserving material labour and
energy.
3. It enhances the reputation of the manufacturer as producers of quality goods.
4. It enables design of new products.

CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE REVIEW
Antonio Brencich et al. (2013) in their paper Calibration and Reliability of the
Rebound (Schmidt) Hammer Test estimated the compressive strength of concrete by
the rebound hammer test, also known as Schmidt Hammer test. This paper discussed
an extensive research, and application, of this technique to a large number of cubes
provided by the Laboratory for Building Materials of the University Of Genoa, Italy,
showing that several phenomena strongly affect the test: moisture content, maturity,
stress state among the others. Strength estimates may differ as much as 70% if these
parameters are not taken into account. Besides, several in situ investigations on
existing buildings were affected by a large dispersion of data, so that we should
conclude that the Rebound Hammer is unable of giving a reliable estimate of the
concrete strength. This is probably due to the very limited area of the material on
which the test is performed that allows also small local inhomogeneity to affect quite
strongly the test. Therefore, the rebound hammer seems to be useless in the estimation
of concrete compressive strength, being only a rough tool for estimating material
homogeneity inside a specific concrete type.
Athanase Ndihokubwayo (2011) in his paper Compressive and Flexural Strengths
for Considerable Volume Fly-Ash Concrete investigated that the use of considerable
volume of fly ash concrete in replacement of cement is economically and environmentally beneficial because the fly ash is cheaper and produces fewer emissions of
greenhouse gases than the conventional Portland cement. By using 30; 40 and 50
percent of fly ash in cementitious materials, after comparing different results of
samples tested, the 28 days high-performance fly ash concrete resisted to the

compressive loading forces respectively equal to 30.9MPa; 29.7MPa and 26.2 MPa
while for flexural loading forces, the high-performance fly ash concrete resisted
respectively 5.1 MPa; 4.0MPa and 3. 9 MPa. These results were found after an
experimental study done in the concrete laboratory and may inspire the sustainable
construction especially for infrastructures with no high loading forces.
B. Balakrishnan et al. (2014) in their paper Durability properties of concrete
containing high volume Malaysian fly ash determined the effect of high volume fly
ash on concrete durability when exposed to chloride, acid and sulphate solutions.
Four types of concrete mixes were prepared that consist of 0, 40, 50 and 60% of fly
ash by weight of cement. The durability performances of high volume fly ash concrete
against physical and chemical attack revealed that concrete with high volume fly ash
demonstrated lesser chloride ion penetration, lower weight and strength loss in acid
solution and completely stayed intact in sulphate solution throughout the period of
exposure.
Balakrishnaiah.D et al. (2013) in their paper Study of mechanical properties of
concrete at elevated temperature attempted to investigate the effect of elevated
temperature on mechanical properties of concrete. These researchers, during their
investigation, used materials with varying combination and different experimental
conditions. These materials include cement, different percentages of admixtures like
fly ash, silica fume, metakaolin, finely grounded pumice (FGP), group granulated
blast furnace slag (GGBS), polypropylene fibre (PP fibre), palm oil fuel ash (POFA),
Portland pozzolana cement (PPC), rice husk ash (RHA), different fine and coarse
aggregates, super plasticisers, retarders and the conditions included a temperature
range of 28C to 1200C. The other conditions that were varied are the shapes and
sizes of test specimens, curing methods, curing conditions and test methods. The
analysis of these investigations and their results are reviewed and presented in this
paper.
B Rajamannan et al. (2013) in their paper Effect of fly ash addition on the
mechanical and other properties of ceramic tiles investigated the effect of fly ash
additions on the mechanical properties of ceramic tile composition. Fly ash addition
in the range of 0-30wt% (Class-A) and 0-30wt% (Class-B) have been added into the
tile body composition, wet milled, spray dried, shaped and fired at different
temperatures (900, 1000, 1050 and 1100 C). The MOR strength improved with

increasing fly ash content and reached maximum when 30 wt% (Class-A) and 20 wt%
(Class-B) fly ash used, and with greater additions it decreased. A linear correlation
between strength development and Mullet formation was found. The tile with 30wt%
fly ash (Class-A) and 20wt% (Class-B) have improved bending strength and have
lowest porosities. The effects of fly ash incorporation on the mechanical properties of
ceramic tiles and found that a small amount of fly ash addition improves the strength
of the ceramic tiles.
C. D. At if et al (2001) in their paper Relation between abrasion resistance and
flexural strength of high volume fly ash concrete assessed abrasion of high volume
fly ash (HVFA) concretes made with 50% and 70% of cement replacement with fly
ash in terms of its relation to flexural tensile strength. Comparisons were made
between normal Portland cement (NPC) concrete and fly ash concrete. Comparisons
were also made between fly ash concretes. Investigation results have shown that the
abrasion resistance increased as flexural tensile strength increased. Analysis of the
results showed that, for concrete with tensile strength of greater than 4-5 MPa, the
abrasion resistance of HVFA concrete with 70% replacement with cement was found
to be higher than that of counter- part control NPC concrete and concrete made with
50% fly ash. The comparison between the relation of abrasion to compressive strength
and abrasion to flexural tensile strength made in terms of R 2 of the linear regression
showed that a stronger relation existed between abrasion and flexural tensile strength
than that of abrasion to compressive strength of the concrete studied.
Cheng et al. (2004) in their paper Stress-strain curves for high strength concrete at
elevated temperatures investigated the effects of high temperature on strength and
stress-strain relationship of high strength concrete (HSC). Stress-strain curve tests
were conducted at various temperatures (20, 100, 200, 400, 600 and 800C) for four
types of HSC. The variables considered in the experimental study included concrete
strength, type of aggregate, and the addition of steel fibers. Results from stress-strain
curve tests show that plain HSC exhibits brittle properties below 600C, and ductility
above 600C. HSC with steel fibers exhibits ductility for temperatures over 400C.
The compressive strength of HSC decreases by about a quarter of its room
temperature strength within the range of 100-400C. The strength further decreases
with the increase of temperature and reaches about a quarter of its initial strength at
800C. The strain at peak loading increases with temperature; from 0.003 at room

temperature to 0.02 at 800C. Further, the increase in strains for carbonate aggregate
HSC is larger than that for siliceous aggregate HSC.
D.K. Soni et al. (2014) in their paper Mechanical properties of high volume fly ash
(HVFA) concrete subjected to elevated temperature of 120C reported that fly ash
can be used either as an admixture or as a partial replacement of cement or as a partial
replacement of fine aggregates or total replacement of fine aggregate and as
supplementary addition to achieve different properties of concrete. In this paper
Cement was replaced with three percentages of fly ash. The percentages of
replacements were 30, 40 and 50 % by weight of cement. Tests were performed for
compressive strength, split tensile strength and modulus of elasticity. Compressive
strength, split tensile strength and modulus of elasticity were performed at room
temperature, 80C, 100C, and 120C for all types of fly ash concrete at different
curing periods (28 and 56 days). Test results showed that the compressive strength,
split tensile strength and modulus of
Elasticity of concrete having cement replacement up to 30% was comparable to the
reference concrete without fly ash. Compressive strength, split tensile strength and
modulus of elasticity of concrete mixtures with 30%, 40% and 50 % of fly ash as
cement replacement was lower than the control mixture at all ages and that the
strength of all mixtures continued to increase with the age. With the increase in
temperature, compressive strength of concrete mixes with 30%, 40% and 50 % of fly
ash as cement replacement decreases by 11.4%, 30.1%, 28.9%, and 27.5% at 120C
when compared to room temperature.
Estakhri et al. (2004) in their paper Potential for reduced greenhouse gas emission
in Texas through the use of HVFAC compiled data for 18 power plants located
throughout Texas and determined that a total of 6.6 million tons of fly ash are
produced annually in Texas and about 2.7 million tons (or 40%) are generally sold for
use in concrete or other end products. Researchers estimated production of concrete
in Texas and determined that if 60 percent of the Portland cement used in Texas
concrete production were replaced with fly ash, carbon dioxide emissions could
potentially be reduced by 6.6 million tons annually by the year 2015. More education
is needed for design engineers and for the concrete industry regarding the
performance and environmental benefits that can be realized through increased use of
fly ash in concrete.

Felicetti and Gambarova (1998) in their paper Effects of High Temperature on the
Residual Compressive Strength of High-Strength Siliceous Concretes reported on the
use of high strength concretes (f c>60MPa) in the special structures designed to work
in a high temperature environment or to withstand severe thermal accidents requires
the mechanical properties of the material to be assessed with regard to high
temperature effects. The residual mechanical properties of two high strength
concretes (f c=72 and 95MPa), with siliceous aggregates (mostly flint) are studied
under uniaxial compression after a single thermal cycle at 105, 250, 400, and 500C.
The two concretes are very sensitive to high temperature, and in spite of their good
mechanical properties at room temperature (f c>70 MPa), even with lean mix and a
relatively high water/binder ratio- both the strength and the stiffness decrease
dramatically at and beyond 250C: after a cycle at 250C the residual strength is down
to 80 to 66 percent of the strength at room temperature, the degradation of the
Youngs modulus is even more impressive. Both concretes are very brittle below
250C; however, the higher the temperature of the thermal cycle, the softer the
material becomes, but, owing to the simultaneous decrease of both the compressive
strength and Youngs modulus, the toughness does not improve significantly below
250C, but increases markedly beyond 400C. The failure mode of cylinders is
characterized by splitting through both the mortar and the aggregate particles: no
shear bands occurred at any time. However, below 250C only a few splitting cracks
form (just prior to or at the peak stress), while beyond 250C the splitting cracks are
more numerous and thinner, and the fracture process is more disordered owing to
previous thermal fracturing.
Ganesh Babu et al. (2012) in their paper Strength properties of high workable and
high volume fly ash roller compacted concrete reported research on strength
properties of high workable and very high volume fly ash Roller compacted concrete
(RCC). The mixes were developed through incorporating 50 - 260kg/m 3 cement and
very high volumes of fly ash ranging from 40 to 85% by mass of total cementitious
material. The results shown that the RCCs were more workable and easy
compactable. The compaction time for the mixes was between15-20sec only. The
concretes were investigated for compressive strength, split tensile strength, modulus
of elasticity, rebound hammer number and ultrasonic pulse velocity. As other
properties of concrete are frequently expressed in terms of compressive strength, the

properties of these very high volume RCCs were compared with compressive strength
and compared with existing empirical equations for normal concrete.
Handoo et al. (2002) in their paper Physicochemical, mineralogical, and
morphological characteristics of concrete exposed to elevated temperatures reported
the results of an experimental investigation dealing with concrete cubes prepared from
ordinary Portland cement (OPC) of known chemical, mineralogical, and physical
performance characteristics and fired to various temperature regimes up to 1000C in
steps of 100C for a constant period of 5 h by using X ray diffraction (XRD) and
DTA/TGA to establish the effect of elevated temperatures on the mineralogical
changes occurring in the hydrated phases of concrete. The changes in physical state of
concrete were studied by measuring ultrasonic pulse velocity (UPV) and consequent
deterioration in the compressive strength with increase in temperature. Scanning
electron microscopy (SEM) studies showed distinct morphological changes
corresponding to deterioration of concrete exposed to higher temperatures. Reduction
in the compressive strength of concrete exposed to beyond 500C is quite rapid.
Complete decomposition of Portlandite beyond 700C at the surface and beyond
900C at the core results in total deterioration of concrete. Morphological studies
confirm clear deformation of well-developed calcium hydroxide crystals and C-S-H
gel beyond 600C. The decrease in Portlandite content and consequent reduction in
compressive strength with increase in temperatures can be used for assessing the
condition of building elements subjected to accidental fire.
Jen-Chei Liu et al. (2009) in their paper Estimating the Strength of Concrete Using
Surface Rebound Value and Design Parameters of Concrete Material estimated the
strength of concrete, and an attempt is also made to increase the accuracy of
calculating the strength, using the non-destructive test (NDT) surface hardness
rebound value, material design parameters and regression analysis. The strength of the
concrete specimens was 130-480 kgf/cm2, and their ages were 7-38 days. In total, 166
standard specimens of concrete were grouped into 146 training examples and 20 test
examples to estimate concrete compressive strength. Regression analysis was
performed to establish a mathematical formula. Study results indicate that the
correlation coefficient may reach 0.9622, indicating that the proposed method has
referential value. Therefore, engineers may use this comprehensive approach to
develop NDTs to determine concrete strength.

K. Cox et al. in their paper Durability behaviour of high volume fly ash concrete
reported that high-volume fly ash concrete is one of the green concrete alternatives
indirectly reducing the CO 2 emission and energy consumption related to the
production of cement. This paper describes the results of durability tests on 4 concrete
mixtures, each with a different fly ash replacement level, namely 0, 35, 50 and 67 %,
at the age of 1 and 3 months. More specific, the resistance to freezing and thawing
with and without the influence of deicing salts and chloride penetration has been
examined. The vacuum saturation technique and capillary water absorption
experiment are executed to get an indirect idea of porosity characteristics. An
automated air-void analysis is used to determine the values of air content and spacing
factor for all mixtures. The fly ash mixtures appear to exhibit a good freezing and
thawing resistance while the influence of deicing salts is different on the surface and
the inside of the concrete specimens. The 50 and 67% fly ash mixture exhibit a very
high chloride migration coefficient at the age of 1 month but after 3 months of curing
all mixtures show a good chloride migration resistance. Porosity results indicate that
the capillary porosity of the fly ash mixtures still decreases after 1 month of curing. At
the age of 3 months it appears that a higher fly ash replacement level causes a higher
capillary and total porosity and a higher capillary water absorption rate.
K. PRASOPCHAICHANA in his paper Evaluating the Compressive Strength of
Concrete Exposed to Elevated Temperatures Using Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity and
Artificial Neural Networks studied artificial neural networks for evaluating the
compressive strength of concrete subjected to elevated temperature by using
ultrasonic pulse velocity technique. The experiments were performed with different
mixture proportions of concrete at temperature ranging from 200 to 800 degrees
Celsius. For each test, the ultrasonic pulse velocity and compressive strength were
measured. The multi-layer feed-forward neural network was used in this study. The
input features to the neural networks were ultrasonic pulse velocity, feature extraction
of ultrasonic waveform and mix parameters of concrete. Based on the experimental
results, the proposed neural network was successfully used in modeling the ultrasonic
pulse velocity and compressive strength relationship. Therefore, the proposed neural
network can be utilized for predicting the compressive strength of concrete exposed to
elevated temperatures.

Lawson et al. (2011) in their paper Non-Destructive Evaluation of Concrete using

Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity investigates the relationship between Ultrasonic Pulse
Velocity (UPV) and the compressive strength of concrete. The specimens used in the
studies were made of concrete with a paste content of 18% and the constituents of the
specimens varied in different water-cement ratios (w/c). The UPV measurement and
compressive strength tests were carried out at the concrete age of 2, 7, 15 and 28 days.
The UPV and the compressive strength of concrete increase with age, but the growth
rate varies with mixture proportion. A relationship curve is drawn between UPV and
compressive strength for concrete having different w/c from 0.35 to 0.7.
Lucy Acquaye et al. (2008) in their paper Green options for high temperature cured
concrete through the use of fly ash and blast furnace slag reported that Portland
cement production is a high energy-intensive process and also results in the emission
of carbon. In this paper, the authors examine the environmental benefits of specifying
fly ash and blast furnace slag as partial replacement for cement in mass concrete
mixes. This paper also shows the LEED green building points which can be achieved
by specifying fly ash and slag as partial replacement of cement in concrete. The
authors tested three Florida Department of Transportation Class IV concrete mixes
and found that replacing part of the cement in the mixes with fly ash and blast furnace
slag increased the early and long-term strength and durability of concrete cured at
high temperatures.
M.D.A. Thomas et al. (1986) in their paper The use of high volume fly ash in
concrete reported the use of high-volume fly ash as a cementitious component in
concrete and its contribution to enhancing the sustainability of concrete construction
to embedded steel. This paper presents data from durability studies of concretes
containing up to 60% fly ash; studies include carbonation, chloride resistance,
permeability and strength. Data are also presented from a recent construction project
in Toronto where high-volume fly ash concrete was used as part of a Green Building
Strategy. Finally, the paper presents recent data from studies using ternary blends of
cement with high levels of fly ash (e.g. 56%) and small levels of silica fume (3 to
4%). It is shown that the poor early-age performance that may be associated with
high-volume fly ash can be offset by the inclusion of silica fume.
M.V. Krishna Rao et al. (2011) in their paper Effect of elevated temperature on
strength of differently cured concretes investigated the effect of sustained elevated

temperature on the properties of ordinary concretes of M40 grade, containing different

types of cements and cured by two different methods. The specimens were heated
to150C, 300C and 450C for 1 hour duration in a muffle furnace. They were tested
for compressive strength after air cooling to the room temperature. The variables
considered in the study include type of cementing material, temperature and method
of curing. The compressive strength of concrete and weight of concrete decreased
with increasing temperature. Specimen subjected to conventional water curing
performed relatively better than those of membrane curing.
N. Bouzoubaa et al. (2002) in their paper Mechanical properties and durability of
concrete made with HVFA blended cements using a coarse fly ash presented a study
on the mechanical properties and durability of concrete made with a high-volume fly
ash blended cement using a coarse fly ash that does not meet the fineness requirement
of ASTM C 618. The results were compared with those of the HVFA concrete in
which unground fly ash had been added at the concrete mixer. The properties of the
fresh concrete determined included the slump, air content, slump loss, stability of air
content, bleeding, and setting time; those of the hardened concrete investigated
included the compressive strength, flexural- and splitting-tensile strengths, Youngs
modulus of elasticity, drying shrinkage, resistance to abrasion, chloride-ion
penetration, freezing and thawing cycling, and to de-icing salt scaling. The results
show that except for the resistance of the concrete to the de-icing salt scaling, the
mechanical properties and the durability of concrete made with this blended cement
were superior to the concrete in which the unground fly ash and the cement had been
added separately at the mixer. The production of HVFA blended cements, therefore,
offers an effective way for the utilization of coarse fly ashes that do not otherwise
meet the fineness requirements of ASTM C 618.
P. Kumar Mehta (2002) in his paper High performance, HVFA Concrete for
sustainable development a brief review is presented of the theory and construction
practice with concrete mixtures containing more than 50% fly ash by mass of the
cementitious material. Mechanisms are discussed by which the incorporation of high
volume of fly ash in concrete reduces the water demand, improves the workability,
minimizes cracking due to thermal and drying shrinkage, and enhances durability to
reinforcement corrosion, sulphate attack, and alkali-silica expansion. For countries

like China and India, this technology can play an important role in meeting the huge
demand for infrastructure in a sustainable manner.
Ravindrarajah et al. (2002) in their paper Effect of Elevated Temperature on the
Properties of High-Strength Concrete containing Cement Supplementary Materials
investigated that the degradation of the strengths and stiffness of high-strength
concrete in relation to the binder material type. The results showed that the binder
material type has a significant influence on the performance of high-strength concrete
particularly at temperatures below 800C. The influence of the binder material type is
significantly decreased at temperature of 1000C. The strengths and stiffness of highstrength concrete are reduced with the increase in temperature without any threshold
temperature level. The strengths are susceptible to the elevated temperatures
compared to stiffness of concrete. High-strength concrete containing silica fume
seems to be more sensitive to elevated temperature.
Saeed

Ahmed

AL

Sheikh

(2011)

in

his

paperMechanical Properties for High Performance Concrete Exposed to High

Temperature deals with the development of engineering database on the changes
in the mechanical properties of high performance concretes mixtures when
exposed

to

high

temperature up to 1000 C. The results of an experimental investigation in to the effe

cts of high temperature on the residual compressive and tensile strengths for
high performance concretes made with ordinary Portland cement are presented.
Concrete specimens were heated in an electric furnace to varying temperatures
up

to

1000C

and

the

change

in

compressive and tensile strength, weight, ultrasonic pulse velocity and rebound numb
er were
determined. The heated specimens were subjected to sudden cooling in water and to sl
ow cooling in air. The results showed that the compressive and tensile strengths, pulse
velocityand rebound number were decreased with the increase in exposed temperature
. The weight loss from concrete increased nonlinearly with the maximum exposed tem
perature. Sudden cooling caused reduction in concrete strength.
Sakr and Hakim (2005) in their paper Effect of high temperature or fire on heavy
weight concrete properties investigated the effect of different durations (1, 2 and 3 h)
of high temperatures (250, 500, 750 and 950C) on the physical, mechanical and

radiation properties of heavy concrete. The effect of fire fitting systems on concrete
properties was investigated. Results showed that ilmenite concrete had the highest
density; modulus of elasticity and lowest absorption percent, and it had also higher
values of compressive, tensile, bending and bonding strengths than gravel or baryte
concrete. Ilmenite concrete showed the highest attenuation of transmitted gamma
rays. Firing (heating) exposure time was inversely proportional to mechanical
properties of all types of concrete. Ilmenite concrete was more resistant to elevated
temperature. Foam or air proved to be better than water as a cooling system in
concrete structure exposed to high temperature because water leads to a big damage in
concrete properties.
Sedat KURUGL (2012) in his paper Correlation of Ultrasound Pulse Velocity with
Pozzolanic Activity and Mechanical Properties in Lime-Calcined Clay Mortars a
relationship between ultrasound pulse velocity (UPV) with pozzolanic activity of lime
mortars produced with clays calcined at different temperatures were examined. Three
different types of clay samples were calcined at 550, 650, 750 and 850 C. All the
calcined clays were ground in proper granulometric sizes and with them, a series of
12 batches of lime mortars were mixed. From three per mix, a total of 36 samples
were prepared in accordance with TS 25 standard. Two extra batches of mortars were
prepared for comparison purposes; pure lime mortar and a pozzolanic lime mortar
mixed with rock powder. All the samples were cured in accordance with ASTM C59395 standard. There is a close and good relationship between the UPV with pozzolanic
activity and mechanical properties of lime mortars produced with clays calcined at
different temperatures. Hence, pozzolanic activity can be predicted also by nondestructive methods.
Semsi Yazici et al. (2012) in their paper Effects of y ash neness on the mechanical
properties of concrete reported the effects of y ash neness on the compressive and
splitting tensile strength of the concretes. A y ash of lignite origin with Blaine
neness of 2351 cm2/g was ground in a ball mill. As a consequence of the grinding
process, y ashes with neness of 3849 cm2/g and 5239 cm2/g were obtained. Fly
ashes with three different neness were used instead of cement of 0%, 5%, 10%, and
15% and ten different types of concrete mixture were produced. In the concrete
mixtures, the dosage of binder and water/cement ratio were xed at 350 kg/m3 and
0.50, respectively. Slump values for the concretes were adjusted to be 10020 mm.

Cubic samples were cast with edges of 100 mm. The specimens were cured in water
at 20C. At the end of curing process, compressive and splitting tensile strengths of
the concrete samples were determined at 7, 28, 56, 90, 120 and 180 days. It was
observed that compressive and splitting tensile strength of the concretes was affected
by neness of y ash in short-and long-terms. It was found that compressive and
tensile strength of the concretes increased as y ash neness increased. It was
concluded that Blaine neness value should be above 3849 cm2/g neness of y ash
to have positive impact on mechanical properties of concrete. The effects of y ash
neness on the compressive and splitting tensile strength of the concretes were
remarkably seen in the y ash with FAC code with neness of 5235 cm2/g.
Shaswata Mukherjee et al. (2012) in their paper Study on the physical and
mechanical property of ordinary Portland cement and fly ash paste carried out an
experimental investigation to study the physical and mechanical property of high
volume fly ash cement paste. Ordinary Portland cement was replaced by 0, 20, 30, 40,
50, 60 and 70 % class F fly ash (by weight). Water- binder ratio in all mixture was
kept constant at 0.3. Cube specimens were compacted in table vibrator. As expected
bulk density decreases with fly ash increment in the mixture. Apparent porosity and
water absorption value increases with replacement of cement by fly ash. Results
confirm the decrease in compressive strength at 3, 7 and 28 day with fly ash addition
and it is more prominent in case of more than 30% fly ash content mixes. Ultrasonic
pulse velocity test results indicate that the quality of the paste deteriorate with
increase of fly ash content in the mixture.
Som Nath Sachdeva et al. (2014) in their paper High Volume Fly Ash Concrete for
Paver Blocks discussed the results of an experimental study conducted on Fly Ash
Concrete with the aim to report its suitability for concrete paver blocks. In this study,
the effect of varying proportions of fly ash, 20% to 40%, on compressive strength and
flexural strength of concrete has been evaluated. The mix designs studied are M-30,
M-35, M-40 and M-50. It is observed that all the fly ash based mixes are able to
achieve the required compressive and flexural strengths. In comparison to control
mixes, the compressive and flexural strengths of the fly ash based mixes are found to
be slightly less at 7-days and 28 days and a little more at 90 days.
Tarun R. Naik et al. (2002) in their paper Temperature effects on high performance
concrete conducted an investigation at the UWM Center for By-products Utilization,

two different HPC mixtures were proportioned to have the 28-day compressive
strength of 85 MPa. The first mixture (Mix 15P) contained 9% Class C fly ash and
14% silica fume and the other mixture (Mix 15E) contained 25% Class C fly ash, 17%
Class F fly ash, and 6% silica fume by weight of cementitious materials. Two types
of curing methods, standard moist-curing and Variable Temperature Curing
Environment (VTCE), were used. For the VTCE, temperature was varied from 29
3C for 12 hours each day to 41 3C for the remaining 12 hours each day, to
simulate hot weather curing.

Tests were conducted to study the influence of

temperature on compressive strength, resistance to chloride-ion penetration, air and

water permeabilities, and sulfate attack. At 28 days, compressive strengths of the
mixtures were 99 MPa and 100 MPa for Mix 15P, and 84 MPa and 88 MPa for Mix
15E for the moist-cured and VTCE-cured specimens, respectively.

Both HPC

mixtures show excellent performance with respect to compressive strength, resistance

to chloride-ion penetration, sulfate attack, and alkali-silica reaction.
Tarun R. Naik et al. (2002) in their paper Effect of source of fly ash on abrasion
resistance of concrete an investigation was performed to establish the effects of the
source and amount of fly ash on abrasion resistance of concrete. A reference concrete
was proportioned to have a 28 day age strength of 41 Mpa. Three sources of class C
fly ash were used in this research. From each source, three levels of fly ash to total
cementitious material content (40, 50, 60%) were used in producing the concrete
mixture. The water to cementitious material ratio was kept constant at 0.30 for all
mixtures. An accelerated abrasion testing method, a modified ASTM C 944 Test, was
used to measure the abrasion resistance of this high strength concrete. All concrete
mixtures with and without fly ash exhibited high abrasion resistance in accordance
with the ASTM requirement. Concrete abrasion resistance was not greatly influenced
by inclusion of class C fly ash upto 40% of total cementitious materials .However, a
slight decrease in abrasion resistance of HVFA Concrete (especially at fly ash content
above 50%) was noticed as compared to the reference mixture without fly ash.
Tarun R. Naik et al. (2004) in their paper The ultrasonic pulse velocity method
reported that UPV method has been used successfully to evaluate the quality of
concrete for more than 60 years. This method can be used for detecting internal
cracking and other defects as well as changes in concrete such as deterioration due to
aggressive chemical environment and freezing and thawing. By using the pulse
velocity method it is also possible to estimate the strength of concrete test specimens

and in-place concrete. The pulse velocity method is a truly non-destructive method, as
the technique uses mechanical waves resulting in no damage to the concrete element
being tested. A test specimen can be tested again and again at the same location,
which is useful for monitoring concrete undergoing internal structural changes over a
long period of time.
Usman Ghani et al. (2006) in their paper Effect of temperature on different
properties of concrete investigated the effect of low and high temperature on various
properties of concrete. The properties investigated were modulus of rupture of
concrete beams, compressive strength and tensile strength of concrete. Three different
temperatures were used for this purpose. These were low, room and high
temperatures. The low temperature was 5C, room temperature was 28C and high
temperature was taken as 55C. For compressive strength calculations, cubes of sizes
(6x6x6) were cast. Cylinders of sizes (6x12) were made for tensile strength
measurement, and for modulus of rupture beams of sizes (4x4x18) were cast.
Locally available material was used in casting these samples. After casting these
samples, curing was carried out at low and high temperature along with room
temperature. These samples were then tested after three, seven and twenty eight days
of curing and a comparative study was carried out.
V. Bhikshma et al. (2013) in their paper Study on effect of maximum size of
aggregate in higher grade concrete with high volume fly ash an investigation is made
to study the effect of maximum size of aggregate in higher grade concrete using high
volume fly ash. Three different mixes of M50 grade concrete were designed using
graded coarse aggregate of three maximum sizes of 10mm, 12.5mm and 20mm. And
for each mix, cement was replaced with fly ash at 0%, 10%, 20%, 30%, 40% and 50%
(%replacements). All the mixes were cured for 56 days and tested for compressive
strength, flexural strength and splitting tensile strength. The test results obtained have
suggested that the maximum size of coarse aggregate in M50 grade concrete at
various replacement levels of fly ash was 12.5 mm aggregate and optimum
replacement of fly ash was 30%. The percentage increase was 20% for compressive
strength, 20% for splitting tensile strength and 5% for flexural strength when
compared to the design strength.
V.M. Sounthararajan et al. (2013) in their paper Strength Gain Properties of Low
Calcium Fly Ash Based Cementitious System presented a comprehensive and a

detailed insight on the hardened properties of cement concrete blended with class F
fly ash. A comprehensive study on concrete made with fly ash as a partial cement
substituted at 10% to 70% by weight of cement with the effect of steel fibres on the
compressive properties for various mixture proportions of concrete were investigated.
It has been observed that low calcium fly ash replacement upto 50% of the Portland
cement resulted on the improvement on the variation of strength properties. However,
the effect of steam curing for high volume fly ash is realized when the intital steam
curing for 18 hours is adopted and the remaining curing is kept in watesr. This
increase was on par as that of 30% fly ash concrete specimens kept for normal water
curing. The test results on the compressive strength of concrete for normal curing
containing 30% of fly ash, 1% accelerator and 1% addition of steel fibres showed
marginal strength increase than reference concrete upto 36.70 MPa at 28 days, when
compared to reference concrete the strength was 31.50 MPa, whereas the effect of
steam curing along with normal curing there was a significant increase in compressive
strength of concrete containing 50% fly ash with 1% steel fibres which apparently
showed maximum strength of 36.10 MPa at 28 days.
Yash Shrivastava et al. (2012) in their paper Performance of Fly Ash and High
Volume Fly Ash Concrete in Pavement Design emphasised on the performance of
Fly Ash (FA) in the soil stabilization with replacement it with different soil for 10 to
60%. Besides this it presents the fresh and hardened properties such as compressive
and flexural strength of High Volume Fly Ash Concrete (HVFAC) through prism and
cubes, with 35%, 50% and 70% of cement replacement with fly ash. The results
showed that up to 50% replacement of cement can be used for construction with in
addition reduces 12% overall cost.

CHAPTER 3
PROBLEM FORMULATION
3.1. Materials and their test results used in present work
3.1.1. Cement
Locally available Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC) IS mark 43 grade
cement was used for all concrete mixes. The cement used was fresh and

without any lumps. Testing of cement was done as per Indian Standard
Specifications (IS: 8112-1989). The cement used was similar to Type I
cement (ASTM C 150). The various tests results conducted on the cement
are reported in table 2.
Table 2. Properties of Cement
S. No

Characteristics

1.

Normal Consistency

2.

Initial

Values

Standard

Obtained

Value

34%

Setting

Time 48 min.

Not less than 30

Setting

Time 240 min.

Not greater than

(minutes)
3.

Final
(minutes)

600

4.

Fineness (%)

3.5%

<10

5.

Specific Gravity

3.07

3.1.2. Coarse Aggregates

Locally available coarse aggregates having the maximum size of 10 mm
and 20mm were used in the present work. The 10mm aggregates used
were first sieved through 10mm sieve and then through 4.75 mm sieve
and 20mm aggregates were firstly sieved through 20mm sieve. They were
then washed to remove dust and dirt and were dried to surface dry
condition. The aggregates were tested per Indian Standard Specifications
(IS: 383-1970). The results of various tests conducted on coarse aggregate
are given in Table 3, Table 4and Table 5.

Table 3. Properties of Coarse Aggregates

S. No.

Characteristics

Value

1.

Type

Crushed

2.

Maximum Size

20mm

3.

Specific Gravity (10mm)

2.704

4.

Specific Gravity (20mm)

2.825

5.

Total Water Absorption (10mm)

1.6432%

6.

Total Water Absorption (20mm)

3.645%

7.

Moisture Content (10mm)

0.806%

8.

Moisture Content (20mm)

0.7049%

9.

Fineness Modulus (10mm)

6.46

10.

Fineness Modulus (20mm)

7.68

Table 4. Sieve Analysis of 10mm Aggregates

S.
No.

Sieve
No.

Mass

Percentag

Retained

(kg)

Retained,

Percentage
Passing, %

Cumulative
%age
Retained

%
1.

80mm

0.00

100

0.00

2.

40mm

0.00

100

0.00

3.

20mm

0.00

100

0.00

4.

12.5m

0.555

18.5

81.5

18.5

m
5.

10mm

0.8905

29.68

51.82

48.18

6.

4.75m

0.9565

31.88

19.94

80.06

0.5970

19.90

0.04

99.96

m
7.

Pan

C = 146.74

Fineness Modulus of Coarse aggregate (10 mm) = C+500/100 =

146.74+500/ 100 = 6.46

Table 5. Sieve Analysis of 20mm Aggregates

S.
No.

Sieve
No.

Mass

Percentag

Percentag

Cumulativ

Retained

(kg)

Retained,

Passing, %

%age

Retained

%
1.

80mm -

0.00

100

0.00

2.

40mm -

0.00

100

0.00

3.

20mm 0

0.00

100

0.00

4.

12.5m

2.1865

72.883

27.117

72.883

5.

10mm 0.6745

22.483

4.634

95.336

6.

4.75m

0.1390

4.633

0.01

99.999

0.00

m
7.

Pan

C = 268.244

Fineness Modulus of Coarse aggregate (20mm) = C+500/100 =

268.244+500/ 100 = 7.68
3.1.3 Fine Aggregates
The sand used for the experimental programme was locally procured and
conformed to grading zone III. The sand was first sieved through 4.75 mm
sieve to remove any particles greater than 4.75 mm and then was washed
to remove the dust. The fine aggregates were tested per Indian Standard
Specifications (IS: 383-1970). Properties of the fine aggregate used in the
experimental work are tabulated in Table 6 and Table 7.
Table 6. Properties of Fine Aggregates

S. No.

Characteristics

Value

1.

Type

Uncrushed (natural)

Specific Gravity

2.68

3.

Total Water Absorption

1.02%

4.

Moisture Content

0.16%

5.

Net Water Absorption

0.86%

6.

Fineness Modulus

2.507

7.

Grading Zone

Table 7. Sieve Analysis of Fine Aggregates

S.
No.

Sieve
No.

Mass Percenta
Retained(
gms)

Percenta

Cumulative

ge

ge

%age

Retained,

Passing,

Retained

1.

4.75mm

95.0

9.5

90.5

9.5

2.

2.36mm

42.5

4.25

86.25

13.75

3.

1.18mm

110.5

11.05

75.2

24.8

4.

600 m

128.5

12.85

62.35

37.65

5.

300 m

308.0

30.80

31.55

68..45

6.

150 m

281.0

28.10

3.45

96.55

7.

Pan

34.5

3.45

F = 250.7
Fineness Modulus of fine aggregate = F/100 = 250.7/100 = 2.507

3.1.4 Fly Ash

Investigations were made on fly ash procured from Thermal Power Plant,
Panipat, Haryana. It was tested for chemical and physical properties as
per ASTM C 311. The chemical and physical properties of the fly ash used
in the investigation.
Table 8. Chemical composition of fly ash
Particulars
S
.No
1
2
3

(Sio2+Al2o3+Fe2o3),
%
Sio2, %
Mgo

Requirement
ASTM C 618
(%)
70.0 min
35.0 min
5.0

Test
Results
(%)
91.69
59.08
0.36

max
4
5

Sulphuric anhydride,
%
Total Alkali as Na2o,%

3.0

0.11

1.5

0.62

max
max

Total loss on Ignition,

%

5.0

2. 08

max

Table 9. Physical properties of fly ash

S.N
1

2
3
4

5
6

Particulars
Fineness
Specific Surface
(cm2/gm)
Residue on 45 micron
(wet sieving)
Lime reactivity (kg/cm2)
Compressive strength
(kg/cm2), 28 days
Dry shrinkage, (%)
Soundness expansion by
Autoclave, (%)

3.1.5. Water

Requirement ASTM C
618
3200 min

Test
Results
3258

34 max

30.17

45 min
Not less than 80% of strength
of corresponding plain
cement mortar cubes
0.15 max
0.8 max

51.03
85.99

0.04
0.03

Portable tap water was used for the concrete preparation and for the
curing of specimens.
3.1.6. Superplasticizer
Conplast-SP430, a concrete superplasticizer based on Sulphonated
Naphthalene Polymer was used as a water-reducing admixture and to
improve the workability of fly ash concrete. Conplast-SP430 has been
specially formulated to give high water reductions up to 25% without loss
of workability or to produce high quality concrete of reduced permeability.
Conplast-SP430 is non-toxic. The dosage of superplasticizer varied
between 0.5 % to 2 % by weight of cement in plain cement concrete, as
well as Fly Ash concrete. In the present thesis, 0.8% superplasticizer by
weight of cement was used. Technical data of Superplasticizer are listed in
Table 10.
Table 10. Technical data of Superplasticizer
S. No

Characteristics

Value

1.

Colour

Dark Brown Liquid

2.

Specific Gravity @ 30C

1.22 to 1.225

3.

Air Entrainment

Maximum 1 %

4.

Chloride Content

Nil to BS 5075: 1982

3.2. Mix Design

Concrete mix has been designed based on Indian Standard Recommended
Guidelines. The grade of concrete used was M 20. The proportions for the
concrete,

as

determined

were

1-----------------------------------------------

respectively with a water cement ratio of 0.46 by weight. One control

mixture M-0 was the designed as per Indian Standard Specifications IS:
10262-1982 [29] to have 28-day compressive strength of ------------ MPa.

The other concrete mixtures were made by replacing cement with 10%,
20%, 30%, 40% and 50% of Fly Ash by mass. In doing so, water-tocementitious materials ratio was kept almost same to investigate the
effects of replacing cement with Fly Ash when other parameters were
almost kept same. The mix designation and quantities of various materials
for each designed concrete mix have been tabulated in Table 10 and
Table 11.
Table 11. Mix Designation
Grade

Concrete Type

Temp, C

of

Designati
on

%age binder ratio

Cement

Fly Ash

concret
e

M 20

M0

100

100

M1

100

M2

100

200
N

90

10

M4

90

10

M5

90

10

M6

80

20

M7

80

20

M8

80

20

M9

70

30

M10

70

30

200

M11

70

30

M12

60

40

100

M13

60

40

M14

60

40

100
200
N
100
Fly Ash
Concrete

M3

200
N
100

200
N

M15

50

50

100

M16

50

50

200

M17

50

50

Where, N is the room temperature.

Table

12.

Proportion

of

M-20

Grade

Concrete

for

cubes

(1:2.2:2.15:2.15)
Ceme

Fly

Fine

Cours

Cours

nt

Ash

Agg.

(kg)

(kg)

Agg.

Agg.

(10m

(20m

m)

m)

(Kg)
0.86
0.86
0.86
0.86
0.86
0.86
0.86
0.86
0.86
0.86
0.86
0.86
0.86
0.86
0.86
0.86
0.86
0.86

(kg)
0.86
0.86
0.86
0.86
0.86
0.86
0.86
0.86
0.86
0.86
0.86
0.86
0.86
0.86
0.86
0.86
0.86
0.86

(kg)

M-0
M-1
M-2
M-3
M-4
M-5
M-6
M-7
M-8
M-9
M-10
M-11
M-12
M-13
M-14
M-15
M-16
M-17

0.4
0.4
0.4
0.36
0.36
0.36
0.32
0.32
0.32
0.28
0.28
0.28
0.24
0.24
0.24
0.2
0.2
0.2

0
0
0
0.04
0.04
0.04
0.08
0.08
0.08
0.12
0.12
0.12
0.16
0.16
0.16
0.2
0.2
0.2

0.88
0.88
0.88
0.88
0.88
0.88
0.88
0.88
0.88
0.88
0.88
0.88
0.88
0.88
0.88
0.88
0.88
0.88

Water
(ml )

Plasticiz

Temp

er

( ml)

184
184
184
165.6
165.6
165.6
147.2
147.2
147.2
128.8
128.8
128.8
110.4
110.4
110.4
92
92
92

3.2
3.2
3.2
2.88
2.88
2.88
2.56
2.56
2.56
2.24
2.24
2.24
1.92
1.92
1.92
1.6
1.6
1.6

N
100
200
N
100
200
N
100
200
N
100
200
N
100
200
N
100
200

Table 13. Proportion of M-20 Grade Concrete for cylinders

(1:2.2:2.15:2.15)

M-0
M-1
M-2
M-3
M-4
M-5
M-6
M-7
M-8

Ceme

Fly

Fine

Cours

Cours

Water

nt

Ash

Agg.

e Agg.

(ml )

(kg)

(kg)

(kg)

Agg.

(20m

(10m

m)

m)

(kg)

(Kg)
4.01
4.01
4.01
4.01
4.01
4.01
4.01

4.01
4.01
4.01
4.01
4.01
4.01
4.01

860.2
860.2
860.2
772.8
772.8
772.8
688.1

14.96
14.96
14.96
13.44
13.44
13.44
11.97

N
100
200
N
100
200
N

4.01

6
688.1

11.97

100

4.01

6
688.1

11.97

200

4.01
4.01
4.01
4.01
4.01
4.01
4.01
4.01
4.01

6
602.5
602.5
602.5
515.2
515.2
515.2
430.1
430.1
430.1

10.48
10.48
10.48
8.96
8.96
8.96
7.48
7.48
7.48

N
100
200
N
100
200
N
100
200

1.87
1.87
1.87
1.68
1.68
1.68
1.49
1.49
1.49

M-9
M-10
M-11
M-12
M-13
M-14
M-15
M-16
M-17

1.31
1.31
1.31
1.12
1.12
1.12
0.935
0.935
0.935

Table

14.

0
0
0
0.187
0.187
0.187
0.374
0.374
0.374
0.561
0.561
0.561
0.748
0.748
0.748
0.935
0.935
0.935

4.10
4.10
4.10
4.10
4.10
4.10
4.10
4.10
4.10
4.10
4.10
4.10
4.10
4.10
4.10
4.10
4.10
4.10

Proportion

of

4.01
4.01
4.01
4.01
4.01
4.01
4.01
4.01
4.01
4.01
4.01

M-20

Grade

Plasticiz

Temp

er

( ml)

Concrete

for

beams

(1:2.2:2.15:2.15)

Ceme

Fly

Fine

Cours

Cours

Water

nt

Ash

Agg.

e Agg.

(ml )

(kg)

(kg)

Agg.

(20m

(10m

m)

(kg)

m)

(kg)

Plasticiz

Temp

er

( ml)

M-0
M-1
M-2
M-3
M-4
M-5
M-6
M-7
M-8
M-9
M-10
M-11
M-12
M-13
M-14
M-15
M-16
M-17

2
2
2
1.8
1.8
1.8
1.6
1.6
1.6
1.4
1.4
1.4
1.2
1.2
1.2
1
1
1

Table

15.

0
0
0
0.2
0.2
0.2
0.4
0.4
0.4
0.6
0.6
0.6
0.8
0.8
0.8
1
1
1

(kg)
4.3
4.3
4.3
4.3
4.3
4.3
4.3
4.3
4.3
4.3
4.3
4.3
4.3
4.3
4.3
4.3
4.3
4.3

4.4
4.4
4.4
4.4
4.4
4.4
4.4
4.4
4.4
4.4
4.4
4.4
4.4
4.4
4.4
4.4
4.4
4.4

Proportion

of

M-20

4.3
4.3
4.3
4.3
4.3
4.3
4.3
4.3
4.3
4.3
4.3
4.3
4.3
4.3
4.3
4.3
4.3
4.3
Grade

920
920
920
828
828
828
736
736
736
644
644
644
552
552
552
460
460
460

16
16
16
14.4
14.4
14.4
12.8
12.8
12.8
11.2
11.2
11.2
9.6
9.6
9.6
8
8
8

Concrete

N
100
200
N
100
200
N
100
200
N
100
200
N
100
200
N
100
200
for

cubes

(1:2.2:2.15:2.15)

M-0
M-1
M-2
M-3
M-4
M-5
M-6
M-7
M-8
M-9
M-10
M-11
M-12

Ceme

Fly

Fine

Cours

Cours

Water

nt

Ash

Agg.

e Agg.

(ml )

(kg)

(kg)

(kg)

Agg.

(20m

(10m

m)

m)

(kg)

(Kg)
0.28
0.28
0.28
0.28
0.28
0.28
0.28
0.28
0.28
0.28
0.28
0.28
0.28

0.28
0.28
0.28
0.28
0.28
0.28
0.28
0.28
0.28
0.28
0.28
0.28
0.28

0.14
0.14
0.14
0.126
0.126
0.126
0.112
0.112
0.112
0.098
0.098
0.098
0.084

0
0
0
0.014
0.014
0.014
0.028
0.028
0.028
0.042
0.042
0.042
0.056

0.30
0.30
0.30
0.30
0.30
0.30
0.30
0.30
0.30
0.30
0.30
0.30
0.30

Plasticiz

Temp

er

( ml)

64.4
64.4
64.4
57.9
57.9
57.9
51.52
51.52
51.52
45.08
45.08
45.08
38.64

1.12
1.12
1.12
1.0
1.0
1.0
0.89
0.89
0.89
0.78
0.78
0.78
0.67

N
100
200
N
100
200
N
100
200
N
100
200
N

M-13
M-14
M-15
M-16
M-17

0.084
0.084
0.07
0.07
0.07

0.056
0.056
0.07
0.07
0.07

0.30
0.30
0.30
0.30
0.30

0.28
0.28
0.28
0.28
0.28

0.28
0.28
0.28
0.28
0.28

38.64
38.64
32.2
32.2
32.2

0.67
0.67
0.56
0.56
0.56

100
200
N
100
200

3.3. Preparation testing of specimens

Cube moulds of size 100mm100mm100mm were used to prepare the concrete specimens
for the determination of Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity, Rebound Hammer and compressive
strength of fly ash concrete. Cylindrical moulds of size 150mm300mm, Prism moulds of
size100 mm 100 mm 500 mm, Cube moulds of size70.6mm70.6mm70.6mm were used
to prepare the concrete specimens for the determination of split tensile strength, modulus of
rupture and abrasion resistance of fly ash concrete. All specimens were prepared in
accordance with Indian Standard Specifications IS: 516-1959. All the moulds were cleaned
and oiled properly. These were securely tightened to correct dimensions before casting. Care
was taken that there are no gaps left from where there is any possibility of leakage out of
slurry.
3.4. Batching, Mixing and Casting of Specimens
A careful procedure was adopted in the batching, mixing and casting operations. The coarse
aggregates and fine aggregates were weighed first with an accuracy of 0.5 grams. Materials
were mixed in a linear-cross-flow mixer type O and a power driven rotating pan and paddle.
The mixer was first loaded with the coarse aggregates followed by fine aggregates. After
starting the mixer, the cement and the Fly Ash were added. After giving few rotations, water
and admixture were added and mixed for 5 minutes. These were mixed to uniform colour. A
total of 6 mixes were prepared of M-20 grade.100mm100mm100mm cubes,
150mm300mm cylinders, 100mm100mm500mm prisms and 70.6mm70.6mm70.6mm
cubes, clean and oiled moulds 12 from each mix were then placed on the vibrating table
respectively and filled in three layers. Vibrations were stopped as soon as the cement slurry
appeared on the top surface of the mould. The specimens were allowed to remain in the steel
mould for the first 24 hours at ambient condition. After that these were de-moulded with care
so that no edges were broken and were placed in the curing tank at the ambient temperature
for curing. The ambient temperature for curing was 27 2 C. All specimens were cured in
the same water tank to ensure uniform curing condition.

At the age of 28 days, specimens were heated in an electric oven up to 100C, and 200C.
Each temperature was maintained for 1 hour to achieve the thermal steady state.
3.5. Experimental Methodology
3.5.1 Compressive strength: At the age of 28 days curing the specimens were tested as per
Indian standard specifications BIS: 516-1959. All the specimens were subjected to elevated
temperature and were tested in a digital Compression Testing Machine. The compressive
strength was calculated according to the formula:
=P/A
Where = Compressive Strength (N/mm2)
P = Maximum load (N)
A = Cross section area of cube (mm2)
3.5.2 Split tensile strength: The splitting tensile strength was determined at the age of 28
days on cylinders 150 mm x 300 mm as per Indian standard specifications BIS: 516-1959.
The test consists of applying compressive line loads along the opposite generators of a
concrete cylinder placed with its axis horizontal between the plates. Due to the applied line
loading a fairly uniform tensile stress is introduced over nearly two third of the loaded
diameter. The magnitude of this tensile stress (acting in a direction perpendicular to the line
of action of applied compression) is given by
= 2P/ dL
Where = Tensile Stress (N/mm2)
P = Applied load at failure (N)
d = Diameter of cylinder (mm)
L = Length of cylinder (mm)
The load P is applied (as line load) on the cylinder specimen in compression testing
machine. At failure load P the specimen fails by splitting along the loaded diameter.

3.5.3. Abrasion resistance test: Tile abrasion testing machine is used for this purpose. The
cube specimen of size 70.6mm70.6mm were used for the test. The specimens were first
weighed accurately on a digital balance. The grinding path of the disc of the abrasion-testing
machine was evenly distributed with 20-gram of abrasive (aluminium) powder. The specimen
were fixed in the holding device of the abrasion machine, and a load of 300 N was applied.
The grinding machine was then put in motion at a speed of 30 revolutions per minute, and the
abrasive powder was continuously fed back in to the grinding path so that it remained
uniformly distributed in the track corresponding to the width of the test specimen. The wear
of the cube specimen was measured on a thickness gauge specifically made for the purpose.
The extent of abrasion was determined from the difference in values of thickness measured
before and after the abrasion test. Loss in thickness of specimens was also confirmed by the
calculation of average loss in thickness of the specimens using the following formula.
T=W1-W2/W1V1/A
Where, T is average loss in thickness in mm;
W1 is the initial weight of the specimen in grams;
W2 is the mass of the specimen after abrasion in grams;
V1 is the initial volume of the specimen in mm3;
A is the surface area of the specimen in mm2;
3.5.4. Rebound Hammer: Rebound hammer test also called as surface hardness method. The
rebound hammer test measure the elastic rebound of concrete and primarily for compressive
integration. The test was conducted on 100mm100mm100mm cube at the age of 28 days.
SCHMIDT rebound hammer (digital) was used for testing as shown in Fig. In this method a
test hammer hits the concrete at a definite energy and compressive strength is directly
obtained from rebound hammer. The equipment was operated vertically downward. The
plunger was pressed strongly and steadily against the concrete surface to be tested at right
angle. On each side 6 readings were taken and then from their mean, compressive strength
values were calculated.

3.5.5. Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity: The transmitting transducer of the pulse velocity
instrument transmits a wave into the concrete and the receiving transducer, at a distance L,
receives the pulse through the concrete at another point. The pulse velocity instrument
display indicates the transit time, t, it takes for the compressional wave pulse to travel
through the concrete. The compressional wave pulse velocity V, therefore, is
V=L/t
The compressional pulse transmitted through the concrete undergoes scattering at
various

aggregatemortar

boundaries.

The

test

was

performed

on

100mm100mm100mm size cubes. To transmit or receive the pulse, the transducers

must be in full contact with the test specimen; otherwise an air pocket between the test
object and transducer may introduce an error in the indicated transit time. Many
couplants available in the market can be used to eliminate air pockets and to assure good
contact; petroleum jelly has proved to be one of the superior couplants. Other couplants
are grease, liquid soap, and kaolin-glycerol paste. The couplant layer should be as thin
as possible. While applying constant pressure on the transducers, repeated readings at a
particular location should be taken until a minimum value of transit time is obtained. If
the concrete surface is very rough, thick grease should be used as a couplant. A smooth
surface is still required for the transmitting transducer.

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