The Massachusetts Review, Inc.

The Impossible Life of Frantz Fanon

Author(s): Albert Memmi, Thomas Cassirer, G. Michael Twomey
Source: The Massachusetts Review, Vol. 14, No. 1 (Winter, 1973), pp. 9-39
Published by: The Massachusetts Review, Inc.
Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/25088315 .
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Albert Memtni
Life
Impossible
of Frantz Fanon

The

and Notes

Translation
Thomas

African

north
The

two

produced

struggle

The

Wretched
involved

sonally
siders

to

two

the

a native

though

and

background;
selves

outsiders

equally

cultural

Tunisian,
as colonials

and

of

a different
the French

among

with

education

their

within

whom

they

the Moslem

such

from

divergent
perspectives
tween
and
oppressor
conflict

by

denying

similar
on

Memmi

experiences
the conflict

between

While
oppressed.
and
transcending

like

(Memmi,

Christian

Fanon,

was

in France).

and Fanon
colonizer
sought

to

widely
developed
be
and
colonized,
in the
himself
involve

the

identity
imposed
to combine
involvement

tried

Memmi

historical

Fanon

of

them
they found
a common
shared

educated in French schools and studied philosophy and psychology

Starting

per
out

since Memmi,

Indian

origin

were

both

own,

aWest

"racial"

were

authors

a sense

their

between

conflict

by Albert Memmi

Both

in
yet
outsiders

were
camps. They
cause
whose
they made
was
a
and Fanon
Jew

through

background

Fanon.

Frantz

by

struggle

Africa

the

and the Colonized

liberation

colonialism

French

of

formulations

the Earth

contesting

in North

majority

of
the

in

Twomey
from

liberation

for

significant

universally

colonized and colonizer: The Colonizer

and

by

and G. Michael

Cassirer

him
upon
by
in the struggle
the diverse
ele

circumstances,
and exploration
of
with
the affirmation
oppression
Memmi
is a writer
has
who
that
constitute
his historical
identity.
Pillar
The
back and forth
between
works
moved
of fiction
(
of Salt, Strangers,
and
Colonizer
the Colo
treatises
and socio-psychological
Le
{The
scorpion)
The
Liberation
in
Portrait
nized,
of the Jezvy Dominated
of a Jew,
Man1)
against
ments

first

north
1
All

N.Y.

Le

serial

American

scorfion

rights,

of Memmi's

translations

English

is published

The
works

by Gallimard,

Massachusetts
are

Review>>

published
Paris. Memmi

by Orion
has also

1973.
Press,
edited

two anthologies of North African writing in French: Anthologie des ?crivains

maghr?bins d'expression fran?aise (1965) and Anthologie des ?crivains fran
?ais du Maghreb
(1969), both published by Pr?sence Africaine, Paris, as
well

as

Bibliographie

1945-1962;

de

la

Paris: Mouton,

litt?rature

nord-africaine

1965. (Translators' note)

9

dy

expression

fran?aise,

The
an
attempt
Man."
His

Massachusetts

to construct

'Reviens)

of what
to call "Dominated
he has come
typology
form
of autobiographical
while
fiction
his theoret
ical works
convert
of his experience
elements
into more
abstract,
impersonal
All
us fragments
his books,
to the same
of an answer
insights.
however,
give

recurring

secuted,

the

manner
In what
or
does
the phenomenon
of oppression,
and cultural
of the
shape the psychological
personality
oppressed?
are the
in which
the oppressed,
the colonized,
ways
possible
per
can
dominated
out
break
individual
the
of
circle
of
oppression
to

substance

give

As

Memmi

Tunis,

where

child

take

questions:

domination,
And
what

and

novels

the

indicates
Memmi

psychology
at

psychiatrist
on
drawn

at
a local

ideal
in

worked
the

time

hospital.

a universal

of

this

he

essay,

humanism?
and

Fanon

knew

each

in

other

as

and director
of an institute
psychologist
was
when
Fanon
editor
of El Moudjahid
fifteen
almost
Now,
later, Memmi
years

of
and
has

the many
of contact
to give
between
and Fanon
himself
points
us an
one
at
same
a
that
and
to
is
the
time
Fanon
essay
personal
testimony
and an evaluation
as one
of Fanon's
viewed
for
the
model
career,
possible
dominated
revolt
individual's
the conditions
of his oppression.
This
against

us one
it is one of the sad consequences
side of a dialogue;
essay brings
Fanon's
we
can
never
death
that
to read the essay on Memmi
early
hope
Fanon might
have written
in
?T. C.
reply.

his

short

Frantz
Fanon
life,
a
Born
failures.
French
in

In serious
himself
French
he made

capital
he was West

and White.

at least

experienced
department,
to
he went

When

the painful
discovery
Indian and Black.

that

of
that

three

he believed

in the
study
in the mother
country

nor
he decided
that he would
be neither French
were
not
but
the
North
like
Indian,
Algerian:
Africans,
the dupes and the victims
of this same mother
himself,
country?
But the solidarity
of the oppressed
is another
illusion:
by what
was
without
his
skin
and
all
memory,
miracle,
changing
losing
Infuriated,

West

he going

to transform

himself

into a white

Arab,

and Moslem

to boot when he was Christian by birth?

Thereupon,
of
frontiers

he decided

to construct

skin and cultural

prejudice
even a Black West
and where
Indian
were
most
those
who
tunately,
directly

Africans,

Black

or White,

a United
would
would

where
Africa,
no longer
count
Unfor
belong.

concerned,

Fetishist, Moslem

one preoccupied
with
constructing
were
as
as
far
from
universe,
possible
each

10

his nation

that

is to say,

or Christian,

and his
such a communion.

own

Fanon

of Frantz

Life

Impossible

to
to complete
In order
in order
this forward
movement,
was
not
if
him
resolve
his personal
what
left
for
predicament,
a totally
recon
to propose
in a totally
man,
unprecedented
Such was
in fact the ultimate
structed world?
thesis of his last
written

work:

"For

we

for ourselves
and
a new
beginning,

Europe,
make

must

comrades,
try to create a new man."2 Apocalypse
thought,
are indeed the ultimate
reconstruction
way out

for

humanity,
new
develop
and universal
such a total

of

despair.
I

When
Much

his

time,
more

left

frantz

young

identification

his
with

native
France

island for the first

was
still absolute.

than was true of most

of the colo
so, assuredly,
in the French
is
in part at
what
This
Empire.
explains,
the
movement
violence
of the inverse
The
with Fanon.
least,
the swing of the pendulum,
wider
the more painful
is the break.
too long a time the West
For
Indians
believed
they were be
nized

like authentic
having
lower-middle
classes
was
that everything

in the middle
and
Frenchmen,
especially
to which
true
Fanon
And
is
it
belonged.
to make
to
done
them believe
it, thanks

the unbelievable

fiction that these West

Indian
juridical
islands,
rest
the
from
of
France
several
thousand
kilo
separated
by
are
or
French
like
In
Alsace.
meters,
departments,
Brittany
when
to
General
DeGaulle
the
West
Indies
any case,
appealed
to defend
the Motherland
to
it was quite natural
for Fanon
with
together
enlist,
Free
France.
Even

his

school friends,
in the armed
forces of
in
today certain West
Indians,
especially
the older generation,
still speak of their France.
has not been so well understood,
What
is that the identifica

tion continued until quite late in his life, until well after Fanon
set

foot

on

Motherland
2
Fanon,
1968,
p.
of Fanon,

the
was

Frantz.
255.

All

published

cherished
quite
The

he discovered
that the
soil, where
to have Black
upon
children,

willing

Wretched

subsequent
by Grove

of
references
Press.
11

the
will

Earth.
be

New
to

York:

the American

Grove

Press,
translations

The
condition

that

to notice

their

that
are

Massachusetts

Review

herself
would
everyone,
included,
pretend
her
color. It is true that he came to defend

in the heat

communion

of battle

scarcely
thought
that time in speaking
It was only when

at

said Us

Fanon

ever,
the French.

and

of France

and differences

is closer

than

about. More

not
and

strove
to
and the French
so
to
that
far
deliver
those
who
from
them,
forget
or finally
Fanon discovered,
the importance
of every
admitted,
returned
and
racism.
and
bitterness
Then
his
memories
day
took shape. But even then, it was as a Frenchman
and
by right
and the many
affirmation
that he viewed
discrimination
petty
all

which
aggressions
Paris or Lyon. He

returned

peace
came

him every
it brought
was a Black-skinned

day

on the sidewalks

Frenchman,

of
to

exposed

the delusions, the stupidities and the spitefulness of his fellow

White-skinned

in Fanon's

words

putting

I am

citizens.

read him merely

neither

mouth:

all

nor
inventing
anything
one has to do is not to

in the light of his Algerian

period. In Black

a study on discrimination
while
Skin, White Masks,
discussing
that had appeared
in the review Presence
Fanon
gave
Africaine,
a firm answer
or
more
to those intellectuals
less timidly
who,
and

in good

faith,

White

alluded

to

French

and

differences
possible
Fanon
the Blacks.

between

metropolitan
replied
na
of Black
of Negro
"What
is this business
people,
am
am
I
I
interested
in
French
French.
tionality?
culture,

firmly:

French

the French

civilization,

people"

{Black Skin} White

p. 203).

Masks,

Then
hospital.

he left to take up his position at the Blida-Joinville

But

this did

Fanon

Algerian:

still

not mean

that he

considered

himself

considered
himself
a Frenchman
even

an
in

Algeria. After a brief interval he resigned (yet it took three

years: he was appointed in 1953 and resigned in 1956). Critics
have

taken

note

to the minister

sentences
in the letter he sent
important
measures
taken
the
the par
against
concerning
of

the

ticipants in the strike of July 5, 1956. What

sufficiently
humanism
here

by

noted

is that

he made

his

has not been

in the name

of
protest
in general,
the respect due humanity
represented
as an outsider,
Arab. He
still protested
the Algerian
and

12

Impossible
specifically
a French

take precedence
linen in public.

validity
African

as
he explained
that his "duty
to
"must
This
obligation
resign.
obliged
over any desire not to launder French
family
can find any
No pseudo-national
mystification

as a French
citizen"

Fanon

of Frantz

Life
citizen:
him

in face of the exigencies of thought"

He

pp. 52-54).
le Ministre"

Revolution
"Monsieur

{Toward

his

concludes

by as
The
least

letter

of his high esteem.

suring
one can say is that his commitment
to revolution
and above
was still
to Algeria
incomplete.

The Algerian

the

all

period of his life really began only at this

work yet it lasted only

It was to be decisive
for Fanon's
point.
in Africa,
in
his travels
his
five years,
stay
Tunisia,
including
the
dates
to the USSR
of
letter
and to America
;
resignation

1956, he died in 1961. At

from

if one

the most

counts

lasted eight
tion as a French

form
about
ture,
counted

years,
civil

the

this period of his

of gesta
he seemed
taken
servant, when
entirely
con
even
he was passionately
up by his profession,
though
to re
in his care and endeavored
the population
cerned with
life

three

years

the hospital
system. Nor has there been much
questioning
of this extraordinary
adven
the profound
significance
a
ac
as if the political
correctness
of
line of conduct

as if it went without
its motivations,
that
saying
some day become
an
intellectual
could
Indian
a self-sacrifice
so
absolute
with
that
he
would
Algerian
patriot,
to spare his meager
die from
it, refusing
declining
strength,
of his own comrades-in-arms.
in spite of the objurgations
at least have a particular
in the Algerians,
Did Fanon
interest
for

a Black West

was

he

to

disposed

former

such
On

choice

by

previous

affinities,

the

by
him

contrary,
nothing
friendships?
prepared
he began his practice
in Paris,
When
for Algeria.
he occasion
workers.
This
him
African
the oppor
gave
ally treated North
a
to
in
the
short
review
tunity
study
Esprit.
Certainly
publish
he

the Algerians
in front

defended

guished

they were

civilization. But
position
appeared

of

suggested
of a doctor who

how
was

lost

and

foreign

that is the point; he found himself

a doctor

exotic

and

to his patients,
is foreign
even
to him. He
them with
regards
who

13

while

an

to their

in the

they
the nuance

The Massachusetts
of

disorientation

even
a "progressive"
which
anxiety,
contact
these strange
with
upon
people

and

European
experiences
from a distant
land.
"All

men

these

emerald

our

of

all these
smiles,
but of whom we

Review

us

cause

who

who

upset
us, who

dreams,
men
facing

who

fear,

the

break

curve

the

fragile
not ask us

jealous
of our

do
anything,
are they?"
ask strange questions. What
are they in truth, these creatures, who
"What
them
conceal
are
who
concealed
under
attributes
social
the
selves,
by
reality
of bicots, bougnoules,
z'ami."3
sidi, mon
arabes,

the us and our of the text.

purposely
emphasized
so
or North
Fanon
considered
himself
Afri
unlike an Algerian
can that he utilized
the French
collective
Not
pronoun.
only
on
contact
did he not belong
with North
African
workers,
I have

with

them
from

up
When

he even experienced
his unconscious.
later

he

not

for political
for the land
curiosity
author, Peter Geismer,4

miration
and

where
France,
leaving
to work elsewhere,
he first
He

Algeria.
or sentimental

Africa

for

Fanon's

of

chiatric

not

even

no

thought
choose

and ad
enthusiasm
great
asked himself
this question
uncon
these reasons perhaps

shows
has

the subject. All

a
part, but it seems that Fanon
sought
played
primarily
convenient
in a better equipped
field of research,
psy
also a position with better pay. We
center, and perhaps

investigated

sciously
a more

did

he

reasons, neither was it out of

ancestors.
Black
An American

his

who
works,

welling

apprehension

of

thought
in order

longer felt at ease,

and
of Black Africa

a certain

nor
do not know why he ultimately
did not go to Black Africa,
on
was
he
decided
because
where
that
why
Algeria:
probably
a
he was offered
position.

Then

why Algeria

was

and the Algerians?

in a war

engaged
that as a militant
3
Fanon,

derogatory
Arabs.
4
Geismar,
59-60.
pp.

Frantz.
terms

Peter.

he
Toward

used

by

Fanon.

that Fanon
had

to help.

the African
French

the

New

Certainly Algeria

deemed
But

just;
he went

he thought
and
further

Revolution^
pp. 3?4. Bicots,
when
of the North
speaking

York:

The

14

Dial

Press,

1970.

See

etc.
African

especially

are

the center

of Algeria

made

Fanon

of Frantz

Life

Impossible

of his

of his existence,

and

thought

did he believe it necessary to join so totally

of his work. Why

that he
struggle
and
consented
Algerian
in the

into

himself
transformed
thought
to die for Algeria?

an

II
identification
White

The
him,

nation

of
which

contains
can

inevitably

the

former

enslaved
a subtle

Black

slave

with

the

then apparently
adopted
the success
of the
poison:

and

one

the
that
of success?demands
speak
as Black.
renounce
that
It must be admitted
himself
to the White
man's
consented
time the Black himself

operation?if
Black man
for a long
monstrous

This

demand.

powerful
place from

is understandable:

more

to become

like

the weak;

it is not

up
assimilation

to the
takes

to the dominant,
the dominated
from the dominated
ever
to the dominating
in the inverse
culture
hardly
culture,
sense. Such is the price,
to both
in any case, for what
appears
as
one
a
as
status.
the
rise
in
Now
of
social
of
results
partners
war
the
the
White
this unnatural
the
by
against
waged
effort,
a
Black
also brings
about a war of the Black
himself,
against
even more
war that is perhaps
for it is unremit
destructive,
I shall not go further
carried on from within.
into the
tingly
at length
I described
in
mechanism
which
of self-rejection,
recounts
and the Jew.5 Fanon
connection
with
the colonized
as a child he happened
to be particularly
that when
unbearable,
own
his
mother
told him not "to act like a nigger"
{Black Skiny
no doubt henceforth
y p. 191). And
throughout
or
not tried not to play the "nig
Fanon
unconsciously
life,
for the "Black
is not a man"
ger,"
{Ibid.). He was not alone
in this: the West
in general made
fun of the Senegalese
Indians
because
the West
and other African
Indians
did not
savages

White

Masks

his

consider
the germ

That
Martinique
5

In The

themselves

Black.

of Fanon's

This

first

and decisive

split

contains

tragedy.

iswhy it came as such a thunderbolt (and scandal) for

and
Colonizer

the adolescent
and

Fanon

as well,

and Dominated

the Colonized
15

when
Man.

his

teacher

Review

The Massachusetts

a recognized
West
hero Aim?
already
C?saire,6
long-time
one
This
is beautiful."
Indian poet, proclaimed
day that "Black
a
It
Illusion."
marked
of the end of the "White
proclamation
and

Indian permission finally to take off hisWhite

gave theWest

he believed

which

dian

replace
self-affirmation?

liberation

Should

together
It is at

his

with

this moment

that one

and

of Fanon

sometimes,
this people

transfiguring

as I have
and

with

for

people,
that

the

can glimpse
his
a domi
When

emerges
specific destiny
and intellectual
ultimate
personality.
political
of
the impossibility
nated man
has understood
returns
to himself,
the dominator,
he generally
to his past,

to get ahead
mask? Did
In
the West

in order
this White

should

to engage
in battle
and his own?

decide

their

to wear

he had

mask,
in the world.
But what
a new era of
this mark

to

assimilation
to his people,
excessive

vigor,
indicated,
this past to the point of creating
the fraud of as
finally discovered

When
Fanon
counter-myths.
into French
Indians
similating West

citizens,

he

with

broke

France and the French with all the passion of which his fiery
was

temperament
bat this first

love,

capable.
to tear

He

would

it out

have
henceforth
a violence
with

of him,

to com
all

the

more painful because he had believed in it and made it a part

of himself. He would have to battle France in order to fight
this

aspect
it was

Yet
he

hated

N?gritude
This

himself.
become
and ultimately
of his personality
henceforth
Fanon's
that, while
tragedy
particular
never
to
he
returned
his former
again
colonizer,
Indies.
and the West

to which
the oppressed
is a solution
only few among
are
now
we
recourse.
with
the
well
have had
acquainted
By
to his condition:
the op
of the oppressed
responses
principal
or
or
the
either
accepts
accepts himself,
rejects
rejects
pressed
are
and
affirmation
Most
colonial model.
frequently,
rejection
intertwined
intimately
moment
the particular

in variable
in the hero's

6Aim? C?sa?re:
poet, playwright
coined
fays

the
natal

(Translators'

expression
(1939).

proportions,
itinerary

and

to
according
the historical

and political leader from Martinique

who

au
d^un retour
Cahier
in his famous
poem,
N?gritude
at the lyc?e
was Fanon's
in Fort
teacher
de France.
He

not?)
16

situation.

It

Fanon

that there exists a third

indeed,
possible,
that
life illustrates
it: one might
suppose
an
the
took
of
unattainable
Algeria
place

is quite
that Fanon's

way and
identification

with

with Martinique.

identification

Aim? C?saire proclaimed

When
and

of Frantz

Life

Impossible

then with

launched

Senghor

that "Black is beautiful"

the

of N?gritude,

concept

he

did not merely reject what his long stay in Paris had made out
and one of the elite
an intimate
of the
system,

a French

him:

of
of

the French
and a member

intellectual

university
of the French

affirmed himself asWest

communist

graduates
surrealists
He
also re

party.

returned to his

Indian and Black. He

took a teaching position

in Fort de France
and became
country,
a
the political
For
of
his
brief
time
country.
representative
Fanon
for the daring
felt enthusiasm
of his former
teacher,
was not the solu
but then he took the position
that N?gritude
tion and

that

in resisting

the Black

mirage.
Thereupon
into N?gritude,
and
work.
his
throughout

sides
terms

to
error, we must not yield
we see him firing red-hot
broad
most
it
in
the
radical
condemning

the white

Nor
has enough
attention
been
ever
set
he
that
in
Mar
foot
paid
scarcely
again
It is even more
that with
the exception
of two
tinique.
striking
or three
the problems
instances he never discussed
of his na
tive island. His
still recall
friends
scornful
today with what
to
to
he
used
his
refer
former
when
fellow
countrymen
irony
to the

fact

to speak

he happened

them.

of

"When I met him inTunis in 1958, he greeted me coldly.

Well are you still politicking in theWest Indies and Guiana?
One

of

will

force

days, France will give you a kick in the ass that

owe it to
You will
you to seize your
independence.
our Algeria
turn out to have been the whore
that will

these

Algeria,
of the French

colonial
weeks

later

The
de France.7
see him. He
was

C.R.S.

"Several

7
The

reference

1958.

C.R.S.:

in
lary

force.

empire."

is to a riot

them

Let

jubilant:

the Compagnie

(Translators'

tragic disturbances
killed
several

that

actually

R?publicaine

note)
17

took
islanders.

gather

took

in Fort
place
to
I went

their

dead,

in December
place
a French
de S?curit?,

dis

not
1959,
constabu

Review

The Massachusetts
them

embowel
done.

bolic

protest
outburst

this

out

call

them

let
have

and

They'll

on open
to the people:
look
them

take

do

motions,
of anger

trucks

. . .

all over

town

the

colonialists

at what

vote sym
of the sort. They'll
nothing
in poverty.
and go on rotting
Actually
a
reassures
It's simply
the colonialists.
You
a little
dreams.
erotic
certain
like

release,
psychological
make
love with a shadow. You
to normal. You no
all returns

soil your bed. But

think about
longer

the next day

it. . . ."8

says, you, your,

they; he is not one of
are involved;
nor his independence
politics
were
murdered
who
not
he does
these victims
consider
by the
he
nor does he feel part of the crowd which
C.R.S.
his people,
he incites them to demonstrate.
scorns, even while
and the
Indies
of the West
So it appears
that his rejection
It is striking
them; neither

West

that he

his

was

Indians

now

and

categoric

final.

This

has

rejection

a long history, to be sure: it is still the same denial of himself

in his
soul
Fanon's
Frantz
which
poisoned
people
colonized
soul
of
the
it
has
every
young
youth,
poisoned
But
in
conscious
of his condition.
has become
individual
who
a
colo
we
where
the
at
ourselves
find
fact
stage
subsequent
for what
it is and the colonized
nizer's
role is revealed
rejects
the
when
the moment
is usually
the colonial
This
relation.
and

his

as

de
individual
the colonized
takes place, when
It is clear that for Fanon
for and with his people.
We
did not occur. Why?
of orientation
this change
might
that N?gri
who
declared
here
Sartre
influence
of
the
mention
liberation.
of Black
in the dialectic
tude is only the weak phase
to the end of
was strongly
Fanon
right
by Sartre,
impressed
as
French
intellectuals
he was condemning
his life, even when
to
a group.
Sartre
in Black
And when,
attempted
Orpheus,
return

to self

to fight

cides

reduce N?gritude
Jewishness

to its negativity

to a pure

look),

Fanon

(as he had tried to reduce

was

and

consternated

had

this

the feeling he had been deprived of his identity. Despite

reaction
derive

"In no way
conclusions:
Sartre's
he accepted
the peoples
from
the
of
basic
my
past
purpose

8Juminer,

40,

Bert?ne.

"Homage

to Frantz

1962, p. 138.
18

Fanon."

Pr?sence

should
of

Africaine,

color.
No.

of Frantz

Life

Impossible

Fanon

to the revival
...
I have

of an un
no wish
to

be the victim of the Fraud of the Black world. My

life should

In no way
justly
not

I dedicate

should

Negro

unrecognized

to drawing

be devoted

values"

myself
civilization

up

the

{Black Skin, White Masks,

even

if we

balance

sheet

of Negro

pp. 226-229).

that
Sartre
agree with
a
up
relatively
negative
N?gritude?like
Jewishness?marks
to live this phase before
beat in the dialectic,
it is still necessary
on to the next one 3 and the fact that it is lived gives
passing
a
error as always
it very heavy weight
Sartre's
of positiveness.
aware
and
that even negativity
is that he is not sufficiently
However

may

perhaps

in a way flesh and

they are lived, become
as he has not been aware enough
is positivity
(just
even when
of the importance
these
of a people's
affirmations,
or obfuscated
are very humble
and myths).
by hallucinations
In any case, every
in the long march
of a people
stage counts

misfortune,
that
blood,

when

to disdain
towards
its liberation
and it is quite meaningless
one or the other of these stages by calling
it negative.
Fanon,
even
foresaw
this weakness
in Sartre's
incidentally,
thesis,

though he ended up by resigning himself to it because itmet

his need. Why did Fanon end by refusing to commit himself to
own

his

were

who

people,

in the

end

irritated

tude, though
him by the round-about
for repeating
propensity
we Algerian
which
patriots,"
be

back to the fact

he had no expectation
in his own people.

traced

not,
lem

Fanon

therefore

5 but he
Europe
could not have
order

to engage,

vague

opposition

settled
with

resentful

of his

atti

so irritated

can
the West
Indians,
was
or
aware
whether
he
of
it
that,
to his prob
of finding
the solution

with

the French
France,
not be content with a verbal

broke

could

and

the younger
rediscovered
generation
of Africa
and revolution?
His
way
. . .
"I am an Algerian
ceaselessly:

down
the

on principle.

in Normandy,
aid of several
He

had

for

people

and

rupture

5 he
in

example,

in a
exiles,
to tear himself
loose to
other

the last fiber and eradicate what had constituted his life up to
had enlisted
the young man who
in the ranks of
point:
the Free French,
the student at the medical
in Lyon,
school
the
that

19

The Massachusetts
doctor

who

practiced
woman
(here

in French

Review
the

hospitals,

husband

of

the signifi
again critics scarcely mention
"I say the hell with
Its
this marriage).
Europe.
which
its
social
conditions
the
it
tolerates
culture,
diplomas,
are just so many
must
We
instruments
of domination.
junk it
we
to lose. Other
all and say to ourselves
have nothing
that
no
is
liberation
wise,
possible."9
not the best solution
for him have been to return
Would
French
cance

of

home

to the West

revolt

to become
Indies,
and France,
Europe

against

and

to

the

leaders

identify

of

his

the

revolt

immediately comes to

is what

that of his people? That

with

one of

were
not ready
In a
for revolt.
his own people
Only
certain manner
it was the West
Indies that betrayed
of speaking
itself
of
revealed
it was his country which
incapable
Fanon,

mind.

furnishing him with

the psychological

to his

The

tragic
to undertake
ness

situation.
its own

and historical remedy

of Martinique
is also the sign of

failure

liberation

immediately
its powerless
revolt.

to aid Fanon,
remained
alone with his
who
a curious attempt
White
Masks
contains
Skin,

Black

to ex

of the colonized
disturbance
plain the psychological
personal
Fanon
to
Frantz
be stricken with
"abandonitis."
ity: he is said
work
from a little known
borrowed
this theory
psychological
no mention
of the colonized
that makes
by Germaine
Guex,
a great deal. One borrows
but seems to have
Fanon
impressed
one needs: Fanon
had enough
only what
experience
personal
to make
of the
with
this feeling
it the pivot
of abandonment
colonized's

conduct.

by the White

mother

Once

the

he discovered
he felt

country,

betrayal
frightful
forsaken. Worse

himself

yet, he realized that he had always been forsaken, that he had

never

a true

been

child

of his

Like

country.

every

colonized

individual he would gladly have turned to his native land with

all his demands, to the only homeland of which he could
sure. Provided,
so
and motherland,

henceforth
father

9Fanon's
No.

40,

of

be

words
1962,

p.

as

reported

by

to

speak,

Bert?ne

139.
20

course,

that

provided
Juminer

it could
that

in Presence

be both
it might
Africaine,

the abandonment
remedy
just what Martinique
"is

that

C?saire,
found West

Indians

he

in which
not

could

do.

found
"The
Indian

this West

doubtless

Fanon

of Frantz

Life

Impossible

himself.

tragedy,"
not
would
have

and would

of his

stature,
among his people."10
recovers
When
the colonized
finally

is

That
wrote

been

have
iso

lated

to find
his

the psychological
the
against

combat

construct

to acknowledge
identity,
clear vision
of his future.

his
or less

more

he needs
his identity,
resources
to
in
succeed
and material
to re
this he needs
oppressor.
Beyond
past and to have a
at
the time being,
in neither
of these en
his

For

could help Fanon

least, Martinique
nor positive
to free
neither
in the negative
effort
deavors,
a
himself.
As
still believed
of France, Martinique
department
too much
to view
in its integration
into the French
community
did not even dare imagine
it as an outsider. Martinique
separa
scan
tion from France.
and armed
seemed
Revolt
struggle

even though
was suspected
the mother
of
dalously
matricidal,
to fight
not being a very good mother. Was
Fanon
then going
alone?
was
even
the other hand, what
On
the cultural,
precisely
and
what
of
mythical
past
Martinique,
original
patrimony
own
as
the inhabitants
their
and draw
could
claim
language
from

to face

Creole

lacks

strength
pressor?
a country's

the whole

the range
and
spiritual

entire

the op
especially
can
that
support
expression
intellectual
life. And worst
of
and

world

of

it is so intermingled
with French
that the colonizer
would
in any case be present
soul
the
and
of
the
colonized.
in
thought
an extraordinary
we meet
as well
Here
that is present
difficulty
in certain other situations where
the dominated
has
individual
so completely
been subjected
and for such a long time, that he
cultural
does not even have an autonomous
and is
personality
all

unsure of the content of his liberty even while he fights for

it. It

is no

accident

taken up most
of this sort.
10C?saire,

40,

that Fanon

has

been

who
by Black Americans
needed
In short, Fanon

Aim?.

"Homage

to

Frantz

1962, p. 133.
21

Fanon."

best

suffer

understood

and

from

another
Pr?sence

domination
a third
way,
Africaine,

No.

solution

which

The Massachusetts

Review

was

nor Martinique.

neither

he discovered

point

France

At

this

Algeria.

Ill
EXTRAORDINARY
life

THE

has

PHASE

of FruntZ

as a matter

been

accepted
A man who

believable.

scarcely
decides within

ALGERIAN

a rather

brief

has never

span

in a country
this people will

that

be his people,
this country his country until death,
nor its civilization
neither
he knows
its language
to
dies for this
ties
He
it.
particular
eventually

buried inAlgerian
Nor

has

it been

in this feeling

it is

Yet

set foot

time

of

Fanon's

course.

of

even

though
has no

and
cause

is

and

soil.
out

pointed

how

sufficiently

of course,
commitment,
political
seems unusual
it.What
and disturbing

and

total

went

far Fanon

justice to his

Critics have done

for Algeria.

have

at

marvelled

to me,

of deeper

and

as

significance, is that he now identified himself with Algeria

did with

he formerly

and never

France

could with Martinique.

Towards the end of 1956 or the beginning

settled inTunis with the staff of El Moudjahid,
nationalist

In September,

newspaper.

my knowledge, he wrote We

1957,

for

of 1957, he
the Algerian

the first

to

time

in speaking of the Algerians

(Cf.

the African
This was less than
pp. 57?63).
Revolution,
one year after he first took on expressly
responsibili
political
as if
ties. In the same text he spoke of "National
Territory"

Toward

it were
took

the

of his

territory

another

towards

step
exclusive.

specific

and

lowing

words:

"We

for

better

together

He
say
and

is sufficiently

own
this

In February,
and made

nation.

identification

addressed

the Tunisians

to the Tunisian
for

that

worse,
. . . etc."

1958, he
it more

in the

that we
people
the blood
of

fol
are
the

the African
Al
himself

generous
(Toward
now
a
he
considered
In
word
p.
Revolution,
95).
the other peoples
of the
and set himself
apart from
gerian
a
was
now
to
Tunisian
He
the Algerians
than
closer
Maghreb.
Maghreb

or aMoroccan

who

shares

the same
22

language,

the same

culture,

the same

an Algerian.
We
he was an Algerian.

with

civilization

prised by this: henceforth

an off-hand
remark nor

Fanon

of Frantz

Life

Impossible

not be

should

was

This

sur

neither

later,
slogan ; a few months
the African
Farce
in "The
That
Sides"
{Toward
Changes
be
"We Algerians,
he wrote
pp. 96-98),
again:
Revolution,
he spoke
tween Tunisia
the 16th of April
and Morocco."
On
of

"our

"our

and

diplomacy"

sharp-edged

the Youth

a war-time

in which he attacked a leading African

of Africa"

Houphouet-Boigny,11
the development
compromised

African

of

"having
for many
years
country
at this time no more
of an

or a Moroccan.

a Tunisian

he was

accused

of our

that he was

us note

Let
than

he

whom

politician,

to come."

against
a "Letter
to

he wrote

In May

diplomacy."

made

the accusations

rejected

He

was

an

to the youth
countries.
of relatively
foreign
Algerian
speaking
the people
of the Ivory
It was as an outsider
that he exhorted
as he was, while
the Algerians
and yet they were Black,
Coast,
same
were white.
In October
of the
year, he just as violently
because
they were
gradualists
to support
not want
the Algerian

attacked

the African

violence

and did

Oct. 30, 1958. Cf. Toward the African Revo

{El Moudjahid,

pp. 135-143).
most
astonishing
in "Addresse
found

lution,
The
be

people

to whom

of
expression
aux Antilles."12

he

gerians.
Whether

of

birth

was

objective
benefit

Any
he

to

the

were

language

patriot. In The Wretched

Toward

President
12
We

the
of

have

to Fanon's
16, Jan.

the

or

Ivoreans
the

same:

fraternal

he

been

article

spoke

his
Indians,
as an Algerian

of the Earth, his last work, published

1958.

to verify

able
"Aux

this
naissance

Antilles,

(Translators'

more.

to help
the Al
incidental.

117. Houphouet-Boigny
Revolution,
p.
African
1960.
Coast
since
(Translators'
note)
Ivory

not

the

was

the West

he

can

sym
him

counted

themselves

to persuade
them
the West
Indians

the

addressed

his

attitude,

ring
No.

development
he assured
Here

belonged
by
the Algerian
people
(among whom
to exert
and asked
the West
Indians

self)
His
principal

11

this

of

pathy

to
opposed
war effort

note)
23

reference.

Memmi

d'une

nation?"

has

been

be refer
may
El Moudjahid,

The Massachusetts

Review

so far as to write "Our Fathers"!

his death, he went
His
even
was by then so complete
that it extended
identification
as
was the sense of revolting,
into the past,
into myth. What
we all did, against
"Our Fathers
if in the end he
the Gauls"
after

came

up with
One
could

different

fictitious

ancestors!13
other
In
is no need.
but there
give
examples,
to
ambassador
Accra.
is
It
March,
1960, he was
appointed
true he went
to study
the possibilities
there
of transporting
route. He
the political
contacted
by the southern
supplies
a base was set up in the
inMali,
leaders
and at his suggestion
to be followed
I
Sahara
for the arms route
towards Wilayas
and IV.14 But even though he undertook
this trip as the envoy
a decisive
of Algeria,
he experienced
he
change of perspective:
come to this in a moment.
discovered
Africa. We
will
Fanon
came to this new phase out of a total and absolute
identifica
in their struggle
for
independence.
so long, a
he
him
had
what
lacked
for
gave
Clearly
Algeria
and the conditions
cultural patrimony
for battle. He was bound
to Algeria
in battle,
by the com
by the ties of comradeship
tion with

mitment
giance
factors
rash

the Algerians

to his patients
and by the profound
alle
of a doctor
an
a
cause.
to
of
But all these
intellectual
just political
must
context:
it does not seem too
be seen in a larger

to say that Algeria

should
add that

took the place of Martinique.

the Algerians
and many
spoke French
of
them had
Their
Fanon's
in France.
lived
intellectuals,
were
same
French
and
in
the
had
colleagues,
steeped
diplomas
a
as
he. As
if by
French
culture
miracle
Fanon
discovered
We

men

with

who

were

whom

he

in part a common memory,

same
well-loved
against
previously
in
still remember
that
today
Algeria,

shared

the

revolting

Does
anyone
enemy.
from Tunisia
distinction

?Our

all French
background,
school by
14Wilaya:

Fathers

the

schools.

Like

Memmi
learning
fighting

to

refers

all French-speaking
and Fanon
began
unit

an inte

considered

Country and split up into departments,

Gauls"

about

was

and Morocco,

gral part of theMother

13

at least

their
of

"Gallic

the

standard
children,

their

study

ancestors."

the Algerian

note)
24

army

history
irrespective

of

history

(Translators'
of
liberation.

texts
of

used
cultural

in elementary
note)
(Translators'

in

Impossible

Fanon

of Frantz

Life

an extraordinary
encounter
in a
like Martinique?
What
a
to Fanon's
land
neurosis:
suited
part of the world
uniquely
one
was
France.
where
where
hate
could
French
but
spoken
was precisely
in the negative
and
the right substitute,
Algeria
him
down
the positive
let
which
had
for
; or
sense,
Martinique
was the embellished
rather Algeria
of his lost home
substitute
just

the people were

tortured by the French,
country where
when
but in retaliation
tested
could kill
them. Yet,
against
or
re
sooner
whatever
later
it
any
may
be,
reality,
substitute,
land. A

veals

both

When

its inadequacy
and fragility.
came to Tunisia,
he was

not

Fanon

ing edit El Moudjahid,

content

with

the newspaper of the Algerian

help

rebels;

to practice
he was granted
his
his profession;
to care for the patients
in the psychiatric
of
request
hospital
a suburb
la Manouba,
doctor
who
The
Tunisian
of Tunis.
was
an ex
was well
to me. He
the hospital
known
headed
man.
in
and pleasant
His
tremely
jovial
training
psychiatry
was limited
to what
he had been taught by the former French
he

continued

had to wait many

years for his promotion.
at the arrival of this young
not too pleased
colleague
who was more
and who had the
up to date on new techniques
this young man was
required
degrees.
Moreover,
extremely
the established
and intent on upsetting
routine.
It
enterprising
director
was

and he had

He

was quite normal that the head of the hospital would not be
too happy,
new

he

but

colleague

another

"the

nigger,"
although
and was now
colonized

of no better

think

could

from

French

the Tunisian
a free

citizen

to injure his
way
to call him
than
colony
was
himself
formerly
of

a recently

liberated

It is true that he called him "the nigger"

behind
his
country.
can
secret
a
but
in
such
be
small
country,
back,
nothing
kept
and certainly
there were many
who
took pleasure
in
people
letting

Fanon

know.

Fanon

realized

that

this was

no different

from what had happened to him with his French colleagues in

Algeria,

which

(Geismar,
Manouba
Fanon's

pp.

was

still

129-134)

hospital
skin color,

a French

colony.

maintains

not merely
make
but also denounced

did

25

An

American

that the head

sarcastic

critic

of

remarks

the "Black

Doctor"

the

about
to

The Massachusetts

Review

the authorities
as a possible
I can
spy and ally of the Jews.15
not vouch
for the accuracy of this statement.
This man was a moderate
with
socialist
It is not
sympathies.
a
man
that
of
who
still
surprising
right wing
sympathies
plays
an important
in Algerian
role
cultural
quite
affairs, Malek
could write
about Fanon:
when
"We wrong
Fanon
Bennabi,
we make
as
him the theoretician
of the Algerian
revolution,
some have
to speak the language
tried to do. In order
of a
one must
an
was
share
its convictions:
yet Fanon
people,
Atheist."16
were
and the Tunisian
in agreement
with
Algerian
am
I
to
doctors.
admit
that
such
European
ready
opinions
not affect the intellectuals
who were Fanon's
close friends
The

comrades

in the struggle.
the rank-and-file
militants

suffer,
as much

formed

the mass

in her

well-known

and

she was

the

differences
settled.

less so among
the country.
de Beau
Simone
Memoirs
him
that this made

of

current between
the political
distrust
peoples
the Sahara originates
in these differences.
to play a political
role in the North
where
every
was
but he
not
Black
and everyday
reality would

and South

Fanon

tried
is white,

among
the common

of

North
one

and

the situation

certainly
right. The Blacks were
formerly
as of the
of the Arabs
and the
Europeans,
are
Arabs
and Blacks
far from
being

slaves
between

Much

not

and even

who

people
states
voir

this was

But

the
did

of

let him forget it.

never

I have

seen

Christian

the
It

fact mentioned
is true

background.
that all the exegetes
or
to revolution;
sympathetic

of

it and

gion

of no

ception

of

superstitions
"the people,"

importance.
religion:

that

was

that Fanon

he

himself

of

never

spoke
are revolutionaries

of his work

reli
consequently
they consider
a
to
Socialists
have
tend
serious miscon

they

by
exploited
"the masses,"

consider

it on

the whole

a mass

of

as if
class. They
behave
ruling
no
took
heed of religion
and con

the

15

Israel.
I.e.,
(Translators'
note)
Malek.
Bennabi,
alg?riennes,
Perspectives
mouvement
r?formiste
p. 216.
alg?rien,
16

26

p.

64,

quoted

by A. Nadir,

Le

they do not make

of
reconstruction

sequently
projected

Fanon

of Frantz

Life

Impossible

for

any allowance
the society of

religion
the future.

in the

the process
there is inevitably
of building
socialism
when
of discovery,
it
becomes
clear that
however,
are far more
the relations
subtle
between mankind
and religion
the
and tenacious.
with
this point
At
socialists
lose patience
own
and blame
them instead of their
The Al
people
myopia.
During
a moment

state today
and still are Moslems;
the Algerian
gerians were
was
will
be
calls itself Arab
it
and Moslem.
Fanon,
argued,
one nor the other,
neither
and he surely considered
religious
But did the Algerians
of no importance.
consider
differences
them

of no

In any case, the course of history

has
importance?
to have been wrong:
Fanon
the new post-independence
state where
is a Moslem
is inscribed
in the
religion

shown

Algeria
constitution.
Christians
Fanon.

would
What
were naturalized

have

been

and

and
Uncompromising
he have felt in this new

would
course

Fanon's

situation?
But

notice.

escaped

impassioned
State? Would

to that

Fanon

Some
was

as

how
he was,
he have had re
was
that religion

overly
simplistic
explanation
in power? And how would
the peo
being exploited
by people
a
to
have
reacted
Black
of
Christian
ple
origin who
challenged
the religion
of an almost
Or would
totally Moslem
country?
so many
he have kept quiet? Could
he have protested
against
evils

a voice

in so loud
In

portant
point?
tion for Fanon,
that of
destiny:

truth
had

he

silent on such an im
see a satisfactory
solu
to
mind
another
brings

and then kept

I cannot really
This

lived.

I also knew well,

whom
Jean Amrouche,17
in my
he was my professor
of literature
last year at the
was
too
in
Tunis.
He
of
Christian
and a French
lyc?e
origin
to
the
of
his
who
the great
loved
intellectual,
tip
fingers,

since

French
of the
poets. He
put all this aside for the duration
war. After
so many
of
years
struggle,
Algerian
independence
was going
an
to confront
him with
choice. Like
impossible
eve
on
he
the
died
of
Fanon,
independence.
17
Jean Amrouche
of

Algeria.

He

(1906?1962):

is best

berb?res de Kabylie

known

(1939).

for

poet and essayist from the Kabyle region

his

translations

(Translators' note)
27

of

Berber

poetry,

Chants

The Massachusetts

Review

an outsider
remained
in his country
of
in the country he had adopted. He
did not
even speak the language.
ever mentioned,
as
too is hardly
That
at least profession
it was an unimportant
detail. Yet,
though
a
to
this
crucial
is
of
my
ally,
importance
During
psychiatrist.
I
various
witnessed
three-sided
many
consultations,
internships
In

Fanon
reality
or
rather
adoption,

where

the European

with
the best of intentions
psychiatrist,
to interpret what
the interpreter
had
trying

was

desperately
as he questioned
an already
understood
confused
patient.
him whether?",
"What
did he say to you?",
exactly
. . ?" It is true that Fanon
did you.
repeat my question:

to learn Arabic. But I have said it often before:

never
soul.

a tool,
simply
language,
was often mistaken
Fanon

it is a reservoir
in his

admitted
this on several
openly
for example,
that the hospital

gerian
line yoke.

once

and

all

for

is

people's
He
of Algeria.
he discovered,
when
not

could

into account
the particular
human
taking
to believe
of Algeria.
he was too ready
Likewise
was

began

language
of

without

woman

"No,

view

occasions:
reforms

"Ask

liberated

from

be

applied
environment
that

the Al

the mascu

one

cannot
learn
Yet,
hardly
a people
so quickly.
to understand
in
he
would
time,
Perhaps,
an Algerian,
have become
but at what
It would
have
price?
to a people with whom,
taken him a long time to adjust
out of
to identify.
need, he wanted
personal
be otherwise:

it could

so easily. A Black man

In short, one cannot shed his identity
not get rid of his N?gritude
nor
it a mirage:
by calling
can anyone
his cultural,
historical
and social singu
exchange
a
even
act
for
of
will?not
in the
another,
larity
by
simple

does

service

of a revolutionary

ethic.
IV

it was
for

Thus
What

foreseeable

that

in this

long, painful
not be the
stage would
on discovering
that he

the Algerian
identity,
can an individual
do
28

quest
last.
cannot

of Frantz

Life

Impossible

Fanon

nor erase
of
it in the minds
of his singularity,
step outside
next
The
to the point of being adopted
others
them?
step
by
all those accursed
to the utmost
is to deny
all singularities,
between men
differences
which
stand in the way of communion
one from being
human
other hu
and prevent
among
simply
mans.

All

the universal
How

I know
and

oppressed

about

so

then

letariat.

it in connection

believed
In

into

the universal

and

the only ethic.

the only reality,
the
It is so common
this attitude!
among
at
wrote
I
them.
of
for
many
tempting
with

the Jews.

As

I write

these

to be
the Gypsies
also claim
to
We
need
recall
scarcely
people.

I have
lines,
just learned
most
the world's
universal
that Marx

blended

to be

is declared

well

length

are

individuals

that

messianism
in the universalist
of
no
that
there
is
doubt
case,
during

the pro
the last

any
on the universalist
decided
solution.
stage of his life Fanon
not
take place
This
did
however.
immediately,
development
to a uni
To pass from the particularist
commitment
Algerian
a
a
in
New
Man
the
vision
reconciled
versalist
of
vision,
world,

a mediator.
have been too great a leap. He
This
needed
would
was the role of Africa.
to Accra.
In March,
ambassador
1960, he was
appointed
move:
Two
have
been
for
this
suggested
plausible
explanations
or perhaps
to
it was either at his request
the Algerians
wanted
remove
scene.
him from
the immediate
Fanon
had
political
been very upset
and troubled
of
certainly
by the assassination
one of the military
was
which
leaders of the FLN,
carried out
who were most probably working
with the political
by Algerians
leadership.
But, on the other hand, he seems to have been the
one who
of

edge
fascinated
To

be

foreseeing
that could
such

creating military
supply bases at the
he
Sahara.
became
any
case,
immediately
and its unexpected
of Africa
by the vastness
potential.
was due in great measure
to his
sure, his enthusiasm

had

the

idea of

the

In

an

of the Algerian
extraordinary
widening
struggle
to
arms.
his
relief
in
brothers
But
bring
adopted

enthusiasm

is aroused

one
the discovery
of what
a
veritable
experienced
upheaval
an African.
only

to find. He

already
expected
in his outlook:
he became

29

by

It was

Review

Massachusetts

The

months

several
a new

earlier,
which
first used
expression
"We
Africans.
greater
importance:
meant
it only as a more
probably
a part of Africa
also of Africa.
the

of

Fanon

its full,
the expression
he gave
precise
and economic
the creation of the political
to mythical
continent.
It did not refer merely
Later

it stood

meaning:
unity

and Frantz

that he
in January
I960,18
soon
would
acquire much
. . ." But at that time he
was
term. Algeria
inclusive
a part of Algeria,
therefore

for

in the world,
the primordial
of all the Blacks
mother
Africa,
or C?saire,
Indian poet,
the West
with which
Black Americans
a
saw
as
social and
Fanon
it
themselves.
physical,
identify
as a task to be understood
and com
historical
identification,
"What
took it upon himself.
; he, in any case, henceforth
pleted
out of its immobility
and to col
I chose to do was to stir Africa
to revolutionary
in its refashioning
laborate
principles.
according
In a word

I decided

of a continent"
Did

this

movement
to take part in the coordinated
the African Revolution,
pp. 177-178).
since
to forget
Not
him
exactly,
Algeria?

(Toward
cause

enable him to
would
to African
certainly
solidarity
appealing
the Guineans.
the Senegalese,
obtain
the aid of the Malians,
a
new
now
was
in
he
carried
impetus
along by
Undoubtedly,
new
to
his
revealed
of the
world
spired by the dimensions
the physical
and geo
discovered
Africa,
a
as
he
made
it
and
of
reality
living whole,
Africa,
graphical
on
own
in
this
his
bone
with
tired
his
every
exhausting
body
to his physical
break
have
contributed
well
which
may
trip
across
the
"I wish
canals
for great
down.
great ship
trunklines,
to
to deny
the desert,
like to deaden
I would
desert.
bring
it,
dazzled

Africa

eyes.

together,

He

to create

the continent"

{Ibid.,

pp.

180-181).

He did not abandon Algeria, but he did abandon the Algerian

he
In The Wretched
of the Earth
point of view.
our
detained
militants
"to protect
that it is necessary
still writes
name
But
"our
the
of
the
in
and
enemy"
people."
speaks
by
a notable widening
taken place. For
has already
of his horizon

nationalist

18

El Moudjahid,

No.

58.

Cf.

Toward

169.
30

the

African

Revolution,

pp.

167

Fanon

of Frantz

Life

Impossible

as a
"African
he states unequivocally:
unity
to
we propose
gives us the starting point from which
principle
the
without
create the United
States of Africa,
through
passing
its cortege of wars
phase, with
chauvinist,
bourgeois
nationalist,
the

time

first

and ruins" (Ibid., p. 187).

wrote
Whom
does we refer
to? Cer
He
"We
propose."
and Tuni
the Algerians
tainly not to his comrades-in-arms,
should
never
the
nationalist
that
who
maintained
phase
sians,
even

be bypassed.19 A little later in The Wretched

I
the "national
criticized
parties."
severely
him.
mistrust
that this aroused much
against

provisionally
the Earth
he

of
would
The

suspect
leaders of these

a collective

tool

parties
for mass

had worked
action

and

too hard
combat.

to forge such
seldom

Fanon

of lyricism,
his flights
in anyone
and except during
were
as
rare
his
which
became
writings
politicized,
increasingly
the nature
of his daily relations with
he scarcely ever revealed
confided

nor told us who were his friends

and especially
his comrades,
it
in such a state of permanent
his enemies.
Yet being
tension,
was
in spite of the bonds
enemies
inevitable
that he made
so important,
and he
thesis was
His
created
by the struggle.
that he must have had deter
it so uncompromisingly,
expressed
mined

as determined

opponents,

as he himself,
when he stated:
and his comrades-in-arms]
one region
at
longer progress

therefore

"Africa

Algeria
[and
must
understand
that it can no
a time. Like
a large body that refuses
to let itself be mutilated,
as a whole"
it must progress
(Ibid., p. 192).
was to have a similar
idea ;
Another
Black man, an American,
have to be
X also concluded
Malcolm
that any solution would
been quite
clear
African
and even Afro-Asian.
It has never
who

was

state of affairs
This
for his assassination.
responsible
not
out
that
of
it
the
suited the Whites,
is
but
question
as well.
La
Patrice
have
Blacks
many
antagonized

certainly
he may
met
mumba
19
unity.
states.
from

Since
But
In
Fanon's

the

same

fate,

the Algerian
then,
for them
this does
all

probability
visionary

leaders
not

their

for

perhaps
have

imply
position

sincerity.
31

the

the

taken
again
destruction

is essentially

same

rea

complex

up the idea of African

of the African
nation
tactical

and

thus

far

Review

The Massachusetts
sons.

African
I suspect
that Fanon's
and intransigent
sudden
shared
have
ism roused new hostility
him.
He
might
against
the fate of those Jewish
themselves
who declare
intellectuals
and even
and are suspected
universalists
of cosmopolitanism
treason

are not

members
sufficiently
legitimate
an
of the community
For
such aloofness.
permitted
so late in the making
to say the
it was
Algerian
imprudent,
a
so
to
recent
to
test.
bond
the
put
least,
3 they

considered

to be

The

wheel

come

had

full

in the name
another
to

the name

was

which

this

too was

not

but

of Africa,

of Negroes,

the final

to choose
he had

Now

in

embodied
he attacked

stage. When

of the Earth, he did so not merely

in the name

of "the

sweat

and Orientals."

Indians,

Arabs,

em

then

him

failure

in The Wretched

Europe

humanism

at his

back

Indian identity

of this effort caused

an Algerian
patriot.
this time
universalism,

The
another

still

But

Africa.

now

was

Fanon

and he became

role

come

ers

a universalist

of

in France.

bodied

circle.

had refused his West

point of departure. He

in

and

cadav

Soon

there

to

after he found himself both attacking Europe and wanting

to save all of humanity.
it 5 now he wanted
or even of Africa,
a
matter
of Algeria
but
longer
the
the entire world.
To
quote
concluding
again

It was

save

final

and
for ourselves
Europe,
a new
we must
make
beginning,
try to create a new man."

work:

comrades,
thought,

"For

and

of Man
of

lines

for

no
his

humanity,
new

develop

V
might
It
of

terest
the

that

his

whether

it is of more

the work

and

conduct

his

existence.

drama

motives

private
outward
manifestations

their

the admiring

before
ters

be asked

to interpret
fundamental

is the

stages

Freud

or

of
can

little
be

eyes of countless
of
the end point

result,
the reason

or Marx,

of
are

for

setting

out

is it really useful
32

in

than historical

in terms

of Fanon
One

could
as

argue
long as

importance
held up as an example
mat
What
individuals.
the

journey,
in the first

not

and
place.

today to know

its

Take

in detail

Life

Impossible
Marx

the man,

of Frantz

that he was

to know

Fanon

of Jewish

background

and

probably had a special relationship with Judaism and the Jewish

be
Is there after
denominator
all any common
community?
tween such a narrow
and
in
base and the extraordinary
range
fluence of the work?

I think there is. Not that genetic exegesis in any way deals
exhaustively with all the dimensions of a finished work, or
even
over,
work

illuminates

more
It is obvious,
in their entirety.
the success of a
the genius
of an author,
even more
on the integration
into
of the work
to modify
and on its potential
that reality. But
them

that whatever
depends

human

reality
every work also

represents

the

individual's

response

to the prob

lems raised for him by that world and by his inner life. The
must
the mark?hidden
therefore
bear at every moment
or overt?of
this man,
that drives him and con
of the passion
fers on his work
I am
both
its strength
and its vulnerability.
convinced
in the case of Marx
that one of the most
fascinating

work

and questionable
the transposition

facets

his messianism,
is merely
of his work,
and revolutionary
of the
language

into secular

persistent and ever unfulfilled great hope of the Jewish ethic,

the ethic of his family and of his childhood.
to his own predicament
in the end Fanon's
response
True,
was political:
in which
after a long period
he tried to respond

to it on the psychological and existential level, he gradually

identified his own destiny with Algeria, then with the Third
and

World,

ultimately

with

all

of

humanity.

since

significance,
bilized
by death.

that
Yet

is how
I am

they were
convinced

is what

That

gives his image, his life's journey, and his work

completed
that Fanon's

their final
and

with himself, his initial orientation toward psychology

immo

relations

and his

a role until
of specialist
in the human psyche,
profession
played
the end in everything
he undertook,
and in
including
politics,
a
remained
of
his
coefficient
vision
of
the
future
of
evitably
mankind.
This
dinary

osmosis
passion

work. He

probably
and the

at least in part, the extraor

explains,
latent despair
that permeate
Fanon's

had suffered too much

33

from his N?gritude

not to

The Massachusetts
be exasperated
by it. Black
read from
this perspective.

Review

Masks
Skin, White
In this work
he

be

should
speaks

at

re

times

directly about himself and then again describes the behavior of

his

but it is always his own suffering

citizens,
a
and
to his sentences which
pels
gives
lyrical quality
or rage. He
into short poems of bitterness
could have
fellow

that pro
break up
concluded

with
his misfortune
to confront
and trying
it
identifying
in
to
order
transform
it.
Or
he
have
evaded
could
directly
it,
an alternative
common
to many
reaction
and in the
oppressed;
end that is what he chose to do.
by

This

choice

work.

The

questionable
implies more
of belonging
affirmation
at least

of

decision

had

first

these

was

consequences
his totally

for

his

negative
After
all,

subsequent
and very

of N?gritude.
conception
N?gritude
than the mere
consciousness
of misfortune
and
to a vanquished
is
also
It
and
group.
recognition
it is protest,
of self;
of a culture,
reconstruction
its potential,
contribute

to

of

abandonment
the name

decisive

of

of

to a group,
adherence
and the
positive
to a collective
The
disdainful
future.

Blackness

universalism

or Arabness)
in
(or Jewishness,
man
rests on a mis
and universal

is not the place to go into a thorough

critique.
conception.
It should however
out that such an outlook
be pointed
of false
on
universalism
and abstract humanism
is based
all
neglecting
This

specific
though
nor how
universal
particular

all
and
social
intervening
particularities,
to see why
these are necessarily
contemptible,
man
with.
Universal
and
they could be dispensed
are
men
culture
after all made
and
up of particular
cultures.

identity
it is hard

The best proof of this can be found in Fanon himself:

rejected
defended

his N?gritude
in the name of universalism,
a cause that was national
and concerned

It is true that the Algerian

country.
ment
the Algerian
revolution.
This
were
from
who
far
sympathizers
of Algeria
contact with
have

was

believed

and

he
then

a particular
their move

called
patriots
could deceive wholehearted
the

scene where

the destiny
in daily
lived

Fanon,
however,
being decided.
the leaders of the struggle:
how could he seriously
a national movement?
that this was not primarily
34

Life

of Frantz

believe

it. It only

Impossible
In fact he did

not quite

of The Wretched
of

all

of the Earth with

movements.

national

needs

Martinique?
Why
even if it was more
he was West

reading

to
been alluding
if he did
case, even
he knew that it was

have

the Algerians
In any
and the Tunisians.
was building
believe
that Algeria
socialism,
not
international
socialism. Why
Algerian,
not

a close

its very detailed critique

must

He

Fanon

not

socialism

socialism,
struggle
than Algerian
since
socialism,
problematical
For what
Indian
and not Algerian?
other reason

that he needed
except
as he
tude as much

to shed

his former
to come to

and his N?gri

of Algeria.
as being
of N?gritude,

needed

Hence

self

the

aid

this paradoxical
condemnation
at the very time when
he was
and particularist,
ately trying to be a part of another
particularism.
same can be said of his theory of violence.
The
This

narrow

is probably
exposed
condemned

in

Indian

for West

only
situation

the expression
in which
he

once
himself,
a
and
battle
country
fight
his native
island. He went

he

of

the

lived,
decided

that was

intimate

desper
theory
and the

conflict

a situation
to which
he
to move
to a far-away

neither

his own

the Marxist

nor

thesis

that of

that vio
a
purify
in spite

beyond
was
and necessary.
For him violence
he clearly parts company with Marx,
ing force. Here
on the "blessed
of the latter's ambiguous
remarks
of
violence"
the proletariat.
In fact, as we now know, Fanon was distraught
of countering
by the torture in both camps, and by the necessity
torture aroused
the fear which
in the minds
of the militants.
can one react to fear other
an act of vio
How
than through
lence which
frees the militant
from his fear-inspired
paralysis?
A hand raised against
the colonizer
per
strips this all-powerful
lence

sonage
is not

is inevitable

of his

sacred
to affect

character.

solely
the colonized.
No
context
of a particular
theoretical
generalization
form

the

That

colonizer.

doubt

these

is why
Violence

the goal
must

statements

but
it
situation,
of this affirmation

are

of violence
also

trans

true

in the

is doubtful
that a
can be acceptable.

never be avoided,
violence
for exam
through
negotiation
or
a
in
the
relative
of
the two
ple
through
change
strength
one
so
affirm that any people
that does
camps? Can
resolutely

Can

not liberate itself through violence will botch its revolution?

35

The

Review

Massachusetts

and not without

so many
see
how
one angry
to
cause.
to make
It is enough
sacrifices are followed
by
by such a rush for selfish enjoyment,
was
carried
so much waste
he
But
and childish
away
by
vanity.
Fanon

attacked

the

national

bourgeoisie

the

his feelings and could not foresee that in all probability

since in
or the military
seize power,
groups would
structures.
the only relatively
organized
they were
in these new coun
the actual situation
he mistook

bourgeoisie
new nations
Ultimately
tries.
same

The
timated

the

is true

of

short-run

and the long-run

on the other hand

importance
of
importance

the

He

of Africa.

vision

of Fanon's

underes

national

the

bourgeoisie
while
proletariat,
the role of the peasantry,
urban

he overestimated
of African
at least for the immediate
future. His
perception
or
He made
at
was
least
in great part illusory
premature.
unity
the so
he wanted
neither
constructive
proposals:
only vague
model.
to be sure,
the western
cialist model
nor,
capitalist
the initial
in which
about the manner
thought
scarcely
take place, yet this is indispen
would
of wealth
accumulation
all
of the economy. He was against nearly
sable for a take-off
he
that
encountered.
leaders and one-party
the political
systems
a rather
to replace
them with
have
wished
would
He
probably
and the
intellectuals
the uncorrupted
alliance
between
Utopian
Fanon

peasantry. Just as in Algeria

the way of
little distinction
and

mentality
he made
various
continent.

frequently
brought

of his patients,
the social
between

states, and nations

he grew
impatient,
of the tenacity
particularism,
and national

aspirations,
interests.

contradictory
him as much mistrust

pathy and respect.

could be
Much
and wished

for. He
What

so too

said

about

and

up
showed

of

tradition

It

man

saw him

the

of

this

immense

his

scorn

as of

is probable
as
resentment

the new
he

he

as well

in Africa

realities

that make

peoples,
Thus

regional
of cultural

the

he had difficulty discerning

life

of

and

custom,
the play of
that
it did

that Fanon
out

emerging
thought
were
of this totally
the characteristics

this
sym

hoped
of the
new

Third

World.

man

in this totally new world? Are we still in politics or in a

36

dream? We

of Frantz

Life

Impossible

find that the Third World

Fanon

must not only discover

but also offer

to its own social and political misery
the solution
to the world. This
is part of Fanon's
itself as a model
tendency
idea of the new man
to engage
His
in messianic
prophesying.
that such a
is inspiring,
that is true, but there is no indication
an
nor that the Third World
man
is inventing
is emerging
be
social structure. The
key to the idea can probably
original
once and for all.
to reject Europe
in Fanon's
desire
found
his chosen
that his adopted
country,
men
humili
who
with
the
for
all
and

he believed
break once

Consequently
brothers, must

ated him in his childhood. It is true that Europe did not live
am referring
both to its ruling classes
up to our expectations?I
classes also prof
and to its proletariat.
The European
working
some
did not
to
therefore
extent
and
colonialism
from
ited
were
to
or perhaps
that
admit,
unwilling
always
understand,
be an end

there must

colonial
countries.
that we
this mean
methods

and

the
too

socialism

all,

should

or formerly
very deep. Does
off from the intellectual

over

to domination

Our

colonial

went

disappointment
cut ourselves

After
to see

by the Europeans?
perfected
a
It is difficult
invention.
is European
tools

what sort of third economic and social way the Third World
could

nor can we discern

the make-up
adopted,
we have defined
social
the economic,

have
until

man,
conditions

which

under

he might

have

from
on

fighting
cannot
distance
tunity

for

have

the other

was

have defined his thought

to its outline
substance
given
did not leave him
Death
its contradictions.

would

clearly,
overcome

on
Perhaps
his distance

political

emerge.

If Fanon had lived, he would

more

of this new
and

hand

he would

individuals
their

and
time.

behalf.

have maintained
always
even while
he
social reality
to say that such
This
is not

and

be an advantage:
it may
offer the only oppor
is also the high price one
clear vision. This
distance

an

situation
with
and for non-coincidence
impossible
The
and oneself.
of self, as I have said else
rejection
a
is
in any case, is no
solution
satisfactory
rarely
and,
where,
or
of happiness
the
made
guarantee
growth. Many
Algerians
pays
others

for

same

discovery:

they

almost

believed
37

themselves

French,

but

The Massachusetts

Review

understood
that they had never been French,
they finally
never ceased being: Algerians.
to
be
decided
what
had
they
they
never
Fanon
to self. His
true problem,
in
this return
accepted
was
nor
to
to
neither
Al
how
how
be
be
actuality,
French,

when

gerian,
solution

but

how

to

this

to be West

Indian.
or

problem,

Black Skins, White Masks

with
One

it anymore.
cannot
refrain

from

He

rather

adolescence,
wavered
from

then
his

discussed

to attempt
it once

in

and then did not concern himself

thinking

Aim? C?saire, whom he first followed

his

refused

he

of

Fanon's

first

hero,

in the enthusiasm of

has never
C?saire
rejected.
return
to his people.
the
purpose:

categorically

original

It is true that the people did not immediately respond to his

to be conscious
revolutionary
appeal -, they have scarcely begun
are
unsure
of their
Mar
and
still
of
their
identity
destiny.
not
to
at
has
whether
for
the
decided
least
yet
tinique
continue,
a
or
not
to
too
in
time being,
alliance with France,
profitable
break off and rush into the adventure
In any
of independence.
to drive a people
in trying
than
farther
case, there is no point
on
are
to
to
who
his
lead
wishes
go. Anyone
they
willing
people
or
more
the path of progress must
in
them.
with
less
stay
step
or C?saire?
was right, Fanon
one who preferred
to
The
Who
his
better
effect
could
own
the
of
his
midst
in
peo
wishes,
ruses that this
the compromises
and even necessary
ple, with
This
the
entailed?
goes beyond
question
subject of this article.
some day it will
can hope
become
academic:
We
that perhaps
on the day when
man
at
home
will be
and will
any
anywhere,
leave

be

and find
another
people
or the one who
remained

to live

allowed

I fear

and work

who

elsewhere

as well

as

in his

own

conventional
this day is very far off. Today
country.
a
more
to the
wisdom
conduct
attuned
pragmatic
prescribes
immediate
and specific reality of each nation.
that

in spite of all this, Fanon's

paroxysmic
politics,
with
immediate
his scorn for tactics and
his impatience
reality,
are fueled
inner fire
by such an inextinguishable
gradualism,
And

that
yond

yet,

the

reader

himself,

is raised be
the author,
along with
to be
cannot
its goal,
reach
that
impetus

is carried
in an

38

Life

Impossible

of Frantz

Fanon

and opens up
and hesitations
doubts
sure, but does overcome
the vision
of a totally
humanity.
regenerate
a fourth must
be
three failures;
I have spoken of Fanon's
cancer
at
of
he
died
At
the
death.
them:
last
36,
among
added,

Bethesda hospital, in the America he hated. It was the kind of

it was

death

typical of self-destruction;
he received
sible life. Ultimately
nor the nationalists,
the Marxists

the end

of

an

impos
of neither
approbation
nor
the proletariat
neither
the

And
the peasants
countries.
the bourgeoisie
in the developing
not yet spoken their piece.
of the
in the attitude
of a prophet
him
This
death
froze
a
a
fate
which
hero of decolonization,
romantic
Third World,
have

Guevara

was

to share

of Fanon

under

circumstances.

different
fascinates

which

It

is this

so many
young men
It is not accidental

today
aspect
movements.
and so many
revolutionary
the
a
saint of the Black Panthers:
he
has
become
that
patron
one
too is probably
them
of a
for
fundamental
problem
in reconstruct
too experience
troubled
difficulty
identity. They
as their own.
can
a
a
which
and
culture
past
they
recognize
ing
to the tempta
succumb
When
social despair
is too great, men
are gripped
tion of messianism.
by a
by a lyrical fever,
They
and
real
ethical demand
that constantly
confuses
maniehaeism
roman
into revolutionary
ity. Paradoxically,
they also fall
an unshakeable
in radical and final change.
belief
ticism, with
to this uncom
success
due more
is probably
Frantz
Fanon's
prophetic
promisingly
the correctness
of his

attitude,

than

analyses.

So

his life, it is his failure

his

far-reaching

to his particular
theses
that here, as in the rest

or
of

itself that has become the source of

influence.

39