Documente Academic
Documente Profesional
Documente Cultură
1Terminology
2History
4.1Cut-and-cover
4.2Boring machines
4.3Clay-kicking
4.4Shafts
4.6Pipe jacking
4.7Box jacking
4.8Underwater tunnels
4.9Temporary way
4.10Enlargement
5.2Covered passageways
7Examples of tunnels
7.1In history
7.2Longest
7.3Notable
8Mining
9Military use
10Secret tunnels
11Natural tunnels
12Major accidents
13See also
14References
15Bibliography
16External links
TUNNEL
This article is about underground passages. For other uses, see Tunnel
(disambiguation).
"Underpass" redirects here. For the John Foxx song, see Underpass (song). For a
tunnel for pedestrians, see Pedestrian underpass.
Utility
tunnel for
heating
in Copenhagen,Denmark
pipes
Amagervrket
Southern portal of the 421 m long (1,381 ft) Chirk canal tunnel
A tunnel is an underground or underwater passageway, dug through the surrounding
soil/earth/rock and enclosed except for entrance and exit, commonly at each end.
A pipeline is not a tunnel, though some recent tunnels have used immersed
tube construction techniques rather than traditional tunnel boring methods.
A tunnel may be for foot or vehicular road traffic, for rail traffic, or for a canal. The
central portions of a rapid transit network are usually in tunnel. Some tunnels
Terminology
A tunnel is relatively long and narrow; the length is often much greater than twice
the diameter, although similar shorter excavations can be constructed, such as cross
passages between tunnels.
The definition of what constitutes a tunnel can vary widely from source to source.
For example, the definition of a road tunnel in the United Kingdom is defined as "a
subsurface highway structure enclosed for a length of 150 metres (490 ft) or
more."[1] In the United States, the NFPA definition of a tunnel is "An underground
structure with a design length greater than 23 m (75 ft) and a diameter greater than
1,800 millimetres (5.9 ft).
In the UK, a pedestrian, cycle or animal tunnel beneath a road or railway is called
a subway, while an underground railway system is differently named in different
cities, the "Underground" or the "Tube" in London, the "Subway" in Glasgow, and
the "Metro" in Newcastle. The place where a road, railway, canal or watercourse
passes under a footpath, cycleway, or another road or railway is most commonly
called a bridge or, if passing under a canal, an aqueduct. Where it is important to
stress that it is passing underneath, it may be called an underpass, though the
official term when passing under a railway is an underbridge. A longer underpass
containing a road, canal or railway is normally called a "tunnel", whether or not it
passes under another item of infrastructure. An underpass of any length under a
river is also usually called a "tunnel", whatever mode of transport it is for.
In the US, the term "subway" means an underground rapid transit system, and the
term pedestrian underpass is used for a passage beneath a barrier. Rail station
platforms may be connected by pedestrian tunnels or footbridges.
History
This section needs expansion.You can
help by adding to it. (March 2013)
Joralemon Street Tunnel in 1913, part of the New York City Subwaysystem
Much of the early technology of tunneling evolved from mining and military
engineering. The etymology of the terms "mining" (for mineral extraction or
for siege attacks), "military engineering", and "civil engineering" reveals these deep
historic connections.
Geotechnical investigation and design
Other key geotechnical factors:
"Stand-up time" is the amount of time a newly excavated cavity can support
itself without any added structures. Knowing this parameter allows the engineers
to determine how far an excavation can proceed before support is needed, which
in turn affects the speed, efficiency, and cost of construction. Generally, certain
configurations of rock and clay will have the greatest stand-up time, while sand
and fine soils will have a much lower stand-up time.[3]
freezing, using pipes which are inserted into the ground surrounding the
excavation, which are then cooled with special refrigerant fluids. This freezes
the ground around each pipe until the whole space is surrounded with frozen
soil, keeping water out until a permanent structure can be built.
tunnels
built
instead
of
bridges
include
the Holland
Tunnel and Lincoln Tunnel between New Jersey and Manhattan in New York City;
the Queens-Midtown
Tunnel between
Island;
and
Manhattan
and
the Detroit-Windsor
the Elizabeth
River tunnels
between Norfolk and Portsmouth, Virginia; the 1934 River Mersey road Queensway
Tunnel; the Western Scheldt Tunnel, Zeeland, Netherlands; and the North Shore
Connector tunnel in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania.
Other reasons for choosing a tunnel instead of a bridge include avoiding difficulties
with tides, weather, and shipping during construction (as in the 51.5-kilometre or
32.0-mile Channel Tunnel), aesthetic reasons (preserving the above-ground view,
landscape, and scenery), and also for weight capacity reasons (it may be more
feasible to build a tunnel than a sufficiently strong bridge). Some water crossings
are a mixture of bridges and tunnels, such as the Denmark to Sweden link and
the Chesapeake Bay Bridge-Tunnel in Virginia. There are particular hazards with
tunnels, especially from vehicle fires when combustion gases can asphyxiate users,
as happened at the Gotthard Road Tunnel in Switzerland in 2001. One of the worst
railway disasters ever, the Balvano train disaster, was caused by a train stalling in
the Armi tunnel in Italy in 1944, killing 426 passengers. Designers try to reduce
these risks by installing emergency ventilation systems or isolated emergency
escape tunnels parallel to the main passage. Project planning and cost estimates
Government funds are often required for the creation of tunnels. [6] When a tunnel is
being planned or constructed, economics and politics play a large factor in the
decision
making
process.
Civil
engineers
usually
use project
The costs and benefits for an infrastructure such as a tunnel must be identified.
Political disputes can occur, as in 2005 when the US House of Representatives
approved a $100 million federal grant to build a tunnel under New York Harbor.
However, the Port Authority of New York and New Jersey was not aware of this bill
and had not asked for a grant for such a project. Increased taxes to finance a large
project may cause opposition.
CONSTRUCTION
Tunnels are dug in types of materials varying from soft clay to hard rock. The
method of tunnel construction depends on such factors as the ground conditions, the
ground water conditions, the length and diameter of the tunnel drive, the depth of
the tunnel, the logistics of supporting the tunnel excavation, the final use and shape
of the tunnel and appropriate risk management.
There are three basic types of tunnel construction in common use:
Bored tunnel, constructed in situ, without removing the ground above. They
are usually of circular or horseshoe cross-section.
Immersed tube tunnel, sunk into a body of water and laid on or buried just
under its bed.
Cut-and-cover
Top-down method: Side support walls and capping beams are constructed
from ground level by such methods as slurry walling or contiguous bored piling.
Then a shallow excavation allows making the tunnel roof of precast beams or in
situ concrete. The surface is then reinstated except for access openings. This
allows early reinstatement of roadways, services and other surface features.
Excavation then takes place under the permanent tunnel roof, and the base slab
is constructed.
Shallow tunnels are often of the cut-and-cover type (if under water, of the
immersed-tube type), while deep tunnels are excavated, often using a tunnelling
shield. For intermediate levels, both methods are possible.
Large cut-and-cover boxes are often used for underground metro stations, such
as Canary Wharf tube station in London. This construction form generally has two
levels, which allows economical arrangements for ticket hall, station platforms,
passenger access and emergency egress, ventilation and smoke control, staff rooms,
and equipment rooms. The interior of Canary Wharf station has been likened to an
underground cathedral, owing to the sheer size of the excavation. This contrasts
with many traditional stations on London Underground, where bored tunnels were
used for stations and passenger access. Nevertheless, the original parts of the
London Underground network, the Metropolitan and District Railways, were
constructed using cut-and-cover. These lines pre-dated electric traction and the
proximity to the surface was useful to ventilate the inevitable smoke and steam.
A major disadvantage of cut-and-cover is the widespread disruption generated at the
surface level during construction. This, and the availability of electric traction,
brought about London Underground's switch to bored tunnels at a deeper level
towards the end of the 19th century.
BORING MACHINES
Main article: Tunnel boring machine
Despite these difficulties, TBMs are now preferred over the older method of
tunnelling in compressed air, with an air lock/decompression chamber some way
back from the TBM, which required operators to work in high pressure and go
through decompression procedures at the end of their shifts, much like deep-sea
divers. In February 2010, Aker Wirth delivered a TBM to Switzerland, for the
expansion of the LinthLimmern Power Stations located south of Linthal in
the canton of Glarus. The borehole has a diameter of 8.03 metres (26.3 ft).[9] The
four TBMs used for excavating the 57-kilometre (35 mi) Gotthard Base Tunnel,
in Switzerland, had a diameter of about 9 metres (30 ft). A larger TBM was built to
bore the Green Heart Tunnel (Dutch: Tunnel Groene Hart) as part of the HSLZuid in the Netherlands, with a diameter of 14.87 metres (48.8 ft).[10] This in turn
was superseded by the Madrid M30 ringroad, Spain, and the Chong Ming tunnels
in Shanghai, China. All
of
these
machines
were
built
at
least
partly
SHAFTS
1886 illustration showing the ventilation and drainage system of the Mersey railway
tunnel
A temporary access shaft is sometimes necessary during the excavation of a tunnel.
They are usually circular and go straight down until they reach the level at which
the tunnel is going to be built. A shaft normally has concrete walls and is usually
built to be permanent. Once the access shafts are complete, TBMs are lowered to
the bottom and excavation can start. Shafts are the main entrance in and out of the
tunnel until the project is completed. If a tunnel is going to be long, multiple shafts
at various locations may be bored so that entrance to the tunnel is closer to the
unexcavated area.[5]
Once construction is complete, construction access shafts are often used
as ventilation shafts, and may also be used as emergency exits.
Sprayed concrete techniques[edit]
The New Austrian Tunneling Method (NATM) was developed in the 1960s and is
the best known of a number of engineering practices that use calculated and
empirical measurements to provide safe support to the tunnel lining. The main idea
of this method is to use the geological stress of the surrounding rock mass to
stabilize the tunnel, by allowing a measured relaxation and stress reassignment into
the surrounding rock to prevent full loads becoming imposed on the supports. Based
on geotechnical measurements,
an
optimal cross
section is
computed.
The
as shotcrete. Other support measures can include steel arches, rockbolts and mesh.
Technological developments in sprayed concrete technology have resulted in steel
and polypropylene fibres being added to the concrete mix to improve lining
strength. This creates a natural load-bearing ring, which minimizes the
rock's deformation.
Illowra Battery utility tunnel, Port Kembla. One of many bunkers south of Sydney.
By special monitoring the NATM method is flexible, even at surprising changes of
the geomechanical rock consistency during the tunneling work. The measured rock
properties lead to appropriate tools for tunnel strengthening. In the last decades also
soft ground excavations up to 10 kilometres (6.2 mi) became usual.
Pipe jacking
Main article: Pipe jacking
In pipe jacking, hydraulic jacks are used to push specially-made pipes through the
ground behind a TBM or shield. This method is commonly used to create tunnels
under existing structures, such as roads or railways. Tunnels constructed by pipe
jacking are normally small diameter bores with a maximum size of around 3.2
metres (10 ft).
Box jacking
Box jacking is similar to pipe jacking, but instead of jacking tubes, a box-shaped
tunnel is used. Jacked boxes can be a much larger span than a pipe jack, with the
span of some box jacks in excess of 20 metres (66 ft). A cutting head is normally
used at the front of the box being jacked, and spoil removal is normally by
excavator from within the box.
Underwater tunnels
bored
tunnels
or immersed
tubes,
examples
are Bjrvika
Tunnel and Marmaray. Submerged floating tunnels are a novel approach under
consideration; however, no such tunnels have been constructed to date.
Temporary way[edit]
During construction of a tunnel it is often convenient to install a temporary railway,
particularly to remove excavated spoil, often narrow gauge so that it can be double
track to allow the operation of empty and loaded trains at the same time. The
temporary way is replaced by the permanent way at completion, thus explaining the
term "Perway".
Enlargement
The original single line Gib Tunnel near Mittagong was replaced with a
double-track tunnel, with the original tunnel used for growing mushrooms. [citation
needed]
The 1832 double-track mile-long tunnel from Edge Hill to Lime Street in
Liverpool was near totally removed, apart from a 50-metre section at Edge Hill
and a section nearer to Lime Street, as four tracks were required. The tunnel was
dug out into a very deep four-track cutting, with short tunnels in places along the
cutting. Train services were not interrupted as the work progressed. [13][14] There
are other occurrences of tunnels being replaced by open cuts, for example,
the Auburn Tunnel.
Hydraulic splitter
Slurry-shield machine
The upper level traffic lanes throughYerba Buena Island, part of the San Francisco
Oakland Bay Bridge
Some tunnels are double-deck, for example the two major segments of the San
FranciscoOakland Bay Bridge (completed in 1936) are linked by a double-deck
tunnel through Yerba Buena Island, the largest-diameter bored tunnel in the world.
[16]
the lower deck with automobiles above, now converted to one-way road vehicle
traffic on each deck.
In the Netherlands, a two-stack road tunnel is being constructed in the city
of Maastricht. The two lower tubes of the tunnel will carry the A2 motorway, which
originates in Amsterdam, through the city, and the two upper tubes will take the N2
regional highway for local traffic.[17] In the UK, the 1934 Queensway Tunnel under
the River Mersey between Liverpool and Birkenhead was originally to have road
vehicles running on the upper deck and trams on the lower. During construction the
tram usage was cancelled. The lower section is only used for cables, pipes and
emergency accident refuge enclosures.
In Hong Kong, the Lion Rock Tunnel, built in the mid 1960s connecting New
Kowloon and Sha Tin, carries a motorway and an aqueduct.
A recent double-deck tunnel with both decks for motor vehicles is the Fuxing Road
Tunnel in Shanghai, China. Cars travel on the two-lane upper deck, and heavier
vehicles on the single-lane lower level.
Multipurpose tunnels exist that have more than one purpose. The SMART
Tunnel in Malaysia is the first multipurpose flood control tunnel in the world, used
both to convey traffic and occasional flood waters in Kuala Lumpur.
Common utility ducts or utility tunnels are carry two or more utility lines. Through
co-location of different utilities in one tunnel, organizations are able to reduce the
costs of building and maintaining utilities.
COVERED PASSAGEWAYS
on
traffic
conditions,
and
responds
to
surveillance equipment is often used, and real-time pictures of traffic conditions for
some highways may be viewable by the general public via the Internet.
See also: History of rapid transit
The three eastern portals of Liverpool Edge Hill tunnels, built into a hand dug deep
cutting. The left tunnel with tracks is the short 1846 second Crown Street Tunnel,
still used for shunting; next on the right partially hidden by undergrowth is the
2.03 km (1.26 mi) 1829 disused Wapping Tunnel, to the right again hidden by
undergrowth, is the original short disused 1829 Crown Street Tunnel.
A short section remains of the 1832 Edge Hill to Lime Street tunnel inLiverpool.
This and a short section of the original tunnel nearer to Lime Street, are the oldest
rail tunnels in the world still in active use.
The 1,659-foot (506 m)Donner Pass Summit Tunnel (#6) was in service from 1868
to 1993.
Liverpool Lime Street Approach. The original two track tunnel was removed to
create a deep cutting. Some of the road bridges seen across the cutting are solid
rock and in effect are a series of short tunnels.
The qanat or kareez of Persia are water management systems used to provide
a reliable supply of water to human settlements or for irrigation in hot, arid and
semi-arid climates. The deepest known qanat is in the Iranian city of Gonabad,
which after 2700 years, still provides drinking and agricultural water to nearly
40,000 people. Its main well depth is more than 360 m (1,180 ft), and its length
is 45 km (28 mi).
The Siloam Tunnel was built before 701 BCE for a reliable supply of water,
to withstand siege attacks.
The Eupalinian aqueduct on the island of Samos (North Aegean, Greece) was
built in 520 BCE by the ancient Greek engineer Eupalinos of Megara under a
contract with the local community. Eupalinos organised the work so that the
tunnel was begun from both sides of Mount Kastro. The two teams advanced
simultaneously and met in the middle with excellent accuracy, something that
was extremely difficult in that time. The aqueduct was of utmost defensive
importance, since it ran underground, and it was not easily found by an enemy
who could otherwise cut off the water supply to Pythagoreion, the ancient
capital of Samos. The tunnel's existence was recorded by Herodotus (as was the
mole and harbour, and the third wonder of the island, the great temple to Hera,
thought by many to be the largest in the Greek world). The precise location of
the tunnel was only re-established in the 19th century by German archaeologists.
The tunnel proper is 1,030 m long (3,380 ft) and visitors can still enter
it Eupalinos tunnel.
One of the first known drainage and sewage networks in form of tunnels was
constructed at Persepolis in Iran at the same time as the construction of its
foundation in 518 BCE. In most places the network was dug in the sound rock
of the mountain and then covered by large pieces of rock and stone followed by
earth and rubbles to level the ground. During investigations and surveys, long
sections of similar rock tunnels extending beneath the palace area were traced
by Herzfeld and later by Schmidt and their archeological teams.
The Via Flaminia, an important Roman road, penetrated the Furlo pass in
the Apennines through a tunnel which emperor Vespasian had ordered built in
76-77 CE. A modern road, the SS 3 Flaminia, still uses this tunnel, which had a
precursor dating back to the 3rd century BCE; remnants of this earlier tunnel
(one of the first road tunnels) are also still visible.
The world's oldest underwater tunnel is claimed [25] to be the Terelek kaya
tneli under Kzl
River,
little
just
south
of
downstream
the
from
towns
where Kizil
River joins its tributaryGkrmak. The tunnel is presently under a narrow part of
a lake formed by a dam some kilometers further downstream. Estimated to have
been built more than 2000 years ago, possibly by the same civilization that also
built the royal tombs in a rock face nearby, it is assumed to have had a defensive
purpose.
Sapperton Canal Tunnel on the Thames and Severn Canal in England, dug
through hills, which opened in 1789, was 3.5 km (2.2 mi) long and
allowed boat transport of coal and other goods. Above it the Sapperton Long
Tunnel was constructed which carries the "Golden Valley" railway line
between Swindon and Gloucester.
The 1791 Dudley canal tunnel is on the Dudley Canal, in Dudley, England.
The tunnel is 1.83 miles (2.9 km) long. Closed in 1962 the tunnel was reopened
in 1973. The series of tunnels was extended in 1984 and 1989.[26]
to
steam
locomotion
in
1813
using
a Steam
Horse
The 1794 Butterley canal tunnel canal tunnel is 3,083 yards (2,819m) in
length on the Cromford Canal in Ripley, Derbyshire, England. The tunnel was
built simultaneously with the 1773 Fritchley railway tunnel. The tunnel partially
collapsed in 1900 splitting the Cromford Canal, and has not been used since.
The Friends of Cromford Canal, a group of volunteers, are working at fully
restoring the Cromford Canal and the Butterley Tunnel
Longest
Main article: List of tunnels by length
The Thirlmere
Aqueduct in North
West
England, United
Kingdom is
sometimes considered the longest tunnel, of any type, in the world at 154 km
(96 mi), though the aqueduct's tunnel section is not continuous.[dubious discuss]
The Gotthard Base Tunnel is the longest rail tunnel in the world at 57 km
(35 mi) and carries trains under the Swiss Alps. It was completed in 2016.
The Seikan Tunnel in Japan is 53.9 km (33.5 mi), of which 23.3 km (14.5 mi)
is under the sea.
The Channel
the United
Kingdom under
the English Channel has a total length of 50 km (31 mi), of which 39 km (24 mi)
is under the sea. The tunnel is the longest in the world under a stretch of water.
The Ltschberg Base Tunnel opened in June 2007 in Switzerland was the
longest land rail tunnel, with a total of 34.5 km (21.4 mi).
The Lrdal Tunnel in Norway from Lrdal to Aurland is the world's longest
road tunnel, intended for cars and similar vehicles, at 24.5 km (15.2 mi).
The longest canal tunnel is the Rove Tunnel in France, over 7.12 km
(4.42 mi) long.
Notable
The Gerrards Cross tunnel in England, completed in 2010. View west towards the
station in March 2005, showing the extent of construction three months before a
small section collapsed
The eastern portal of the abandoned Sideling Hill Tunnel, Pennsylvania, USA in
2009
The Fredhlls road tunnel was opened in 1966, in Stockholm, Sweden, and
the New Elbe road tunnel opened in 1975 in Hamburg, Germany. Both tunnels
handle around 150,000 vehicles a day, making them two of the most trafficked
tunnels in the world.
in South East Asia and second longest in Asia. The facility can be operated as a
simultaneous traffic and stormwater passage, or dedicated exclusively to
stormwater when necessary.
The Chicago Deep Tunnel Project is a network of 175 km (109 mi) of tunnels
designed to reduce flooding in the Chicago area. Started in the mid-1970s, the
project is due to be completed in 2019.
New York City Water Tunnel No. 3, started in 1970, has an expected
completion date of 2020, and will measure more than 97 km long (60 mi).[44]
MINING
Main article: Mining
Secret tunnels have also been used by thieves to break into bank vaults and retail
NATURAL TUNNELS
Natural Tunnel State Park (Virginia, US) features an 850-foot (259 m) natural
tunnel, really a limestone cave, that has been used as a railroad tunnel since
1890.
Punarjani Guha in Kerala, India. Hindus believe that crawling through the
tunnel (which they believe was created by a Hindu god) from one end to the
other will wash away all of ones sins and thus allow one to attain rebirth. Only
men are permitted to crawl through the tunnel.
of Smna trying to save the beautiful Lekamya. The tunnel is thought actually
to be the work of ice. The sun shines through the tunnel during two short periods
every year.[50]
Small "snow tunnels" are created by voles, chipmunks and other rodents for
protection and access to food sources. For more information regarding tunnels
built by animals, see Burrow.