Educational Research and Reviews

Vol. 8(9), pp. 546-552, 10 May, 2013

DOI: 10.5897/ERR2013.1132
ISSN 1996-0816 2013 Academic Journals
http://www.academicjournals.org/ERR

Full Length Research Paper

Factors affecting the unemployment (rate) of female art

graduates in Iran
Mina Hedayat*, Sabzali Musa Kahn and Jaffri Hanafi
Cultural Center, University of Malaya, 50603 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia.
Accepted March 11, 2013

The aim of this study is to explore the relationship between the opportunities of female artist graduates
in Tehran Province and the current employment market. Mixed method was employed in this study. The
population of the current study consisted of 240 female artist graduates selected using a systematic
random sampling method from both public and private universities. Descriptive findings indicate that
186(77.5%) of the respondents were unemployed. Analytical results show that in unemployment, there
was an association among age, supply and demand, gender, education and skills mismatch as well as
field of study.The chi-square test showed significant differences among the factors (2=43.29, p=0.000);
age was the most important factor (64.2%).
Key words: Unemployment, graduates, artist, female, Iran.

INTRODUCTION
After the 1979 Revolution in Iran, the number of female
students increased greatly in colleges and universities.
Due to this increase, the number of female teachers and
faculty positions in different fields has grown strikingly
(Ali, 2010). Rezai-Rashti (2012) indicates in her study
that the percentage of female students at all levels
increased significantly over a 15 year period from 19952010. Furthermore, there seems to be a significant
decline in the percentage of women in private universities
(for example, Islamic Azad University) while the
percentage of those in public universities increased. In
addition, in 2008-2009, 86% of the Payam Noor Distance
Learning University were females (Aryan, 2012). Ali
(2010) stated that this figure evinces that Iranian women
are highly educated across the board, especially in
medicine, human sciences and art. Women with academic backgrounds have a better chance of finding wellpaid jobs (Iravani and Arvaneh, 2012). The employment

of educated women with special training would help the

national economy as well as family income. These are
changes that facilitate womens increased entry into the
labour market. One particularly important issue is that of
encouraging women to get a job immediately after
completing their professional education (Iravani and
Arvaneh, 2012).
Krempkow and Wilke (2009) found that two of the
payoffs of higher education were employability and job
success. Ultimately, the only ones who can sufficiently
evaluate the quality of academics are graduates, in as
much as they are the true people who experience
academic programs.
Iran is currently encountering three important phenolmena in employment, which include: extreme increase in
the population of the active age group (15-64 years), the
increase in the literacy rate and number of university
graduates and the increase in the demand for women

*Corresponding author. E-mail: zemestonbahar@yahoo.com. Tel.: +60-1115327243. Fax: +60379673576.

Hedayat et al.

employees by the workforce as a result of more

favourable womens rights (Massroor, 2012).

Background of study
Overview of labour market
By the twentieth century Irans labour force had grown
quickly. In the 1990s, the economic conditions changed.
Although the number of universities increased after the
revolution, there was not only a lack of demand for
graduates in the society, but also a lack of opportunities
for employees with skills and academic qualifications. In
1956 to 2006 in Iran, the labour force age was 20 years
and above;and grew 4.2 times from about 5 million to
more than 21 million. As in many other countries, the
growth rate was much faster for women as compared to
men (Salehi-Esfahani and Shajari, 2010).
Davood (2011) indicated that the annual returns of
higher education in recent decades, on average, was
roughly 3.8 times higher than it was two decades ago.
Judging from the education-based groups, it seems that
an increase in the relative supply of college graduates
into the labour market has not been matched by the
increase in the number of jobs available in recent years.
After an increase in demand for college graduates
throughout most of the 1990s, graduates have been
facing a more competitive market since the mid-1990s
(Abbasi and Dadpay, 2008).
The higher number of graduates seeking work due to
lack of job opportunities or non- compliance with existing
opportunities which match their educational skills, access
to jobs remain unemployed (Davood, 2011). The realities
of the labour market might influence college students
incentives to complete their studies. It is also noticeable
that the job market situation is not in favour of younger
workers. This inexperienced group, aged 16-25, has
suffered continuously from loss of factor demand (Abbasi
and Dadpay, 2008).
The job market for artists in other countries also has
same experiences. Alper and Wassall (2006) projected
that, on average, artists in the United States earn
approximately 10% more than other professional and
technical workers do. This result is in agreement with the
findings of Robinson and Montgomery (2000), who also
argued that artists accrue higher utility function from
artistic employment and that they tend to subconsciously
derive high utility from artistic work; However, they are
relatively indifferent to the financial implications.
In Germany, unemployment among artists is high,
amounting to about one and 1.5 times higher than that of
the overall population (IAB, 2011). While the artistic
students comprise 3.6% of the total students population
in the country, employment of artists comprises only 1%
of the entire workforce (Teichgraber, 2012).
In 2009, the unemployment rate rose to the average

547

unemployment rate for all artists- 9.5 percent. Twentynine thousand artists exited the work force between 2008
and 2009, many of whom were daunted by the task of
finding job in art related fields (Marlowe, 2010). However,
non-standard forms of employment such as fixed and
part-time contracts, employment engagements etc. are
more common in artistic jobs than in other forms of
employment engagements (Benhamou, 2000). In
addition, 32,000 employees in the arts, entertainment and
recreation industry lost their jobs; this accounted for 13%
of the overall jobs lost in the area in 2008 (Campos et al.,
2011).

Factors influencing unemployment

Several factors related to unemployment (of artists) are
discussed in this part.

Age and employment

The youthful population in Iran today is at its highest peak
in history. The total number of people in 20-24 age group
was 5.6 million in 1995. A decade later, this number
increased to 9.1 million, representing a 62 percent
increase in population. This increase propelled the youth
population (15-29 years) to represent 35 percent of the
overall population in Iran, making it the country with the
highest percentage of youth population (Salehi-Isfahani
and Egel, 2009).
In the 2006 census in Iran, it was found that the
working-age population (15-64 years) had increased at
3.9% per annum for the past decade, a number which
doubles the overall population growth rate. Within the
same period, the labour force also rose steadily but at a
slower pace (3.7% per annum). This phenomenon is
mainly due to the fact that more and more young people
prefer to complete their academic career before entering
the job market, which by default delays their entry into the
labour force (Salehi-Isfahani, 2010).
As the workforce increased, a similar increase was
registered in economic growth. However, the country
experienced rising unemployment rates from 9.8 to
12.7%; of these, more than two thirds wereyoung people.
The worst case scenario occurring among young women
was unemployment rates of up to 50%. This
phenomenon is attributed to the high supply of labour,
which failed to be at par with demand on one side, and
the rigidity of the countrys labour market, on the other
hand (Egel and Salehi-Isfahani, 2010). Salehi-Isfahani
and Egel (2009) stated that this waiting period is reported
to be 3 years on average for those who were unable to
secure a job immediately after graduation.
Another response strategy to the unemployment of
youths is to open more tertiary institutions to absorb the
unemployed; a strategy well in place in Iran. Over the last

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Educ. Res. Rev.

decade, the number of enrollments in undergraduate

programs has increased by more than twice. In the same
way, the demand for graduate level education increased
significantly among youths with undergraduate level
education. In 2010 alone, an astonishing 830,000 students sat for post graduate entrance exams, of which
only 6% were admitted (Mehr News, 2010).
On the other hand, Adam Smith and other advocates
such as Towse (2006) argued that the large influx of
young people in the artistic labour market is due to the
fact that they overestimate their artistic talents and the
career prospects in the industry.
Supply and demand and employment
The absorption of growing numbers of graduates
depends not only on the subjects studied or the skills
possessed and academic qualifications, but also on the
ability of the public and private sectors to create jobs.
This necessitates intensive public and private investment
at a rate parallel to growth in the work force, particularly
in fields that require graduates. The threat to more
efficient higher education output lies essentially in the
lack of job opportunities, particularly for graduates with
professional specialisations that are in demand in other
labour markets (El-Jafari and Lafi, 2004).
In the late 1980s, there was a huge gap between job
creation and supply of workers. The situation improved in
the early mid-1990s, yet the demand for workers was not
growing fast enough to compensate for the extra supply.
The second half of the 1990s was the period when
demand increased faster than supply, thus elevating
earnings despite the increase in supply. The increase in
real and relative earnings during the second half of the
1990s was mainly driven by the increase in demand for
workers. However, the pace of job creation was slowed
down in theearly 2000s. Still, it was large enough to meet
the growth in the labour supply. Thus, earning levels
continued to rise (Abbasi and Dadpay, 2008).
Recent statistics indicated that over 58% of graduates
less than 25 years are unemployed, while a 35% unemployment rate exists for graduates between the ages
of 25 and 30 (Weligamage and Siengthai, 2003). This
large scale unemployment affecting young graduates
may be attributed to the underlying mismatch between
the prevalent educational system and the demand for
skilled labour in the job market. As such, efforts towards
minimising unemployment in the long run must
endeavour to address both demand and supply side
constraints (Weligamage and Siengthai, 2003).

Gender and employment

For many years, women's employment has been an issue
of debate among sociologists interested in gender
equality, in as much as employment is one of the main

facets of society in which gender discrimination is

rampant. One such society where this phenomenon is
evident is Iran. To be specific, despite the various
clauses in Iranian labour regulation emphasising equality
for both men and women in job opportunities, wage,
salary and other privileges in the workplace, adherence
to these clauses by employers is yet to be realized
(Alavion, 2002).
According to Iravani (2011), statistics show that in the
educational year of 2001, universities with a 60% rate of
female applicants acceptance indicates their mental and
social growth and high potential. Unemployment rates for
college graduates was at its worst during the period,
1997 and 2007. During the same period, the increase in
unemployment among young males was 4.2%, while that
of their female counterparts was 34.1% (Salehi-Isfahani,
2010).
Ravadrad (2004) conducted a study on the performance of female experts compared to their male
counterparts in Iran, and found that for women, there
existed a gap between the type of job of interest and the
type of jobs accessible to them, which according to the
author, emanates from the existing gender discrimination
that leaves women at a disadvantage. Despite the
narrowing of this gap with time, the phenomenon of
women lagging behind men in literacy has always been
evident since the middle of the 20th century. However,
even with this rise in literacy among women, it still falls
short of the level required to maintain equilibrium
between the two genders.
Previous study by Green (2003) showed that individual
agents have an effect on the employment rate. They
concluded that there is a significant relationship between
gender and age of employment. On the other hand, Merz
(2006), in his study conducted in Germany, points out
that during the past two decades, the nature of womens
labour force supply has been transformed in such a way
that womens employment rate is steadily increasing. In
his view, such transformation in womens employment
status is influenced by characteristics such as womens
education, their partners (spouses) working hours, and
the number of small children in the family.
Education and skills mismatch and employment
After the Islamic Revolution, more attention was focused
on completion of education. Employees with different
educational backgrounds, in terms of field of study have
experienced a great degree of heterogeneities in their
education match. In fact, in terms of awareness of the
capabilities of training provided, skills needed for
employment and educational and research programs,
universities need an assessment on the situation of
graduates and their employment in the labour market
(Mehralizadeh and Armen 2007).
Studies such as those of Allen and vander (2001),
DiPietro and Urwin (2006) and Bender and Heywood

Hedayat et al.

(2009) investigated the effects of educational and skill

mismatch on productivity, earnings and job satisfaction,
but they did not evaluate the relationship between the
mismatch and unemployment; That of Thisse and Zenou
(2000) and Jellal et al., (2005) were exceptions. In
another study, Salehi-Omran (2006) showed that factors
such as knowledge and acquired information in
university, academic skills and courses are effective in
employment. Results also show that age, gender and
educational average also play a part in employment.
Smith (2004) concluded that different levels and types
of education and training affect the income of jazz and
non-jazz artists differently. For non-jazz earnings, having
a Bachelors degree of Fine Arts (BFA) or a Masters
degree of Fine Arts (MFA) results in a positive earnings
advantage. For jazz players, there is a negative
relationship between earnings and having a BFA or a
MFA.
Field of study and employment
In a previous study done by Horn and Zahn (2001) in
England, the results showed that among the graduates in
1992 (entry), only 20% were unemployed. However, the
percentage of employment in the human sciences and art
courses was lower. It is significant to mention that the increased educational gain of women does not necessarily
increase their relative situation in the labour market.
Whereas women with higher education have higher
expected returns and tend to take part more in the labour
market, the gender gap in wages and unemployment
sometimes increases with education (Bertrand et al.,
2009; Evertsson et al., 2009).
In a previous study, the comparative expectations of
students and employers in relatrion to tertiary education
were investigated. The study further argued that young
people prefer colourful positions in society; to them,
acquiring university education is one of the surest ways
of attaining such positions. This feeling among young
people sometimes leads them to specialise in various
modern fields of study without critically analysing job
prospects. For this reason, the university has a big role in
ensuring that the institutions mission and vision are at
par with the current requirements of the labour market, so
as to afford optimal employability of its graduates
(Weligamage and Siengthai, 2003).
Besides education, marriage, fertility, household size,
the presence of children and elderly in the household are
frequently considered as the main factors that shape
female opportunities in seeking employment. For women
in traditional societies, these factors are often found to
act as barriers (Majbouri, 2010).
METHODOLOGY
Two-hundred and sixty subjects from 7 uiniversites in the Tehran
Province were randomly chosen. Twenty subjects were excluded

549

from this study because they did not answer the questions given to
them completely. Moreover, inclusion criteria for sampling included
age, field of study and gender. Subjects included 240 female art
graduates (all of whom were painters) who had studied at public
and private universities between 2001 and 2011 in the Tehran
Province.The objective of the research is to explore the relationship
between the opportunities of female artist graduates in Tehran
Province and the current employment market.
The literature review of secondary data and the standard
questionnaire were designed by the university educational
department's internal evaluation (Form No. 6). The Graduates
Questionnaire of 2007 was used after having been modified.
Moreover, the questionnaire was judged by 15 experts to ensure
validity. The questionnaire included 02 questions which consisted of
two parts, namely personal information (part one, 7 questions) and
employment status (part two, 13 questions).
Subjects were divided into four groups according to age: from 21
to 25; 26 to 30; 31 to 35 and 36 to 40. This was done to compare
the different rates of unemployment in different age ranges between
the four groups. A possible limitation in this study was the limitation
of the questionnaire. To account for this issue we collect
questionnaire by interview.

Procedure
First of all, the researchers checked most published papers. The
review was based on articles identified by computerised searches.
After the related literature was reviewed, the standard questionnaire
was filled out by female art graduates and volunteering employers,
with the aim to obtain direct feedback. A descriptive analysis was
subsequently done.

Data analysis
All statistical and chi-square analyses were performed using SPSS
18.0 (SPSS Inc., Chicago, IL, USA). A probability of 0.05 or less
was considered significant.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Age
In the four different age groups of the respondents in this
study, the group between 26 to 30 years old had the
highest rate of employees (48.8%), followed by age
groups between 31to 35 (30.4%), 21 to 25 (13.8%) and
36 to 40 (7.1%). The results showed that the 21-25 years
old group had a higher rate of unemployment as
compared to the 26-30 years old group. Also SalehiIsfahani (2010) stated that the current group of Iranian
youths is the largest in the countrys history. In 2005, the
age group between 20-24 was 62 percent larger than it
was 10 years earlier. In addition, as the youth population
increases in Iran, competition makes finding a job even
more difficult. This inexperienced group has suffered
continuously from loss of factor demand (Abbasi, and
Dadpay, 2008). Furthermore, a study by Roudi (2011)
confirmed that the youth population in Iran that entered
the labour force in the past few decades has mostly faced
tough job markets.

550

Educ. Res. Rev.

However, the results showed a relationship between age

and unemployment of graduates.One hundred and fiftyfour (64.2%) of the respondents mentioned age as an
important factor which affects the issue of unemployment
for art graduates.The chi-square test showed significant
differences among the factors (2=43. 29, p=0.000),
while age was the most important factor. This finding
confirms the earlier finding which was published by
Salehi-Isfahani and Egel (2007). They stated that youth
cohorts were indicated to be rising four times more than
the population growth rate, with almost one million
workers annually being added to the labour market in
Iran; this lends itself to a high unemployment rate among
young people.
On the other hand, more than half (51.3%) of the
respondents in the current study graduated between 6 to
10 years while 36.7 and 12.1% of the respondents graduated between 11 to 15 and 1 to 5 years, respectively.
The unemployment rates for these three groups are as
follows: 1 to 5 years, 96.6%; 11 to 15 years, 84.1%; and
6 to 10 years, 68.3%.The results showed that fresh art
graduates (1 to 5 years) in Iran had difficulty in finding a
job.
Supply and demand
According to the results of the current study,147(61.3%)
of subjects confirm supply and demand as an important
factor affecting unemployment in art (second important
factor), although the literature confirms that there is an
oversupply of artists. Researchers of current studies
believe that in Iran, the demand for painters has not
changed, but that the jobs have been in the hands of
fewer painters. Judging from education based groups it
seems that an increase in the relative supply of university
graduates in the labour market has not been matched by
an increase in the number of jobs available in recent
years.
A number of features are also peculiar to the art industry. Firstly, apart from their relatively low income level
as compared to their counterparts in other occupational
fields, artists are exposed to considerably high earning
penalties. Secondly, there exists large variations in the
earning capacities of artists. Thirdly, due to limited job
opportunities, there is always the problem of excess
supply of labour in the field of art, hence the tendency for
artists to hold multiple jobs is relatively higher (Alper and
Wassall, 2006). The European Union has also concentrated on considering that the reconnaissance of mismatches between labour, supply and demand is
significant, as they can potentially be very costly to the
economy by limiting productivity growth (European
Commission, 2008).
Gender
One hundred and eighteen (49.2%) respondents indicated

that gender was one of the factor for the unemployment

of artists.The situation of employment for female
graduates and the earnings resulting from it are
frequently not commensurate with the level of education
that they have attained. According to the Mehr News
(2010), 39.5% of educated females were unemployed
while the rate of unemployment for males was at 25.8%
in Iran. Rezvani et al. (2010) indicated that factors such
as gender and academic discipline have had
considerable effect on the employment rate of individuals.
Rengers and Plug (2001) showed a relationship between
gender and income. In contrast, Brynin (2002) showed
that the rate of employment of female graduates is more
than that of males due to the promotional aspects and
higher responsibility of women in Englands work
environment.
Education and skills mismatch
Education and skills mismatch is the other variable in this
study. Education and skills mismatch was considered as
one of the causes of unemployment of artists by
89(37.1%) respondents. Previous study showed a relationship between education and skills mismatch and the
unemployment of graduates. According to Elliot et al.
(2004), there is a meaningful relationship between the
level of employment and educational courses for
graduates. Factors such as knowledge and acquired
information in university, academic skills and courses
were shown to be effective in employment (SalehiOmran, 2006).
The result of the studies by Smith (1998, 2004) showed
that education and specific training in art affected the
earning of artists. In contrast, Throsby (1996) and
Rengers and Plug (2001) found that education and
training are not considered in the artistic earnings of
various artists. On the other hand, in this study, 72.1% of
employee respondents were graduates from public
universities, while 27.9% were from private universities.
The results indicated that employers prefer artists who
graduate from public universities. Discrimination between
graduates from public and private universities usually
leads them to work as freelancers or to go in search of
unrelated jobs.
Field of study
Another factor examined in this study was the field of
study of graduates. The result of this study showed that
field of study was 30% related to a factor in the
unemployment amongart graduates, according to the
respondents opinions. The results from the literature
showed a relationship between the educational field of
graduates and their employment, a finding which conflicts
with the results published by Rezvani et al. (2010).
Opportunities also act as encouragement to would be

Hedayat et al.

artists, for they serve as an indication that there are

available jobs in the waiting. As indicated in the literature,
the beauty of being an artist is the availability of training
opportunities at minimal cost (Karhunen, 1996). Despite
the fact that the number of people aspiring to be artists is
quite overwhelming, the prestige associated with the
profession is relatively low.
Artists contemplate that if they have a formal education
with a degree, they have more opportunities to find a job,
especially as a teacher. On the other hand, they may
overestimate the impact of education. Researchers
believe that in Iran, most of the art teachers at the
university level are males; thus, females have fewer
opportunities to become lecturers at the university level.
According to the Mehr News (2012), the statistical table
of employment and unemployment of 23 academic
majors showed that 87,802 artists graduated in 2011;
from this figure, 23,220 (26.4%) were unemployed, even
though they were between 20 to 30 years of age.

Conclusion
Towse (1992) highlighted the illogical nature of artists in
choosing such a risky job, a behavior which may be
explained by two main reasons. Firstly, artists accrue
numerous non-monetary benefits associated with their
profession, namely, fame, conferment of awards, publicity
etc., which tend to compensate to a great extent for the
low monetary gains they derive. Secondly, artists are
generally hopeful of a brighter future with higher
earnings, which may never materialise. In fact, the
majority of those who desire to become artists probably
never thought about the economic benefits of the
profession until they had already spent a number of years
in the job.
In this study, age was an important factor of unemployment for artists according to the respondents
opinions, followed by supply and demand, gender,
education and skills mismatch and field of study.
Furthermore, researchers believe that most of the art
students in Iran are females, while in the current study,
about three-quarters of them were unemployed. The
number of students who wish to become artists is
increasing, an issue which government and university
administrators should pay more attention to. Moreover,
students should strive to gain greater awareness of the
job market of their field of study before proceeding with it.
The authors suggest that the government upgrade and
improve the current state of facilities in higher education
institutions. This will not only enable students to be
conversant with state of the art technologies, but will also
avail academic staff the opportunity to be at par with the
latest technological changes. In addition, government
could create opportunities for further training for
graduates and establish effective information channels
for the dissemination of such information. Moreover,

551

university lecturers and tutors could also be availed with

such opportunities as exchange programs and more
training workshops in collaboration with industry for
knowledge improvement. This will give the instructors
more knowledge about what skills the labour market
wants graduates to acquire.
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