Modern precision multimeter measurements

- putting theory to the test.

Peter Dack
Fluke Precision Measurement
Everett
WA98012
In a controlled experiment we asked five laboratory personnel to perform some basic
measurements using the same precision digital multimeter the results yield an unusually
wide spread of readings why? Is the operator or the instrument to blame or were the
results within an acceptable measurement uncertainty! Modern precision multimeters
have numerous measurement modes to cater for a diverse range of applications, but
which mode is right. This paper unravels the confusion over choice of instrument
operating modes and promotes best measurement practices to maintain consistent and
repeatable measurements.
Background
This paper was developed from a growing concern that basic metrology principles are
being overlooked by demands for greater lab efficiency. Calibration software, measuring
instrument design, metrology training and documentation all (to a greater or lesser
degree) influence our implementation of best measurement practices.
The process (see figure 1) of performing what can be sometimes viewed as a simple
measurement using a Digital Multimeter, when broken down into a process flow chart is
often quite complex, involving a ten or more decisions.
Power-On

Apply
Nulls/Corrections

Trigger measurement

Warm-up Cycle

Connect device
under test

Complete
Measurement Cycle

Select Optimum
Range, Function
& Resolution

Select optimum
A/D conversion time

9.999 899 5

Connect Cables to
correct input terminals

Define measurement
settling delay

Figure 1

Each step in the set-up configuration process requires the user to have sound metrology
knowledge covering a range of issues, sometimes only gained through basic hands-on
experience.

Source of Measurement Error

In practice factors influencing the repeatability of a measurement can be broken down on
a check-list. The significance of each should be considered relative to the overall
resolution or scale (least significant digit) requirement.
An example of this can be demonstrated in the following experiment. Time is a common
component in every day measurement. The analog clock is the measuring hardware, the
clocks ability to remain accurate is dependent upon its specification and the Standard
used to set the time in the first place. But lets for the sake of this experiment assume we
have the perfect time-piece!
So whats the time?
The results may vary based on the following potential error sources.
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)

Ability see the clock

Ability to tell the time
Maintenance of the clock
Resolution of the clock
Parallax

Points 1,2 & 3 are user influenced and 4 & 5 are hardware related, although it could be
argued that point 5 is an error associated with the user. Everyone knows that analog
displays have parallax problems - dont they!!
Extend this experiment to a more complex measuring instruments, such as a precision
DMM. Where increased sensitivity of a few parts per million make many errors
significant. The following list (figure 2) of potential influences could, like the previous
example, be broken down into hardware and operator influences. The experiment is
further compounded by the fact that the measuring instrument is multi-function. This in
turn leads to compromises being made as the user is presented with even greater choice not always specific to the actual application.

Hardware Specifications
Uncertainty Relative to Standards
Calibration Uncertainty
Calibration Interval
Confidence level
Stability
Internal Nulls/Offset corrections
Cables and Connections
Thermal Errors
Sensing Techniques
Guarding
Shielding

Environment (changes in)

Temperature
Humidity
Pressure

Measurement
Load Errors
A/D conversion times
Measurement Settling times
Bias current
Burden Voltage/Current
Settling times
Interference

Figure 2

More thorough analysis of each of the items in figure 2 would provide a better
appreciation of the magnitude of the error associated with each of the contributions. As
an example those errors that are more easily accessible can be found in the specifications
for the measuring instrument. The figures in the following table are based on a range of
specifications covering the more popular precision multimeters.
Parameter
Warm-up time
DC Uncertainty (Absolute)
DC Uncertainty (Cal Uncertainty)
Confidence Level 95% or 99%
DC Stability
Temperature Co-efficients
Counts
Linearity
A/D Conversion Cycle

Typical Specification Range

25 minutes - 4 hours
3 - 8 ppm
1 - 5 ppm
1 - 1.25 multiplier
0.5 - 2 ppm
0.25V/C - 4V/C
120 - 200 million
0.05 - 0.1ppm
10sec - 25 seconds

Error Contribution
0 - 100 ppm
3 - 8 ppm
1 - 5 ppm
1 - 10 ppm
0.5 - 2 ppm
0.25 - 4ppm for 1C change
n/a
0.05 - 0.1ppm
0 - 50 ppm

From the specification alone weve identified a potential spread of error (uncertainty)
contribution ranging from 5 ppm to 180 ppm, with the largest contributions associated
with warm-up time and measurement time. Those listed in figure 2 are the more easily
identified sources of error. The resultant uncertainty will be greater when combined with
the uncertainty associated with the process, connections and interference is further
considered.
Interconnections
Probably the single largest contributor of uncertainty (outside that of the instrument) is
the way we interface the measuring instrument to the device to be measured. Multifunction instruments are designed to be versatile cables supplied with the instrument
are often designed for general-purpose use therefore compromise one or more

applications. What might be the best cable for sensitive low voltage high frequency ac
measurements may not be ideal for high voltage or high current applications.
Errors associated with thermal emfs generated from use of cable conductors of different
materials can be significant. Using measurement techniques including Nulling, TrueOhms and Reversal measurements help reduce the effects of thermals. The best approach
is not to rely too heavily on the instrument or technique but to use materials where the
magnitude of emf generated per degree change in temperature is insignificant.
Figure 3 provides a useful table of Thermal emf for different material relative to copper.
Thermal EMF to Hard-Drawn Copper in Microvolts per Degree Celsius at an
ambient temperature of 23C
Metal
Thermal EMF (V/C@23C)
Evanohm
+0.20
Gold
+0.01
Anneald Silver
-0.30
Brass
-1.60
Manganin
-1.70
Tin
-2.98
Lead
-3.05
Mecury
-9.57
Constantin
~40
Figure 3

Most precision DMM terminals are of Gold flashed copper in construction. Copper being
the cheaper however the gold flashing helps prevent tarnish. Tarnished connections bring
with it other errors associated with contact resistance.
Once the optimum material is used were left with describing the different thermal effects
as well as recommended practices.

External
Circuit
Path

T1

Copper

Manganin

T2

T1

Manganin

I
Copper

T2

Thermal gradients across dissimilar

metals in contact with each other is
known as the Seebeck effect. A net
thermal emf is generated that induces
continuous electrical current that will
vary as the temperature changes. (see
figure 3)

T1
+
Copper

Converse to the Seebeck effect is the

Peltier effect. In this case the current
flow through the circuit causes one
junction to be heated, and the other to be
cooled. This effect is dependent on both
magnitude and direction of current flow.

Manganin

T2

Manganin

T1

T2

Copper

T1
Manganin

Copper

The Thomson effect is when a voltage

is developed between points on a wire of
uniform composition when a
temperature gradient exists along its
length

T2

T1

Manganin

T2

IR Drop
Copper

Thermal emf cannot be removed completely however through better understanding and
proper care they can be at least minimized. To summarze, give consideration to material
type, maintain connections at a constant temperature, use offset null techniques to remove
residual thermals and employ reversal techniques to dynamically remove offsets (more
on reversal techniques later) that change during repeated measurements.

Interconnections
Most laboratory Dmms are six input terminal devices. Signal High (Hi), Low (Lo),
Sense High (I+), Sense Lo, Guard and Ohms Guard make up the front and/or rear
terminal configuration. The mix of connection type, cable topology and cable lengths
suggests a range of cables for different applications. The following diagrams help
identify those that offer the optimum performance based on type of signal being
measured.
Dmm Terminals

Twisted pair (1) for two-wire

applications where any voltage drop in
the cable is insignificant The E-M
environment is quiet and common mode
voltages are insignificant. Suitable for
DC and AC voltages over 100mV and
where frequencies are less than 100kHz.

Guard

Guard

I+

I-

Hi

Lo

Hi

Lo

Dmm Terminals
Guard

Guard

I+

I-

Hi

Lo

Twin-Axial (2) for sensitive

measurement applications where E-M
and Common mode voltages are
significant. DC & AC Voltage >10V
and <1MHz

Dmm Terminals
Hi

Lo

Twin-Axial (3) for resistance

measurement applications where lead
resistance is insignificant and E-M
environment is quite. Suitable for 1k
and 1M Ohm.

Guard

Guard

I+

I-

Hi

Lo

Hi

Lo

Dmm Terminals

Twin-Axial pair (4) used when lead

resistance is significant, relatively noisy
E-M environment and Common mode
voltages are significant. Resistance
measurement <1MOhm

Guard

Guard

I+

I-

Hi

Lo

Hi

Lo

Local Guard

The right cable type and connection is an important consideration when making precision
measurements. Lead lengths should be kept as short as possible the recommended cable
type for most precision Dmm measurements is ptfe low leakage twin-axial cable.
Individual twin cable should carry the Hi and Sense Hi conductors the second cable
should carry the Lo and Lo Sense conductors (see Twin-Axial pair [4]).
Common mode interference is generally disturbances at line frequency generated when
circulating currents exist between the source and the measuring instrument. The
disturbance is common to both Lo and high terminals. Appropriate guarding techniques
should be applied where measurements are made in an environment where common
mode voltages exist if in doubt always use remote guard. The Guard terminal on most
precision Dmms is connected to internal shielding as well as pcb tracking to screen
susceptible signal input lines and input circuits. In most cases the Dmms default setting
is to internally connect the Dmm Guard to the Dmm Lo terminal. In the event that
common mode exists the Dmm Guard should be switched to Remote with a connection
(see figure 4) made to the source of the common mode voltage.
Hi
Normal-Mode
Source
rLo

Lo

Common-Mode
Source

Z1
rGu
Z2

Figure 4

Guard Shield

Select Remote Guard on Dmm

Common mode currents that would normally flow through the Hi/Lo terminals to earth
are shunted via the guard shield to earth.
Series mode interference normally resides between the Hi and Lo terminals of the
Source/Dmm. Similar to Common mode the interference is generally at line frequency.
The measuring instrument has analog filters for maximum rejection of the series mode
interference. Most precision Dmms have frequency selectable filter functions. The filter
type is normally a two or three-pole low pass analog filter that provides typically 120dB
of rejection at the selected frequency.
Additional rejection is achieved by setting the A/D conversion time to greater than the 16
or 20milli-second line period. A/D conversion time is often referred to as Number of
Power Line Cycles (NPLC). Measurements requiring the greatest resolution typically
integrate over 25 or more power line cycles. Maximum rejection is inversely proportional
to the speed of A/D conversion.
Use of Remote Sensing often applies to source device such as a multifunction calibrator.
The calibrator voltage output amplifier delivers the required value to the measuring
device. Circumstances may arise where the calibrator is being loaded this in part
maybe due to cable impedances or the actual input impedance of the device itself. To
overcome these effects (within specified burden current) the calibrator uses sense
amplifier that acts as a feedback mechanism. If the sense wires are connected at the
measuring device terminals at the same point the Hi and Lo terminals are connected the
errors are reduced. The same configuration applies to measuring devices, specifically
when using the Resistance measurement function.
Figure 5 describes a 4-wire Resistance measurement configuration. The Dmms constant
current is applied via the Current Source cable while the Voltage is sensed at the resistor
under test.

To Voltage
Measurement
Circuits
Sense HI
Precision
Current
Source

SW1

Source HI
Sense LO

Figure 5

Source LO

Rx

This configuration reduces the effect of any lead resistance contributing to the value of
the unknown resistor. The addition of SW1 provides a means whereby the constant
current can be removed. Thermal emfs where described in a previous chapter, by
removing the current from the unknown resistor any voltages present at the Dmm Sense
Hi/Lo terminals are error sources and can be stored within the Dmms memory. With the
current switched back on the next Dmm reading will measure the voltage drop across the
unknown resistor as well as the error source. The true reading can be mathematically
calculated by subtracting the error source reading from the new result. This function is
often referred to as True Ohms. The downside to this approach is firstly switching often
requires greater settling time, particularly if the load is capacitive. And secondly the
switched approach is not the optimum method for resistance values that are susceptible to
self-heating (i.e. RTDs). In these applications the current through the resistor should be
ideally maintained constant therefore an alternate approach is to reverse the current flow
and mathematically bring the two readings together to determine the true result.
Measurement Corrections
Most Dmm users are familiar with nulling or zeroing offsets prior to performing a
measurement. Precision Dmms generally store the offset value in memory and subtract it
from subsequent readings. This approach removes voltage offsets caused by the many
anomalies covered in previous chapters.
Care should be taken when using the Null function;
1) The offset value is often maintained in memory until the instrument is switched off.
You maybe working with a previously stored offset.
2) Nulls are range dependent.
3) If the Dmm has multiple channels it may have individual Null stores for each
channel.
4) Use the appropriate Null, shorting the Dmm terminals and then connecting to the
device under test may not be the right approach.
5) Nulls or corrections are sometimes used to remove component drift in poorly
designed meters.
6) A null only removes the offset when the function is selected. If you believe the
offsets change (due to temperature variation) then repeating the null maybe
appropriate or use alternate techniques as described in the chapter on True Ohms
measurements.
Finally software automation may help improve the bottom line through greater
efficiency. However all the points discussed thus far should be considered part of any
procedure or process.

The best precision Dmm and range of cable accessories available from manufacturers are
often compromised by the wide variety of functions and applications. What might be
good for low millivolt ACV measurements maybe compromised for Resistance and vice
versa. Manufactures may wish to take a closer look at how the design of future products
might be improved - particularly around the measurement interface.
Nothing will replace the benefit of on-the-job training particularly along side a good
mentor. The fundamentals I agree have not change significantly for many years but
technology has. Metrology training classes generally cater for new students but theres
no shame in attending refresher courses particularly for the long terms like myself! The
Fluke Calibration Book is now in the process of being rewritten. The techniques
described here along with more great practical advice for the metrologist will be
incorporated in the third edition.
The use of the Internet as a tool for developing remote (error free?) measurement is
growing. The benefits of remote control and video will extend the experts control and
vision anywhere in the world. Maybe the next time we run this experiment well choose
to use the Internet as an aid to measurement and compare results.

Further References
Calibration - Philosophy in Practice, copyright Fluke Precision Measurement.
Floating Measurements and Guarding, copyright Agilent.
Sources of Error in ac Measurement Paul Roberts Fluke Precision Measurement.