Directional Over-current Protection

The over-current protection can be given directional feature by adding directional

element in the protection system. Directional over-current protection responds to
over-currents for a particular direction flow. If power flow is in the opposite direction,
the directional over-current protection remains un-operative.
Directional over-current protection comprises over-current relay and power
directional relay- in a single relay casing. The power directional relay does not
measure the power but is arranged to respond to the direction of power flow.
Directional operation of relay is used where the selectivity can be achieved by
directional relaying. The directional relay recognizes the direction in which fault
occurs, relative to the location of the relay. It is set such that it actuates for faults
occurring in one direction only. It does not act for faults occurring in the other
direction. Consider a feeder AC (Fig. 9) passing through sub-section B. The circuit
breaker CB3 is provided with a directional

(Fig. 9) Principle of directional protection

Relay `R' which will trip the breaker CB3 if fault power flow in direction C alone.
Therefore for faults in feeder AB, the circuit breaker CB3 does not trip unnecessarily.
However for faults in feeder BC the circuit-breaker CB3 trips
Because it's protective relaying is set with a directional feature to act in
direction AC
Another interesting example of directional protection is that of reverse power
protection of generator (Fig. 10). If the prime mover fails, the generator continues to
run as a motor and takes power from bus-bars.

(Fig. 10) Reverse powers protection against motoring action of a generator

Directional power protection operates in accordance with the direction of power

flow.
Reverse power protection operates when the power direction is reversed in relation
to the normal working direction. Reverse power relay is different in construction
than directional over-current relay.
In directional over-current relay, the directional element does not measure the
magnitude of power. It senses only direction of power flow. However, in Reverse
Power Relays, the directional element measures magnitude and direction of power
flow.
v

Relay connections of Single Phase Directional Over-current Relay :

The current coils in the directional over-current relay are normally connected to a
secondary of line CT. The voltage coil of directional element is connected to a line
VT, having phase to phase output (of 110 V). There are four common methods of
connecting the relay depending upon phase angle between current in the current
coil and voltage applied to the voltage coil.

Fig.11 Numerical Over current, and Overload Protection Relay

3-Phase Directional over current relays

When fault current can flow in both directions through the relay location, it is
necessary to make the response of the relay directional by the introduction of
directional control elements. These are basically power measuring devices in which
the system voltage is used as a reference for establishing the relative direction or
phase of the fault current.
Although power measuring devices in principle, they are not arranged to respond to
the actual system power for a number of reasons:
1.
The power system, apart from loads, is reactive so that the fault power factor
is usually low. A relay

Va, Vb and Vc. Normal system voltages

Vb1 and Vc1 Voltages at fault location on faulted phases
Vb2 and Vc2 Voltages remote from fault location
Fig.12 Phase voltages for a B-C fault

Responding purely to the active component would not develop a high torque and
might be much slower and less decisive than it could be.
1.
The system voltage must collapse at the point of short circuit. When the fault
is single-phase, it is the particular voltage across the short-circuited points which
are reduced. So a BC phase fault will cause the B and C phase voltage vectors to
move together, the locus of their ends being the original line be for a homogeneous
system, as shown in (Fig.12)
At the point of fault the vectors will coincide, leaving zero voltage across the fault,
but the fault voltage to earth will be half the initial phase to neutral voltage. At
other points in the system the vector displacement will be less, but relays located at
such points will receive voltages which are unbalanced in their value and phase
position.

The effect of the large unbalance in currents and voltages is to make the torques
developed by the different phase elements vary widely and even differ in sign if the
quantities applied to the relay are not chosen carefully. To this end, each phase of
the relay is polarized with a voltage which will not be reduced excessively except by
close three-phase faults, and which will remain in a satisfactory relationship to the
current under all conditions.
Relay connections
This is the arrangement whereby suitable current and voltage quantities are applied
to the relay. The various connections are dependent on the phase angle, at unity
system power factor, by which the current and voltage applied to the relay are
displaced.

Relay maximum torque

The maximum torque angle (MTA) is defined as the angle by which the current
applied to the relay must be displaced from the voltage applied to the relay to
produce maximum torque.
Although the relay element may be inherently wattmetric, its characteristic can be
varied by the addition of phase shifting components to give maximum torque at the
required phase angle.
A number of different connections have been used and these are discussed below.
Examination of the suitability of each arrangement involves determining the limiting
conditions of the voltage and current applied to each phase element of the relay, for
all fault conditions, taking into account the possible range of source and line
impedances.

30 relay connection (0 MTA)

The A phase relay is supplied with current la and voltage Vac. In this case, the flux
due to the voltage coil lags the applied Vac voltage by 90, so the maximum torque
occurs when the current lags the system phase to neutral voltage by 30. For unity
power factor and 0.5 lagging power factor the maximum torque available is 0.866 of
maximum. Also, the potential coil voltage lags the current in the current coil by 30
and gives a tripping zone from 60 leading to 120 lagging currents, as shown in
(Fig. 13a).
The most satisfactory maximum torque angle for this connection, that ensures
correct operation when used for the protection of plain feeders, is 0, and it can be
shown that a directional element having this connection and 0 MTA will provide
correct discrimination for all types of faults, when applied to plain feeders
If applied to transformer feeders, however, there is a danger that at least one of the
three phase relays will operate for faults in the reverse direction; for this reason a

directional element having this connection should never be used to protect

transformer feeders.
This connection has been used widely in the past, and it is satisfactory under all
conditions for plain feeders provided that three phase elements are employed.
When only two phase elements and an earth fault element are used there is a
probability of failure to operate for one condition. An inter-phase short circuit causes
two elements to be energized but for low power factors one will receive inputs
which, although correct, will produce only a poor torque. In particular a BC fault
will strongly energize the B element with lb current and Vba voltage, but the C
element will receive Ic and the collapsed Vcb voltage, which quantities have a large
relative phase displacement, as shown in (Fig. 13b). This is satisfactory provided
that three phase elements are used, but in the case of a two phase and one earth
fault element relay, with the B phase element omitted, operation will depend upon
the C element, which may fail to operate if the fault is close to the relaying point.

A phase element connected la Vac

B phase element connected lb Vba
C phase element connected Ic Vcb
(a)

Characteristic and inputs for phase A element

(b)

B-C Fault with voltage distortion

(Fig. 13) Vector diagrams for the 30 connection

60 No. 1 connection (0 MTA)

The A phase relay is supplied with lab current and Vac voltage. In this case, the flux
due to the voltage coil lags the applied voltage to the relay by 90, so maximum
torque is produced when the current lags the system phase to neutral voltage by
60. This connection, which uses Vac voltage with delta current produced by adding
phase A and phase B currents at unity power factor, gives a current leading the
voltage Vac by 60, and provides a correct directional tripping zone over a current
range of 30 leading to 150 lagging. The torque at unity power factor is 0.5 of
maximum torque and at zero power factor lagging 0.866; see (Fig.14).
It has been proved that the most suitable maximum torque angle for this relay
connection, that is, one which ensures correct directional discrimination with the
minimum risk of mal-operation when applied to either plain or transformer feeders,
is 0.
When used for the protection of plain feeders there is a slight possibility of the
element associated with the A phase mal-operating for a reversed BC fault.

A phase element connected lab Vac

B phase element connected Ibc Vba
C phase element connected Ica Vcb
(Fig.14) Vector diagram for the 60
No. 1 connection
(phase A element)

However, although the directional element may mal-operation, it is unlikely that the
over current element which the directional element controls will receive sufficient
current to cause it to operate. For this reason the connection may be safely
recommended for the protection of plain feeders.
When applied to transformer feeders there is a possibility of one of the directional
elements mal-operation for an earth fault on the star side of a delta/star
transformer, remote from the relay end. For mal-operation to occur, the source
impedance would have to be relatively small and have a very low angle at the same
time that the arc resistance of the fault was high. The possibility of mal-operation
with this connection is very remote, for two reasons: first, in most systems the
source impedance may be safely assumed to be largely reactive, and secondly, if
the arc resistance is high enough to cause mal-operation of the directional element
it is unlikely that the over current element associated with the mal-operation
directional element will see sufficient current to operate.
The connection, however, does suffer from the disadvantage that it is necessary to
connect the current transformers in delta, which usually precludes their being used

for any other protective function. For this reason, and also because it offers no
advantage over the 90 connection, it is rarely used.

60 No. 2 connection (0 MTA)

The A phase relay is supplied with current la and voltage In this case, the flux of the
voltage coil lags the applied voltage by 90 so the maximum torque is produced
when the current lags the system phase to neutral voltage by 60. This connection
gives

A phase element connected Ia Vc

B phase element connected Ib Va
C phase element connected Ic Vb
(Fig.15) Vector diagram for the 60 No. 2 connection
(phase A element).

a correct directional tripping zone over the current range of 30 leading to 150
lagging. The relay torque at unity power factor is 0.5 of the relay maximum torque
and at zero power factor lagging 0.866; see (Fig.15).
The most suitable maximum torque angle for a directional element using this
connection is 0. However, even if this maximum torque angle is used, there is a

risk of incorrect operation for all types of faults with the exception of three-phase
faults. For this reason, the 60 No. 2 connection is now never recommended.

A phase element connected Ia Vbc

B phase element connected Ib Vca
C phase element connected Ic Vab
(Fig.16) Vector diagram for the 90- 30 connection
(Phase A element)

90 relay quadrature connection

This is the standard connection for the type CDD relay; depending on the angle by
which the applied voltage is shifted to produce the relay maximum torque angle,
two types are available.

90- 30 characteristic (30 MTA)

The A phase relay is supplied with la current and Vbc voltage displaced by 30 in an
anti-clockwise direction. In this case, the flux due to the voltage coil lags the applied
voltage Vbc by 60, and the relay maximum torque is produced when the current
lags the system phase to neutral voltage by 60. This connection gives a correct
directional tripping zone over the current range of 30 leading to 150 lagging; see

(Fig.16). The relay torque at unity power factor is 0.5 of the relay maximum torque
and at zero power factor lagging 0.866. A relay designed .for quadrature connection
and having a maximum torque angle of 30 is recommended when the relay is used
for the protection of plain feeders with the zero sequence source behind the
relaying point.

90- 45 characteristic (45 MTA)

The A phase relay is supplied with current la and voltage Vbc displaced by 45 in an
anti-clockwise direction. In this case, the flux due to the voltage coil lags the applied
voltage Vbc by 45, and the relay maximum torque is produced when the current
lags the system phase to neutral voltage by 45. This connection gives a correct
directional tripping zone over the current range of 45 leading to 135 lagging.
The relay torque at unity power factor is 0.707 of the maximum torque and the
same at zero power factor lagging; see (Fig.17).

A phase element connected Ia ,Vbc

B phase element connected Ih Vca
C phase element connected Ic Vab
(Fig.17) Vector diagram for the 90-45 connection

(Phase A element)
This connection is recommended for the protection of transformer feeders or
feeders which have a zero sequence source in front of the relay. The 90- 45
connection is essential in the case of parallel trans-formers or transformer feeders,
in order to ensure correct relay operation for faults beyond the star/ delta

transformer. This connection should also be used whenever single-phase directional

relays are applied to a circuit
Theoretically, three fault conditions can cause mal-operation of the directional
element: a phase-phase ground fault on a plain feeder, a phase-ground fault on a
transformer feeder with the zero sequence source in front of the relay and a phasephase fault on a power transformer with the relay looking into the delta winding of
the transformer.
It should be remembered, however, that the conditions assumed above to establish
the maximum angular displacement between the current and voltage quantities at
the relay, are such that, in practice, the magnitude of the current input to the relay
would be insufficient to cause the over current element to operate. It can be shown
analytically that the possibility of mal-operation with the 90- 45 connection is, for
all practical purposes, non-existent.

(Fig.18) Directional relays applied to parallel feeders.

Parallel feeders

If non-directional relays are applied to parallel feeders, any faults that might occur
on any one line will, regardless of the relay settings used, isolate both lines and
completely disconnect the power supply. With this type of system configuration it is
necessary to apply directional relays at the receiving end and to grade them with
the non-directional relays at the sending end, to ensure correct discriminative
operation of the relays during line. faults. This is done by setting the directional
relays R'1 and R'2 as shown in (Fig.18) with their directional elements looking into
the protected line, and giving them lower time and current settings than relays R1

and R2. The usual practice is to set relays R'1 and R'2 to 50% of the normal full load
of the protected circuit and 0.1 TMS, but care must be taken to ensure that their
continuous thermal rating of twice rated current is not exceeded.

v Ring mains
Directional relays are more commonly applied to ring mains. In the case of a ring
main fed at one point only, the relays at the supply end and at the mid-point
substation, where the setting of both relays are identical, can be made nondirectional, provided that in the latter case the relays are located on the same
feeder, that is, one at each end of the feeder.
It is interesting to note that when the number of feeders round the ring is an even
number, the two relays with the same operating time are at the same substation
and will have to be directional, whereas when the number of feeders is an odd
number, the two relays with the same operating time are at different substations
and therefore do not need to be directional.
It may also be noted that, at inter-mediate substations, whenever the operating
times of the relays at each substation are different, the difference between their
operating times is never less than the grading margin, so the relay with the longer
operating time can be non-directional.

Grading of ring mains

The usual procedure for grading relays in an inter-connected system is to open the
ring at the supply point and to grade the relays first clockwise and then anticlockwise; that is, the relays looking in a clock-wise direction round the ring are
arranged to operate in the sequence 123456 and the relays looking in the
anti-clockwise direction are arranged to operate in the sequence 1'2'3'4'5'
6', as shown in (Fig.19)

(Fig.19) Grading of ring mains

The arrows associated with the relaying points indicate the direction of current flow
that will cause the relays to operate.
A double-headed arrow is used to indicate a non-directional relay, such as those at
the supply point where the power can flow only in one direction, and a singleheaded arrow a directional relay, such as those at intermediate substations around
the ring where the power can flow in either direction. The directional relays are set
in accordance with the invariable rule, applicable to all forms of directional
protection that the current in the system must flow from the substation bus-bars
into the protected line in order that the relays may operate.
Disconnection of the faulty line is carried out according to time and fault current
direction. As in any parallel system, the fault current has two parallel paths and
divides itself in the inverse ratio of their impedances.
Thus, at each substation in the ring, one set of relays will be made inoperative
because of the direction of current flow, and the other set operative. It will also be
found that the operating times of the relays that are inoperative are faster than
those of the operative relays, with the exception of the mid-point substation, where
the operating times of relays 3 and 3' happen to be the same.

The relays which are operative are graded downwards towards the fault and the
last to be affected by the fault operates first. This applies to both paths to the fault.
Consequently, the faulty line is the only one to be disconnected from the ring and
the power supply is maintained to all the substations.
When two or more power sources feed into a ring main, time graded over current
protection is difficult to apply and full discrimination may not be possible. With two
sources of supply, two solutions are possible. The first is to open the ring at one of
the supply points, whichever is more convenient, by means of a suitable high set
instantaneous over-current relay and then to proceed to grade the ring as in the
case of a single infeed, the second to treat the section of the ring between the two
supply points as a continuous bus separate from the ring and to protect it with a
unit system of protection, such as pilot wire relays, and then proceed to grade the
ring as in the case of a single infeed.