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Evaluating organizational culture with

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Article in African journal of business management December 2011
DOI: 10.5897/AJBM11.2327

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African Journal of Business Management Vol.5 (33), pp. 12882-12889, 21 December, 2011
Available online at http://www.academicjournals.org/AJBM
DOI: 10.5897/AJBM11.2327
ISSN 1993-8233 2011 Academic Journals

Full Length Research Paper

Evaluating organizational culture with metaphors

Kubilay cal
School of Physical Education and Sports, Mula University, Turkey. E-mail: ocalkubilay@hotmail.com.
Tel: + 90 252 211 19 51, 05055275603. Fax: +90 252 211 19 33.
Accepted 31 October, 2011

Following through Morgans (2006) prepositions, this study aims to examine organizational culture by using
metaphors. For this goal, metaphors drawn by 24 staffs working at the Physical Education and Sports
Department were used to make a qualitative analysis on cultural structure of the department. The results
indicated that all eight metaphors proposed by Morgan (2006) (that is, machine, organism, brain, culture,
political system, psychic prison, flux and transformation, and instrument of domination) were clearly
displayed in the responses given by participants which related to the cultural structure of the department.
According to the results, machine (8) was the highest mentioned metaphor while brain, flux and
transformation, and instrument of domination were each mentioned only once. Additionally, political system
was mentioned four times; culture, organism and psychic prison were mentioned three times each. The
results gave strong evidence that the department has highly mechanistic culture which involves
standardization, control and order.
Key words: Organizational culture, metaphors.

INTRODUCTION
Our creative mind has discovered a way of explaining
feelings and ideas with symbols far before the languages
were developed. Symbols and their meanings are
essential aspects of understanding the inner words and
these form the basis for collective action and social order.
Cohen (1974) states that, symbols are the most
apparent, and observable aspects of an organizational
life. According to Short (2000), metaphors are symbols
that can be viewed as central to the task of accounting for
how we think about things, make sense of reality, and set
the problems we try to solve.
Organizations and metaphors are closely linked (Short,
2000). The most frequently cited organizational metaphors are those from Morgan (1997, 2006), who offered
eight metaphors for organizations. These are machine:
an emphasis on efficiency, goal-oriented activity, engineering principles, organization as a tool or instrument;
organism: a living systems perspective, an open system
capable of growth and decay, passages through various
life cycles; brain: flexible and resilient, holographic, selfregulated and double-loop learning, feedback; culture:
characterized by norms, rites and shared reality; political

system: an emphasis on the distribution of power,

conflicting interests, limited resources, lobbying and
negotiating; psychic prison: to recognize the influence of
the unconscious, issues emerging out of dependency
needs and repressed sexuality, the patriarchal family,
organizations as traps of repeating patterns; flux and
transformation: organizations as self-referring systems,
evolving entities, loops rather than lines of causality,
interdependent units; and finally Instruments of domination: characterized by the exploitation of employees,
patterns of prejudice and discrimination, class-based,
workaholic. Different metaphors can constitute and
capture the nature of organizational life in different ways,
each generating powerful, distinctive, but essentially
partial kinds of insight (Morgan, 1980). The logic of
metaphor has important implication for organization
theory. There is no single metaphor that can capture the
total nature of organizational life personally. As the individuals change, the ways they observe and understand
their organization begin to change as well (Marshall,
2000). Metaphors are important tools for determining
change or sustaining state in organizations. Metaphoric

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evaluation is an important and viable force in helping

shape organizational innovation and development
(Sackman, 1989).
Competitive pressure of the private sector and the
general public necessitates universities which have to
change and innovate by adapting modern management
techniques in order to increase their performance.
Organizational performance measures deal with
productivity, commitment, job satisfaction, turnover rate,
organizational growth and so on (Behery and Paton,
2008). Researches clearly put forward that there is a
close link between organizational culture and organizational performance (Balthazard et al., 2006; Chew and
Sharma, 2005; De Hilal et al., 2009; Dounis, 2008;
Hoisted et al., 1990; Kanter, 1983; Pike, 2006; Schein,
1992). According to Kim (2004), organizational
performance refers to the degree of success in realizing
administrative and operational functions in relation to
institutional mission.
Performance management is one of the most essential
activities in universities in this changing and developing
world. Understanding the culture of the departments and
institutes can provide sufficient clues for performance
measurements. Academic departments in universities
have hidden hierarchical structure beside their
bureaucratic management coming from the governmental
formation. Academic organizations are the places that
need to be more free and democratic. Working environment and the management style are the most important
aspect of creativity and sustainability of the academic
performance. Academic hierarchy has been criticized to
be a barrier of performance and job satisfaction of the
academicians. Academic hierarchy restricts the democracy and communication in an organization. Hierarchy
may barrier the sharing of knowledge, and the restriction
of communication between staff. The main purpose of
this study is to explore the cultural metaphors of the
Physical Education and Sports Department and
understand how well they fit with Morgans (2006)
metaphors proposed for organizational culture.
METHODS
Sample
A total of 24 employees participated in this qualitative study. The
participants were composed of workers (2), an office holder (1),
advisors (3) and staff (18). The mean age of the samples was 31.4
years. When we look at the gender, 7 of the participant were female
and 17 of the participants were male.

Instrument
Usage of visual image is widespread in the field of cultural studies
(Fiske, 1989; Weber and Mitchell, 1996). According to Weber and
Mitchell (1996), drawings offer a different kind of glimpse into

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human sense making than do written or spoken texts, because they

can express that which is not easily put into words. For that reason,
picture drawing method were used in this study. Additionally, written
definition of the drawings was asked to the participants in order to
validate the responses in the drawings by making a correlation.

Procedures
After getting approval from head of the department, we obtained
appointments from all members working in the department. A
briefing about our study was provided during visit. In the briefing,
information was given about organization culture and metaphors in
general. Then, we asked the participant to draw a picture which
reflects the organization they are participating in and define their
own place in that scene. After drawing, we asked them to write a
paragraph why he or she selects this metaphor for organizations
and why he or she places himself or herself in that scene.

Analysis
The statistical analysis was done by grouping, interpreting and
comparing the metaphors according to the Morgans (2004)
approach. Metaphorical analysis (Smith, 1981) and content analysis
(Weber, 1990) were used for statistical analysis. In metaphorical
analysis, drawings of the participants were correlated with Morgans
eight metaphors, and matched-up shapes and expressions were
categorized under each group. In content analysis, descriptions of
the metaphors were analyzed to see what themes emerge and
what participants mentioned the most. Additionally, we checked
how themes relate to each other. Results are presented with
descriptive statistics.

RESULTS
Metaphor 1

The department is a brain, and I am a part of it. I have a

place at the back side thus I am the newest member. I
am waiting my time.

Metaphor 2

12884

Afr. J. Bus. Manage.

The department is a trampoline that people are jumping

on. Some of them are jumping higher, some of them
cannot. Some of them fall out of the trampoline.
Knowledge (the way of good jumping) makes me
stronger, light and fit, so I can jump as high as I can.

The department is a garbage dump. I am the multifunctional robot which has many hands hanging various
cleaning instruments. The roofs are old, the walls are
dirty, the goods are in dust. But everything is okay for me.
I am competent with them all.

Metaphor 3

Metaphor 6

The department is a football field and everybody is in the

game except me. I am only the substitute guy waiting my
turn with patience.

The department is a juice press and I am a pulp of the

orange after being pressed. There is adjustment switches
on the juicer which presses the various fruits in various
forces. People are in line waiting to drink my juice.

Metaphor 4
Metaphor 7

The department is a Newtons Ball. People are

transmitting constant energy to one other. There are no
degrees or increase in the energy level. Keep same,
keep same
Metaphor 5

The department is a big house which serves love and

respect to its members. It is a temple where I can solve
my physiological and academic problems. The house has
a big door that opens through the real life and my future.
Metaphor 8

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12885

The department is a factory and I am one of its workers.

My duty is shaping and disciplining people. I have
responsibility for determining the content what I am
doing. I can choose my own way.

The department is a computer. The hard disk of the

computer is formed by the staff. I am one of the software
of the computer which helps to transmit the knowledge to
the users.

Metaphor 9

Metaphor 12

The department is a bridge which a girl (I am) is passing

through. She is so close to the end. The road split into
two ways by the end. She should make a choice. Which
way is the best? I see a bird flying at the end of the
bridge which heralds the freedom and independence of
the girl.

The department is a bed. A man (I am) is lying on the bed

in comfort. He is happy. He has both good and bad
relationship with his neighbors.
Metaphor 13

Metaphor 10

The department is a family of bear which consist of a big

mother and its pup. The department is a bear and we
(staff) are the pups. Bear sometimes injure their pups
while they are trying to be tenderhearted.

The department is a hippodrome. The life is going fast

and every member of the department is in competition.
Thats why I feel myself one of the racehorses running in
the hippodrome.
Metaphor 14

Metaphor 11

12886

Afr. J. Bus. Manage.

The department is a prison and I am having a key in

front of the door. I am free to go out or come in
whenever I want. But this does not change the situation
that I am a prisoner.

A guy (I am) is having a flying balloon. Balloon reflects

the department, this faculty and this university. Its not
like it looked before I came.
Metaphor 18

Metaphor 15

The department is an atomic nuclear. We are the

protons and neutrons turning around the nuclear because
of its attraction. Powerful nuclear force attracts me.
Metaphor 16

The department is a body of a tree. It has too short roots

and too short branches because of insufficient nourishment. The root of the department was trimmed. Branches
have the same conditions. The body is huge but it has no
fruit.

The department is a clock. She is (I am) looking at the

clock without clipping her eye. She should not pass the
moment in any condition. She always needs more time to
finish her duties.
Metaphor 19

The department is a hearth. It pumps blood all through

the body. Thats why it is so important for me. I am one of
the veins of the hearth.
Metaphor 20

Metaphor 17

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The department is a court that people are playing

volleyball. There is a net between people. Everybody has
their own competition and gets their own. Everybody
have their own competition and get their own scores.
There is no team sprit so nobody has to assist anyone.
So everybody acts as if a part of a team but plays
individually. Some of us are just a ball boy.
Metaphor 21

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The department is a city where I have to go at the other

side of the river and I am the passenger. I have a real life
at the opposite side of the river. There is small bridge
connecting my life, that is, the city. When I am there I am
asking myself why I am here and what I am doing here.
There is a big gap between my life and that place.
Metaphor 24

The department is a river. We are (staff) of various

geometrical shape flowing inside the river. The river has
two sides. Good side and bad side. I am a triangle which
is striving to be place in the positive side.
Metaphor 22

The department is an ocean. The sun is shining. I am on

the boat near the side. I am fishing. There are also big
and small fishes in the sea. Other boats are passing by
my boat. The ocean is so big and it is difficult to
understand where I am going at the moment. Sometimes
we have storms. Sometimes I cannot eat the fish which I
catch. But I do not make it a problem. I just like fishing at
the moment.
Metaphor 23

The department is a line. All people standing in the same

line. There is no differentiation, there is no
discrimination.
All eight types of metaphors were discovered by
participants. Result shows that machine metaphor (4, 5,
6, 8, 11, 13, 18, and 19) was mentioned eight times,
political system metaphor (2, 3, 15, and 24) mentioned
four times, and culture (12, 7, and 21), organism (10, 16,
and 22) and psychic prison (14, 17, and 23) mentioned
three times each. Brain (1), flux and transformation (21)
and instrument of domination (10) were only one each
(Figure 1).
DISCUSSION
According to Cooke and Szumal (2000), organizational
culture is described as common assumptions, values,
and beliefs shared by its members, which define how
individuals think and behave in an organizational setting.
Morgan (2004) tries to interpret the organizational culture
with metaphors. He offered eight types of metaphors in
order to distinguish organizational culture types. In this
qualitative study it is researched how Morgans
Metaphors fit the organizational culture in a university
department. For this purpose, 24 staff were asked to
draw a metaphor in their minds that describes their
organization and their places in that organization.
Furthermore, we asked them to interpret their metaphors
clearly with words. All eighth metaphors proposed by
Morgan were represented in this study at least once. The

12888

Afr. J. Bus. Manage.

Figure 1. The frequency of metaphors created by participants.

results supported the validation of Morgans propositions

and usability of the metaphors for evaluating
organizational culture.
The most represented metaphor was machine which
indicates clearly defined roles and functions (Morgan,
2004) in the organization. Efficiency, maintenance,
standardization, production, measurement and control,
are some of terms represented by machine metaphor. In
the machine metaphor, the parts-persons, groups - have
to do their preprogrammed jobs in defined standards.
Morgan was strongly inspired by Frederick W. Taylor
(1911) the founder of scientific management when proposing machine. Productivity is the primary focus in both
terms. Domination of machine metaphor in universities is
a common result. Thus, demonstrating productivity is
essential for gaining promotions and economic support.
On the contrary, the long lasting mechanistic structure
brings some undesirable behaviors such as being
workaholic or dysfunction, boredom, turnover and other
physiologic disorders. These results were supported in
this study. There are four drawings mentioned on the
metaphor of psychic prison in the results. Different from
machines, people have feelings and they are not
programmed. Additionally, pursuit of stability and traditionalism in universities has negative effects on employees
creativity and productivity. Moreover, high productivity
expectation may trigger physical problems also.
Political system is the second most mentioned metaphor for the culture of the department. Power, authority,
leaders, conflict management are some of the terms
related to this metaphor. This may be the reason for
hierarchical structure in universities. Departments are
formed by hidden social classes such as research assistants, staff, and advisors. This class diversity constrains
the transparency in decision making, opportunity sharing
and participation. The discrimination sometimes reveals
an instrument of domination.

Organism and culture are in the third group of

metaphors for Physical Education and Sports Department
according to their frequencies. Organism refers to living
systems, environmental conditions, adaptation, and
survival of the fittest. The result shows that members of
the department are conscious about organizational
success in order to survive in the environment; because
department is one of their living space. But they are also
aware of the competition between people and realize that
power is always essential for acceptance. Moreover,
result also shows there are shared values, beliefs, vision,
mission, understanding, and ideologies. This sharing is
supported with various rituals and ceremonies. But on the
other hand, communication, networking and information
sharing seems problematic in the department when we
look at the number of mentioned brain metaphor. This is
a result of separated branches and preference of
individual studies of academicians.
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