Achievements of Liquid Drop Model

It predicts the atomic masses and binding energies of nuclei

accurately.
It explains the emission of and particles in radioactivity.
The theory of compound nucleus, which is based on this model,
explains the basic features of the fission process.

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Failure of Liquid Drop Model

It fails to explain the extra stability of certain nuclei that have
2, 8, 20, 28, 50, 82 and 126 neutrons or protons. These numbers are
called Magic number.
It fails to explain the magnetic moments of many nuclei. (e.g.,
even-even nucleons: =0 always, even-odd : = p , odd-even :
= n , odd-odd : = p + n )
It fails to explain the spin of many nuclei. (e.g., even-even
nucleons: I=0 always, even-odd or odd-even : I=1/2,3/2,...,
odd-odd : I= 0,1,2,...)
It also fails to explain the excited states in most of the nuclei.
Semiempirical mass formula fails to explain the experimentally
observed binding energies of lighter elements.

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Shell Model
Atomic theory based on shell model has provided remarkable
details of atomic structure. Fill the shells with electrons in order
of increasing energy consistent with Paulis exclusion principle.
Inert gases contain 2, 10, 18, 36, 54, 86 electrons. Atomic
properties are determined by the valency electrons.
Similar kind of effect has been observed in nuclei. The shell model
gives explaination to the stability of nucleus having magic
numbers.
Nuclei of magic N and Z are found to have zero quadrupole
moment: spherical shape.
Other nuclei distorted shape: positive moment football shape,
negative moment pumpkin shape.
The shell model of the nucleus is an attempt to account for the
existence of magic numbers and certain other nuclear properties in
terms of nucleon behavior in a common force field.
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Basics Assumptions of the Shell Model

The Independent Particle Model: Nucleons in a nucleus move

independently in a common potential determined by the average
motion of all other nucleons.
Protons and neutrons separately fill levels in the nucleus.
most of the nucleons are paired and a pair of nucleons contributes
zero spin and zero magnetic moment. The paired nucleons thus
form an inert core.
The properties of odd A nuclei are characterized by the unpaired
nucleon and odd-odd nuclei by the unpaired proton and neutron.

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Shell model potential

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Choice of Potential in Shell model

The first step in developing the shell model is the choice of
potential.
Different forms of the potential V(r) have been emloyed to
explain the magic numbers.
1

The square well potential : (infinite sharp edge) It could

expain only first three magic numbers.

The harmonic oscillator potential :(rounded diminishing

edge) It could expain only first three magic numbers.

After solving the schrodinger equation for the above potentials,

the quantum numbers n, l, and ml were obtained. However the
magic number sequence could not have been explained.

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HO potential: Independent particle model

l = N,N - 2,N - 4,...,0 or , 1

Degeneracy = 2(2l+1)
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Spin-Orbit Coupling in the Shell Theory

Light nuclei

LS coupling holds for the lighter nuclei.

The orbital angular momenta, Li couple separately into a total
angular momentum L. The intrinsic spin angular momenta Si
couple separately into a total spin S.
Then S and Lp
couple together to form a total angular momentum J
of magnitude j(j + 1)~.

Heavier nuclei

Heavier nuclei exhibit jj coupling.

The Si and Li of each particle combine
to form a Ji for that
p
particular particle of magnitude j(j + 1)~..
Then various Ji couple to form total angular momentum J.
Holds for great majority of the nuclei.

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The Spin-Orbit Term

In 1949, Maria Mayer and J. Jensen showed that all the magic
numbers can be obtained when the level degeneracy 2(2l + 1) is
removed by splitting a level labeled by (n, l) into (n, l, j = l + 12 )
and (n, l, j = l - 12 ).
This is achieved by introducing a spin-orbit term. The new
sub-shell corresponding to j = (l + 12 ) lies lower than the j = (l 1
2 ) level.
This is in contrast to the atomic shell model where j = (l - 12 ) lies
lower than j = (l + 21 ) level.
In other words, the sign of the nuclear spin-orbit term is opposite
to the sign that it takes in the atomic shell model. We include the
contribution of the spin-orbit potential by adding it to the already
discussed average potential like the HO or, the Woods-Saxon etc.
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Spin-Orbit Coupling in the Shell Theory

The spin-orbit interaction splits each state of given j into 2j + 1

substates.
The number of available nuclear states in each nuclear shell is in
ascending order of energy 2, 6, 12, 8, 22, 32, and 44.
Hence, the shells are filled when there are
2, 8, 20, 28, 50, 82, and 126 neutrons or protons in a nucleus.

2+6=8
2 + 6 + 12 = 20
2 + 6 + 12 + 8 = 28
2 + 6 + 12 + 8 + 22 = 50
2 + 6 + 12 + 8 + 22 + 32 = 82
2 + 6 + 12 + 8 + 22 + 32 + 44 = 126

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Prediction of Nuclear Spins and Parities

Even-ZEven-N Nuclei
In even-even nuclei all proton and neutron levels are filled pairwise
and therefore their spins cancel out: i.e. each (n, l, j, mj ) quantum
state is matched with a (n, l, j, mj ) state. Therefore the spin I of
the nucleus is 0 and its parity is positive (++ = + and -- =
+). Therefore, the spin and parity of all even-even nuclei is
I = 0+
Example: we can safely predict that the
0 and parity = +.

40 Ca
20

nucleus has spin I =

The closed shell nuclei exhibit zero angular momentum i.e. j = 0

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Prediction of Nuclear Spins and Parities

Odd-A Nuclei:If there is an extra nucleon outside of a closed shell,
the total angular momentum and magnetic moment are due to this odd
nucleon alone.

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Prediction of Nuclear Spins and Parities

Odd-Odd Nuclei:The case of odd-odd nuclei introduces the need to

couple the orbital angular momentum vectors of the last odd proton to
last odd neutron
I = (jn + jp ), ...(jn jp ).
This angular momentum coupling leads to a series of possible spins.
Consequently predictions for odd-odd nuclei are difficult to predict,
although a set of vector addition rules, the Brennan-Bernstein Rules,
provide reasonable estimates, but will not be covered in this discussion.

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Nuclear angular momentum

The shell model can also predict nuclear angular momenta.
In even-even nuclei, all the protons and neutrons should pair off to
cancel out one anothers spin and orbital angular momenta. Thus
even-even nuclei ought to have zero nuclear angular momenta, as
observed.
In even-odd and odd-even nuclei, the half-integral spin of the
single extra nucleon should be combined with the integral
angular momentum of the rest of the nucleus for a half-integral
total angular momentum.
Odd-odd nuclei each have an extra neutron and an extra proton
whose half-integral spins should yield integral total angular
momenta. These predictions are experimentally confirmed.

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Reconciling the Models

The liquid drop model can account for the behaviour of nucleus as
a whole.
The shell model indicates the individual and nearly independent
behaviour of nucleons.
The Collective Model by A. Bohr and B. Mottelson combines
liquid drop and shell models into a single theory which is the
current state of the art.

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Meson theory of nuclear forces

Nucleons are held together by the exchange of particle.
Heisenberg (1932): Electrons and positrons shift back and forth
between nucleons.
For instance, a neutron might emit an electron and become a
proton while a proton might absorb an electron to become neutron.
Calculations showed that the forces resulting from electron and
positron exchange by nucleons is too small by the factor of 1014 to
be significant in nuclear structure.
Hideki Yukawa : Pions, the particles intermediate in mass
between electrons and neutrons are responsible for nuclear forces.
Pions may be charged or may be neutral: + , , 0 . These
particles are also known as meson.
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Meson theory of nuclear forces

Every nucleon continually emits or
reabsorbs pions.
If another nucleon is nearby an
emitted pion may shift across to it
instead of returning to its parent
nucleon.
The associated transfer of momentum
is equivalent to the action of force.
Nuclear forces are repulsive at very
short range and attractive at larger
nuclear distances.
Meson theory accounts for both these
properties.
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Meson theory of nuclear forces

A fundamental problem: Nucleons are constantly emitting or

absorbing pions. So one should detect neutrons/protons with
other than their usual mass.
Answer is based upon uncertainty principle.
The emission of pion by a nucleon that does not change in mass:
clear violation of energy conservation principle.
Possible if the nucleon reabsorbs/absorbs the pion so soon that in
principle it is impossible to determine change of mass has actually
been involved.

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Uncertainty principle :
Et ~2 .
Pion travels between nucleons
with speed v c.
Temporary energy discrepancy
E m c2 .
Time needed for pion to travel
a maximum nuclear range r
t = rc
So m

~
rc

2 1028 kg.

A dozen years after Yukawas

proposal, particles with the
properties he had predicted
were actually discovered.
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MESON THEORY OF NUCLEAR FORCES

The liquid drop model can account for the behaviour of nucleus as
a whole.
The shell model indicates the individual and nearly independent
behaviour of nucleons.
The Collective Model by A. Bohr and B. Mottelson combines
liquid drop and shell models into a single theory which is the
current state of the art.

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