Documente Academic
Documente Profesional
Documente Cultură
Introduction to Sonar
NL
DI
TL
DT
range absorption
SL
SL T L (N L DI) = DT
RL
SL
Iceberg
TL
TS
NL
DI
DT
SL 2T L + T S (
N L DI
) = DT
RL
1 INTRODUCTION TO SONAR
Tomography
NL
SL
DT
DI
TL
Hawaii
SL T L (N L DI) = DT
Parameter denitions:
SL = Source Level
TL = Transmission Loss
NL = Noise Level
DI = Directivity Index
RL = Reverberation Level
TS = Target Strength
DT = Detection Threshold
USA
1 INTRODUCTION TO SONAR
(general)
ref
SL = 171 + 10 log P
SL = 171 + 10 log P + DI
(omni)
(directional)
Directivity Index
DI = 10 log( IID )
O
(general)
(line array)
(disc array)
(rect. array)
(line array)
(disc array)
(rect. array)
1 INTRODUCTION TO SONAR
40
60
80
90
60
30
60
90
30
60
90
60
90
0
30
theta (degrees)
f = 12 kHz D = 0.5 m beamwidth = +7.325 deg
20
40
60
80
90
60
0
30
theta (degrees)
f = 12 kHz D = 1 m beamwidth = +3.663 deg
20
40
60
80
90
60
30
0
theta (degrees)
30
This gure shows the beam pattern for a circular transducer for D/ equal
to 2, 4, and 8. Note that the beampattern gets narrower as the diameter is
increased.
1 INTRODUCTION TO SONAR
sinc(x)
10
2*J1(x)/x
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
60
30
0
theta (degrees)
30
60
90
This gure compares the response of a line array and a circular disc
transducer. For the line array, the beam pattern is:
sin( 12 kL sin )
b() =
1
2 kL sin
whereas for the disc array, the beam pattern is
2J1 ( 12 kD sin )
b() =
1
2 kD sin
where J1 (x) is the Bessel function of the rst kind. For the line array, the
height of the rst side-lobe is 13 dB less than the peak of the main lobe.
For the disc, the height of the rst side-lobe is 17 dB less than the peak of
the main lobe.
1 INTRODUCTION TO SONAR
6
Line Array
z
L/2
l
dz
r
A/L
L/2
Problem geometry
Our goal is to compute the acoustic eld at the point (r, ) in the far eld of a uniform
line array of intensity A/L. First, lets nd an expression for l in terms of r and . From
the law of cosines, we can write:
l2 = r2 + z 2 2rz cos .
If we factor out r 2 from the left hand side, and substitute sin for cos , we get:
l =r
2z
z2
1
sin + 2
r
r
2z
z2
l =r 1
sin + 2
r
r
1
2
1 2z
z2
l
= r 1 + ( sin + 2 )
2
r
r
1 INTRODUCTION TO SONAR
Finally, making the assuming that z << r, we can drop the term
z2
r2
to get
l
= r z sin
Field calculation
For an element of length dz at position z, the amplitude at the eld position (r, ) is:
A 1 i(klt)
e
dz
Ll
We obtain the total pressure at the eld point (r, ) due to the line array by integrating:
dp =
p=
A L/2 1 i(klt)
dz
e
L L/2 l
but l
= r z sin , so we can write:
A i(krt) L/2
1
p= e
eikz sin dz
L
L/2 r z sin
Since we are assuming we are in the far eld, r >> z sin , so we can replace
1
and move it outside the integral:
r
p=
1
rz sin
with
L/2
L/2
1
L
A
e 2 ikL sin e 2 ikL sin
p = ei(krt)
r
ikL sin
and, using the fact that sin(x) =
eix eix
,
2i
we can write:
which is the pressure at (r, ) due to the line array. The square of the term in brackets is
dened as the beam pattern b() of the array:
sin( 12 kL sin )
b() =
1
kL sin
2
2
1 INTRODUCTION TO SONAR
A/L
-L/2
We can write
zk sin 0 = z
(1)
sin 0
c
z sin 0
c
The phase term is equivalent to a time delay T0 (z) that varies with position along the line
array. We can re-write the phase term as follows.
zk sin 0 = T0 (z) ; T0 (z) =
[sin sin 0 ])
sin( kL
A
2
p = ei(krt)
kL
r
( 2 [sin sin 0 ])
The resulting beam pattern is a shifted version of the beampattern of the unsteered line
array. The center of the main lobe of the response occurs at = 0 instead of = 0.
1 INTRODUCTION TO SONAR
10
20
30
40
50
60
unsteered beam
70
steered beam
80
90
60
30
0
30
theta (degrees)
60
sin( kL
2 [sin sin 0 ])
b() =
( kL
2 [sin sin 0 ])
for 0 = 0 and 0 = 20 degrees.
90
120
1 INTRODUCTION TO SONAR
10
23dB
D = 0.5 m
Given:
Compute:
f = 12 kHz
DI =
D = 0.5 m
SL =
3dB =
Spatial resolution,
= 2d tan 3dB
=d
Depth resolution,
TF =
2d
c
TL =
2r
c
= (TL TF ) c/2
= d( cos 13dB 1)
=d
For d = 2 km
=
=
1 INTRODUCTION TO SONAR
11
2 degrees
90 degrees
returns received
only from + 2 degrees
2 degrees
No returns
No returns
Ships
Track
Ships
Track
One beam,
2 by 2 degrees
(without steering)
12
13
10-2
103
10
1
MgSO4
Shear Viscosity
10-1
102
Boron
10-3
S = 35 %
T = 4 oC
P = 300 ATM
10-5
10-2
, Absorption in dB/km
Structural
104
106
1
102
f, Frequency, kHz
104
14
0.1f 2
44f 2
+
+
+ 2.75 104 f 2
2
2
1+f
4100 + f
15
f (xi )
f (xi )
=
i xi
0
1
2
3
4
20
103
r
20 log xi
0.001xi f (xi )
x0 =
f (xi )
f (xi )
f (xi )
L = 2 km
DT = 15 dB
P = 1 Watt (omni)
NL = 70 dB
line array: L = 2 km
TL =
=
DI =
SL =
TL = 20 log r + r 103 =
=
Rt =
r=
8680
=
(w/o absorption)
r=
(with absorption)
16
17
120
TL (dB)
100
80
60
40
100
1000
10000
100000
range (m)
1000000
Figure 1: TL vs. range for whale tracking example (f=250 Hz, = 0.003 dB/km).
20
103 =
r
TL =
20 log xi
0 500,000 114
1 459,500 13.2
2 445,000 112.96
3
4
x0 =
0.001xi f (xi )
f (xi )
1.5
1.38
1.34
3.7 105
4.05 105
40540
14805
-1.5
-0.6
-0.3
459500
444694
f (xi )
f (xi )
L = 1 m
DT = 15 dB
SL 220 dB re 1 Pa at 1 meter
NL = 70 dB
line array: L = 1 m
TL =
=
DI =
TL = 20 log r + r 103 =
=
Rt =
8680
r=
(w/o absorption)
r=
(w/o spreading)
r=
(with absorption)
18
19
400
350
300
TL (dB)
250
200
150
100
50
0
0
1000
2000
3000
4000
5000 6000
range (m)
7000
8000
9000
10000
Figure 2: TL vs. range for dolphin tracking example (f=125 kHz, = 30 dB/km).
f (xi ) =
=
20
103 =
r
x0 =
TL =
i xi
20 log xi
0.001xi f (xi )
f (xi )
0
1
2
3
4
74
69.6
69.35
150
90.9
88.05
-0.034
-0.037
-0.368
1970
95
10.9
5000
3030
2935
2925
-67
-3.5
-0.4
3030
2935
2925
f (xi )
f (xi )
20
c
= 1.34 m/sec/ppt
S
c
= 0.016 m/sec/m
D
For example:
T = 25 = c = 115 m/sec
S = 5 ppt = c = 6.5 m/sec
D = 6000 m = c = 96 m/sec
sound speed
depth
21
1
k1 = /c1
2
k2 = /c2
1
, c1
1
, c2
2
22
c2
c1
2
x
1
p
c1
c2
23
c
1
1
x
c
2
2
p
t
24
p 1 = pi + pr = pt = p2
v 1 = vi + vr = vt = v2
Momentum equation
v
1 p
=
t
y
v
= iv (since v eit)
t
i p
= v =
y
but
Continuity of pressure:
pi |y=0 + pr |y=0 = pt |y=0
(I + R)eik1x sin 1 = T eik2x sin 2
(I +
sin
ix c 1
1
R)e
sin
ix c 2
2
Te
i
cos 1
pi
ik1 cos 1pi =
1
1 c 1
(2)
25
cos 1
pr
1 c 1
cos 2
vt =
pt
2 c 2
vi |y=0 + vr |y=0 = vt |y=0
vr =
(3)
T
22c2 cos 1
=
I
2c2 cos 1 + 1c1 cos 2
Recall that given 1, we can compute 2 with Snells law:
T =
sin 1 sin 2
=
c2
c1
Special case: = 0 (normal incidence)
R=
Z2 Z 1
2 c 2 1 c 1
Z2 + Z 1
2 c 2 + 1 c 1
T =
22c2
2Z2
Z2 + Z 1
2 c 2 + 1 c 1
26
27
Air
x
Water
1
p
i
1
p
28
Air
x
Water
2
p
t
= Iw
Does this satisfy your intuition?
1
Ia
1000
29
30
Target Strength
Assumptions:
large targets (relative to wavelength)
plane wave source
no angular variation in beam at target
curvature of wavefront is zero
Example: rigid or soft sphere
TS = 10 log
Iscat
|
Iinc r=rref
r
r
p2
Iinc =
c
Pinc = r02Iinc
Assume Pscat = Pinc (omnidirectional scattering)
Iscat
Pscat r02Iinc
=
=
4r2
4r2
(Assuming r0 >> )
31
Require:
Track to 3 bearing
Range error: 10 meters
Maximum range: R = 10 km
Active sonar with DT = 15 dB
sonar and oat at sound channel axis
baed line array (source and receiver)
Noise from sea surface waves (design for Sea State 6)
receiver DI:
DIR =
pulse length:
array length:
L=
source level:
SL =
noise level:
NL =
transmission loss:
TL =
wavelength:
source DI:
DIT =
time-of-ight:
T =
ping interval:
Tp =
frequency:
f =
target strength:
TS =
range resolution:
acoustic power:
P=
32
6 NOISE
33
Noise
6 NOISE
34
6 NOISE
35
f < 1 Hz
Tides f 2 cycles/day
p = gH 104 H Pa
noise level: NL = 200dB re 1 Pa 20 log H
example: 1 meter tide = NL = 200 dB re 1 Pa
microseisms f 17 Hz
On land, displacements are
106meters
Assume harmonic motion
eit = v =
d
= i
dt
1 Hz < f < 20 Hz
6 NOISE
36
6 NOISE
37
= kg
cp =
k
g
c2p =
2
if 2000 km, then cp 1500 m/sec = radiate noise!
Band V: Thermal noise
NL = 15 + 20 log f
50 KHz < f
6 NOISE
38
Directionality of noise
Vertical
Low frequency
distant shipping dominates
low attenuation at horizontal
90
0
NL
90
High frequency
sea surface noise
local wind speed dominates
high attenuation at horizontal
90
0
NL
90
Horizontal
Low frequency: highest in direction of shipping centers
High frequency: omnidriectional