AC Drive Theory and Application1

A Course on AC & DC Drive
Introduction To AC Drive
Drive and its Definition
The power required by the machines for its working is generally provided by electric
motors.
The electric motors take electrical energy input and convert it into rotational mechanical
energy output. This mechanical energy drives the machine.
The electrical power made available by State Electricity Boards, at times for certain
applications need to be modified and controlled in a specific manner before giving it to
the motor to get the desired performance from the motor.
Drive is nothing but the product-that takes the available electrical power, converts it into
the required form and then gives it to the motor and in addition, provides required
protection to the motor and the system.
Example - 1
Fixed V, fixed f
AC supply
(S. E. B. Supply)
DRIVE
Example - 2
Fixed V, fixed f
AC supply
(S. E. 8. Supply)
DRIVE
Variable DC Supply
variable, f,
variable V,
AC Supply
The Roll of Motor

The motor produces torque and this torque makes the motor shaft to rotate. The motor
shaft is coupled to the machine shaft and therefore the machine shaft also rotates.
Through the coupling mechanical power at the motor shaft gets transferred to the
machine. The motor shaft rotates because of mechanical energy produced in the motor.
Classification of Motor
There are various ways of classifying the motor. One way is to classify motors on the
basis of type of electric supply it needs. On this basis we can have two types - DC motors
needing DC supply and AC motors needing AC supply.
Center for Research & Industrial Staff Performance

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Since in this training course we shall be studying AC Drive, let us concentrate on AC
motors.
The speed of a 4 pole squirrel cage induction motor running on 50 Hz supply will
therefore be around 1440 RPM (1500 - 4% of 1500 = 1440 RPM).
The electronic product that gives desired power to AC Motor is called AC Drive. AC
Drive takes fixed voltage, fixed frequency AC supply (say State Electricity Board supply)
and converts it into a variable frequency and variable voltage AC supply.
Utility in running AC Motor Through An AC Drive

The AC motors are normally rated for the rating of State Electricity Board supply which
in our case is 3 phase, 415V, 50 Hz AC Supply. When this supply is given to the motor,
the motor rotates practically at constant speed i.e. close to its rated speed at all loads. If
one needs variable speed at motor shaft then supply to the motor will have to be given
through an AC Drive.
Relation of Speed in Ac and DC Motor with various parameters

The voltage applied to its armature and field or I decide the speed of a DC Motor
Winding. In the case of AC Motor the speed is decided by the frequency of supply given
to the motor.
In case of AC Motor the speed of the rotor is determined by the synchronous speed of
motor. The synchronous speed is the speed of the rotating magnetic field produced. By
current in the motor winding.
The synchronous speed is determined by the frequency of supply and the number of poles
for which the. Motor is wound.
The formula for synchronous speed (Ns) is as follows.
Ns = 120 x f
P
Where f is frequency in Hz and P the number of poles for which the motor is wound.
e.g.the synchronous speed of a 4 pole motor running on 50 Hz supply is 1500 RPM
orthe synchronous speed of a 2 pole motor running on 60 Hz supply is 3600 RPM.
It should be noted that the rotor of the motor always rotates at a speed little lower than the
synchronous speed. Generally the: rotor speed is less by around 4%.
The speed of a 4 pole squirrel cage induction motor running on 50 Hz supply will
therefore be around 1440 RPM (1500- 4 % of 1500 =1440 RPM)

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Slip
The rotor of a squirrel cage induction motor can never rotate at synchronous speed. The
different in synchronous speed (Ns) and the actual rotor speed (Nr) is called slip.
The slip is always expressed in percentage and is given by the following formula.
Ns - Nr
%Slip =
x 100
Ns
The percentage slip value depends upon the load on the motor but one can assume it to be
around 4 - 5 % at full load.
Control of speed Of an AC Motor Electrically

As discussed, the speed of rotor is decided by the synchronous speed and synchronous
speed, in turn is decided by the frequency of supply and number of poles for which the
motor is wound.
Thus to electrically vary the speed the following two methods are available.
1> vary the frequency of supply given to the motor.
2> change the number of poles for which the motor is wound.
The first method will provide step-less variation whereas the latter will provide variation
in steps.
Step-less Variation
Stepped Variation
There is a limitation with regard to the possible number of steps using pole changing
Method. Generally 2 to 4 speeds are feasible.
We expect only variable speed from an AC Drive

Although the primary function of an AC Drive is to get variable speed at motor shaft, the
other important parameter that needs to be taken care is to maintain torque producing
capability of the motor constant at all speeds i.e. from minimum to rated peed of the
motor.

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Motor and Torque
The torque in any motor primarily depends upon motor flux and rotor current. In order to
maintain torque producing capability of the motor at rated value at all speeds then we
need to keep flux in the motor constant at rated value at all speeds. The rotor current will
then be totally dependent on the torque demanded by the load i.e. more load or load toque
requirement more will be rotor current, less load or load or load torque requirement less
will be the rotor current.
The Relationship Between Motor Torque And Motor Speed

The following figure shows the relationship between torque and speed at different supply
frequencies. The figure also shows some important aspects related to the behavior of the
motor.
Torque
Ns1
Ns2
Ns3
Speed
The above curves are true only if the flux in the motor is kept constant irrespective of
frequency.
The Conventional methods Used To Obtain Variable Speed At The Machine Shaft
By using belt and pulley or using gears one can make the machine shaft to rotate at
different speeds although the driving motor runs more or less at constant speed This
conventional method does not give step-less variation of speed; it makes the machine
bulky and heavy, needs maintenance and is NOT energy efficient.
3 different speeds
Constant speeds
Machine Shaft
Motor

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We vary only frequency and keep the voltage constant
Theoretically speaking vie shall get variable speed at the motor shaft.
V
It is very clear from the flux relation, that if we reduce frequency, flux will increase
And if we increase frequency the flux will reduce. Also keep in mind that the torque level
is decided by the flux.
If we are unable to maintain the flux constant then torque level will also vary with
frequency and the motor will not be able to provide the rated torque at all speeds.
There is also another danger at low speeds. At low frequency the inductive opposition of
the winding will be very low (XL = 2fL) and will therefore result in motor winding
drawing excessively high current which may result in burning of motor winding.
We Need To Vary The Voltage Also

Along with frequency we need to vary the voltage. also in the same proportion i.e. if we
make the frequency to half then voltage given to the motor should also be halved. The
electronic control should therefore control power-switching devices in such a manner that
we get a supply of whose frequency as well as voltage can be varied. In this variation we
should keep the ratio of voltage to frequency constant.
The benefit we (let if we vary the voltage in the same proportion as frequency
To understand the necessity, we need to look at the torque equation of induction motor.
We expect that the motor should be able to provide required torque, maximum up to its
rated torque at all the speeds.
.
The torque produced by the motor depends upon the square of motor" flux and slip
frequency.
Further, the relationship between e.m.f. Induced in the rotor and motor flux is as follows.
E = 4.44 x f x x Z
or
E
=
4.44 x f x Z
Where f is the frequency of supply and Z are number of conductors.

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Now to get rated torque at all speeds, we need to keep the flux at constant level. Now
4.44 and Z ore constants and we vary frequency f to get different speeds at motor shaft.
So to keep the flux constant we will have to vary E (which is again dependent upon
supply voltage V) in the same proportion as f.
Control of Speed of AC Motor by Varyinq input A C Voltage Given to the Motor
Theoretically - yes. But ask yourself question: will the motor be able to produce the rated
torque? The answer is no. This is because if we reduce voltage, the flux will reduce (since
V
------) and thereby motor's ability to produce torque up to its rated level. This
method is
therefore not practical as we need required speed at the motor shaft and also the motor's
torque producing capability at its rated level at all speeds.
.
Conversion of Fixed Frequency Fixed Voltage AC Supply in to Variable

Frequency Variable Voltage Supply
To achieve this one needs to first convert available AC supply (fixed voltage, fixed
+ reconvert it into AC of desired voltage
frequency) into a fixed magnitude DC and then
and frequency.
fixed V1
fixed
AC Supply
Converter
Inverter
-
variable V1
variable
AC Supply
Conversion of AC in to DC
We can convert AC into DC by using electronic component called diode. This diode has
this peculiar characteristic that it allows the current to flow only in one direction i.e. from
its anode terminal to cathode. When current tries to flow in the reverse direction it
opposes the flow.
The circuits called as rectifier circuit use this property to convert AC supply into DC. The
rectifier circuit shown below using 4 diodes is used for converting 1 phase AC into DC
and the one where 6 diodes are used is for converting 3 phases AC supplies into DC.
Induction Motor Characteristics

In a three-phase induction motor there is a symmetrical three-phase stator winding. The
stator when connected to a three-phase supply produces a rotating air-gap flux, which
rotates

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at a uniform speed depending on the supply frequency. In a squirrel-cage motor, the
individual rotor conductors are short-circuited by end rings, whereas in a wound rotor
machine there is a three-phase rotor winding whose terminals are connected to slip rings
which may be shorted or connected to a suitably controlled and balanced resistor. In the
induction motor the torque is produced by the interaction of the stator rotating field and
the rotor current induced by it. The current in the rotor is induced due to the speed
difference between the rotating field and the rotor, the frequency of the rotor current
depends on this speed difference, i.e. the slip.
The stator flux is produced by the stator magnetizing current and the total input
current is the sum of this magnetizing current and the active and reactive components of
the load If the rotor runs exactly at the synchronous speed, the induced emf is zero and no
torque is developed. But normally, at no load, the motor runs at a speed slightly less than
the synchronous speed in order to overcome the frictional and wind age losses, etc. and as
the load, increases the speed falls and the torque increases up to a maximum value and
then starts to decrease. The maximum torque is called the breakdown torque because if
the load is increased further the motor stalls. The rotor frequency at which breakdown
occurs is called the breakdown frequency.
Speed Control Method of Induction Motor

The speed of an induction motor can be shown as follows;
120 f1
(1-S)
P
Thus in order to vary the speed, any one of the above three parameters f1, P and S should
be altered.
The rotor speed of a three-phase slip-ring motor can be controlled either by varying the
frequency of the supply keeping the voltage-to-frequency ratio constant or by controlling
the power flow in the rotor circuit. The rotor-circuit power flow can be controlled by the
following methods:
1.
by inserting an adjustable external resistance in the rotor
2.
by varying the stator supply voltage

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3.
by injecting a voltage of slip frequency in the rotor circuit
4.
by the recovery of the slip power
However, the speed of a squirrel-cage motor can be controlled either by varying the stator
supply voltage or by varying the supply frequency. The pole-changing method is also
adopted in this case.
Speed Control by External Resistance in Rotor Circuit

The speed control of an induction motor by an adjustable resistance in the rotor circuit is
fairly similar to that of a dc shunt motor by a resistance in the armature circuit. The
critical slip at which the torque becomes maximum varies directly as the value of the
rotor resistance . The torque-speed characteristic of an induction motor for various rotor
resistances is shown in following figure;.
R23
R22
R21
R21 < R22 < R23

O
Slip
Torque slip or speed characteristic of an induction motor for a different value of
rotor resistance
Speed Control by Change of Number of Poles
It is clear that the speed of the induction motor may be changed by altering the number of
poles. The number of poles can be changed only in steps by changeover switches. The
number of steps is limited to two, three or a maximum of four because of the complexity
of switch-connection. The pole-changing is done by dividing the stator phase winding
into two, three or four equal parts.

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Leads are taken out from the windings and the windings are connected either in series or
parallel by changeover switches. If the number of poles is halved, the synchronous speed
is doubled. In practice, changes are generally made from single-star to double-star or
from single-delta to double-star for two speed machines.
Speed Control by Variation of Stator Voltage

It has already been discussed that torque is produced in the rotor of the induction motor
due to the interaction of the rotating field with the current induced in the rotor by the field
itself. This torque accelerates the rotor till the final speed of the rotor is reached. The
rotor speed is somewhat less than the synchronous speed. The rotor torque should be
sufficiently large to cater to the load torque and this same torque is experienced by the
rotating field. Thus there is a power difference between the stator input power and the
rotor output power. This power difference is called the slippage power and in the case of
a squirrel-cage motor the slippage power equal to (ws - w) T is dissipated in the rotor. It is
known that the motor torque is proportional to square of the supply voltage at a constant
value of the supply frequency and the slip. In the steady state the motor torque becomes
equal to the load torque. Therefore, the slip becomes a function of the supply voltage and
load torque. If the supply voltage is reduced, both the speed and the maximum available
torque reduce. Thus the speed of the three-phase induction motor can be controlled
smoothly by the variation of the supply voltage. The range of the controlled speed may be
quite large for variable-torque loads, such as a fan load, but a constant torque cannot be
maintained for a wide speed range. The speed-controlled range can be increased by
increasing the rotor resistance and thus modifying the torque-speed characteristics.
However, there are other difficulties, such as the heating of the stator and rotor at a
reduced speed. If the rotor speed is controlled without controlling the synchronous speed
the slippage power increases raising the temperature of the rotor.
Slip Power Recovery System

This is basically a system by which the speed of a wound-rotor ac motor is controlled.
The speed of such a machine can be controlled either by varying the supply frequency of
the stator voltage or by controlling the power flow in the rotor circuit.

9

It has been discussed earlier that the power delivered to the rotor across the airgap is equal to the mechanical power delivered to the load and the rotor copper loss. In
this method initially Motor is started at Liquid Rotor Starter or Grid resistance starter.
Speed is monitored continuously and when motor reaches around 70% of full speed
changeover from LRS or GRS to SPRS take place. There is existence of induced rotor
voltage which is first converted to DC using rectifier bridge and after that it passes
through Chke and applied at the input of inverter thyristorised bridge, which is converting
DC to Ac voltage of 50 hz frequency. In last stage it is step up to main voltage terminal
and fed back to mains.
This kind of SPRS system is very much useful in power saving. Study at Vikram cement
during 1992-94 says by incorporating this drive in High Tension fans at Bag house,
Preheater, Coal Mill there is tremendous saving , which has resulted in approximately Rs.
10 per Bag (50 Kg) in Manufacturing cost.

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AC Drive Theory and Application

Adjustable Frequency AC Drive System Description
An Adjustable Frequency AC Drive System controls the speed of an AC motor by
controlling the frequency of the power supplied to the motor. A basic AC drive system
consists of an ordinary three-phase motor, an adjustable frequency drive (AFD), and
operator's controls. The motor is usually a standard NEMA design B squirrel cage
induction motor rated for 230 or 460 volt, three-phase, 50Hz operation. The adjustable
frequency drive is a solid-state power conversion unit which typically receives 240 or
480 volt. 3-phase, 50Hz input power and provides power to the motor which can be
steplessly adjusted from 2 to 50 Hz or higher. The AFD drive also regulates the output
volt-age in proportion to the output frequency to provide a nominally constant ratio of
voltage to frequency as required by the characteristics of the AC motor. The operator's
controls provide a means for starting and stopping the motor and for setting the motor
speed. The operator's control functions can be performed by a wide variety of automatic
control systems, as well as by the built-in keypad.
Benefits of Using AC Drives
AC drives have become very popular because they pro-vide direct and efficient speed
control using the most rugged and reliable of prime movers, the squirrel cage motor.
Modern AC drives provide economic and performance advantages in a wide variety of
adjustable speed applications. The following are some of the benefits provided:
Efficiency is high and operating cost is low.
AC motors require minimal maintenance.
Controlled linear acceleration & deceleration provide soft starting & stopping,
and smooth speed changes.
Multiple motor operations are easily provided.
Current limit is available for quick and accurate torque control.
Existing AC motors can be converted to adjustable speed.
Close speed regulation can be provided by slip compensation without using a
tachometer generator.
AC motors are available in a wide variety of mechanical configurations.

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The lightweight and compact size of AC motors allow flexibility of machine
design.
High starting torque can be economically using IR compensation, voltage boost,
or flux control.
AC motors can be economically obtained in enclosure suitable for hazardous or
corrosive environments.
Fewer spare motors are required since spares can serve both constant speed and
adjustable speed applications.
Modern rugged and reliable drive designs assure minimum downtime expense.
High-speed operation is economically available.
Reverse operation is providing electronically without contactors.
Basic Principles of AC Drive Operation
Standard AFDs are of the pulse width modulated (PWM) design type. Figure 15 is a
block diagram of a typical PWM drive. The diode bridge rectifier receives AC utility
power and pro-vides fixed voltage DC power to the DC bus. Since the inverter section is
powered from a fixed voltage source, the amplitude of the output waveform is fixed. The
effective value of the output voltage is controlled by using the solid-state inverter
switches to modulate the width of zero voltage intervals in the output waveform. Figure
16 shows the output voltage and current waveforms for the PWM inverter.
Block Diagram for a Typical PWM Drive
AC
Line
Diode
Bridge
Rectifler
Invertor
Motor
Speed
Reference
Voltage and
Frequency
control

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Principles of Adjustable Frequency Motor Operation

Torque-Speed Curves
The operating speed of an AC motor is determined by the frequency of the power source
and the number of poles created by the stator windings. Figure 17 shows the torque-speed
curve for a standard NEMA design B motor. The no-load, or synchronous speed is given
by: Synchronous rpm = 120 x Frequency / Number of Motor Poles
The actual operating speed is the synchronous speed minus slip. Slip is typically 3 % of
base speed for a design B motor.
Figure

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18 shown a family of ideal speed-torque curves for a motor powered from an adjustable
frequency power source. The figure shows a series of identical curves with different
synchronous speeds corresponding to various operating frequencies. Each curve has the
same value of breakdown torque and the same value of slip rpm at any given operating
torque level. The normal operating portions of the curves are shown as a series of parallel
solid lines. Motors operated from an AFD are normally never operated on the dotted
portion of the curve.
Volts per Hertz Regulation

In order for the motor to operate with the desired torque vs. speed curve at each operating
frequency, it is necessary to apply the optimum voltage to the motor at each frequency.
As mentioned previously, the characteristics of the motor require the voltage to be
regulated in proportion to the frequency to provide a constant ratio of voltage to
frequency. However, the constant volts per hertz requirements applies not to the motor
terminals, but to a theoretical point inside the motor. The voltage inside the motor is often
called the air gap voltage. The difference between the air gap voltage and the terminal
voltage is the IR voltage drop across the internal resistance as shown in Figure 19.

14
Assume that the optimum motor terminal voltage is at 460 volts when the motor is
operating at 60 Hz at full load. If the motor's full load current is 40 amps, and the internal
resistance is 1 ohm, the IR drop is 40 volts and the air gap voltage is 420 volts, or 7 volts
per hertz. If full torque is required when the motor is operating at 6 Hz, the motor current
will be 40 amps since current is proportional to torque. This means that the voltage drop
across the resistance will be 40 volts----- the same as for 60 Hz operation. The voltage
required at the air gap is 7 V/Hz, or 42 volts. The voltage required at the motor terminals
is the sum of the air gap voltage and the IR drop, or 82 volts (13.67 V/Hz).
This means that a significant V/Hz "boost" is required if the motor is to produce full
torque at low speed. Since the required boost voltage depends on individual motor and
load characteristics, an adjustment is usually pro-vided for setting the boost adjustment.
A high boost level can lead to an excessive motor current under light load conditions.

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Victor controlled drive technologies

Two other drive technologies are in use to provide precise control of motor speed and
torque. The first is the flux or open loop vector drive, also known in the industry as a
Sensor less Vector drive. The name refers to the increased performance without using a
sensing device for motor rotor feedback. This drive models the motor's characteristics to
estimate the motor's rotor flux and angular position between the flux and the stator
current. See Figure 21. By dynamically regulating the magnitude of the stator current and
its phase relationship with respect to the stator voltage, it improves both speed regulation
and response by 10:1 over volts per Hertz control. While this drive has the advantage of
not requiring a motor mounted encoder, its performance is reduced at or near zero speed.
The second type of drive is the field oriented or closed loop vector drive. This drive
control also requires stator current sensing for accurate torque control. See Figure 21.

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This allows a 10:1 improvement in performance over the open loop vector drive. The
drive pro-vides zero speed torque control and smooth transitions from forward to reverse
operation under load.
Summary of Adjustable Frequency

Drive Control Variables
Table 1
Voltage per Hertz Control
Open Loop Victor Control
Closed Loop Control
Voltage
Frequency
Stator Current
Current/Voltage Phase
Speed
Torque
Soft Star
Torque vs. frequency and current vs. torque for various operating frequencies are shown
in Figure 22 for a NEMA B motor. Note that the curves show that motor current is
directly proportional to motor torque for operation on the normal operating portions of
the curves (solid lines). The dotted portions of the curves show operation where the

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motor current is greater than 150 % of rated current. Note that some existing application
may intentionally or unintentionally exploit the torque capacity of a motor above the 150
% level. If this is the case, and a drive to be retrofitted to the application, over sizing of
the drive may be required to start or operate the load.
Motor Application and Performance

Motor Sizing
The basic requirement of drive sizing is to match the torque vs. speed capability of the
drive to the torque vs. speed requirement of the driven load. Refer to the other parts of
this document for information explaining how to determine the torque vs. speed
requirements of the load. In sizing an AC drive, it is usually sufficient to determine the
motor size and then simply match the AFD to the motor. However, there are situations
where a given horsepower motor will have inherently more short-term torque capacity
then the same horsepower AFD. The AFD may need to be oversized to take advantage of
the motor's short-term torque capacity.

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AC Drive Motor Torque vs. Speed Capability
As the speed of a motor is reduced below its 60 Hz base speed, motor cooling becomes
less effective because of the reduced speed of the self-cooling fan. This limitation
determines the minimum allowable motor speed for continuous constant torque operation
(see Figure 23). Low speed motor cooling does not limit the speed range with a variable
torque load since the load requires less torque at lower speeds. Typical motor
performance curves are shown in Figure 23. These curves can be used with a reasonable
level of confidence foe most quality motors furnished in NEMA standard cast iron
frames with copper windings. The curves show that a wider constant torque speed range
can always be operated at less than rated torque. Operation above 60 Hz can also provide
a wider speed range. For further information, refer to the paragraphs under the heading
"Extended Motor Performance". In some applications, a special motor may be required to
provide the required speed range. Motor vendors can provide information on special
motors, such as motors cooled by separate blowers, or oversized models.

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Operation Above 50 Hz
Figure 23 shows the motor performance which results when the AFD reaches its
maximum output voltage at 50 Hz. Above 50 Hz, the output voltage is held constant as
the frequency increases. This results in reduced volts per hertz ratio as the frequency
increases. The final result is a torque capability, which decreases as frequency increases.
The capability is approximately equivalent to constant horsepower up to 90 Hz, and
reduced horse-power above 90 Hz. Constant torque operation can be provided up to 120
Hz by applying constant V/Hz to the motor. This mode of operation requires an AFD
with 460 volt output capability, and a motor connected for 230 volt, 60 Hz operation. The
principle of constant V/Hz means that a 230V/60 Hz motor needs 460 volts at 120 Hz. At
460 volts and 120 Hz, the motor will be operating at twice its rated speed. Operation at
rated torque at twice speed means that the motor will be operating at twice its rated
horsepower. Since the motor will be operating within the limits of its normal torque and
current ratings, operation at twice its rated horsepower may be permitted provided that
due consideration is given to the following considerations:
1. Speed capability of the bearings.
2. Rotor balance.
3. Centrifugal stress on the motor.
4. Speed capability and wind age losses of the cooling fan.
5. Increased acoustical noise produced at higher speed.
6. Critical speeds.
For operation of the motor at twice its rated horsepower, the AFD must be sized to the
corresponding horsepower rating. The AFD must be sized to provide the motor cur-rent
required for operation at the required torque with the motor connected for 230 volt
operation. Motor vendor and Application Engineering assistance should be requested to
assure safe and successful of the drive and motor above 60 hertz.
AFD Output Harmonics

For the purpose of performance evaluation, the non-sinusoidal output waveforms
produced by AFDs are represented by their mathematically equivalent component parts.
All such waveforms consist of an infinite number of sinusoidal components of different

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amplitudes and frequencies. The fundamental component is the "good" part of the
waveform, which provides power to the motor at the desired operating frequencies. The
harmonics are unwanted components, which provide unusable voltages and currents to
the motor at frequencies which are multiples of the fundamental. State-of-the-art designs
for pulse width modulated AFDs provide a sine weighted modulation strategy with a high
switching frequency, and reduced output harmonic con-tent as compared to other types of
drives. A motor operating on a PWM drive will have an additional heat loss due the
harmonic content as compared to utility line operation. For this reason standard motors
with a 1.15 service factor or energy efficient motors are recommended for use with
drives.
Extended Motor Performance

Extended motor performance can be obtained by operating the motor above base speed to
90 Hz If the drive is sized using an 1800rpm by increasing the maximum frequency from
60 Hz to 90 Hz (see Figure 28). Note that the percent torque ratings shown in Figure 24
are based on 100 % torque equal to the rated torque of a 4-pole motor. The rated torque
of a 6-pole motor is 150 % of the rated torque of a 4-pole motor of the same horsepower.
The motor voltage is held constant between 60 Hz and 90 Hz. Therefore, the available
torque follows a constant horsepower curve.
This mode of operation increases the continuous and intermittent torque available over
most of the speed range. Breakaway torque is increased from 150 % to 225 %. The
continuous constant torque speed range is also increased. Since the operating horsepower
is not increased, it is usually not necessary to oversize the AFD to obtain e3xtecded
motor performance. Check to ensure that the motor nameplate current is less than or
equal to the AFD nameplate current.

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Multiple Motor Operations
Any number of motors can be connected in parallel in parallel and controlled by a single
AFD. A closed loop vector controlled drive cannot be used with multiple motors.
Although the basic principles of multiple motor operations are not difficult to understand,
Application Engineering assistance should be requested to make certain that the
application is successful. Since the frequency of the power supplied by the AFD is the
same for all motors, the motors will always operate at relatively the same speed. With
NEMA design B motors, the speeds will be matched within 3 % or less, depending on the
load variation among the motors and their rated slip. Exact speed matching between
motors is not possible. If an adjustable speed ratio is required between motors, each
motor must be connected to its own individual AFD. The simplest multiple motor
application is one in which all the motors are permanently connected to the AFD. In
simplest multiple motor application is one in which all the motors are permanently
connected to the AFD, and always started and stopped simultaneously by starting and
stopping the AFD. In this case, the AFD is simply sized to provide an output current

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equal to the sum of the maximum continuous running currents required by the motors. If
the motors must be started and stopped individually, it is necessary to determine the
maximum intermittent current, which will be required for the worst-case combination of
motors running plus motors starting. Stopping individual motors may cause difficulty in
some situations. If the motors are mechanically coupled together through the load, loadsharing requirements must be considered. High slip, NEMA design D motors may be
required. Individual overload protection must be provided for each motor in a multiple
motor application per the appropriate code requirements.
Special Types of Motors

This section deals exclusively with the use of standard NEMA design A or B motors,
which are used in the majority of applications. In some applications, NEMA design D,
high slip motors may be recommended. Design C motors, wound rotor motors and other
types of motors are occasionally used with AFDs. The application of these types of
motors involves consideration not covered in this section. If the existing motor or the
motor proposed for use with the AFD is a Voltage source AFDs are designed for use with
any standard three-phase induction motors sizing and motor matching are often simply a
matter of matching the AFD output voltage frequency, and current ratings to the
requirements of the motor. If the load torque exceeds 150 % for Constant Torque (CT)
drives or 110 % for Variable Torque (VT) drives during starting or intermittently while
running the drive, over sizing may be required. Refer to Table 5 for typical load
requirements.
Output Voltage and Frequency

For AFDs rated at 480 volts, motors are connected for 460 volts at 60 Hz. 380 V/50 Hz
motors can also be used since he V/Hz ratio, 380/50, is 7.6 V/Hz, the same as a 460 V/60
Hz motor. 415volt motors can be operated if the AFD V/Hz adjustment is reset.
With proper V/Hz adjustment 575volt motors can be operated at constant V/Hz up to 80
% speed and at constant voltage from 80 % to 100 % speed. Maximum motor torque and
hp for this mode of operation is limited above 80 % speed because of the reduced V/Hz
levels. For AFDs rated at 240 volts, the motor will be connected or 230 volt.
Output Current
23

The full load current ratings of typical AFDs are matched to typical full load motor
current ratings as listed in National Electric Code Table 430-150. Generally, an AFD of a
given horsepower rating will be adequate for a motor of the same rating, but the actual
motor current required under operating conditions is the determining factor for AFD
sizing. If the motor will be run at full load, the AFD output current rating must be equal
to or greater than the motor nameplate current. If the motor is over-sized to provide a
wide speed range, the AFD should be sized to provide the current required by the motor
at the maximum operating torque. Motor over sizing should generally be limited to one
horsepower size increase.
Motor Protection
Motor overload protection must be provided as required by applicable codes. Direct
motor protection is not auto-atically provided as part of the AC drive. AFDs are equipped
with electronic protection circuits with an inverse time or I 2 T characteristics equivalent
to a conventional overload relay. Conventional overload relays are also used with AFDs
equipped with bypass. If these current sensing protective devices are used with motors
driving constant torque loads, the minimum speed should be adjusted to prevent motor
from running at speeds at which overheating could occur, unless the I 2 T circuit provides
a speed and load calibrated trip. The best means of AC drive motor protection is direct
winding over temperature sensing, such as an over-temperature switch or thermistor
imbedded in the motor windings. Over-temperature switches are more convenient
because they can normally be connected directly to the AC drive control circuit.
Thermistors generally require a special sensing relay. Direct over-temperature protection
is preferred over current sensing protective devices because motor overheating can occur
with normal operating current at low operating speeds.
Motor short circuit protection is not required since the AC drive protection circuits nearly
always adequately protect the motor in this respect. When a single AFD provides power
to multiple motors connected in parallel, special considerations must be given to motor
protection. Individual overload protection must be provided for each motor. Short circuit
protection may be required for some applications.
Bearing and DV/DT Protection

24

The high switching frequency present in today's PWM drives may cause current to flow
in the motor bearings due to shaft voltage caused by capacitive coupling. This current
flow can result in minute electrical discharges within the bearing, potentially damaging
the bearing over time. There are several techniques for use in reducing this effect:
a) Use a lower voltage motor and control if possible, i.e., 230 volts instead of 460
volts.
b) Run the AFD at the lowest carrier frequency that satisfies any audible noise and
temperature requirements.
c) Add a shaft-grounding device to the motor. This device has a brush that rides on
the motor shaft. Cur-rent does not go through the bearing but is instead conducted
directly to ground through the brush. These brushes are specially selected to
tolerate misalignment and maintain rotating contact throughout the motor's life.
d) Use a motor with both bearings insulated. This approach will avoid damage to the
motor's bearings.
Caution :
Other non insulated bearings in the mechanical system which are
connected to the shaft with a conductive coupling (such as tachometers or gear-boxes),

may be damaged by the shaft voltage.
e) Use non-conductive couplings for the mechanical system, loads or devices, which
may be damaged by bearing currents.
f) Ensure that the AFD is grounded per the manufacturers' instructions.
g) Use a filter that reduces common mode voltage. The high switching frequency
can also lead to large voltage overshoots at the motor terminals. See Output
DV/DT Issues in the following AC Drive Performance section.
AC Drive Performance
Operator Control and Interface
Operator controls are often via the drive keypad. In other situations, an operator station or
remote control may be desired. If these requirements cannot be achieved by remotely
mounting the keypad, terminal blocks with digital and analog interface capability are
provided.
Acceleration and Deceleration

25

AFDs are always equipped with adjustable acceleration and deceleration control.
Acceleration and deceleration rates must be adjusted to suit the characteristics of the load
to prevent shutdown due to over current or over voltage. Increasing acceleration or
deceleration times will proportionally decrease the torque requirement.
Speed Range
The characteristics of the motor usually determine the speed range or an AC drives. The
AFD output frequency range is usually wider than the range that can be effectively
utilized by the motor.
Speed Regulation
The open loop speed regulation of an AC drive is deter-mined by the motor slip. Since
NEMA design B motor usually have 3 % slip or less, at 60 Hz and rated load the speed
regulation of the drive is 3 %. AFDs equipped with slip compensation or flux or vector
control can provide speed regulation, which is better than the open loop regulation of the
motor. Slip compensation and flux or vector control improves speed regulation by
increasing and decreases. Further improvement in steady state speed regulation can be
obtained by using a tachometer generator to pro-vide speed feedback to a closed loop
speed regulator option, or an external device such as the Durant Strider.
Service Deviation
Speed regulation specifies only that portion of the drive speed change, which is directly
caused by a change in load. Several other factors can cause unintended changes in the
drive operating speed. These factors con-tribute to the drive's service deviation. Table 2
lists some of these factors and the typical effect they have on drive speed.
Influencing Factor
Typical Speed Change
Line voltage variations within rated tolerance.
0.0 %
Ambient temperature variation of controller within rated

tolerance after warm up.
Motor temperature variations. Cold to maximum
operating temperature.
0.25 %
0.5 %
Current Limit
If an AC drive was not equipped with current limit, the over current trip circuits would

26

shut down the drive should the motor draw excessive current due to an overload or too
rapid an acceleration rate. Current limit provides a means of maintaining control of the
drive under these conditions. If the output current reaches the current limit setting while
the drive is running at set speed, the drive will decelerate to a lower speed. If possible, the
speed will decrease to whatever operating speed is required to pre-vent exceeding the
current limit setting. If the output current reaches the current limit setting while the drive
is accelerating, the drive will deviate from the programmed acceleration ramp and
accelerate at a rate, which will prevent the current from exceeding the set limit. If the
drive reaches the negative current limit setting (if applicable) while the drive is decelerate
a rate, which will try to prevent the current from exceeding the limit.
Regeneration Limit and Braking

The AC drive will inherently develop braking torque when the frequency is reduced to
decelerate the motor, or when there is an overhauling load. When the motor is producing
braking torque, it is operating as an induction generator. This means that the motor is
receiving power from the load and returning the power to the source. If a drive receives
energy regenerated by the motor, the energy appears as a reversal of the DC bus current.
Since the standard input converter can not accept reverse current, the current flows into
the DC bus filter capacitors. This charging current causes the DC bus voltage to increase.
If this process is allowed to proceed, the AC drive will be damaged by DC bus voltage.
AFDs must be protected from DC bus over voltage due to regeneration. The minimum
protection is a DC bus over-voltage trip. If the AC drive is equipped with regeneration
limit circuitry, control of the drive can be maintained during regeneration, and DC over
voltage shutdown can be pre-vented. If regeneration causes the DC bus voltage to rise
during deceleration, the drive will deviate from the programmed deceleration ramp and
decelerate at whatever rate is possible without generating excess bus voltage. If an
overhauling load causes regeneration, the drive will allow the motor speed to increase
above the set speed as required to prevent excess regeneration.
Regeneration limit prevents the motor from developing braking torque above a limit,
which corresponds to the normal losses, which are inherent in the motor and controller.

27

When the drive is equipped with dynamic braking, the motor is allowed to develop a
higher level of braking torque. The regenerated braking energy is dissipated in the
dynamic braking resistors. A fully regenerative drive includes circuitry, which returns the
regenerated braking energy to the power lines.
IR Compensation
A V/Hz AC drive can provide improved starting torque and low speed overload
capability if the lower speed voltage boost is changed automatically to compensate for
changing load conditions. This feature is called IR compensation. Without IR
compensation, it is difficult to achieve the maximum possible motor torque because the
voltage boost required for maximum torque can cause the motor to saturate and draw
excessive current when it is lightly loaded. The IR compensation circuit senses the motor
load and reduced the voltage boost when the motor is lightly loaded.
A flux control AC drive can provide a similar result by modifying its instantaneous
voltage and frequency to allow the motor to develop the torque for the load.
Installation Compatibility
The successful application of an AC drive requires the assurance that the drive will be
compatible with the environment in which it will be installed. The following are some of
the aspects of compatibility, which should be considered.
Cooling Air
Even though AFDs are very efficient, the heat produced in the controller cabinet can be
substantial. The electronic circuitry is subject to immediate failure if its operating
temperature limits are exceeded. Junction temperatures of transistors, SCRs and IGBTs
typically can only increase 20 250 C from full load to failure. It is important to remove
heat through the usual mechanisms of radiation, conduction (heat sinks) or convection
(fans). The enclosure must be located away from direct sunlight and hot surfaces. The
room temperature must be kept within the specified limits and adequate cooling air must
be prevented from entering the enclosure.
Acoustical Noise
In

28

some installations, it may be necessary to use sound abatement measures to prevent the
drive from producing excessive acoustical noise. In a factory environment, noise will
probably not be a problem unless the motor is operated above its normal base speed. In
an office environment, the noise may be of greater concern. With PWM drives, the motor
produces the majority of the noise. The noise may be noticeable because of the
frequencies involved and the sudden shifts in pitch, which may occur at certain operating
points. The use of carrier frequencies of 6 kHz and above can limit motor noise to levels
comparable to across-the-line operation. Motor noise can also be reduced by adding a 3
% output reactor to the drive. The reactor smoothes the output voltage, reducing the
components responsible for the motor noise. A third approach for a motor, which is not
fully loaded, is to slightly reduce the AFD's output volt-age. The reduced voltage
provides less motor air gap flux, reducing the noise level.
Electromagnetic Compatibility
Electromagnetic Compatibility may be of concern both from the standpoint of outside
sources interfering with the AC drive and from the standpoint of the drive interfering
with other equipment. Modern drives are designed to avoid problems of either type.
These drives have been installed in a wide variety of environments with very little
difficulty. Electromagnetic compatibility is by no means assured by the product alone.
Installation methods and power distribution system design are also very important. Even
the most extensive protection design into the drive will be defeated if the drive is not
properly installed. Typical means of reducing the radio frequency effects on the drive on
other equipment include the use of an input EMC filter and shielded output power wiring.
The EMC filter will reduce the high frequencies, which can be, transmitted the input
power wiring. The use of shielded wire, wiring run in a well bonded, grounded metallic
conduit and continuous armored cable, will help prevent high frequency radiation from
the three-phase power output wiring. Single leads should be isolated from 120 V control
leads and both should be isolated from the input and out-put power leads.
If cable trays are used, there should be 1 foot of separation between the drive input and
motor power leads for every 10 feet of length. Output leads from multiple units must be

29

likewise separated. Long parallel run should be avoided. A single conduit containing both
the input and out put leads is not recommended. Separate conduits will reduce radio
frequency coupling. Input or out put power leads from multiple drives should not be run
in the same conduit. The resultant radio frequency coupling may cause nuisance drive
trips. See the EMC application not for further information.
Output DV/DT Issues

PWM drives used fast transistors or IGBTs to provide the pulses required to control the
voltage and frequency output. The property of theses devises to turn on and off quickly
results in a high switching DV/DT. High DV/DT levels when combined with long cable
runs result in high peak voltage at the motor terminals. These high peak voltages can
create a potential for motor insulation stress and damaged due to the peak voltage
magnitude and marginal motor insulation. The motor vendor can provide information on
the insulation peak voltage and DV/DT capability of his particular motor design. Drive
and motor mounted filter are available for small motors with cable runs greater than 33
feet and for larger motors with runs exceeding 100 feet. These consist of peak energy
recovery filters, output line reactors and motor terminal reflective wave traps.
Power for Engine-Generator Sets

Engine-Generator sets have output impedance and poor regulation in comparison to
utility power lines. Manufactures assistance should be requested to avoid problems,
which might be encountered when applying AFDs with this type of power source.
Isolation Transformers
Drive isolation transformers are some time recommended or specified by other for
various reasons. Some drive dose not required the use of isolation transformers because
these drives are design to operate directly from plant power distribution system without
using isolation transformers. The benefits sought through the use of isolation
transformers are generally provided more economically, efficiently and reliably by
features which are designed into the drive and power options such as line reactors.
However, in some situation isolation transformers may be required to provide suitable
input

30

power. Modern AFDs are designed to withstand line voltage transients and noise
generated by other equipment in a typical installation environment when applied to
systems with the required minimum impedance levels. They are also designed to prevent
nuisance levels of noise from being reflected back
to the power lines. Electronics
protection circuits fully protect the drives from output short circuits and ground faults
regardless of available fault current without requiring isolation and external impedance.
Isolation transformers are generally not recommended as a preventative or curative
measure for suspected difficulties of these types.
Efficiency
Figure 25 shown typical efficiency curves for an IGBT AFD. The efficiency of an AC
drive can be accurately determined only for a particular set of operating conditions. The
characteristics of the motor and controller are interrelated in such a way that a change the
characteristics of either component will cause a change in the efficiency of the other. The
efficiency of the total AC drive system cannot be accurately determined from just the
controller efficiency curves and the manufacturer's published motor data. Table 3
provides adjustment factors which can be used to estimate the total drive system
efficiency. The adjustment factors take into account efficiency variations due to a typical
range of different motor characteristics and operating conditions. The factors include data
from the controller efficiency curves and adjust for motor characteristics at various speed
and load points.To calculate total AC drive system efficiency, multiply the published
motor efficiency by the adjustment factors listed in Table 3. Use the published motor
efficiency for full load 60 Hz operation only. The adjustment factors accounts for
changes in motor efficiency due to changing the speed and load.

31
Power factor
The power factor typically specified for AFDs is displacement power factor, which is
defined as the cosine of the angle between the fundamental voltage and current. Many
instruments used for utility billing purposes give readings equivalent to displacement
power factor.

32
Another definition and measurement method combines the effects of power and harmonic
content to define total power factor. Newer utility instrumentation is capable of recording
total power factor, resulting in potential power factor penalty billing. Displacement
power factor for a PWM drive is approximately 0.95 at all operating points. The
displacement power factor is not significantly affected by the motor speed the motor load
or the motor power factor. Total power factor will vary with line voltage utility feeder
size and total system and drive load. Power factor correction capacitors should not be
connected at the AC drive power input. Correction should be done on a plant wide basis.
If capacitors are located too close to the drive, or if drives represent a high percentage of
the total plant electrical load, there may be an undesirable interaction between the
capacitors and the drives, leading to a failure of either or both. If the capacitors must be
located near the drive, a line reactor should be used on the drive input to reduce the
possibility of interaction. Note that adding this reactor does not eliminate the potential for
harmonic resonance.
To be assured of a solution that will improved power factor and avoid resonance, a
system study must be performed to determine the optimum selection of capacitance and
inductive reactance. Power factor correction capacitors must never, under any
circumstances, be connected at the AC drive controller output. They would serve no
useful purpose, and they may damage the drive.
AC Drive Input Harmonics

AFDs utilize a rectifier to convert AC line voltage to the DC levels required by the
inverter section. Rectifiers are non-linear devices, which cause a current to be drawn
from the line, which includes many harmonics. These harmonic currents will cause
harmonic voltage to be created in the line, which may affect sensitive devices on the
same line. IEEE519-1992 provides recommendations for the harmonic current levels
reflected to the utility by any user, where his feeder ties into the utility grid. For difficult
installations where the levels of IEEE519 cannot be met, or those utilizing on-site
generated power, a "Clean Power" rectifier can be used. The "Clean Power" rectifier
utilizes phase shifted semiconductor to significantly reduce harmonics to levels well

33

within the IEEE guidelines.
Braking
Braking provides a means of stopping an AC motor and can be accomplished in several
ways.
A. Dynamic Braking (AC Drives) Since AC motor do not have separate field
excitation, dynamic braking is accomplished by continuing to excite the motor from
the drive. This causes a regenerative current to the drive's DC intermediate bus
circuit. The dynamic brake resistors are then placed across the DC bus to dissipate the
power returned. The brake resistor is usually switched by a transistor or other power
switch controlled by the drive.
B. Regenerative Braking This is similar to dynamic braking, but is accomplished

electronically. The generated power is returned to the line through the power
converter.
C. Motor Mounted or Separately Mounted Spring Set Brake This is a

positive action, mechanical, friction device. Normal configuration is such that when
the power is removed, the brake is set. This can be used as a holding brake. (Note : a
separately mounted brake is one which is located on some part of the mechanical
drive train other than the motor).
D. Eddy-Current Brake Eddy currents are generated in the brake drum to

produce braking torque for retarding or stopping shaft Rotation. Braking torque is
transmitted by the eddy-current principle when voltage is applied to the brake coil,
with the rate of shaft deceleration being determined by the amount of excitation
applied to the coil. Braking torque which is a function of speed and brake coil
excitation, is provided throughout most of the speed range, but drops to zero as the
shaft approaches zero rpm. Therefore, this brake cannot serve as a holding brake.
E. Friction Brake An electromagnetic field is established between the brake coil

and armature assemblies only while the brake coil is energized. Upon energizing the
brake coil, these two assemblies are drawn together and stop shaft rotation by friction.
The rate of shaft deceleration is determined by the amount of excitation applied to the

34

coil. As long as excitation is holding brake.
F. DC Dynamic Braking A low DC voltage is applied to the AC motor stator at

low speed. A braking torque is developed which will slow the motor down quickly.
No braking torque exists if the shaft is at zero speed.
Enclosure
Enclosure refers to the housing in which the controller is mounted Enclosure are
available in designs for various environmental conditions.
A. NEMA Type 1 A general-purpose enclosure of either a ventilated or a

nonventilated variety. It is used for most indoor applications and is intended to protect
limited amounts of falling dirt and accidental human contact with the electrical
circuit.
B. NEMA Type 4 A watertight enclosure, required whenever the unit is subjected

to a great amount of water from any angle. It is normally used in areas that are
repeatedly hosed down. These enclosures are not designed to be submerged.
C. NEMA Type 7 An enclosure designed for an indoor hazardous location, Class I

(air), Group A, B, C or D, per the National Electrical Code. This hazardous
environment is one in which flammable gases or vapors are or may be present in the
air in quantities sufficient to produce explosive or ignitable mixtures. This explosionproof pressures resulting from explosions without bursting, permanently distorting or
loosening its joints.
D. NEMA Type 9 An enclosure designed for hazardous locations, Class II, Groups
E, F and G per the National Electrical Code. The atmosphere in which this control-ler
must operate may contain carbon black, coal or coke dust, flour, starch or grain dust.
E. NEMA Type 12 Designed for industrial use. This enclosure is intended for use
in applications where it is desirable to exclude such materials as cooling oil, seepage,
dust, lint, fibers and filings. This is a non-ventilated enclosure with an oil resistant,
synthetic gasket between the case and the cover. The cover is hinged to swing
horizontally and is help in place with suitable fasteners, which require the use of a
tool.

35
F. JIC Joint Industry Conference enclosures are similar in specifications to the

NEMA Type 4 and Type 12 enclosures. The most obvious difference is the way the
seal is obtained. They are suitable for the same environments of the standard NEMA
Type 4 and NEMA Type 12 enclosures.
G. Explosion-proof enclosures --- They normally meet some, or all of the

following specifications: Class I, Group D; Class II, Groups E, F and G; NEMA Type
7 and NEMA Type 9.
1. Class I, Group D is designed to meet the application requirements of the NEC and is
in accordance with the latest specifications of Underwriters Lab-oratories, Inc., For
locations having atmospheres containing gasoline, hexane, naphtha, benzene, butane,
propane, alcohol, acetone, benzol, lacquer solvent vapors or natural gas.
2. Class II, Groups E, F and G is designed to meet the application requirements of the
NEC and is in accordance with UL requirements for atmospheres containing metal
dust, including aluminum, magnesium and their commercial alloys; and other metals
or similar hazardous characteristic, such as carbon black, coal or coke dust, flour,
starch or grain dusts.

36
Drive Selection
Selection Considerations
When selecting a drive and associated equipment for an application, the following points
should be considered.
Environment
The environment in which the motor and power conversion equipment operates is of
prime concern. Conditions such as ambient temperature, cooling air supply and the
presence of gas, moisture, and dust should all be considered when choosing a drive, its
enclosures and protective features.
Speed Range
The minimum and maximum motor speeds for the application will determine the drive's
base speed.
Speed Regulation
When the operating cycle is such that the drive operates at idle, or a reduced load for
more than 25% of the time, the duty cycle becomes a factor in selecting the proper drive.
Heating
The temperature of a motor or controller is a function of ventilation and losses. Operating
self-ventilated motors at reduced speeds may cause above normal temperatures rises.
Derating or forced ventilation may be necessary to achieve the rated motor torque output
at reduced speed.
Drive Type
Does the applications require performance elements such as quick speed response or
torque control? These may require the use of a flux vector or closed loop vector drive,
instead of a volt per hertz drive.
Selecting a Drive for Machine

The application of an adjustable speed drive to power a machine is a mechanical, rather
than

37

an electrical problem. When applying the drive, the speed-torque-horse-power
characteristics developed at the motor's shaft must be considered, and low well these
characteristics suit the machine.
Four essential parameters are :
1.
Breakaway Torque
2.
Process Torque
3.
Accelerating Torque
4.
Running Torque
Breakaway Torque
This is the torque required to start the machine in motion. It is usually greater (except for
centrifugal pumps and fans) than the torque required to maintain motion (running torque).
Breakaway torque combined with process torque frequency determines drive selection.
Typical breakaway torques for various machine types are given in Table 5.
Process Torque
This is the torque required to pull, push, compress, stretch or otherwise process or act
upon the material being transported by or through the machine. On some machines,
process torque may be so significant. The process torque load is superimposed on all
other static and dynamic torque requirement of the machine. The allowable amount of
speed variation should be considered. Does the application require unvarying speed at all
torque values or will variations be tolerated?
Torque Requirements
The starting, peak and running torques should be considered when selecting a drive.
Starting torque requirements can vary from a small percentage of the full load to a value
several times full load torque. The peak torque varies because of a change in load
conditions or mechanical nature of the machine. The motor torque available to the
drive3n machine must be more than that required by the machine from start to full speed.
THE GREATER the excess torque, the more rapid the acceleration potential.
Acceleration
The

38

necessary acceleration time should be considered. Acceleration time is directly
proportional to the total inertia and inversely proportional to the torque available.
Duty Cycle
Selecting the proper drive depends on whether the load is steady, varies, follows a
repetitive cycle of variation or has pulsating torques. The duty cycle, which is defined as
a fixed repetitive load pattern over a given period of time, is expressed as the ratio of ontime to the cycle period.
Accelerating Torque
This is the torque required to bring the machine to an operating speed within a given
time. With most machines, the load is largely friction and a standard drive rating may
have adequate torque for satisfactory acceleration. However, certain machines classified
as "high inertia" with flywheel, bull gears or other large rotating masses may require drie
selection based upon the power required to accelerate the load within a given time.
Running Torque
This is the torque required to maintain the drive process or machine after it accelerates to
the desired operating speed. The characteristics of the speed and torque curves of various
machines are very important to the proper drive selection. All machines generally can be
classified into load types as follows:
Constant Torque (e.g., conveyors)
Constant Horsepower (e.g., machine tools)
Squared Exponential Horsepower (e.g., mixers)
Cubed Exponential Horsepower (e.g., fans)
Additional load application information is given in Table 5.
Measuring Machine Torque

To measure the torque required to drive a machine, fasten a pulley securely to the shaft,
which the motor is to drive. Fasten one end of a cord to the outer surface of the pulley
and wrap a few turns of the cord around the pulley. Tie the other end of the cord to a
spring scale. See Figure 30.

39
Scale (No.)
R
Torque: F & R
Pull gently on the scale until the shaft turns. Do not yank. The force in pounds or ounces,
indicated on the scale, multiplied by the radius of the pulley (measured from the
centerline of the machine shaft) in inches gives the torque value in lb-in or oz-in. On
some machines, this torque may vary as the shaft rotates. The highest value of torque
must be used when selecting a motor. Note that the torque requirement may be dependent
upon temperature and bad conditions. The running torque by a machine will be less than
the starting torque if the load is composed almost entirely of friction. If the load is
primarily inertia or wind-age, the characteristics of the inertia or wind-age producing
elements must be determined. Most machines require a higher torque value to break it
away, but once running, the torque requirement will decrease. Many drives have 150%
load capacity for 1 minute, which may allow the required additional break-away torque to
be obtained without increasing the drive horsepower rating. If the running torque is equal
to or less than the break-away torque divided by 1.5, use the breakaway torque divided by
1.5 as the full load torque required to determine the drive horsepower. Refer to specific
controller drive specifications in the product sections of the product guide to match the
AFD with the driven machine requirements.

40
TOPOLOGIES OF AC DRIVE
Three-phase supply
V/F Control :Vd

V0
Voltage
controller
Firing
circuit
K5
Vc
K6
Three-Phase
Controlled
recitier
Vd
+
Delay angle
K3
1 +
K1
l s(ref)
+
Speed
controller
Frequency
l
K2
ls
K4
Current
controller
Le
Ce
s
Inverter
l/F
Converter
Current
limit
Speed
sensor
Rotor
Volts/hertz control
(i)
Speed error (wr-wm) is applied to speed controller. Output of speed controller is

applied to current controller as current reference. This output is limited for getting
current limit function.
(ii)
Current error [ls(ref)-ls] is amplified by current-controller. The output of current

controller is applied to amplifier K3 and K4 for getting voltage reference (V) and
frequency reference (Ws) respectively.
(iii)
A small voltage V0 is added to voltage reference (V) to compensate for the stator

41

resistances drop at low frequency. Total voltage Vd [= (V+V)] acts as the
reference for the voltage controller (Ks) for which feedback comes from DC link
voltage. Output of voltage controller (K5) is given to firing circuit which provides
pulses to controlled bridge, rectifier, and thus D.C. link voltage is controlled.
(iv)
Frequency reference (Ws1)1 controls the firing of inverter-switches. Combination

of controlled rectifier bridge and Inverter Bridge provides variable voltage and
variable frequency supply (with constant V/F ration) for getting variable speed
control.
(v)
In case of PWW inverter, there is no need for the controlled rectifier and the
signal V d controls the inverter voltage directly by varying the modulation index
as shown in fig. below.
PWM Technique one come obtain variable voltage and variable frequency
at the output
The average voltage delivered to the load is controlled by ratio of total on time
and off time of voltage in half cycle. By varying this ratio we can vary the voltage from
zero to maximum. The figure on the following page illustrates how variable voltage is
obtained.
The frequency is determined by the rate at which the switch pairs in Inverter
Bridge are closed and opened. If this is rapid then frequency of supply will be more and if
the rate is low the frequency will be less. Refer to the figure on Page 9. The line duration
for which the switches are kept on is same, for all 4 switches use in the bridge.
If we keep this time less, we shall get higher frequency but keeping it on for longer time
will reduce the frequency of output voltage. Thus by controlling this line we can get
variable frequency at the output.
Half Cycle of output voltage, mean value of voltage = 500V
On Off proportion = 1:4, means value of voltage = 100V.
The above figures illustrate the principle of obtained variable voltage at the
output. The figures on the following pages illustrate the techniques of obtaining PWM
wave for wherein on time and off time can be varied.
The principle used is that of comparison i.e. a constant frequency triangular wave

42

is compared with reference voltage and the comparison decides the output voltage i.e. on
& off time of PWM control signal.
In the above method of modulation a comparison is made between a triangular
wave and a sinusoidal signal. The frequency of the triangular signal is much higher than
that of sine wave. The resulting pulse train, which is the out come of comparison, then
controls the power-switching device in the inverter.
The frequency of the sinusoidal voltage determines the output frequency on this
the speed of the motor. The magnitude of the output voltage is determined by the
magnitude of sinusoidal voltage as it determines the on and off time of the pulse in each
half cycle. This method sinusoidal modulation is preferred as it provides maximum
on time at 90 degrees and the same gradually reduces as we approach 0 degree and 180
degrees One can expect a very close to sinusoidal current in the motor winding using
this method.
Voltage Source Inverter

In the induction motor torque speed characteristics for region between slip s=0 and s=5m.
we see that the torque of induction motor is proportional to slip. Slip regulation control of
induction motor is based on this fundamental. In this scheme for a step change in speed
command, the motor accelerates on decelerates within the torque limits to a steady state
slip value corresponding to load torque. This arrangement controls the torque indirectly
within the speed control loop and does not require the current sensor.
Three-phase supply
+
V0
K4
Vc
+
Function
generator
1 +
K2
Delay angle
Le
Ce
Frequency
s1
s
s
+
Speed
Controlled
rectifier
K3
K1
m controller
K5
Slip speed
regulator
Inverter
Speed sensor
Rotor
Slip regulation
43
(i)
Speed error (wr-wm) is applied to speed controller (K1). Output of speed

controller is given to slip regulator (K2) in which slip limit sets the torque limit.
Output wsr of slip speed regulator is slip speed which when added with motor
speed (wm) gives the synchronous speed [wsr = ws wm = sws]
(ii)
Synchronous speed reference (ws) is given to a function generator (K3) which

produces the command signal for voltage control in response to the frequency
(ws). This function-block is non-linear and it further takes into account the
compensating voltage drop (V0) at low frequencies.
(iii)
Voltage error is amplified by voltage-controller K4. Output of voltage controller

finally controls the firing of controlled rectifier bridge for controlling the dc link
voltage.
Synchronous speed reference (ws) controls the firing of Inverter Bridge for
(iv)
controlling the frequency. Thus we get variable voltage & variable frequency
[with constant v/f] at motor terminals.
Current Source Inverter

Speed
controller
w1
wm
K1
Current
controller
Ld
K2
+
l2
K3
Three-phase supply
Controlled
rectifier
Firing
circuit
ld
Slip regulator
+
+
Current source
inverter
m
Rotor
Speed
sensor
(i)
Output of speed controller is applied as current reference and slip reference to

current controller and slip regulator respectively.

44

(ii)
Current regulator controls the current in D.C. link.
(iii)
Slip regulator limits the speed controller output. This limited slip reference
(wsl) is added with motor speed wm to get synchronous speed reference (ws).
This reference controls the firing of current-source invert to get variable
frequency current at motor terminals.
With a step speed command, the machine accelerates with a high current,
which is proportional, the torque. In the steady state the motor current is low.
However, in these drive the air-gap flux fluctuates. Due to varying flux at different
operating points, the performance of this drive is poor.
Current control with Constant Flux Operation :

This is similar to current control with constant slip, only difference being introduction of
Function generator between speed controller & current controller. The non-linear
function generator produces the current command to maintain the air-gap flux constant
normally at the rated value.
Flux control
Function generator
ld
K3
K2
+
l2
K1
+
m
Three-phase supply
Current
controller
Controlled
rectifier
Firing
circuit
ld
sl
Slip
regulator
+
m
Current source
inverter
+
Rotor
CONCEPT OF VECTOR DRIVES

When an induction motor runs at steady state, the respective phase voltage and currents
have sinusoidal wave-shapes whose frequency is constant and all are neatly separated by
phase angles of 120. In this condition any of the three phases can be selected as a model
for all. Simple circuit diagram and simple equations can then be formed which describes

45

the behavior of the motor.
This reassuring situation is completely upset when the motor is subjected to rapidly
changing torques, or it suddenly has to change speed. The behavior is particularly
complex when the inertia of the drive is very small. In such disturbing conditions the
voltages and currents in three phases are no longer sinusoidal and the term phase angle
loses its meaning. Under these special conditions, the currents and voltages in all three
phases must be considered on an instantaneous basis both for the stator and the rotor.
Duties of a vector drive is to target those stator currents that will produce the it does by
maintaining the rated value of flux as well as its proper orientation in the motor air-gap.
In an induction motor the torque is created by the interaction of the rotor mmf lR and
the mutual flux f. The relationship is given by
lR Sin
In order to maximize the torque angle should be closed to 900. The challenge of
vector control in the face of changing torques & speed is to
Adjust the magnitude of magnetizing current lM to produce rated flux in the
(i)
air gap.
To keep angle close to 900 .
(ii)
(iii) To keep stator currents from exceeding its maximum permissible limits.
In AC motor the magnetizing current lM is a part of stator current (ls). Hence one of the
objective of vector control is to decompose the stator current into two parts; the
component that produces the flux and the component that produces the torque as
shown in per-phase eq. circuit given below :
R1
l1
jX1
jx2
lo
l1
lm
lw
V1
jXm
R2
S
RFW

46

Approximate per-phase equipment circuit of the three-phases induction motor.
In addition the instantaneous rotor parameters have to be inferred from the instantaneous
stator parameters [These rotor parameter changes with rotor position] To keep track of all
these variables the basis circuit parameter of the motor as given above must be known.
Vector control drives incorporate a feature that actually measures the rotor & stator
parameters when the drive is installed. When the motor is in operation, the stator-voltage,
stator current, stator frequency, rotor position and speed are sensed by sensor &
transducers. The drive control algorithm than determines the wave from for different
phases from instant to instant, so that overall speed & torque requirement are met.
IGBT devices are switched at high frequency [Carrier frequencies ranging from 1 KHZ to
16KHZ] so that instantaneous value of voltage/current in each phase of motor [Both stator
& rotor] are set such that optimum drive performance is obtained. [In transient condition
the voltage & current of three-phases of motor set by drive will not be in balance 3-phase
format, i.e., amplitude & phase angle will differ from normal balance condition.
In most vector drives, the 3-phase readings are converted into equivalent 2-phase values
since they are easy to manipulate. In effect, for purpose of computation, the 3-phase
motor is converted into an equivalent 2-phase machine. This approach permits expressing
all values in terms of direct & quadrature axes like in DC motor. By vector control, AC
motors are able to give performance equivalent to DC motor in steady-state as well as
dynamic conditions.
Sensor less Vector Drives

Sensing the rotor speed & rotor position requires shaft-encoders as well as special sensors
[like hall effect sensors] to be mounted on the motor. This reduces the robustness of the
motor and makes it maintenance prone. For this reason vector drives have
computational-algorithm based on induction motor - equation's, which calculates the
speed & position of rotor with help of motor parameters & stator variables [voltage,
current, frequency] to good accuracy. These types of drives are called Sensor less Vector
Drive since they don't require speed or position sensors to be mounted on the drive.
Sensor less Vector Drives give good performance for most of the process plant
applications. Only for servo-position control [like in CNC Machines] and application
where speed demanded is very-very low, full vector control drive with encoder and other

47

sensors is required.
Note : Number of technical papers has been published by distinguished scientists and
experienced engineers for the computational algorithms of Vector & Sensor less Vector
Drives. These papers show that the calculation of motor parameters, rotor speed, rotor
position, flux components etc. can be done in number of ways. Different drive
manufacturers have adopted different strategies in their Vector & Sensor less vector
drives for determining for parameters and controlling the drive. Drive manufactures gives
different names to these technologies, however the basic aim of all being to obtain DC
drive like performance by AC drive.
Current Source Inverter

Current drawn by an induction motor does not depend on the stator frequency when the
air gap flux is constant. There exists a fixed relationship between the slip-frequency and
stator current for rated flux in the air gap, as shown in figure below.
STATOR CURRENT
Im
F2 = s f 1 = 0
ROTOR FREQUENCY
Thus by controlling the slip of the motor, the stator current can be controlled and viceversa. The curve between slip-frequency can be calculated using the equivalent circuit of

48

the motor.
In current source inverter the switching of thyristors (or semiconductors switches) is done
in such a way that inverter works like a current source [rather than voltage source as in
voltage source inverter]. This is accomplished by removing the capacitor in DC-Link and
increasing the value of inductor in DC-Link. The inductor causes the input to the inverter
[i.e. d.c. link] to appear as a d. c. current source having very large (ideally infinite)
impedance. The output voltage of current-source inverter is determined by the nature of
load impedance. Additional smoothing of the current is realized by introduction of a
current control loop in the controller section.
Rectifier
L
Three-phase
Inverter
AC
Input
lref
Current
Controller
Firing circuit
Phase control
lf
The adjustable current source
section.
1. The front-end rectifier consists of phase-controlled thyristor bridge. Phase control

of thyristors is done in such a way that it works on adjustable DC current source.
Additionally a large inductance inserted in series on DC side further improves its
characteristics as a current source.
2. The DC link current is further maintained by close loop controls shown in fig
above.

49
Circuit changes during a commutation in the three-phase bridge.

3. The three-phase bridge inverter consists of six thyristors along with six-capacitor
and six diodes. Diodes and capacitor helps in force-commutation of thyristors. In
this circuit the firing of an incoming thyristor automatically commutates the
outgoing thyristor. This takes place sequentially in the order in which the
thyristros are fixed. For this reason, the commutation process is referred to as auto
sequential commutation. Frequency of output current is adjusted by controlling
switch of the inverter thyristors.
Advantages of Current Source Inverter

1.
When a three-phase induction motor fed from a current source inverter is

regeneratively barked, the direction of the current does not reverse, but polarity of
impressed voltage at input terminal of inverter reverses. The front end phase
controlled thyristor bridge automatically goes into the inversion mode during
regenerative braking resistor on the DC side of the inverter.
2.
If motor fed from a current source inverter stalls owing to excessive load torque,
there will be no over current because the current is limited by the current source.
Therefore, the motor will not be overloaded.
3.
The direction of rotation of motor can be easily changed by reversing the phase
sequence of the inverter using the switching control circuit.

50
Owing to above advantage Auto-sequentially commutated current source

inverters are popular in industrial AC drives.
Drawback of Auto-sequential Commutated Current Source Inverter
1.
Line power factor is poor due to phase angle control of thyristors at input rectifier
section.
2.
Current Source Inverter are suitable only for single motor operation. More than
one motor cannot be connected to single CSI inverter.
3.
CSI inverter have load dependent commutation. As the load circuit elements from
a part of the commutation circuit, the inverter and the motor must be matched
with each other.
Voltage Source CURRENT Regulated Inverters
The power circuit topology of this type of inverters is similar to that of a Conventional
Voltage Source-Inverter. The DC link works as a voltage-source. The inverted is made to
behave as a constant current AC source by the closed-loop switching control strategy.
Following are two commonly used switching control strategy.
1.
Current Regulated Inverter with Hysteresis type current control.
2.
Current Regulated Inverter with PWM control.
Both the above type of control strategy is very much suited for Vector control of
induction motor. Typically in a vector-control drive, the controller determines the
instantaneous current needed in each phase of the motor and commands the inverter to
implement this current. Each phase current in a three phase motor can be independently
controlled by having separate Hysteresis at PWM controller for each phase.

51
la
lb
lc
la ref
+ -
+ -
+ -
Independent control of phase

current in a controlled current
inverter.
lb ref
lc ref
Vector Control of AC motors

The steady state accuracy that can be achieved using normal inverter-fed AC motors with
V/F controls is as good as what is possible using the separately excited DC motor.
However, the "dynamic-performance" attainable in these V/F controlled drive is
generally not as good. "Dynamic-performance" is the measure of the fastness with which
the motor can respond to change in the commanded speed or torque.
Therefore, in spite of the development of highly reliable V/F drives, the DC Motor
continued to maintain its superiority for drive's that demands high dynamic performance
such as in reversible sheet rolling mills in the metallurgical industry and many machine
tools drives.

52
Recent years have seen the evaluation of a new control strategy for AC motor called,
"Vector-Controlled", which has made a fundamental change in this picture of AC motor
drives, in regard to dynamic performance. Vector control of a separately excited DC
motor, and achieve the same quality of dynamic performance. Vector control recognizes
the fact that the inferior dynamic performance of AC motor drives is not because of a
basic limitation of the AC motor itself, but because of the manner in which power is fed
to the motor and the way this is controlled.
The high quality of dynamic performance of the separately excited DC motor is a
consequence of the fact that its armature circuit and the field circuit are magnetically
decoupled. In a DC motor, the mmf produced by the field current and mmf produced by
the armature current are spatially in quadrature. Therefore, there is no magnetic coupling
between the field circuit and the armature circuit. Because of the repetitive switching
action of the commentator on the rotor coils as the rotor rotates, this de-coupling
continues to exist irrespective of the angular position or speed of the rotor. This makes it
possible to effect fast current changes in the armature circuit, without being hampered in
this by the large inductance of the field circuit. Since the armature current can change
rapidly, the machine can develop torque and accelerate on decelerate very quickly when
speed changes are called for and attain the demanded speed in the fastest manner
possible.
As in the DC motors, in AC motors also, the torque production is the result of the
interaction of a current and a flux. But in the AC induction motor, in which the power is
fed on the stator side only, the current responsible for torque production and the current
responsible for producing the flux are not easily separable. The underlying principle of
vector control is to separate out about two component of motor current such that they are
magnetically de-coupled, and then control each independently, in the same way as is
done in a separately excited DC motor. The primary objective of vector control is to
achieve good performance when speed and torque conditions change.
Vector Control Strategy for an Induction Motor

There are different ways of implementing the vector control strategy for an squirrel cage

53

induction motor, according to the choice of the reference frames for the space-vector's
concerned. These methods are:
1.
Reference frame fixed to the "stator-flux linkage space-vector" and oriented in

the direction of this space vector as the reference direction [termed as "Stator
Flux Orientation"].
2.
Reference frame fixed to the "Rotor-flux linkage space-vector" and oriented in

its direction [termed as "Rotor Flux Orientation"].
3.
Reference frame fixed to the "Magnetizing Current Space Vector" and

oriented in its direction [Also called "Air-gap flux Orientation" or "Mutual
flux linkage orientation" since this current is responsible for flux linkage that
links both the rotor and the stator].
The most convenient and commonly used choice of reference frame for the vector control
of an induction motor is the reference frame fixed to the space vector representing the
total flux linkage of the rotor, which includes the mutual flux (due to Im) and the rotor
leakage flux (represented by X1/2 in fig. Below):
X12
X
R1
I21
I1
Im
I1 = Stator Current
IM = Magnetizing Current
I12 = Rotor Current referred to Stator
I1
IM
I12
Fig. : Current Responsible for the different flux Linkages in induction motor.
Responsible for stator flux
Responsible for Rotor Flux
Responsible for Mutual Air gap Flux

54
This means that the reference zero direction, will be that of the maximum rotor flux
linkage, including the mutual flux linkage,
. and the leakage
flux linkage of the rotor. This is a rotating reference frame, rotating with the total flux
linkage space vector of the rotor. It is also called the field-frame and the coordinates of
a space vector in this reference frame are called the field-coordinate. Vector control
implemented using the field frame is also known as Field-Orientation Control.
Acquisition of the Rotor Flux Linkage Vector

Acquisition of the rotor flux linkage space-vector is crucial for implementation of Field
Oriented Vector Control. There are different alternative ways to acquire this signal. These
methods can be classified as direct or indirect methods.
Direct Method
In this method, the flux linkage signal is acquired directly either by having special
sensors on the machine that sense the field [Flux sensors like coils or Hall effect
sensors], or by determining the flux linkage space vector directly by a so-called Fluxmodel.
Indirect Method
In this method the speed of the rotor flux linkage space vector with respect to the rotor
[the so called slip-speed] is determined and integrated and integrated to determine the
angle of movement of the field with respect to the rotor. This is added to the measured
angle moved by the rotor to obtain the angular orientation (R) of the field frame relative
to the stator frame at any instant of time.
Mounting of flux sensors requires specially built machines. These machines loose
robustness in comparison to normal squirrel-cage induction motor owing to additional
mounting arrangement of the sensors and their required maintenance. Hence this method
is limited for same specific applications.
Vector drives commonly used in industry employees flux-model or indirect methods
for acquisition of rotor-flux linkage vector. Vector control can be implemented by any of
the following methods.
1.
Impressed Voltage in the stator using a Voltage Source Inverter.
2.
Impressed current in the stator using a Current Source Inverter or Current

R

55

egulated Inverter.
Rotor flux-Oriented Vector Control using a Current Controlled Inverter

Utilizing flux-model for acquisition of Rotor flux Linkage vector, the control schematic
for Current-Source Inverter is given in the figure. The different functional circuit blocks
make up the total controller.
1.
The command speed is given as the speed reference signal (Wref.) to the error
detector block [labeled-1]. The actual speed is fed back from a tacho or other speedsensing device [labeled-16].
2.
The speed error (Wref. - Wr) is input to the speed control amplifier, which may be a
Pl Controller [labeled-2].
3.
Output of speed-controller serves as the reference input to the inner torque control
loop [same as Current-Controller in DC drive]. This reference input is labeled as
ls(qf)ref and is fed to the torque error detector, [Labelled-3]. Prevailing or actual value
of torque component ls(qf) is computed by flux model [labeled-10] and given to
torque error detector.
4.
Torque component error ls(qf)ref - ls(qf) is given to torque error amplifier [Labelled-4]
which can be Pl controller. The output of the torque controller is the input reference
for implementing the commanded value of the quadrature or torque component ls(qf)
of the stator current in the field reference frame.
5.
Field weakening block [Labelled-8] provides the field current reference lmr(qf)ref.
This value is compared in field error detector [Labelled-9] with actual value of field
current lmr obtained from flux model. The error (lmr(ref)-Imr) is input to field-error
amplifier [Labelled-5] which is also an Pl controller, Output of field controller is
the input reference for implementing the command value of the direct component or
field-component ls(df) of the stator current space-vector in the field frame.
6.
Vector-rotator block [Labelled-6] transformers commanded direct & quadrature

reference of current from field frame co-ordinates to the stator frame coordinates.
The angular-orientation (e) of the field frame relative to the stator frame at an
instant is obtained from flux-model.

56

7.
The output of Vector-Rotator block is in equivalent two-phase values. These are

transformed into the equivalent three-phase values by the 2-3 Transformation block
[Labelled-7]. These three-phase values are references for individual line currents.
8.
The comparison blocks [Labelled-11, 12, 7, 13] and the Switching control block
[Labelled-14] serve to achieve the purpose of making the line current outputs from
the inverter conform to the reference values with negligible error.
9.
The inverter [Labelled-5] is a current controlled inverter in which the current

controlled may be by the hysteresis type of switching or by PWM switching.
10.
Input to flux model block [Labelled-10] are the sensed values of the motor stator
current and the speed. The outputs of flux model block are:
ls(qf)
Quadrature or torque component of stator current in field reference

frame.
lmr
Field or direct component of stator-current in field reference frame.
Angular orientation of field frame with respect to stator frame at an

instant of time.
In the above control schematic speeds from zero to base speed are obtained by
maintaining field current at rated maximum value, corresponding to the field flux under
rated conditions of the motor. Thus below rated speeds there are no changes in the
demanded field component. Speed changes in this range are implemented by the torque
control loop. This speed range is called constant-torque range since machine develops
some maximum torque at all speeds.
Above the base speed, the controller reduces the field current reference, to enable the
speed to go up. This field-weakening speed range above base speed is called ConstantPower range since the maximum power the machine can develop is approximately.
This speed control strategy is identical to the case of the separately excited DC motor.
However, we find that vector control uses a number of computational blocks that have to
perform on-line computations for the satisfactory working of the controller. These
computations can be done by means of analog or digital circuits. With analog methods
circuits will be very exhaustive and it will be more difficult to achieve the required
accuracy. By using a dedicated microprocessor, it is possible to implement the required
computations reliably and with adequate speed and accuracy. This facility of

57

microprocessor has made3 it possible to realize high performance in AC drives using
vector control principle.
INSULATED GATE BIPLAR TRANSISTOR (IGBT)
IGBT is an semiconductor switch that combines the switching characteristic of the

MOSFET and the Power handling capabilities of the BJT. Designed in the 1980, the
IGBT has the gating properties of power MOSFET i.e. fast, voltage-driven and low
power dissipation. It has a small on-state voltage drop (2 to 3 volts) and low conduction
losses like a BJT.
Junction structure
IGBT consists of four layers. A structural schematic of an n-channel IGBT is as shown in
figure below.

58
C
C
p
p
C
n
Polysilicon
metal
n
G
p
E
metal oxide
Fig.
(a)
p
n
Vge
Insulating layer of
+
+
+
+
+
+
E
(b)
(a) Structural schematic of an n-channel IGBT (b) Symbol of an

n-channel IGBT
Fig. Operation of the IGBT
In this a p-type semiconductor is connected to the collector C, a n-type semiconductor is

connected to the emitter E and in between is an n-p semiconductor junction. The base is
connected to a metallic conductor like polysilicon metal. This is insulated from the bulk
of IGBT by an insulator, which is generally an oxide of some metal like silicon dioxide.
Principle of working
When an positive voltage is applied at the gate with respect to emitter (a source) as shown in
fig. Above an electric field will be directed perpendicularly through the insulating oxide
layer. This brings about polarization of charges within the oxide layer. Consequently these
charges attract electrons from the P material thereby creating an induced n-channel that
bridges the two n-type sections of the IGBT. The p-type semiconductor along with the
equivalent n-type semiconductor forms an equivalent p-n junction. If collector cordrain is
positive with respect to emitter (or source) in this condition, then IGBT conducts. Because
of the equivalent p-n junction, the IGBT is capable of withstanding reverse voltages during
the off state.

59

From the structural point of view, an IGBT can be viewed as a MOSFET with a diode
connected to its drain as shown in fig. Below:
C
C
p
n
n
p
G
n
E
E
Fig.
Equivalent circuit of IGBT with diode
IGBT characteristics
Fig. Below shows the test-set up and I-V steady state characteristics of an IGBT.

60

An ideal IGBT will block any voltage Vs if there is no gate voltage. Also if
(a)
a gate voltage is applied, the device immediately switches to ON state with no

voltage drop across it and carrying a current lD = Vs / RL However no switch is
ideal. Fro a realistic IGBT following points have practical implications.
(i)
An IGBT requires a threshold value VGS (TH) for the state to change from ON
to OFF or vice versa. This threshold voltage is usually about 4V.
(ii)
When VGS is more than 4 volts, the IGBT conducts but still its has a voltage
drop VDS equal to about 2V across it. In order that the On-state voltage drop
remains low, the gate is driven hard up to about 15V.
(iii)
With no gate signal, there is a limit to the blocking voltage capability of the
IGBT. This blocking voltage has temperature coeff of about 0.7V/C, because
of which IGBT has to be derated.
(iv)
Most manufacturers provided a reverse-connected diode into the same

package or have a modified design such that there is avalanche breakdown in
the reverse direction at a voltage that is as little as 15V. Always check
manufacturers data sheet for this aspect.
IGBT protection
Protection of IGBT is less complex than that for the thyristor, because of the
inherent nature of this switch being voltage controlled. However, consideration has to be
given to over voltages, over currents and transients, just like other semiconductor
switches.
Over voltages:
For protecting IGBT against forward break over voltages, supply voltage is
limited to no more than 80 % of the IGBT rated value. Auxiliary protection is obtained
by connecting across the IGBT a non-linear voltage arrester, which is a metal oxide
device whose resistance decreases rapidly with voltage increase. The arrester diverts
current from a blocking IGBT if the applied voltage rise to a value beyond that permitted,
either as a transient or as a steady state.
Theoretically, protection against reverse bias voltages across the drain to sink terminal of
the IGBT is the same as the forward bias protection.
Howe

61

ver in IGBT in which reverse blocking voltage is not more than 15 to 25V owing to
design feature than a reverse-connected diode is placed across the IGBT to give
protection against reverse voltages. In order to allow high reverse voltages, to be blocked
in circuits with such IGBTs, additional diode is connected in series with IGBT.
Over current protection:

Thermal limitations impose the restriction on maximum current that an IGBT can carry.
Fuses and gate control are used to interrupt or reduce current in IGBT within a few
microseconds, so that destruction of devices does not takes place. Owing to faster
switching action gate-control can be effectively used in limiting current in the IGBT.
Transients Protection
IGBT has as a pnpn junction structure owing to which it has on inherent parasiticthyristor. Hence the device can be turned on by high dv/dt. For protection IGBT against
dv/dt turn-on, snubber circuit is connected across IGBT. Gate resistance RG is also
increased so that parasitic thyristor does not gets ON owing to high main current (if
parasitic thyristor gets ON, then IGBT will not get commutate on removal of gate bias
thus leading to abnormal condition).
The high rate of rise of current [di/dt] (for example during starting of motor etc.) is
limited by reducing the gate voltage VGS. Series inductors are also used for limiting high
di/dt.
IGBT ratings
A single IGBT is available for any applications of power or voltage modulation where the
specification demand ratings of voltages in the 300V to 1600V range, current in the 10A
to 400A range and switching frequency in the 1 KHz to 20 KHz range. These rating put
the use of IGBT in the mid power range (less than 0.5 MW) and in the mid frequency
range. That is, the power range lies between that of the MOSFET at the low end and that
of thyristor at the high end.
There is competition between IGBT & BJT. However there is following difference
between them.
(i)
BJT is current controlled for switching ON & OFF, whereas the IGBT is
voltage controlled.

62

(ii)
Gate control drives with voltage control like in IGBT are simpler and incur
lower power dissipation Isolation of gate from power circuit is one of the most
prominent feature of IGBT.
(iii)
Switching of IGBT is faster than BJT.
Owing to above feature IGBT is fastly replacing BJT for motor drives, UPS,
transportation applications etc.
POWER MOSFET
The power MOSFET is the high power version of low power metal-oxide-semiconductor
field effect transistor (MOSFET) that is widely used in analog and digital signal
processing circuits.
Junction Structure
The MOSFET is a three terminal device. It has a source lead S a drain lead D and a
gate lead G. The flow of current between drain and source is controlled by the voltage
applied between gate and source terminals. Fig. Below shows an npn type of MOSFET in
which there connected to the source S and in between is a p-type semiconductor. The
gate is connected to a metallic conductor like polysilicon metal. This is insulated from the
bulk of the MOFSET by an insulator, which is generally an oxide of some metal like
silicon dioxide.
D
D
polysilicon
Metal
n
n
Substrate
p
n
Insulating layer
of metal oxide
eg. Silicon dioxide
+
+
+
+
+
+
p
n
Vgs
S
(a)
Fig.
Fig.
Operation of the MOSFET
(a) Structural schematic of an n-channel MOSFET

63
Fig. Below shows the circuit symbol of npn type MOSFET and a circuit with
MOSFET switch.
Operation of the MOSFET as a switch depends on the polarity of voltages at the

terminals. In order to turn on for conduction of current in the load, the drain terminal D
is made positive with respect to the source terminal S and the switch Sw is closed so
that the gate terminal G is made positive with respect to the source terminal S. The
positive gate to source voltage develops an electric field directed perpendicularly through
the insulating oxide layer. This brings polarization of charges within the oxide layer.
Consequently these charges attract electrons from the p-material thereby creating an
induced n-channel that bridges the two n-type drain and source sections of the MOSFET.
The MOSFET goes into conduction and start carrying the load current. As soon as gate
voltage is disconnected the induced n-channel diminishes and MOSFET goes into off
state.

64
Static Characteristic of MOSFET

Vgs - VgsT
Vgs
id
id
Ohmic
reglon
Active
region
VgsT
Vgs (a)
Fig.
(b)
Vds
Static characteristics of MOSFET
Fig. (a) above shows the load current versus Vgs characteristic. It can be seen that there is
a threshold voltage Vgst below which the device is OFF. This Vgst is of the order of 3-4
volts in most Power MOSFETs.
As shown in fig (b) in active region, the drain current (id) is independent of drain-source
voltage and depends only on Vgs. The ohmic region corresponds to switching action of
MOSFET is ON or OFF depending upon magnitude of Vgs. If Vgs > Vgst MOSFET is
OFF.
MOSFET Ratings and Applications

1.
A single MOSFET switch can be used in any application of power or voltage

modulation, where the ratings of voltage lie between 50 V and 500 V and where
the currents lie between 2 A and 50 A. Maximum power that can be handled by
single MOSFET is about 10 KW. Thus power-handling capacity of MOSFET is
far less than other power switching devices like. BJT, Thyristor, IGBT etc.
2.
The switching time of MOSFET is very-very short and the gate driver is simple
and requires very less power. The maximum frequency of switching of
MOSFET is of the order of 100 KHz, which is higher than all other powerelectronic switches. This makes MOSFET very suitable for PWM power control
techniques.

65

3.
MOSFET are mostly used in low voltage, low power and high switching
frequency circuits. Motor speed control using MOSFET is more accurate and
has a faster response owing to high switching frequency. MOSFET are also used
in Switch Mode Power Supplies, induction heating, high frequency fluorescent
lighting, welding etc.

66

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