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Contents
Preface ix
Foreword xi
Acknowledgments xiii
List of Figures

xv

List of Abbreviations

xix

1. Introduction
2. Indian Women Through Ages
2.1 General Introduction
2.2 Education
2.2.1 Institution of Marriage

1
5
5
10
10

2.3 Divorce

11

2.4 Niyoga or Levirate

12

2.5 Sati

12

2.6 Womens Rights

13

2.7 Public Women

14

2.8 Incest

14

2.9 Polyandry

15

2.10 Women in Political Activities:

15

2.11 Captivity

15

2.12 Jauhar

16

2.13 Dress

17

2.14 Vesara - Ornaments and cosmetics

18

3. Women During Sultanate Period

21

3.1 Women in Politics

21

3.2 Matrimonial Alliances

28

Contents

3.3 Harem

29

3.4 Education

30

3.5 Purdah

32

3.6 Women and Morality

33

3.7 Suitable Activities for Women

33

3.8 Marriage (Institution)

35

3.9 Jauhar

37

3.10 Women and Professions

37

3.11 Slavery

38

3.12 Public Women

39

3.13 Dancing Girls

41

3.14 Bhakti Movement and Women

42

3.15 Women and Sufis

46

3.16 Ideal Woman

47

3.17 Dress

49

3.18 Ornaments

49

3.19 Cosmetics

50

4. Mughal Period

58

4.1 Women and Politics during Mughal Rule Early phase

(15261605 A.D)

58

4.2 Petticoat Government

63

4.3 Women and Politics later phase (16051707)

68

4.4 Matrimonial Alliances

80

4.5 Akbars Political Marriages with the

82

4.6 Marriages with Rajput Princesses:

82

4.7 Harem

84

5. Privileges of Mughal Ladies

96

5.1 Titles

98

5.2 Offices (Held by the Ladies)

99

5.3 Economic Benefits

100

5.4 Legal Documentation

101

5.5 Commercial Activities:

102
viii

Contents

6. Cultural Contribution of Mughal Ladies

106

6.1 Religious Pursuits

106

6.2 Literary Accomplishments

108

6.3 Eminent Lady Scholars

108

6.4 Educational Institutions

113

6.5 Paintings

113

6.6 Music

115

6.7 Dance

116

6.8 Architecture

118

6.9 Dress, Toilets and Ornaments

122

6.10 Womens Toilets

124

6.10.1 Mang

126

6.10.2 Bali

126

6.10.3 Besar

126

6.10.4 Har

126

6.10.5 Payel

127

6.11 Foods & Drinks

127

6.12 Feast, Fairs and Festivals

130

6.13 Marriages

134

6.14 Presents

136

6.15 Travelers Gifts

138

6.16 Mode of Traveling

142

6.17 Indoor Games, Sports

144

7. Common Indian Woman

159

7.1 Female Child

160

7.2 Education

160

7.3 Marriage as an Institution

161

7.4 Polygamy

164

7.5 Dowry

165

7.6 Divorce

166
ix

Contents

7.7 Widowhood

168

7.8 Widows Remarriage

168

7.9 Sati (Widows Self Immolation)

168

7.10 Purdah

173

7.11 No Purdah for Common Women

176

7.12 Domestic Works

177

7.13 Economic Empowerment

181

7.14 Prostitution

183

7.15 Women servants

185

7.16 Financial support from the side of the Mughal state

187

7.17 Dress

189

7.18 Ornaments

190

Conclusion
Bibliography
Illustration of Indian Women
Index

199
205
217
225

List

of

Figures

Chapter Two Indian Women Through Ages

Figure 2.1 (a) and (b) women decked with ornaments. Sculptures of
Bharhut (Central India) Now in Indian museum. Calcutta.
Copy right = archaeological survey of India A.S. Altekar.
The position of women in Hindu civilization
Figure 2.2 Some fashions of Coiffure. Sculptures at Bhuvaneshwar
orgies. A. L Altekar, The position of Women in Hindu
Civilization
Figure 2.2 Ornaments and head dress. Copy Right Kumari Minakshi
Batesh varkar. A.S Altekar: The position of women in
Hindu Civilization
Chapter Three Women During Sultanate Period
Figure 3.1 Teachers with road teaching children at school (dabistan).
Note girl with wooden board, sitting with a boy, near at
the teacher illustration c. 1500, Miftahul Fuzala compiled
in 1469, British Library MS Or. 3299, f. 278b
Figure 3.2 Earliest depiction of the spinning wheel in India. Mahmud
Shadiabadi, Miftahul Fuzala (146869) Births Library MS
Or. 3299, f.94b
Chapter Four Mughal Period
Figure 4.1 Geeti Sen, Paintings from Akbarnama Maham Anga Plate
No. 16.
Figure 4.2 Geeti Sen, Paintings from Akbarnama Maham Anga (wet
nurse of Akbar in the court) Plate no. 17.

List of Figures

Chapter Six Cultural Contribution of Mughal Ladies

Figure 6.1 Royal Musicians Perform at a Marriage, Akbarnama,
1590 of earlier. Courtesy of the Board of Trustees of
the Victoria and Albert Museum, IS.21896 f.8/117.
The heralding ensemble (naubat of naqqarakhana) on
the right announces the presence of the Emperor. Three
Indian women in the centre sing and play the drum (dhol)
and cymbals (tala), while central Asian female musicians
accompany dancers on tambourine (daira).
Figure 6.2 Dance parties of Mughal Emperor, Zeenit Zaid, The
magnificent Mughals.
Figure 6.3 The Wedding of Shah Jahan on His 42nd Lunar Birthday.
Painted by Bhola. Padshahnama, ca. 1635. The Royal
Collection 2000 Her Majesty Queen Elizabeth
II. Holmes Binding 149, p. 140, f. 70b. The naubat/
naqqarakhana musicians play accompanied by singing,
dhrupad, rubab, rudravina, dhol, tambur, castanet and
possibly other instruments.
Figure 6.4 Necklace. A gold hansuli necklace studded with precious
stones worn by men. Eighteenth century AD. Rajasthan.
National Museum, New Delhi, 88. 195.
Figure 6.5 Necklace. The Enameled reverse of a navratan (nine
gems) necklace with pearl skirting above. Mughal period,
eighteenth century AD. National Museum, New Delhi, 64.
142.
Figure 6.6 Impression of Nickels.
Figure 6.7 Gold bracelet. With pink enameling and studded
with precious stones. Late eighteenth century or early
nineteenth century AD. Varanasi. Bharat Kala Bhavan,
Varanasi, 3/10511.
Figure 6.8, Bangle. Set with semi precious stones, painted emeralds
6.9, 6.10
and pearls on the outer rim. The inner side is enameled
in red, green, white and yellow. Nineteenth century AD.
Rajasthan. National museum, New Delhi, 87.1180.

xviii

List of Figures

Figure 6.11 Head Ornament. A turban ornament studded with rosecut diamonds a painted hexagonal emerald in the centre,
two Mid-nineteenth century AD.
Figure 6.12 Head Ornament.
Figure 6.13 Head Ornament.
Figure 6.14 Gold nose-ring. Inlaid semi-precious stones, decorated
with copper and gold leaves on top and bung with chains
and pearls. 18th century AD, Himachal Pradesh. National
Museum, New Delhi, 87.1168.
Figure 6.15 Ear ornaments. Hoop ear-ring shaped like a double
crescent with a fish motif and set with uncut diamonds.
Early Nineteenth century AD. Rajasthan. National
Museum, New Delhi, 893.968/12.
Figure 6.16 Head ornament A Jhumar (head ornament) set with
pearls and gems and gold enameling with white sapphires
and ruby beads. Mughal Period, 17th century AD.
Provenance unknown. National museum, New Delhi, 89,
1030.
Figure 6.17 Necklace. A thusi gold Necklace studded precious
stones, and pearls and clusters of enameled beads below
the stones inlay. Detail of the green enameling on the
reverse in shown on the facing page. Nineteenth century
AD. Rajasthan National Museum, New Delhi, 57.105/10.
Figure 6.18 A Raj put princess smoking a hookah. Tobacco was
introduced into India by the Portuguese; smoking the
hookah then became an elite refinement. Abraham Early,
Mughal World, A tainted paradise.
Figure 6.19 A Mughal garden pavilion. Laying out gardens, with
fountains and watercourses, was a passion for Mughals.
Abraham Early, The Mughal World.
Figure 6.20 A Mughal garden pavilion. Laying out gardens, with
fountains and watercourses, was a passion for Mughals.
Abraham Early, The Mughal World.
Figure 6.21 NurJahan with gun. Annemarie Schimmel. The Empire of
the Great Mughal.

xix

List of Figures

Chapter Seven Common Indian Women

Figure 7.1 A women bring good for her husband in the Field.
(Anwar-i-Suhaili 1597).
Figure 7.2 Women rubbles the stones for construction
Figure 7.3 Women holding construction material.
Figure 7.4 Women working in the construction of Agra Fort. Geeti
Sen. Paintings from Akbarnama.
Figure 7.5 Birth of Akbar. Wet nurse was clear in the picture. Geeti
Sen. Paintings from Akbarnama.
Figure 7.6 Women work as mid-wives Geeti Sen Paintings From
Akbarnama.

xx

List

of

Abbreviations

Afif

Shams Siraj Afif

Ain

Ain-i-Akbari

Badaouni

Mulla Abdul Qadir Badaouni

Barani

Zia-ud-din Barani

Bev

Aneette S Beveridge

E&D

Elliot & Dowson

Ed

Edited

Fida

Maulvi Fida Hussain Talib

R&D

Rogger and Beveridge

Rav

Major Raverty

Tabaqat

Tabaqat-i-Akbari

Tuzuk

Tuzuk-i-Jahangiri

Vols

Volumes

CHAPTER

Introduction

31

The research on Indian Feminism, Class, Gender and identity in Medieval

ages encircles the study of problems faced by Indian women for centuries,
specifically during the period under review (12361707). It is an attempt to
highlight the contributions of women as equal counter-parts of their men
folk in India.
Indian society was predominantly a patriarchal society. Many components
like religion, state, customs /taboos did try to restrict womens independence.
Moreover, the mode of production always determined the status of women
in feudal infrastructure. Since the major source of income in India was
agriculture, so one would like to see her status in this light too.
Women and particularly elite Muslim women did remain behind the
Purdah. Source of medieval India are not reflective on women issues.
Whatever little information we do get is basically related to the elite women.
One has to take help from Folk literature, traditions and popular literature to
unveil the contribution and status of the common women in Indian society.
1.1 Period under Review (12361707 A.D)

The period under review is very important for a study of status of women
in Hindustan. The developments which occurred during this period gave
women history a new phase and a new cultural integrity. India is a multicultural country where different religions have given different shades to the
social life of women. Influx of Muslim invasions gave a new meaning to the
status of women in India. During this period we see rule of a woman i.e.
Raziya Sultan (12361240 AD).
In this research an attempt has been made to unveil the social status of
women; their social customs and domestic interests are specially mentioned
to make the picture clear. It is revealed by the literature and survey of the
documents and sources related to the women of era that very little is known
about the social life of women. Elite classes of Indian women suffered due to
the unchallenged system of purdah, women were confined in secluded places

Indian Feminism

far from the reach of evil eyes. So much so that no one could get a glimpse of
their faces. Therefore, it appears that contemporary historians avoided public
references to the ladies. Their political, religious and literary contribution
has been narrated by the Persian chroniclers without referring to the social
positions of common women. In the present study I would like to probe the
attitude of the rulers, Umarahs, and religious people towards women and their
status in the society.
1.2 Objectives of the Study

To determine the status of Indian women according to their resourcefullness and utility.
To evaluate the role of Muslim woman of Medieval India and her miseries
due to purdah system.
To examine social customs and taboos of that era, this made them
subordinate of men.
To study class order of Indian society i.e. elite women and common
women.
1.3 Literature Survey

There is more or less connected series of Persian chronicles compiled

(translated and edited) by reliable contemporary historians. Among them I
have consulted.
1.3.1 Persian Chronicles

Tabaqat-i-Nasiri, (1970 Delhi), Tarikh-i-Firoz Shahi of Ziya-ud-Din Barani

(1983 Lahore), Tarikh-i-Firoz Shahi of Shams-i-Siraj Afif (1938 Hyderabad),
Tarikh-i-Mubarak Shahi (1975 Lahore), Tarikh-i-SherShahi (1917 Oxford),
Amir Khusrau: Historical literature derived a large part of information from
his poems. Hasht Bahisht (1870 Patna), Khazain-ul-Futuh (1975 Lahore),
Devalrani Khizr Khan (1986 Delhi), Matl-a-ul-Anwar (1890 Delhi), Ijaz-iKhusravi (1870 Aligarh) In Mughal period Persian chronicles from emperor
Babar to Aurangzeb, Babar Nama (1921 London), Humayunama (1975
Lahore), Tuzuk-i-Jahangiri (1976 Lahore), Akbarnama (1974 Lahore), Aini-Akbari, Tabqat-i-Akbari (1979 Lahore), Muntakhab-ul-Twarikh (1890
Calcutta), Badshahnama (1916 Delhi), Maasir-i-Alamgiri (1969 Calcutta), and
many other contemporary sources depicted those events which occurred
during the of regime of different emperors regarding the lives of women.
2

Rukhsana Iftikhar

1.3.2 The Foreign Travelers

The most valuable sources of the contemporary social history of India is

to be found in the accounts of foreign travelers. There is a continuous line
of these travelers from thirteen to eighteenth century. In fourteenth century
Ibn-e-Battutah (1953 Baroda), the famous traveler who spent his whole life
in traveling throughout the Muslim world came to Hindustan. Mughal era is
much more fertile for the entrance of foreign travelers on Indian soil. They had
given a vivid description of Indian social life. Thomas Coryat (1921 London),
Joannes Delaet (1975 Delhi), William Finch (1921 London), William foster
(1914 Hakluyt Society), John Fryer (1917 Edinburgh), Peter Mundy (1975
Delhi) Niccolao Manucci (190708 London), J. Ovington (1929 Oxford),
Francoise Pelsaert (1917 Delhi), Sir Thomas Roe (MCMV Glasgow), Edward
Terry (1905 Calcutta) and Beriner are among some of the travelers who
have written about Indian women. Their primary objective was to promote
relations between India and their native countries but their contribution to
Indian history as well cannot be denied.
1.4 Layout of the book
1.4.1 Chapter One: Introduction
1.4.2 Chapter Two: Indian Women through Ages

With the coming of feudalism, the birth of female child was considered
a bad omen in Indian society, so womens position relegated down-wards.
The ultimate goal of an Indian woman was marriage. Child marriage was
quite popular, especially in the lower strata of ancient Indian society. Sanskrit
literature mentioned that various forms of marriages prevailed in ancient
India. Social customs like Niyoga, Sati, incest, polyandry etc. made the life of
Indian women miserable.
1.4.3 Chapter Three: Women during Sultanate Period

Political activities of women during Sultanate period, the problems of elite

class women, purdah and polygamy, codified rules of morality, the lower
strata of Indian Society and their problems i.e. social customs and traditions,
professions of women during Sultanate, Bhakti movement and their resistance
towards the evils, especially those which effected the women in society, Sufi
saints and their role towards the emancipation of women discussed in detail.
3

Indian Feminism

1.4.4 Chapter Four: Mughal Period

Political activities of women during Mughal rule have been analyzed in two
parts.
Part I (15261605 A.D)
Part II (16051707 A.D)
Establishment of Mughal harem an institution, its organization and
influence upon Mughal politics, political matrimonial alliances of Mughals
especially with Rajputs have also been looked through.
1.4.5 Chapter Five: Privileges of Mughal Ladies
1.4.6 Chapter Six: Cultural Contribution of Mughal Ladies

Elite Class (Royal, Noble Women)

Dress Ornaments
Gems
Cultural and religious ceremonies
Music Amusements
Painting
Architecture

1.4.7 Chapter Seven: Common Indian Woman

Common women in Indian society and their problems

Women Education
Marriage Institution (Child marriage, second marriage, divorce,
widowhood) Customs and traditions
Sati, Jahuar, Slavery, Concubines
Seclusion of Women Purdah in elite class Peasant women move freely
Women, a moveable property
1.5 Conclusion
1.6 Bibliography

CHAPTER

Indian Women
Through Ages

2.1 General Introduction

Woman has formed an integral part of social structure along with man
from time immemorial. The prosperity and welfare of any society can be
determined by the status of women. They play a pivotal role in making
Customs, traditions, and rituals. Her status in a society is a measuring yard for
assessing the standard of culture of any age or clime.
This has always been a mans world. Enough ink has spilled over the issues
of gender equality. Many books have focused upon discrimination on the basis
of sex. The status of woman is irritating subject especially in male dominating
feudal societies of the world. Role and status of woman in any society of the
world is not a topic which discuss in isolation. Before going into the details
of the gender issues, its problems, its implications, it is better to discuss the
social structure of a society. Social structure is a complex phenomena always
inter linked with the economic status. Social status of any individual is based
upon wealth, power, and occupation and sometimes on racial hierarchies as in
the case of India (caste system). So, Indian mode of production was based on
agricultural during medieval period (12061707) Mode of production again
consists of two elements:
1. Sub-structure.
2. Super- structure.1
According to Karl Heinrich Marx (18181883) social class is determined
by ones relation to mode of production. The means of production formulate
two classes in any society, first the owner of the means of production, second
those who sell their labor to the owner of mode of production. Throughout
the history the ideology of the bourgeoisie (ruling class) has the same. Fake
consciousness about the problems of lower classes is prompted by political

Indian Feminism

and non-political institutions through art and other elements of culture. Petite
bourgeoisie (aristocracy) creates culture and destroys it just for the sake of
own financial benefits.2
Karl Marx also categories the other classes of the society like proletariat
and lumped-proletariat includes prostitutes, beggars and untouchables. As in
the case of medieval Indian society upper classes formed social structure and
so- called culture survived within the social structure. The culture changed
its shape and impression in the lower classes. Max Weber (18641920)
challenged Karl Marx classification of society on the bases of power, wealth
and occupations, but his idea is more relevant to the western social structure.
During Muslim rule in India (12061857) the social structure was
kingship-oriented where material wealth was more important also followed
social stratification. In King ship-oriented cultures , elite class work to prevent
social hierarchies from developing new ideas because it ultimately lead to
competition and conflict which creates instability in an empire. It is fabric
of social stratification Indian in India in which existence of gender and its
role is huge task to trace. Gender is the most pervasive and prevalent social
characteristic, a source of social distinction between two individuals. It leads
to social role expectation normally form on the basis of sex-lines. Societies
in the world may be classified by the rights and privileges granted to man
and women. In patriarchal societies these rights and privileges only associated
with men.3
Gender based division of labor is almost found everywhere in the
world. Male is the bread- winner and female has to limit zed her duties and
responsibilities in homes. It is viable to keep clear some concepts of social
framework to go into the details of the events of selected period (12361707
A.D). First, in which class of society a woman belongs. She belongs to elite
class like Razyia and Noor Jahan in the period under study. Karl Marx placed
these people in bourgeoisie, a privilege class who make their own culture.
If a woman belong to lower class (lumped proletariat i-e concubines and
prostitutes in Muslim Harem) than she has live a life for her masters pleasure.4
Second, status of a woman, her status and social prestige in a particular
society determines her role. Max Weber differs with Marx about material
status by floated this idea that political power is not rooted in materialism
solely but social status is also determined by respect in a society like Sufi ,
Bhakti saints ,poets like Amir Khusru in Sultanate period (12061526A.D)
6

Rukhsana Iftikhar

They have positive influence and high status irrespective of their material
status. Sometimes king paid homage and tribute to their social contribution.
Amir Khusru and Malik Muhammad Jaisi have extensive literary as well social
contribution during Sultanate period. There were only few women under this
category who influenced the Medieval Indian society. The names Bibi Fatimah
Sam of Mira Bia are worth able to be mentioned here.5
Third, personal ability of an individual which she can engage social change
- power of Rajputs in Mughal India, a strong king like Akbar (15401606
A.D) had to engaged them in civil services. Through this action he brought
peace and stability in his empire. This association brought many changes in
the social order of Mughal court. Even those Rajput women who came in
the harem through matrimonial alliances they maintained their individuality
in the Harem. They were not forced to change their religious as well as social
set-up. These women also broke the barriers of two communities by receiving
the title of Maryum Zammi. So these women have their own social status
definitely different from the common women of India.
Historical discourse and classical antiquity

Women had dethroned by the advent of private property. In the large part of
her history is involved with that of patrimony. She becomes a property which
could easily own, transfer, alienates and maintained. In the time patriarchal
power, man wrested from women, all her right to possess and bequeath
property. For this matter it is admitted that women children are no longer
hers by the same claim, he has no sympathy with women. She is torn up by the
group into which she was born. He buys her as ones animal or slaves from the
market. He imposes his domestic divinities upon her and her children belong
to his (husbands) family.6 If she is not fertile than she could be easily dispose
of in the social dust.
The patriarchs were normally polygamous. They could put away their
wives almost at will; it was required under severe penalties that a young
wife is turned over to her husband a virgin; in case of adultery the wife was
stoned. She was kept in the confinement of domestic duties. This moveable
commodity transfer from one family member to another (levirate) is found in
many oriental peoples. Much more frequently a widow is handed over to the
heirs of the husband. The levirate sometimes takes the form of polyandry; to
forestall the uncertainties of widowhood, all the brothers in a family are given
as husbands to one woman in early Greek society. In polygamous societies
7

Indian Feminism

the wife was required to be obedient to her husband unconditionally, chosen

by her father when she was of marriageable age. Insect was not forbidden in
ancient civilizations. The marriages between brother and sister were frequently
happened. The female was responsible for the education of children-boys at
the age of seven and girls up to marriage. She has to live a life under the
guardianship of the male, father, and husband and in widowhood son was
the sole owner of body and soul of a woman. The bourgeoisie maintained
larger harems always have heavy expenses, king, chieftains, rich who could
indulge in sexual activities afford vast seraglio. There was an establishment
or hierarchy of Harem , chief queen and the elder heir always have better
ranking and dignity in the cluster of royal linage. But the polygamous could
satisfy their lust with pallages (concubines) and wives were only made to give
them sons. These women replaced in masters bed sometimes if the wife was
ill and sometimes just to taste a new one. The Greek established a custom of
epilates: the female heir must marry her eldest relative in her fathers family
(genoas). Thus the property of the family remains in family. This custom put
her at the mercy of men.7
Primitive people also practice the prostitution sometimes for the sake of
hospitality and sometimes for personal pleasure. Even religious prostitution
has persisted to the present time in Egypt, India and western Asia. Sacred
prostitution become legal and sacerdotal class fined this profession profitable.
There was mercenary prostitution even in Hebrews. A refined form of
prostitution was courtesans who can categorized into three forms; the
dicteriads (licensed prostitutes), auletrids (dancers and flute players) and
hetairas demi monde who carried liaison with the aristocracy. The first were
recruited from the lower section in the society the second were often become
rich due to their talent of music, most celebrated example was lamia, mistress
of Egyptian Ptolemy, and third , freewomen become the respectable mothers
of a family. A respectable woman in Egyptian civilization shared some legal and
economic rights by the ownership of land and slaves. She could acquire those
professions which she likes. Elite women have more rights and opportunities
as compare to lower classes. But there were some universal expectations i.e.
to get married, raised a family, household management and the training of
younger generations.8
In Rome the conflict between family and state determined the history
of women. In Roman society when a woman married she passed into the
hands of her husband; there were three types of marriages. First, in which
8

Rukhsana Iftikhar

couple to the Capitoline Jupiter a cake of wheat in the presence of the flamen
dialis second, coemptio a fictitious sale in which father handed over his
daughter to the husband, third, usus the result of years cohabitation. All these
resembled with the Manus concept of guardianship. A woman remains
under the control of Male guardian, in childhood her father, in puberty her
husband and in widowhood her son would be the best guardian of her. Her
life is secure in the four walls of her house. The woman who works outside
considers the woman of bad character. It was not the dilemma of Indian
society. In ancient Greek and Roman societies male behaved on the same
way. In Roman civilization sons were more superior to girls especially after
the death of a father it was only son who carried out the business of his
father. Child marriage was popular for political interest woman had to married
before the age of puberty; husband could divorce her on the adultery. In The
law of separation of property gifts between spouses were not recognized.
Concubine-age was the accepted feature of roman society.9
In Chinese civilization women were inferior to men. Women had to live
under Confucius doctrine in which women occupied an inferior position in
this social structure. They believed that the subservience of women to men
is natural and proper. Women are respectable in some ways like mother and
mother-in-law. Chinese literature educates women for etiquette, relationship
with in laws, household management, humility and chastity. Her greatest duty
is to produce son. A woman who has no talent is considered a best choice for
men. There are two creatures that cannot be taught - women and eunuchs. The
rule of the women is like a hen crowing. So those societies which accepted the
rule of women ultimately destroyed.
Wright Mill (19161962) identified the power of Elite class in a society.
He believed this power is not only due to economic sources but also military
influence. The existence of this power could be conceptual in the period of
Slave dynasty especially in the regime of Raziya Sultan (12361240). Mill
Explained, the member of this elite class able to recognize by their high
positions in a society. In order to maintain their position in a society they
understand and accept each other and work together. The most crucial aspect
of the power of elites existence was based on the racial superiority in medieval
ages. The core of forty ( ) manipulate the political circumstances
into their favor in the period Razyia Sultan. She was the first woman who tried
to minimize their power in politics through the appointment of Yaqut as the
master of Royal stables but she had paid a heavy price of this change.10
9

Indian Feminism

The birth of female child was not welcomed generally in ancient India.
There are many reasons for this attitude. Religion may be one of the causes
because all the codified and non codified religions have been dominated and
controlled by men11. The parents had to bear undue hardships in bringing
up their daughters, protecting them and arranging their marriages, providing
for a handsome dowry and even supporting them in adverse conditions
after marriage. Thus a daughter brought a cumbersome burden of liabilities
upon the parents. There is another extreme social and economic burden
upon parents in the case of their widowhood12. Biologically, woman is
also considered impure. Husbands are advised to abstain from all physical
relations with their partners during menstruation. Child birth is also a process
of impurity. Women were put in confinement for 21 days after the birth of
a son; this period was increased in case of a female child up to 30 days13.
On this occasion a special ritual called Punsawan Senskar a ceremony was
performed during third month of pregnancy. In this ceremony a hymn was
prayed in ancient Indian society,
Almighty God, you have created this womb, women may be born
somewhere else but a son should be born from this womb.14 A woman was
expected to remain pure and chaste in every stage of her life. Adultery was
considered a grave sin. Punishments were inflicted upon those who indulged
in this act. Manu (the law maker) suggested, a man who committed adultery
should be burnt alive and a woman should be devoured by dogs.
2.2Education

In Ancient times, Vedic education was considered the privilege of males.

Ancient Indian literature has revealed two types of students (female) as
far as the matter of formal education was concerned. Brahmavadinis and
Badyodvahas. Brahmavadinis, those female students studied religious subjects
up till the age of their marriage. Badyodvahas, were those who acquired greater
knowledge in various faculties like music, dance, art, painting, religion and
philosophy. These were the subjects of womans interest in Ancient India15.
2.2.1 Institution of Marriage

Marriage was considered a pious ritual and parents were quite conscious about
the marriage of their daughters. Those who failed to marry their daughters
before puberty became the subject of public criticism. Puberty was the main
criterion to set the age of marriage in ancient India. Child marriage was
10

Rukhsana Iftikhar

prevalent for maintaining the chastity of girls as it provided them no chance

to indulge in premarital sex. The custom of child marriage also curtailed the
period of education for woman16. Manu (law maker) mentioned a man of
thirty years shall marry a maiden of twelve years. In medieval period Akbar
tried to regulate the age for marriage. References are found for the seven17
forms of marriage but there is a controversy about the sanity attached to all
these forms.
Female was a burden of parents so they had shifted this burden to the
other party as soon as possible. They married their daughters at the age of
six and seven years. It again varied in the different classes. The women of
elite class entered into marriage after puberty and women of lower classes
in tender age. Women were not permitted to involve any unchaste conduct if
they did so then she was not acceptable as wife. Marriage was considered a
scared ceremony must perform in the presence of family and friends. But few
forms of marriages were not acceptable mentioned in smirtis. (see the detail
below).
2.3Divorce

The concept of divorce was hated in ancient India. The sutra literature
condemns the practice of divorce.
If the marriage vow is transgressed both husband and wife certainly go
to her. Manu laid down that a man may abandon his wife in case of serious
disease or loss of chastity on her part. On the other hand he objected that a
wife may not leave her husband if he is insane, impotent and suffering from
an incurable disease18.
According to A.S Altekar there are five cases of legal sanction, where
a woman is allowed to take divorce or remarriage if the husband is missing
(Nasht,) dead (Marta) becomes an ascetic (Pravajita), impotent (kliba) and
degraded from caste (patita).19
Kautilya gives detailed rules of divorce, if a man or the wife hated each
other, divorce was to be granted, if a man apprehending danger from his wife,
sued for divorce, he had to return to her whatever presents he had received
at the time of marriage. If the wife was the complainant then, she had to
forfeit her proprietary rights to her husbands family however divorce was not
permitted. According to Arthasastra Brahma, Daiva, Arsha and Prajapatya
forms of marriage ruled out divorced in ancient times 20.
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Indian Feminism

2.4 Niyoga or Levirate

The custom of having an off-spring from brother-in-law after the death

of husband was known as Niyoga. The reasons for the prevalence of this
custom are not difficult to make out. The woman was everywhere regarded
as a species of property, which passed on to the husbands family on her
marriage. She was married no doubt, to a person, but also to his family. So
if her husband died his brother or any other nearest relation would take
her as wife to get and raise children from her. This usually happened when
a person died without leaving any male issue behind. If he died without a
son, it was regarded as a great spiritual calamity. It was the sacred duty of
a brother to see that his sister-in-law gave birth to a son, to perpetuate his
brothers memory21. The remarriage of widows was not encouraged in Indian
society. It was expected that widows should lead a life of abstinence, which
would earn them salvation and they could not participate in social or religious
activities. Their presence was considered inauspicious22. Manu and Kautilya
both discussed the provision of widow re-marriage in detail and allow them
to remarry. The tradition of waiting before the second marriage prevailed in
the society. The reason behind this period was the pregnancy of widow. The
second marriage did not deprive them from her right of inheritance from the
previous husband.
2.5 Sati

Sati (a Devangri word), the feminine of Sat may refer to a pious person. In
Pali language sati means mindfulness and in Buddhism sati refers usually to
awareness and skillful and tentativeness. Sati is a custom which was performed
by Indian women (widows) to burn themselves with the dead bodies of their
husbands. The extreme devotion which was inculcated in the minds of Indian
women for their husbands impelled them to end their lives on the pyre. The
sati was considered a means to reunion of wife with her dead husband. This
custom was popular among warrior class and royal families of Northern
India. Several incidents of sati were recorded from Rajasthan. The women of
Brahmin class were exempted from sati. Pregnant women and those who were
called upon to act as a regent exempted from Sati23.
Jainism greatly discouraged the custom of Sati. The Jannis launched the
crusade against this evil custom. Many ladies of this age did not sacrifice
themselves such as:
12

Rukhsana Iftikhar

Prthviraja,s mother Karpuradevi.

The queens of kalachuri dynasty, Alhanadevi and Gosaladevi helped their
son in the matters of state24.
In the early medieval age, Rajyashri, sister of king Harsha occupied a seat
of honour in the court. She also participated in the state deliberation also.
Even in Rajput period administrative training imparted to promising girls of
Rajput families.
2.6 Womens Rights

Subservience of woman to man was summed up in Manu Smriti where he

stated that a woman should never be independent. As a daughter she should
be under the surveillance of her father, as a wife of her husband and as a
widow of her son25.
As far as the matter of womans property is concerned we have the
reference of Stridhana. Manu is the earliest writer who gave a comprehensive
description of Stridhana. According to him it consists of six varieties:
(13) Gifts given by father, mother, and brother at the time of marriage.
(4) Gifts of affection given by the husband subsequent to marriage.
(56) Husband could not dispose of the property of his wife without
her consent26. Manu described the womans right of property that a daughter
deserves 1/4 of fathers property. In case of only female off spring woman
enjoyed a share of parents property27. Even the widow had the right to
maintain her husbands property in ancient India. But she had no right to
disposed of the property bequeathed by her dead husband. Women were
deprived of concrete legal rights. Even their evidence was not considered
valid. It was no grave crime to kill a public woman (prostitute) in the eyes of
law28.
Upper class woman of Indian society had the right to choose their husband.
It was known as Swayamvara. The marriage of Sunjugta and Prithviraj is one
of the examples of such sort of marriages29.
In economic matter she had not enjoyed absolute authority over any
moveable and immoveable property except Stridhana (gifts of women). They
were not even free to dispose off their property without the consent of males.

13

Indian Feminism

Women did not have any concrete legal rights. Their evidence was not
valid for cases except in which she herself was directly involved into it.
2.7 Public Women

Prostitutes (vesyaganika) were not governed by the rulers and restricted and
bounded by the ancient India Society. A typical prostitute was beautiful,
wealthy, master of all arts of attraction, enjoyed a position of fame and
honour in ancient Indian society. She was honoured by the king and praised
by the learned.30
Ambapali of Vaisali an accomplished courtesan, famous in Buddhist age,
was immensely sharp, highly intelligent and expert in all civilized manners.
She freely mixed up with the upper class of her city. Ambapali is said to have
become a Buddhist nun and one of the most beautiful poems of the Pali
Canon was attributed to her.31
According to Kautilya, a prostitute was noted for her beauty, youth and
accomplishments. She was appointed as the superintendent of prostitutes
having the duties of care and supervision of the palace courtesan, the
inspection of brothels and the collection of earnings from each prostitute.
She herself got the salary of 1,000 panas (per annum).32
Kings and chiefs retained numerous prostitutes in their palaces, who
were salaried servants. They also attended the kings persons (guests). They
accompanied the king wherever he went. Devadasis were another type of
prostitutes associated with temples. Temple prostitution was most common in
the south. The great general of Vikramaditya VI Calukya named Mahadeva,
was accorded as founding a temple in memory of his late mother the most
beautiful prostitute of the country at that time. The institution initially
nurtured in the royal courts. Those women who were prostitutes and singers/
dancers sold their bodies to acquired wealth. They preferred daughters to sons
in order to keep up their profession. The profits earned by the prostitution
were normally used for the support of the temples. It was also used for the
state for different purposes.33
2.8 Incest

It is evident from ancient Indian literature that girls were often unwillingly
forced by their brothers/fathers to submit to the lecherous desires of the
fanatic male. Rigveda even mentioned the examples of incest.
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Rukhsana Iftikhar

Lord Krishna lived with his own sister Subhadra and also shared her
with his own brother Balaroma.
The Vedic Pushan was the lover of his sister.
The Aryan god Agni, lover of his sister.
Ashvins were referred as sons of Savitar and Ushas, who were brother
and sister.
The incest of father, daughter occurred in the famous story of prajapati
(Incarnation of Vishnu). Later this act was punished. Prajapati is
thought to have done something wrong, was pierced by Agni as a
punishment. This shows that slight sense of moral depravity existed
about this act.34
2.9Polyandry

Polyandry is reported in the example of Draupdi in ancient India. Five

pandavas had only one common wife in epic Mahabahrata. But it was not
the common feature of Indian society in ancient times.35
2.10 Women in Political Activities:

Generally, women activities were confined to the household chores. Public

participation in religious economies was not a common feature. Women were
not the active politicians in ancient India but they had indirect influence in the
political arena.
Draupadi, Kunti, Kausalya are the few examples which revealed how the
chief queen dominated the ruler. Sometimes women had to interfere in the
political set-up when the rightful heir was a minor. Rajput queens, MahaLaxmi,
Raja Allatts mother and HasnaBai, Mokals mother were the glaring examples
of Rajput womens history
Even women had trained themselves to use weapons. The reference to
women guard under Chandra Gupta Maurya speaks of their heroic deeds.36
2.11Captivity

The attitude of Indian society towards captive women was very stiff and
unsympathetic. Even Ram Chanderji did not accept Sita as she no longer
remained pure. Sita even took the fire ordeal, but people still went on blaming
her37.

15

Indian Feminism

In the case of physical assault (rape, torture) Smritis recognized that a

woman should be admitted to her former position as soon as she delivered
the child. The illegal child was given to somebody else for rearing up. He/she
should not be considered as a member of the family38.
From 11th century on ward, thousands of men and women were taken
in the captivity by the Muslim invader of Sindh. Among them women were
not accepted back by their families and society, when they were released.
Muhammad bin Qasim also married the indigenous woman of Sindh.39
The institution of slavery was associated with the prisoners of war. When
a woman married a slave she automatically became the slave of her husband
or master. Women were sold in the open market as slaves .The prices of
women slaves were higher as compared to those of male slaves. The chastity
of female slaves was safeguarded by the master as Kautilya explained that
female slaves would not attend the master while he was bathing. If a master
had illicit relations with a female slave than the he had to pay the fine. If
a female slave was pregnant, the master would pay the maintenance of her
child. Steps were taken by the state to secure the status of female slaves. The
women slaves were employed in the royal factories for spinning and yarning.
Their services were recognized by the masters. The services of female slaves
were determined according to their age; a young maiden was appointed as
royal singer or dancer and a woman of old age was appointed as worker in
factory.
2.12 Jauhar

jauhar is a custom in which women tried to burnt themselves alive due to

invasion of enemy. It is also mentioned in Mahabharata (epic).40 The custom
of Jauhar was prevalent among Rajput women of India. This custom was
performed when Indian women lost their male guards in the battle field. They
burnt themselves alive to save their chastity and honour. When Raja Dahir
of Sindh was killed during Qasims raid on Sindh, his sister Rani Bai not only
prepared her people against Muslims but she also confined the women of the
palace inside the castle and addressed them as follows:
Jai Singh had left us. Arabs are near to conquered us. The only escape left
for the women to burn them into fire.41

16

Rukhsana Iftikhar

In ancient period, the existence of Purdah though not very common,

cannot be completely denied. Purdah was particularly observed among the
females of aristocracy.42
Indian women faced many miseries in the form of customs, traditions
and taboos of the society. But in the social, cultural, and political matters they
had an equivalent share before the establishment of Turkish rule in India.
In the economic sphere the male and female had the joint ownership of the
household and property. They helped their husbands in various fields. They
took an active part in agriculture.43 They used to make war materials such as
bows and arrows. Women also engaged themselves in weaving, embroidery
and basket making. Some of them were employed in royal palaces for serving.44
The position and status of Indian woman was not disappointing on the
whole in Hindustan. Though the rights and privileges of woman vary from
centuries to centuries due to the class system but in Indian region she enjoyed
privileges as well as her freedom which dwindled in the feudal society.
Women of lower classes

As regard to the women of lower classes, they helped their husbands in

various spheres. They took an active part in agriculture. They used to make
war material such as bows and arrows. Women also engaged themselves in
weaving, embroidery and basket making. Some of them were employed in
royal palaces as personal attendants, door-keepers and even as armed guards.
In the time of king Harsha, pratiharis (women guard) regulated entry into
the palace proclaiming loudly the arrival of the visitors. They also served as
beetle- carriers and flower- bearer. The royal kitchen and wine cellars were
usually managed by them. Women also used as spies. Sometimes they used for
the purpose of poisoning enemy.
2.13Dress

The dress of women in Indus valley civilization consisted of a lower garment

fastened by a girdle as disclosed by its terracotta sculptures. The upper part of
the body was not considered nude or uncovered.
In Vedic and Epic age the prevalent mode of dress consisted of
Vasahantaram (under garment) and Paridhanam (upper garment)45

17

Indian Feminism

Later on, the dress of women was distinctly divided into Uttariya,
Kancuka and Candetaker. The Uttariya covered the upper portion of the
body; Kancuka was a bodice while the Candetaka was a sort of petticoat.46
Alberuni mentioned the usage of Kurta (short shirts from shoulders to
middle of the body with sleeves) for females. It had sleeves both on the right
and left sides of the white dress normally wore by widows47. Uniform was
prescribed for Buddhist and Janis nuns normally of red colour.48
2.14 Vesara - Ornaments and cosmetics

In every age women are very particular to maintain their beauty and charm.
The use of cosmetics and toilets were quite popular even in ancient India.
Cosmetic powder, use of mirror, lotions on face, eyes, teeth, nails, lips and
toes were common. The married women put kumkuma - a round sign on their
foreheads. Women were fond of dressing their hair in different styles.49
The use of ornament was popular among both male and female. The
womans body was adorned with different ornaments known by specific
names - Sikhapasa, Sikhajala, muktajala (adorning the head and forehead).
One can get an idea though the Ajanta paintings at Udayagiri in Orissa at
Bodhagaya in Bihar, Sanchi in central India, Mathura in U.P. Taxila in Punjab,
Ajanta Elora and Badami in Deccan, Amaravati in Madras presidency. It was
found that several sculptures and paintings of women were over loaded with
the rich variety of ornaments from top to toe50.
The position of women in ancient India did not decline suddenly. It was
actually a shift from matriarchal society to patriarchal society. It occurred due
to the sharp division of labor in pastoral societies. The concept of personal
ownership was the last nail in the coffin of women status. Women became
the commodity like cattle, gold, land and other things of his ownership. The
mode of production of Indian society made many changes in the dignity
and morality of women. After the Muslim arrival the blend of Islam again
introduced many sanctions for Indian women.

1. D.V Porpora, The concept of Social Structure, London, 1987, P.17.

2. Marxism, Liberalism and feminism, Leftist Legal Thoughts, E-Book
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Rukhsana Iftikhar

3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.

18.
19.
20.
21.

22.
23.
24.

Ibid.
Ibid.
K.M Asraf, Life and Condition of people of Hindustan, Delhi, 1976, P.56.
Simon D Beviour, Second Sex, Vantage, 2002.PP.4546
Ibid., PP.4952.
Ibid.,
Ibid.,
Wright Mill, Power, Politics and People, New York,1963,P.174
Hajira Kumar. Ed. Status of Women in India. Delhi: 2002, p. 53.
D.K. Suda. Gender Role. Delhi: 2002, p. 4
Sunita Zaidi. Women and Muslim Women in Medieval India. Article published in
Status of Muslim women in India. Ed. Delhi: 2002. p. 53
Savita Vishnoi ,.Economic status of women in Ancient India. Meerut: p. 15.
Hopkins, The social and military position of ruling caste in ancient India,
Varanasi, p.284.A. L. Basham. The wonder that was India. 1959, London: p. 178
Ibid.,
i. Brahma: in this form proper marriage ceremonies were arranged from both
sides for wedding.
ii. Daivya: the girl was handed over to priest in lieu of his fee.
iii. Arsha: Bride price was received by the parents
iv. Gandharva: The approvals of two parties were live together was initiative in
this form, the female had equal right to choose her life partner.
v. Asura: in this form, the price of bride was handed over to the parents before
marriage ceremony took placevi. Rakasha: the abduction of female resulted in marriage. This type was more
popular among warrior class.
vii. Paisacha: Physical merger of two bodies without any wedding ceremony.
viii Brahma, Daivya, Arsha and Gandharva were are the approved forms of
marriages and later three forms were not deireable marriages in Hindu
society.
A.S Altekar. The position of Women in Hindu Civilization.Opcit, p. 83
Ibid, p. 84
Chankiya Kautilya. Arthasastra, (tr.,) R. Shamastry. 3rd ed. Vol.II, Mysore: 1929, p.
109
Kumkum Roy. ed. Women in early Indian societies. reprint, Delhi: 2001, p. 65
KumKum Roy, Women in early Indian Societies, Opcit., P.65.
Ibid.,
Sita Agarwal. Hindu Scriptural sanction for crushing of women.2004, Article in
19

Indian Feminism

25.
26.
27.
28.
29.
30.
31.
32.
33.
34.
35.
36.
37.
38.
39.
40.
41.
42.
43.
44.
45.
46.
47.
48.
49.
50.

Indian Times.
Savita Vishnoi. Economic status of women in ancient India: opcit, p, 45.
A. S Altekar. The position of women in Hindu civilization. Opcit, p. 220
Ibid., p. 240.
A. L Basham. The wonder that was India, Opcit, p. 186
James Tod. Annals and antiquities of Rajasthan, vol.II, London: 1950, p. 496.
A. L Basham. The wonder that was India. Opcit, p. 183184
Ibid., p. 184
Chanikya Kautilya, Arthasastra (tr.,) R, Shamasastry 3rd ed., Opcit, p.196
A.L Basham. The wonder that was India. Opcit, p.185.
Radha Kamal Mukerjee. Hindu Civilization. London: 1963, p.75
A.S Altekar. The position of women in Hindu civilization. Opcit, p. 114
Arthasastra, Opcit., p.570
Rosalind 0, Handlon. A comparison between women and men. oxford University
Press, p.55
A.S Altekar. The position of women in Hindu civilization. Opcit., p.309.
Syed Abu ZafarNadvi. Tarikh I Sindh. Lahore: 1997, p. 72.
V.A Smith. Akbar the great Moghal. Delhi: 1962, p. 52, see foot note Syed Abu
ZafarNadvi, Tarikh Sindh, opcit, p. 71
Reference of seclusion of women is also made in Arthasastra, tr. P. 188
A. S. Altekar. The position of women in Hindu civilization. Opcit, p. 179
Ibid.,P.179.
Ibid, p. 182, 188.
A.S. Altekar: The position of women in Hindu Civilization. Opcit, p.187
Ibid, p.279
Alberunis India, Opcit, p.181
D. Thomason. Indian womanhood Through Ages, Opcit. P.140
RomilaThapar. Ancient Indian social History Delhi. 1978 p.217.
AL. Basham. The wonder that was India. Opcit, p.365

20

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