6 SUPERPLASTIC FORMING AND DIFFUSION BONDING

6.1 Introduction There is considerable interest in the application of superplasticity,

particularly in the aerospace industry. Unlike conventional materials, superplastics are
extremely resistant to neck formation when deformed in tension, and this enables large
uniform plastic strains to be attained without failure. This behaviour, as has been shown in
the previous chapters, is derived from the high strain rate sensitivity of the flow stress. The
high strain rate sensitivity is developed at commercially viable strain rates (5x10'' to 10-2/s),
while the stresses required to attain such strain rates are generally very low. The exploitation
of superplasticity is, however, limited by several factors. Firstly, the reluctance of designers
to adopt more novel forming procedures and new materials; secondly, the need for careful
process control to confine forming to the rather narrow range of temperatures and strain rates
over which a given material exhibits a high degree of superplasticity, and thirdly, the
relatively small number of alloys presently available that can be both processed to give a fine
stable grain size and that will also be capable of attaining the required strength, fatigue
resistance and toughness, in the as-formed condition. The bulk of commercial superplastic
forming has been carried out on aluminium alloys such as
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Supral 100, 150, 220 and 5000, Al-7475 and Lital A (A1-8090), and on titanium alloys s=1)
as Ti-6A1-4V, (see Tables 2.1 and 2.3). The Aluminium alloys are usually formed at
temperatures between 430 and 540C depending on the composition, while the titanium
alloys require temperatures between 860 and 920C. The strain rates employed lie between
2x10-4 and 10-3/s, though in the case of the Supral group of alloys strain rates approaching
10-2/s may be used, The flow stresses of superplastic materials, which generally lie between
2 and 10 MN m-2, enable gas pressure to be used to drive deformation rather than liquid
hydraulic or mechanically applied loads. Superplastic sheet forming processes are therefore
fundamentally different from the processes that are used in conventional metal forming, and
have more in common with the techniques used for shaping thermoplastics.
6.2 Forming processes
6.2.1 Simple female forming
The most simple form of superplastic forming involves the free bulging of a sheet, which is
clamped around its periphery, into a female mould (Fig 6.1 (1)-(3)). During the initial stages
of deformation, when the sheet is not in contact with the tool, deformation is concentrated at
the pole of the dome and consequently this region shows the greatest strain. Once the pole
comes into contact with the surface of the die, the material is locked against the tool by
friction and the forming pressure, and this prevents further deformation within that region.
The remaining free regions of the dome continue to deform making the formed section more
uniform. Since the corners of the die are usually the last regions to be filled, the greatest
strain is developed at these points. The limiting factors in simple female forming are the
aspect ratio of the die (the ratio of width to depth) and the corner radii. Simple female
forming is generally preferred over

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(2)
Figure 6.2 Female drape forming (schematic)
other forming techniques when the aspect ratio of the component is low or when the convex
surface of the finished component has to be a specific shape, regardless of thickness.
Stiffening features such as deep pockets or grooves can easily be in-corporated into the
design of parts (Fig. 6.1 (4))
Simple female forming is probably the most common method of forming.
6.2.2 Female drape forming
This process consists of bulge forming a sheet into a female mould in which one or more
male details are placed (Fig. 6.2). As the sheet is bulged, the polar region will be the first to
make
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contact with the male tool. Deformation of the superplastic sheet over the area of contact will
then cease. Continued application of the forward forming pressure will drape the forming
sheet over these details forcing the sheet to take on the form of the male details. The drape
forming process, like simple female forming, results in a relatively uniform thickness
distribution in the regions of the sheet covering the male tooling. Female drape forming is
preferred to simple female forming when dimensional tolerances of the concave surface of
the finished component are important. Drape forming is also limited to parts with relatively
low aspect ratios. A number of small dies can be placed within the same female forming tool
allowing several parts of a component to be formed at the same time. The parts are then cut
from the formed sheet and assembled into the finished component. Despite the higher
wastage of material, this route can give cost savings compared with the forming of each part
separately. A number of techniques have been developed to reduce the thickness variations
inherent in components formed by either of the processes described above and to enable parts
with substantially higher aspect ratios than 0.3-0.4 to be fabricated.
6.2.3 Reverse bulging
In reverse bulging, the sheet to be formed is first blown away from the female mould into
which it will eventually be formed. After producing the initial dome, the forming pressure is
reversed forcing the bubble to fold in on itself into a female mould. During the initial bulging,
deformation is concentrated primarily in the pole of the forming bubble. However, on
reversing the pressure, little additional deformation occurs within that region. Instead, plastic
flow is concentrated and within the zone adjacent to the clamping flange and results in a
much more uniform thickness distribution in the formed shape than could be obtained by
simple female forming (Fig. 6.3). The height to which the
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(1)
(3)
(2)
ic. V g 4070' S I
Figure 6.3 Reverse bulging (schematic)
initial bubble is blown should not be more than about 10% greater than the depth of the final .
formed component. If the height of the bubble is too great then folds or wrinkles are likely to
develop in the finished part.
6.2.4 Plug-assisted forming
A moving auxiliary tool can be used to pre-stretch areas of the forming sheet (Fig. 6.4). As
the tool moves past the starting plane of the forming process, contact is made between the
plug and the
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Figure hai yaha per

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central regions of that sheet. Frictional forces prevent any significant stretching of those areas
of the sheet in contact with the plug and deformation is transferred to the annular zone
between the plug and the clamping flange. After pre-stretching, the plug is withdrawn and gas
pressure used to complete the female forming process.
6.2.5 Snap-back forming
Snap-back forming is the male forming equivalent of plug-assisted forming, the plug defining
the final form of the component (Fig. 6.5). The sheet to be formed is first blown into a bubble
away from the male tool. Once the bubble has formed, the tool is moved up into the bubble.
Deformation is thereby transferred from the pole to the sidewalls of the bubble. As the male
plug continues to move into the bubble, the forming pressure is reversed forcing the bubble to
collapse onto the plug. A combination of friction and forming pressure lock the sheet in
contact with the tool and effectively prevent any further deformation. As the plug continues to
move, deformation switches to the relatively undeformed material adjacent to the flange.
Parts with aspect ratios of the order of 0.7, and greater, can be formed by this method.
6.3 Component Design Criteria

6.3.1 Selection of starting gauge

Component stiffness, rigidity and strength are often the foremost mechanical design criteria.
Superplastic forming offers considerable scope for the incorporation of stiffening features
such as ridges, grooves and bosses into components, as only one tool rather than a closely
matching pair of tools are required for bulge forming. Moreover, superplastic forming can be
combined with diffusion bonding to produce monolithic cellular structures with higher
torsional rigidity and strength to weight ratios than could be formed by conventional
fabrication methods. Considerable savings in materials, tooling and production costs are
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