EXPERIMENT 6

OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIERS
I.

Introduction

Operational amplifiers (op. amps. or OAs) are used extensively in chemical instrumentation
to process analog signals. Op amps are used to generate waveforms, amplify small voltages or
currents, and to do mathematical operations such as addition, subtraction, integration and
differentiation. OAs are also used in chemical instruments to enhance signal-to-noise ratios by
amplifying or attenuating signals of a specific frequency or set of frequencies.
Operational amplifiers are popular for a number of reasons. OAs are easy to use and almost
always perform as predicted (biasing, etc. are taken care of for us). The OA has a very high
input impedance (often >10 M when an FET is used as the input stage, nearly ideal for almost
all signal sources). OAs provide high open loop gain (1010 typically) with differential
amplification over a wide range of frequencies (a large bandwidth).
The ideal OA would have infinite input impedance, infinite gain and bandwidth (from DC to
infinity), no DC drift, infinite common-mode rejection ratio (CMRR), and no current or voltage
offset between its two inputs. Unfortunately, real devices do not possess all of these
characteristics. The degree to which a real OA acts ideally is governed by its complexity and
therefore, is related to its cost. However, reasonably good OAs (such as the 741 used in this
experiment) are inexpensive ($1) (see http://www.national.com/catalog/AnalogAmplifiers.html
for a listing of different types of op amps and find the ones for this experiment). In the first part
of this experiment, you will investigate some of the properties of the 741 OA integrated circuit
and use it to obtain a variety of useful mathematical functions. In later portions of experiment
you will explore frequency dependent amplifiers.
NOTE: Due to the length of this experiment, certain circuits have been marked as OPTIONAL.
This means that you are not required to physically build the circuit, but you WILL be responsible
for understanding its operation for the oral exam. Time permitting, it is still advisable to build
all circuits in the lab manual to gain a thorough understanding of op amps.
A. Test of the Differential Amplifier. An OA is really a high gain differential amplifier.

Obtain a 741 OA. Be sure to look up the spec sheet to determine which pin does what.
Power the op amp with +/- 15 volts to the appropriate pins. Connect a 2 V peak to peak sine
wave signal on the inverting terminal (-) of the OA and a -1 V DC signal on the noninverting
(+) terminal (use your variable power supply on the ELVIS station or a second waveform
generator in the DC mode to obtain the -1 V signal). GRADUALLY change the noninverting input from -1.5 to +1.5 V and explain the origin of the output signals observed.
B. Balancing Operational Amplifiers. In real OAs there is usually a slight voltage difference

between the (+) and (-) inputs. In almost all OAs there is a provision for counter-balancing
these differences, called a null offset. In order to balance the OA, build a gain of 10
inverting amplifier and ground the input through a resistor. What is the expected output
voltage if the OA was balanced? A small current is fed into the null offset terminals
controlled by a 10K potentiometer connected to the -15V supply, as shown in Figure 1.

The necessary potentiometer is also available in the supply drawers. Use the dial on the
potentiometer to adjust the current until the expected output voltage is obtained.

Figure 1
C. Voltage Follower. Connect the OA in the configuration of a voltage follower (Figure 2).

Measure the output with the digital multimeter for 5 different values of Vin.

Vin

Vout

+
Figure 2

Next, you will use the voltage follower to make measurements on a voltage divider that is
used to simulate non-ideal devices. First, wire a simple voltage divider using a 1 k resistor
in series with a 10 k resistor, as shown in Figure 3A. In this circuit, the 1 k resistor
simulates a voltage source with a 1 k internal resistance and the 10 k resistor simulates
the input resistance of the readout device to measure the source voltage. Measure the voltage
between the two resistors (Vout). Next, connect the input of the voltage follower to the same
place on the circuit and measure the voltage at the output of the voltage follower, as shown in
Figure 3B. Which situation produces the least error? Why?

Figures 3A & 3B
Finally, measure the output impedance of the operational amplifier by wiring the voltage
follower as if it were a resistor in a series voltage divider. To do this, use the circuit shown
in Figure 4. Vary the resistance of the decade resistance box and measure Vout until you
reach a value which allows you to calculate the output impedance of the op-amp. Is your
value reasonable?

Figure 4
II. Mathematical Operations
A. Inverter with gain (multiplication by a constant). Construct a gain of 10 amplifier using

10 k and 100 k resistors and an OA. Use a + 1 input, then a -1 V input and measure the
output voltage as accurately as possible (Which measurement device should you use? Why?)
Is it what you expect? If not measure the resistances of the two resistors you used with a
multimeter. Does that explain the discrepancy, if any? Repeat the measurements with a gain
of 1/10 amplifier.

Rf
Vin

Ri

Vout

+
Figure 5

There are some practical limitations in terms of the gain or attenuation that can be achieved
with circuits of this type. Input resistors must not be too small or the signal source will be
unduly loaded. What is the minimum input resistor that can be used to assure loading errors
of less than 1% when using the waveform generator as a source? (Think about virtual ground
and where it is located.) Input and feedback resistors should not be too high or they will act as
noise sources. A practical range of values extends from 1 k to 10 M.
B. OA adder. Connect a second 10 k resistor to the summing point of the input. Show that:

V
V
V
V0 = R f 1 + 2 + ... + n
Rn
R1 R 2
Note what happens if V1 and V2 have opposite signs.
C. Integration with respect to time. An OA integrator is often used as a signal averaging

method in chemical instruments to sum small voltage signals. It can be used to generate
voltage ramps which are applied to some system (such as an electrochemical cell). Set up the
circuit shown in Figure 6. Connect a 0.2 V DC input. Short out the integrating capacitor with
the jumper. Open the shorting switch (disconnect the jumper) and measure the output
voltage as a function of time. Continue the measurements until the output reaches a limiting
value. Why is a limiting value reached? Is the observed voltage ramp in agreement with the
theoretically predicted behavior? (What is the calculated value of RC from the experimental
data? How does it compare to the RC calculated from the ACTUAL, measured values of R
and C of the components used?)

100

1 F
Vin

1 M

Vout

+
Figure 6
Set up an integrator with a 1 k input resistor and 1F feedback capacitor. Use a 1 volt
(peak to peak) sine wave input at 20 Hz, 200 Hz, 2 kHz, and 20 kHz and measure the
amplitude of the output signal. What is the phase relationship between the input and the
output signals? What is its frequency dependence? Explain your observations.
D. Differentiation with respect to time. Set up the circuit shown in Figure 7. Begin with the

shorting switch closed. What is the purpose of the capacitor in the feedback loop? Open the

100

Vin

100 pF

1 F

1 k

A
10 k

0.01 F

Vout

Figure 7
shorting switch and observe the output voltage for 1 minute. Then close the switch and
observe for 1 minute. Explain the observed results, including the change in polarity. (It may
be helpful to monitor both the output signal and the signal at point A.) Make a diagram of
the voltages at point A and the output vs. Time.
Repeat with a square wave as the input to the integrator.
E. Practical differentiators. Differentiators are limited by increasing gain with increasing

frequency. As a result, high frequency noise on a lower frequency signal is greatly

amplified. Therefore, the differentiator cannot be used when significant high frequency noise
is present on the signal. A practical differentiator to reduce this problem can be constructed
by adding a series resistor to the input capacitor and providing a capacitive shunt around the
feedback resistor. Explain how these affect the input and feedback impedances and the
sensitivity of the circuit to high frequency noise.

C2

Vin

R1

R2

C1

Vout

+
Figure 8
Derive an equation that describes the operation (the gain) of this circuit as a function of
frequency. Write a LabVIEW program that predicts this behavior as a function of frequency
and the component values. Illustrate the dependence of gain on frequency with a plot.

F. Difference amplifier. Construct the difference amplifier shown in Figure 9. Balance the op
amp by connecting both V1 and V2 to common and adjusting the offset potentiometer until
Vout is zero. Leave V2 attached to common and record V1and Vout for five values of V1
between +1 and -1V. Connect V2 to a constant +1V source. Re-measure Vout for five values
of V1 between +1 and -1V. Calculate the average gain of the amplifier. In this measurement,
which components are determining the gain? How near is this gain to the value predicted
from nominal component values?

100 k

1 M

V1

Vout

+
V2
100 k

1 M
Figure 9

Connect both V1 and V2 to the same variable voltage source. Measure Vout for five or more
values of input between +1 and -1V. Plot Vout vs. V1. From this plot determine the value of
the common mode gain, the dependence of common mode gain on the common mode signal
level, and the amount of zero offset in the amplifier. (Hintwhy is it important that the
values of both of the resistors serving as inputs be identical.) Use your data to calculate the
common mode rejection ratio (see IESE, p 400). Note that the CMRR can be minimized
with the use of an instrumentation amplifier.

III. Operational Amplifiers for Signal Detection & Processing

A. Bandwidth of Amplifiers with Feedback. An operational amplifier is useful over a certain

range of frequencies, called its bandwidth. The bandwidth is dependent on the particular OA
used as well as the open loop and closed loop gains. Generally, the bandwidth is specified as
the frequency limits where the voltage gain of the OA is decreased to (2)1/2/2 or 0.707 that of
the midrange gain. The voltage gain can be expressed in decibel units as:
dB = 20 log A
Therefore, the frequency limits for the bandwidth are called -3 dB points. (Sometimes the
bandwidth is specified as the frequency where the open loop gain drops to unity.) Set up an
inverting OA with a 10k input resistor. Change the feedback resistor to produce gains of
1, 10 and 100. For each configuration, determine the -3 dB point for the high frequency
limit. Use a 1000 Hz 10 V (peak-to-peak) sine wave signal as a starting point input for the

unity gain amplifier. What will happen if you use a 10 V input with a gain of 10 amplifier?
You may use the bode analyzer VI to analyze this circuit and the circuits that follow;
however, for this circuit ensure that you have examined the full frequency range to gain a
complete understanding of the frequency limitations of the 741 op amp. (Refer to
Experiment 3 part IIA for the operation and limitations of the bode analyzer .vi)
(An alternative measurement trick to the bode analyzer: Use an oscilloscope to monitor
the input and output signals simultaneously and a time base setting so that 10 cycles of the
1000 Hz sine wave are displayed. Then increase the frequency of the sine wave generator to
find the -3 dB point. Because the scopes time base setting will be low compared to the
signal frequency, the signals will be displayed as an envelope of the signal, making peak
measurement and comparison of the input and output signals easier. Once you have
determined the amplitude in this way, alter the time base of the scope so you can determine
the phase.)
Plot the results in a Bode plot with log (gain) vs. Log (frequency) and determine the -3 dB
point. Make a similar plot for the phase vs. Log (frequency). Does the amplifier behavior
meet the manufacturers specifications?

B. Active Low and High Pass Filter. The passive RC filters are affected by changes in the
impedance of circuits following them unless the impedances are very high (recall your results
from Experiment 3). If the input impedance of the subsequent circuit is not high, loading
affects both the efficiency and cutoff frequency of the filter.
The use of an operational amplifier as part of an ACTIVE filter dramatically reduces the
problem. Active filters may be high pass, low pass, selective (amplify a specific frequency)
or notch (reject a specific frequency). Many types of active filters are now available as
integrated circuit (IC) components.
Construct the first order, low pass filter shown in Figure 10 and measure the response as a
function of frequency using a 1 Vp-p sine wave input from 50 Hz to 20kHz for each. Now
build another, identical filter, and connect the output of one to the input of the other. Repeat
the measurements. Plot gain vs. Frequency on a log-log plot for each filter. Is the roll-off
the same? Which is the better filter?

0.01 F

Vin

150 k

150 k

Vout

+
Figure 10
OPTIONAL: Construct the high pass filter shown in Figure 11. Characterize its frequency
response in the same way. (Refer to IESE for detailed discussion of these active filters.)

150 k
Vin

150 k

0.01 F

Vout

+
Figure 11
C. Higher order filter. Construct the single stage, second-order low pass filter shown in Figure

12. Characterize its frequency response with a 1 V p-p sine wave from 50 kHz. Make a plot
that lets you determine the roll-off characteristics of this amplifier. Can you use the bode
analyzer to characterize this circuit? If not, what changes would you make to change the cut
off frequency for this filter so that it could be analyzed by the bode analyzer?

0.005 F

22 k
11 k

Vin
22 k

0.02 F

Figure 12
8

Vout

D. Active Band Pass and Band Reject Filters. Often an amplifier is needed which has high

gain at a specific frequency (that of the signal of interest). Alternatively, an amplifier may be
needed which provides gain greater than one for all frequencies except a narrow band that is
noise. Such active band pass or band reject filters can be made by using a resonance circuit
in the input or feedback portions of the op amp circuit. For example, a Twin-T filter, shown
in Figure 13, has a high impedance at a frequency:

f0 =

1
2RC

By placing the Twin T filter in the input or feedback circuits, band active pass or band reject
filter can be made.

C
R

R
2C

R
R

Figure 13
E. Frequency Selective Amplifiers. The use of frequency dependent circuit networks in the

feedback loop of an operational amplifier provides selective amplification of certain

frequencies. The op amp circuit shown in Figure 12 uses a twin T network to produce a
tuned amplifier. Use the Twin T network that is already constructed to build this amplifier
circuit. Test its operation with a sine wave input of about 50 mV p-p. Measure its actual fo
value and compare it to the calculated one. Measure the relative response (gain) of the tuned
amplifier to frequencies on either side of fo from about 0.1 fo to 10fo. Make a plot of your
results. What is the width in hertz at the 3 dB point?
The quality factor Q of the tuned amplifier can be determined by dividing the fo value by the
3 dB width. What is the Q of your tuned amplifier?
The feedback resistor reduces the gain of the amplifier so that oscillation does not occur. Try
reducing its value to 1 k and then removing it. What happens? Why? What is the
oscillation frequency?

Twin T
Filter
Vin

0.1 F

10 k

Vout

+
100 k
Figure 14
F. OPTIONAL Notch Filters. Just as op amps can be used to selectively amplify certain

frequencies, they can also be used to notch reject specific frequencies. These amplifier
configurations are useful to remove interference frequencies (such as 60Hz line noise or
similar) from a signal. The amplifiers use twin T filters to provide band rejection. The
voltage followers in the notch filter provide buffered input and output. Why are they
necessary? (Hint: consider loading effects.)

Vin

Twin T
Filter

Vout

Figure 15
Use a sine wave input of about 1 Vp-p. Measure the frequency dependent response,
bandwidth and Q for the notch filter using a 1 Vp-p sine wave input. Choose appropriate
values of R and C to make the rejection filter in Figure 15 reduce or remove 60 Hz
interference. Compare the measured and predicted fo. Determine the attenuation (in gain and
dB), the bandwidth (-3 dB points) and Q of the filter.
G. OPTIONAL Twin T Oscillator. In this experiment a twin T filter will be employed to

make an oscillator. Wire the circuit shown below. The only feedback path is that through
the twin T filter, which provides very high gain for the resonant frequency as well as positive
feedback because of the 180o phase shift of the twin T circuit for the resonant frequency.
The diode limiter controls the magnitude of the out put and keeps the amplifier from going
into limit and distorting the output. Adjust the limiter potentiometer to obtain a symmetrical
sine wave output. Measure the output frequency.

10

Twin T
Filter

Vout

+
15 V
100 k pot

10 k

Figure 16
H. OPTIONAL Logarithmic Amplifier. Make sure your operational amplifier is

balanced before construction of this circuit. Construct the circuit given in Figure 17 and
measure the output signal for input voltages from 10.0 mV to 10.0 V in decade steps.
Compare your results to those calculated from the Schockley equation.
V = (0.059T/300) (log I- Log Io)
where T is the temperature in K and and Io are constants.

100 k

1 M

Vin

Vout

+
Figure 17
I.

Comparator Limitations. Wire the LM311 (http://www.national.com/pf/LM/LM311.html)

comparator in the configurations shown below. Connect the waveform generator to the (-)
input and the (+) input to common. Adjust the waveform generator to give a 100 kHz, 10 V
p-p triangle wave centered around 0.V. Use the waveform generator to trigger the
oscilloscope and observe the comparator output and the waveform generator signal on the 2
channels of the oscilloscope.

11

Adjust the waveform generator to give a 10 V p-p square wave. Examine the region of the
high-low transition of the comparator output on the scope. What is the delay between the
zero crossing of the waveform generator signal and the beginning of the comparator output
change? What is the delay time for the comparator output to reach 3 V? Repeat for the
falling edge.
Reduce the amplitude of the waveform generator until the frequencies are not equivalent on
the oscilloscope. Sketch the display of both traces. Trigger failure may be the result of
several factors, which include noise in the signals and oscillation in the comparator. Note
that the comparator is a high-speed OA that is very susceptible to oscillation in the transition
region. Vary the amplitude of the waveform generator signal. Measure the amplitude at
which triggering becomes erratic for frequencies of 100, 1 k, 10 k, and 100 kHz. Compare
the triggering based on a square wave, sine wave, and triangle wave. How is the slope of the
changing input signal related to the reliability of the comparator? What part of the sine wave
signal produces the most reliable triggering?

+15 V
+In
100 k
-In
100 k
-15 V

+5 V

+
-

470
311

C = 20 pF
Figure 18

12

Output