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PR E FA C E
p r e s e n t w or k i s i n te n d e d as a s e qu e l t o o u r E lem en tar y
Th e r s t fe w c h ap t e r s are d e v o t e d t o
A lg eb r a fo r Sch o o ls
Pro p or t i o n V ar i at i o n an d t h e
a fu l l e r d i s c u ss i o n o f R at i o
Pro g r e ss i o n s wh ic h i n t h e for m e r w or k w e r e t r e at e d i n a n
e l e m e n t ar y m an n e r ; an d we h av e h e r e i n t ro d u c e d t h e or e m s
u n s u i tab l e for a rs t c o u rs e o f
an d e x am p l e s w h i c h ar e
r e ad i n g
Fro m t h i s p o i n t t h e wor k c o v e r s g ro u n d for t h e m o s t
p ar t n e w t o t h e s tu d e n t an d e n t e r s u p o n s u bje c t s o f s p e c i al
i m p or tan c e : th e s e we h av e e n d e av o u r e d t o t r e at m i n ut e ly
a n d t horo u h l y
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wi t h t h at fu l n e ss w h i c h we h av e alw ay s fo u n d n e c e ss ary i n
o u r e x p e r i e n c e as t e ac h e r s
I t h as b e e n o u r aim t o d i s c u ss al l t h e e s se n t ial p ar t s
w i th in t h e l i m i t s o f a s in gl e
a s c o m p l e t e l y as p o ss i b l e
v o l u m e b ut i n a fe w o f t h e l at e r c h ap t e r s i t h as b e e n im
e t o n d roo m for m or e t h an an i n tro d u c t or y s k e t c h
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i n al l s u c h c as e s o u r o bje c t h as b e e n t o m ap o ut a s u i t ab l e
rs t c o u r s e o f r e ad i n g r e fe rr i n g t h e s tu d e n t t o s p e ci al t re at i s e s
for fu ll e r i n for mat i o n
I n t h e c h ap t e r o n Pe r m ut at i o n s an d C o m b i n at i o n s we
ar e m u c h i n d e b t e d t o t h e Re v
A W h i t wor t h for p e r
m i ss i o n t o m ak e u se o f s o m e o f t h e p roo fs g i v e n i n h i s
Ch o ice a n d Ch an c e
Fo r m an y y e ar s we h av e u s e d t h e s e
p roo fs i n o u r o w n t e ac h i ng an d we ar e c o n v i n c e d th at t h i s
TH E
PR E F A C E
vi
p ar t o f A lg eb ra i s m ad e far m or e i n t e ll ig ib le t o t h e b eg i nn e r
b y a s y s t e m o f c o m m o n s e n s e r e as o n i n g fro m r s t p r i n c i p l e s
t h an by t h e p roo fs u s u all y fo u n d i n alge b r ai c al t ex t b ook s
Th e d i s c u ss i o n o f Co n v e r g e n c y an d D i v e r g e n cy o f Se r i e s
alw ay s p r e s e n t s gr e at d i fc u l ty t o t h e s tu d e n t o n h i s r s t
r e ad i n g Th e i n h e r e n t d i fc u l t i e s o f t h e s u bje c t ar e n o
d o u b t c o n s i d e rab l e an d t h e s e are i n c r e as e d b y t h e p l ac e i t
h as or d i n ar i l y o cc u p i e d an d b y t h e s o m e w h at i n ad e qu at e
t r e at m e n t i t h as h i th e rt o r e c e i v e d A cc or d i n gly we h av e
p l ac e d t h i s s e c t i o n s o m e w h at l at e r t h an i s u s u al ; m u c h
tho u gh t h as b e e n b e s t o w e d o n i t s g e n e ral arran ge m e n t an d
o n t h e s e l e c t i o n o f s u itabl e e x am p l e s t o i ll u s t r at e t h e t e x t ;
an d we h av e e n d e av o u r e d t o m ak e i t m or e i n t e r e s t i n g a n d
in te ll i g i b l e b y p r e v i o u s l y i n t ro d u c i n g a s hor t c h ap t e r o n
L i m i ti n g V al u e s an d V an i s h i n g Fr ac t i o n s
I n t h e c h ap t e r o n Su m m at i o n o f Se r i e s we h av e l ai d
m u c h s t r e ss o n t h e Me th o d o f D i ffe r e n c e s an d i t s w i d e an d
i m p or t an t app l i c ati o n s Th e b as i s o f t h i s m e t ho d i s a we ll
k n o w n form u l a i n t h e Calc u l u s o f Fi n i t e D i ffe r e n c e s w h i c h i n
t h e ab s e n c e o f a p u r e l y alg e b rai c al p roo f c an h ar dl y b e c o n
Th e p roo f o f t h e
side r e d ad m i ss i b l e i n a t r e at i s e o n A lg e b r a
Fin i t e D i ffe r e n c e for m u l a w h i c h we h av e g i v e n i n A r t s 3 9 5
3 9 6 we b e l i e v e t o b e n e w an d or i g i n al an d t h e d e v e l o p m e n t
o f t h e D i ffe r e n c e Me tho d fro m th i s for m u l a h as e n ab l e d u s t o
i n t ro d u c e m an y i n t e r e s t i n g ty p e s o f s e r i e s w h i c h h av e h i t h e r t o
b e e n r e l e gat e d t o a m u c h l at e r s t ag e i n t h e s tu d e n t s r e ad in g
W e h av e r e c e i v e d ab l e an d m at e r i al ass i s t an c e i n t h e
c h ap te r o n Pro b ab i l i ty fro m t h e Re v T C Si m m o n s o f
C hr i s t s C o ll e g e Br e c o n an d o u r w ar m e s t t h an k s ar e du e
t o h im b o t h for h i s aid i n c r i tic i s in g an d i m p ro v i ng t h e
t e x t an d for p l ac in g at o u r d i s p o s al s ev e ral i n t e re s ti n g an d
or i gi n al p ro b l e m s
I t i s h ar dl y p o ss i b l e t o r e ad an y m o d e r n t re at i s e o n
A n alyt i c al C o m e s or So l i d G e o m e t ry w i t ho ut s o m e k n o w
-
PR E FA C E
vii
l e dge o f D e t e r m i n an t s an d t h e i r app l i c at i o n s
W e h ave
th e re fore gi v e n a b r i e f e l e m e n tary d i s c u ss i o n o f D e te rm i
n an t s i n Ch ap t e r X X X II I i n t h e h 0p e t h at i t m ay p ro v i d e
t h e s tu d e n t w i t h a u s e fu l i n t ro d u c t ory c o u r s e an d p r e p ar e
h im for a m or e c o m p l e t e s tu d y o f t h e s u bje c t
Th e l as t c h ap t e r c o n tai n s all t h e m o s t u s e fu l p ro p o s i t i o n s
i n t h e T h e ory o f Equ at i o n s s u i t ab l e for a rs t r e ad i n g Th e
T h e ory o f Equ at i o n s fo ll o ws s o n atu r all y o n t h e s tu d y o f
A lg e b ra t h at n o ap o l o gy i s n e e d e d for h e r e i n t ro d u c i n g p ro
p o s i t i o n s wh i c h u s u all y n d p l ace in a s e p ar at e t r e at i s e I n
fac t a c o n s i d e rabl e p ar t o f Ch ap t e r XXX V m ay b e r e ad
wi t h advan t ag e at a m u c h e ar l i e r s t ag e an d m ay c o n v e n i e n t l y
b e s tu d i e d b e for e s o m e o f t h e h ar d e r s e c t i o n s o f p r e v i o u s
c h ap t e r s
I t w ill b e fo u n d t h at e ac h c h ap t e r i s as n e ar l y as p o ss i bl e
c o m p l e t e i n i t s e l f s o th at t h e or d e r o f t h e i r s u cc e ss i o n c an
b e v ar i e d at t h e d i s c r e t i o n o f t h e t e ac h e r ; b ut i t i s re c o m
m e n d e d t h at al l s e c t i o n s m ar k e d w i t h an as t e r i s k s ho u ld b e
r e s e r v e d for a s e c o n d r e ad i n g
I n e n u m e r at i n g t h e s o u r c e s fro m w h i c h we h av e d e r i v e d
ass i s t an c e i n t h e p r e p ar at i o n o f t h i s w or k t h e r e i s o n e b oo k
t o w h i c h it i s d i ffi c u l t t o say h o w far we are i n d e b t e d
T o d h u n t e r s A lg eb r a fo r Sch o o ls an d Co lleg es h as b e e n t h e
r e c o gn i s e d En gl i s h t ex t b oo k for s o l o n g t h at i t i s h ar dly
p o ss i b l e t h at an y o n e wr i t i ng a tex t b o o k o n A lg eb ra at t h e
p r e s en t day s ho u ld n o t b e l arg e l y i n u e n c e d b y i t A t t h e
s am e t i m e t ho u g h for m an y y e ar s T o d h u n t e r s A lg ebr a h as
b e e n i n c o n s t an t u se am o n g o u r p u p i l s we h av e rar e ly
ad o p t e d t h e or d e r an d arr an g e m e n t t h e r e l ai d d o w n ; i n
m an y c h ap t e r s we h av e fo u n d i t e x p e d i e n t t o m ak e fr e qu e n t
u se o f al t e r n at i v e p roo fs ; an d we h av e al way s l ar g e l y s u p
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PRE FA C E
vi
y e ar s s o t h at i t i s i m p o ssi b l e t o m ak e d e n i t e ac k n o wl e dge
m e n t i n e v e ry c as e w h e r e ass i s t an c e h as b e e n o b tai n e d fro m
o t h e r w ri te r s Bu t Sp e ak i n g g e n e r ally o u r ac k n o wl e dg e
m e n t s ar e c h i e y du e t o t h e t r e at i s e s o f Sc h l tim il ch Se rr e t
a d L au r e n t ; an d am o n g En gl i s h wr i t e r s b e s i d e s T o d h u n t e r s
A lg eb r a we h av e o cc as i o n all y c o n s u l t e d t h e w ork s o f D e
Morgan Co l e n s o G ro ss an d Chry s t al
T o t h e Re J W o l st en ho l m e D Sc Pro fe ss or o f Math e
m at ics a t t h e R oy al I n d i an En g i n e e ri n g Co ll e g e o u r t h ank s
a e du e for h i s k i n d n e ss i n all o wi n g u s t o s e l e c t qu e s t i o n s
fro m h i s u n i qu e c o ll e c t i o n o f p ro b l e m s ; a d t h e c o n s e qu e n t
gai n t o o u r l at e r c h ap te r s we gr at e fu lly ack n o wl e dge
I t r e m ai n s for u s t o e p r e ss o u r t h an k s t o o u r c o ll e ag u e s
an d fr i e n d s wh o h av e s o l ar g e l y ass i s t e d u s i n r e ad i n g a d
c orr e c t i n g t h e p roo f s h e e t s ; i n p ar t i c u l ar we a e i d e b t e d t o
t h e Re v H C W at s o n o f Cl i ft o n Co ll e g e for h i s k i n d n e ss
r e v i s i n g t h e w ho l e w ork a d for m an y val u ab l e s u gge s t i o n
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n o t e x cl u s i v e ly fro m Sc ho l ars h i p or Se n at e H o u s e p ap e r s
m u c h c ar e h as b e e n t ak e n t o i ll u s t rat e e v e ry p ar t o f t h e
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ro c
no
one
on
97
u an
111
on
113
C HA P TER
XI
P ER M U TA TIO N S
A ND
C O M BI N A TIO N S
P elim in ary pr o p o s i t io n
1 15
N u mb e o f p e m u t at io s O f th i g s r at a t ime
N umb e o f c mb in at i s O f n th i g s r at a t im e
T h e n umb er O f c o mb i at io n s O f n th i g s r at a t im e i s e qual t o th e
s o f n th in g s n r at a t im e
n u mb e r o f c o m b i at i o
N umb er O f way s in wh i ch m + a +p
th i g s c an b e d i vi d e d i t o
n
a
th
i
g
s
s
e
v
e
lly
cl ass e s c o n t ai n i g m
p
E am p le s X I 3
on
on
on
on
on
no
ac o r
r o
1 25
H E M A TI CA L I N D U C TIO N
AT
1 26
1 27
127
1 28
1 29
131
133
ro o
1 24
C HA P TE R X II M
I ll us t t i s f th e m e th d f p f
P du t f b i m i l f t s f th e f
E mple s X II
on
ra
1 22
ro
xa
1 20
ro
1 19
1 17
115
o rm a:+ a
1 34
135
C O N T EN T S
C H A P TER X I I I
E pa si
n
I N OM I A L TH E O R E M
wh e
on
n n
is
G en e r al t erm o f th e e xp an s i o n
Th e exp an sio n may b e mad e t o
p o s i tiv e
n
137
ca
r a
co
141
1 42
fr o m th e b
egi
n n in
an
en
143
1 43
su m
to
Of
co
e f ie t s
n
e ve
1 46
n
1 46
an
on o
xa
146
no
1 47
C H A P TE R X I V
I N O M I L H E O RE M
INDE
N
E l e s p f f th e b i mi l th e e m f
y i de
1+ )
G e e l t e m f th e e p s i
f(
E m p le s X I V
f(
1
E p si
i s l y i th m e t i lly i t ell igib le wh e < 1
T h e e p e ss i (+ y )
lw y s b e p d e d b y th e b i m i l
th e em
f(
1
G e e l t e m O f th e e p s i
1
P t i ul
s e f th e e p si s O f (
im t i s Ob t i e d b y th e b i m i l th e e m
A pp
E m p le s XI V b
1+ )
f(
N um e i ll y g e t e s t t e m i th e e p s i
N um b e f h m g e e us p du t s f di m e s i s f m e d t O f
le tt e s
mi l
f m ul t i
N um b e O f t e m s i th e e p s i
N um b e f mb i t i s f th i g s t t im e e p e t i t i s b ei g ll we d
E m p le s X I V
u
ro o
ra
xa
on
ar
on
on
o r an
or
on
an
an
no
33
c an
ca
an
no
ra
ar c a
ro x
ar
s o
or
an
ro
on o
"
r o
na
co
xa
on
an
71.
on
r a a
ra
a ra
xa
ona
.
an
H E O RE M
an
an
on
2
023
161
1 62
1 64
1 65
166
1 67
wh e
on
p is
170
ra
o n
C H A P TER X V M U L I N O M I
G e e l t e m i th e p s i O f (
p si t iv e i t eg e
f (
G e e l t e m i th e e p s i
+b +
i s ti l qu t i ty
E mple s XV
n
no
1 59
o u
or
on
1 57
1 58
1 55
on
no
1 55
1 57
r a
1 53
a n
r ca
on
an
on
xa
an
1 50
or
139
co
on o
na
AG E
1 40
e qu l
f th e g e te s t t e m
ti
D et e mi
ef ie t s
S m f th e
ef ie t s f dd t e m s i s e qu
S m f
te m s
E p si
f m u l ti
mi l s
E mp le s XIII b
u
i tege
on
ar e
or
P O SI TI V E I N TE G RA L I N D E X
d ep e d up th e s e i w h i h th e s t
t erm i s u n i ty
S eco n d p o o f o f th e b in o m i al th e em
E xam p le s X II I a
T h e c o e f cien t s O f t e m s e qui di stan t
r
3
(
+ Lr +
wh e
17 1
17 3
C O N TEN TS
x iv
C H A P TE R
XV I
L O G A RI I
'
HMS
AG E
e i ti
E l em e t y p p s i t i s
E m p l e s XV I
C mm L g i thm s
De t e m i t i f th e h t e i s ti b y i sp e t i
A dv t ge s f l g i th m s t b s e 1 0
t g e s f l w y s k ee p i g th e m t i ss p s i t i ve
A dv
G i v e th l g i thm s f ll u mb e s t b s e t
t b se b
l gb l g 1
E mp le s XVI b
D n
on
ar
na
on o
ar
an a
an
1 82
a,
th e l o g a i thm s
r
183
an
on o
I IA L
'
n n
on
on
an
ar
or
ra
n co
xa
L O G A R I THM I C
ER I E S
191
192
1 94
1 95
1 95
C HA P TER X V I II
I N TE R E ST
A ND
NNU I I E
T
I n t ere s t an d A mo un t o f a g i ven su m at s im p le i n t er e s t
Pr e s e n t Val u e an d Di s c o un t o f a gi v en su m at Sim p le i n t er e s t
I n t ere s t an d A m o u n t O f a gi v en su m at c o m p o un d i n te re s t
u l tes O f i te est
C s e O f m p u d i t e e s t p y b le e v e y m m e t
P e s e t V l u e d Di s u t O f g i v e
m t
m p u d i te e st
E m ple s XVII I
A
u itie s De i ti s
Am u t f u p id
ui ty s imp l e i te e s t
A m u t f u p id
u i ty m p u d i t e e st
P e s e t v lu e f
uity m p u d i t e e s t
N um b e O f y e s p u h s e
P e se t v l u e f d e fe e d
u i ty m p u d i t e e s t
Fi e f th e e ew l O f le s e
E mple s XVII I b
N o m i al a
n
co
t ue a
an
xa
an n
an n
xa
or
ar
rc
co
co
an n
1 98
1 99
2 00
co
co
2 00
rr
n su
an an n
r n
on
a a
1 98
ra
co
nn
nn
1 87
96
co n
1 85
or e
an
1 83
on
181
C HA P TER X VI I E P NEN
N
E p si f
S e ie s f
1
i s th e li m it O f
wh e
i s i ite
1
E p si f l g (
)
f T b le s O f L g i thm s
C st u ti
R pidl y
v e gi g s e ie s f l g ( 1 ) l g
Th e qu t i ty i s i mm e su b l e
E mple s XVI I
x
1 80
on
ba
xa
179
ar
ar ac
an a
17 8
ar
on
17 6
on
ro
xa
17 5
N = alo gaN
2 01
2 02
2 02
2 03
2 03
2 04
2 04
205
2 06
2 06
C O N T EN TS
C H A P TER
X IX
XV
I NE QU A L I TI E S
E le m e t a y P o p s t o s
A i th m e t i c m e a
f t wo p o s i t i v e qu a t i t ie s i s g e t
th
r
an
su m
Th e
th ey
Of
an
a : ro
ar e
a er
qu t i t ie s b ei g gi v e th ei
e qu l p du t b ei g g i v e th e
t wo
2 08
i i
n o
AG E
an
p r o du c t
su
th e ge
et i
r c
i s g e t e s t wh e
m i s le s t wh e th e y
r
2 09
n
ar e
e qu l
Th e i thm e t i m e f umb e O f p s i t iv e qu t i t ie s i s g e te th
th g e m e t i m e
G i ve
t d th e g e t e s t v l u e f
m f
b
E sy s e s O f m i m
d m i im
E mp le s X I X
m
T h e i th me t i m e
p we s O f
um b e f p s it iv e
f th e m
qu t i t ie s i s g e t e th m p w e f th ei i thm e ti m e
e ep t wh e m lie s b e twee 0 d 1
1+
d >b
If
p s i t iv e i t eg e s
d b
3
a
ar
an o
n su
a,
xa
a an
an
an
an
ih
an
an
xc
ar
c,
ax
ca
an
an
r c
a n
ar
210
211
212
212
21 3
an
214
ar e
a an
1+
If
a
an
21 6
217
>
217
bb
e s XIX
m pl
xa
2 18
C H A P TE R XX L I M I I N G V L U E S A N V A N I HI N G FRA C IO N
22 0
f L imi t
D e i t i
222
L im it f
i s wh e x i s e
sm ll e ug h y t e m O f th e e ie s
By t k i g
l g e w e p le s e m p e d w ith th e m O f ll
m y b m de
th t f ll w i t ; d b y t k i g l ge e ug h y t e m m y b
l g e we p le s e mp e d wi th th e m O f ll th t
m de
2 22
p e ed e i t
2 24
Me th d f d e t e mi i g th e l im i t s O f v i sh i g f t i s
f
Di s uss i
th e s l u t i
im ul t e us
f s m e p e u li i t ie s i
2 26
e qu ti s
2 27
f qu d t i e qu t i
P e u li i t ie s i th e s l u t i
s
2
2
8
E m p le s XX
a:
n o
ar
as
an
ro
n o
ar
an
su
ar
co
su
ar
co
a:
on
an
n n
r ac
on
ar
on
an
OF
on
ar
a ra
on o
xa
on
C H A P TER X X I C O N V ER G EN C Y N D I V ER G E N C Y
d eg t i v e
C s e O f t e m s l te
t el y p s i t i v e
Se es
ve ge t f L m
le ss th 1
A
ri
S r
as
ar
as
an
as
ao
on o
13 co n
a
r
an
rn a
Is
ER I E S
23 0
an
2 32
C O N TEN TS
XV I
AG E
i s O f 2 wi th
u ili e ie s
1
1
1
Th e u ili y s e e s 1 2 3
mi l E p e t i l L g i thm i S e ie s
t Bi
A pp li t i
l g
L imit s O f
d
wh e i s i i t e
P d u t f i i t e u mb e O f f t s
E mp le s XXI
n
s e ie s i s v e ge t wh e s e ie s i s ve g e t i f
C o m p ar
on
ar
a x
ca
ri
no
on
,,
na
an
n n
on
23 5
. H
23 4
ary s r
an a x
ar
23 7
2 38
71.
ro
an
xa
23 8
ac o r
24 1
co n
S e ie s i s
r
co n
ve ge t i f L im 3
S e ie s i s ve ge t i f L im l g
S e ie s 23 (
) m p e d wi th s e e s Z
1
Th e h y
l gm
(
S e ie s i s ve ge t i f L im
P du t O f tw i it e s e ie s
E m pl e s XXI b
r
co n
co n
au XI
ar
co
ar
ri
SBI IGS
)E
2 44
2 45
n
a c
(
)
247
2 48
co n
243
n +1
an
vn
an
_1
n +1
ro
xa
2 49
2 52
C HA P TER XX I I U N D E ER MI N E D C O E FF I C I EN
m
I f th e e qu t i f (
0
h
e
th
t
s
i
t
i
s
i
d
e
t
i
t
y
)
P f f p i ip le f u d e t e m i e d i t f i t e s e ie s
E m p l e s XXII
P f f p i i ple f u de t e m i e d e f ie t s f i it e s e ie s
E mple s XXII b
T
ro o
on
r n c
xa
ro o
r nc
as
co e
co
se o
on
ar
r ac
xa
ar
on
r ac
e l ti
e u i g s e ie s
S m f
G e e t i g fu t i
E mp le s XX IV
o
fr
xa
or
an
ra
a r c
n
2 54
2 54
2 56
2 57
2 60
PA RTI A L F R A C TIO N S
26 1
265
on
265
S le
u
or
on
C H A PTER XX I V
ca
C H A P TER XX II I
De mp si t i i t p ti l f ti s
U
f p ti l f
ti s i e p s i s
E mp le s XXI II
co
c en
an
xa
an n r o o
or
TS
R ECU RRI NG
ER I E S
on
rr n
nc
on
2 69
269
27 2
C O N T EN TS
viii
AG E
S l ut i f m Ng
G e e l s lut i O f
S l ut i f
3;
Di ph t i e P b lem s
E mp le s XXV II I
on o
on o
N31
1
3 08
3 09
ro
an
on
ra
3 05
311
xa
C HA P TER XX I X
SU
M M A TIO N
OF
ER I E S
Z
h
f
i
s
t
l
i
t
eg
l
fu
t
i
t
s
e
ie
s
n is e u i g
i
If
s e ie s
s e s O f e u i g s e ie s
Fu th e
E m ple s XX IX b
Mi s ell e us m e th ds f sum m t i
+
S m f s e ie s
ulli s N um b e s
Be
E m p le s XXIX
ar
r an
a ca s
xa
r nc
ona
a ra
an
on
a r c
a e
nc
ra
on o
nc
ra
ona
a ra
n an
cc
r ca
an
rn o
on
"
xa
C H A P TER XXX
TH
EO RY
OF
r o
on a
o ra
e r
r o
or
ro
r co n
xa
on o
co n
co n
ru en
on
n on
on e
ac o r
r c an
or
an
a c an r
or
or
321
3 22
3 26
32 7
3 29
3 32
a n
3 38
342
3 43
3 43
ac o r
3 44
345
3 45
337
3 42
3 36
3 42
e r
334
'
34 1
ra c a
r c an
32 0
r n c
319
N U M ERS
S t t em e t f p i iple s
N umb e f p i m e s i s i it e
ti l lgeb i l f m ul
ep e s e t p im e s ly
N
e s l v e d i t p im e f t s i ly w y
A u mb e
b
N umb e f div i s s f g iv e i t ege
N um b e O f w y s i t ege
e s lv e d i t t w f t s
b
S m f th e di vi s s f gi v e i t ege
Hig h e s t p we O f p im e
t i ed i (
1
P du t f
se u t iv e i t eg e s i s divi sib l e b y E
Fe m t s T h e em N
1 =M(
d N p im e t
p ) wh e e p i s p im e
E m ple s XXX
De it i f g
a
3 18
rr n
r c
xa
3 18
rr n
316
u ra
an
ona
ac o r
ac o r a
3 14
on
a n as su
on o
ro
r ac
ro c a
an
ac o r
ro
an
3 12
an
12
3 47
3 48
3 50
C O N TEN TS
If
i s p im e t b th e
d iffe e t em i d e s
b) w)
15(
G) <
r
a n
N)
(
96
b
wh e d i v i d e d b y b le ve
1)
(
2a, 3 a ,
a,
35
35
35
i l s s T h e em 1 lp
w
h
e
e
i
s
p
)
( p
A p p e t y p u li
t p im e u m b e s
s T h e em (
se d p f)
W ils
P fs b y i du t i
E mp le s XXX b
W
on
or
ro
on
ar
ec
p r im e
35
35
35
ro o
on
xa
co n
or
ro o
PA G
35
C H A P TER XXX I
TH E
H EO RY
E NE R A L
OF
C O N TI N U E
F R A C TIO N S
L aw o f
ti
o rm a
f;
on
h as
(
i
su e ssiv e v e ge t s
d e i t e v l u e i f L im 2
f
cc
co n
35
:
:
1
>0
36
v e ge t s t
p sit i v e p p e f t i s i s e d
i g
d e f m g i t ud e i f s 1 b
d b
G e e l v l u e f nv e ge t wh e
st t
C s e s wh e e g e e l v l u e O f
v e ge t b f u d
b
b
I
mm e su b le i f
+
+
E m p le s X XXI
S e ie s e p e ss e d
ti ued f ti s
C ve si
Of
i t a th e
t i ued f
ti
E m p le s XXX I b
The
co n
ra
r o
or
co
IS
co n
n co
ra
on
r ac
o n e co n
xa
c an
itio n s
an
rac
on
on
no
C HA PTE R XXX I I PR O
S imp le E ve t s
d ill us t t i s
.
e n
an
ar e c o n
as c o n
n a c n
on
r ac
ro
an an
xa
on
an
ra
a
l
a n
ar e
ra
on
BA B
I L I TY
37
XXX I I a
C mp u d E v e t s
P b ab ili ty t h at t wo i d e p e de t ev e t s will b th h pp e i s pp
T h e f m ula h o l ds al s f dep e de t ev e t s
C ha c e O f a eve t wh i h
h pp e i m u t u all y e lus i v e w ay s
E am pl e s XXX II b
C h a e O f a e v e t h pp e i g e a tl y t im e s i
til
E p e t t i a d p b ab l e v l u e
P b l em f p i t s
mpl e s
xa
or
nc
c a
ro
or
ro
on
ro
c an
xc
n n
n n
37
37
r a s
37
38
38
38
38
38
C O N TEN TS
XX
AGE
XX XII
I ve s e p b ab il ity
Em i n ple s
ro
or
rn o
Pr o o f o f fo
PA P.
z PP)
ul Q (
C
e t t e s tim y
T d i t i y t e s t im y
E mp le s XXX II d
L
l P b b il i ty G e m e t i
Mi s ell e us e m p le s
E mp le s XXXII e
r
on
o n cu rr n
xa
ro
an
3 99
o ca
3 98
on
o n ar
ra
l m e th o ds
401
r ca
4 02
xa
xa
4 05
C H A P TER XXX I I I D E ER M I N N
E limi t f tw h m g e e us li e e qu t i s
E lim i t f th ee h m ge e us li e eq u t i s
De t e mi t i s t l t e e d b y i t e h gi g w s d lum s
Dev el pm e t O f de t e m i t f thi d d e
S ig f de te m i t i s l t e e d b y i te h gi g t w dj e t
l um s
If tw w s
l m s i de t i l th e d e t m i t v i sh e s
i
A f t
mm
d
l
u
p
l
e
u
t
s
de
w
m
m
t
b
y
y
C s e s wh e e
s t i t u e t s m d e u p f u mb f t m s
f dete m i
R e du ti
t s b y s im pl i t i O f ws
l um s
P du t f tw d e t e m i t s
E mple s XXXIII
A pp li t i
t s luti
f s i m ul t
e us e qu t i s
Dete m i t f f u th d e
Det e m i t O f y de
N t ti 2
b
d
E mp le s XXXIII b
n an
n an
n an
n an
o ro
o r co u
ac o r c o
or
co n
an
ro
an
rc
co
on
n an
n an
a n
ca
o n
on o
an
a1
an
or
or
2 c3
xa
ac
er o
4 10
on
4 10
ac n
an
ro
ws o r
411
412
4 12
4 12
er
413
o r co
ro
:1:
on
ca
n an
er
o r co
are
4 09
o n
n an
xa
ca
n an
ro
on o
ar e
o an
on
an
on
rc
TS
co
n an
ar
no
n o
ro
ar
4 14
4 17
4 19
4 22
4 23
4 23
425
427
C H A P TER XXX I V MI SC E LL A NE O U S TH E O RE M S A ND E X A M PL E S!
R ev iew f th e fu d m e t l l w s f A l geb
42 9
wh e div i de d b y
le ve s em i de f ()
432
f
.
a:
ra
a n
u tie t f f (
d i vi d e d b y
) wh
Me th d f De t h e d C e f ie t s
H
e s Me th d f Sy th e ti D ivis i
S ymm e t i l d Al t e ti g Fu ti s
E mp l e s O f i d e t i t ie s w k e d t
Lis t f us e fu l f m u l e
Q
o rn
r ca
xa
en
ac
o
an
or
or
rn a
a
;
nc
ou
4 33
4 34
on
43 4
on
4 35
437
4 38
E xamp le s XXXIV a
I d e t i t ie s p v e d b y p p er t ie s O f c u b e
L i e a fac t s O f
3 bc
+b +
Valu e o f
wh e n a + b + c = 0
E xam p le s XXXIV b
E lim in at i n
E limin ati o n b y symme t i c al fun c t i s
E le s m e th o d f e l i min at i o n
Sy lv e s t e s D i aly ti c Me th d
Be o u t s m e th o d
Mi s c ellan e o us e am p le s o f elim i at i o n
E am p le s XXXI V 0
.
ro
or
ro
3
c
ro o
t s O f un it y
on
C H A PTE R XXX V H E O R Y O F E QU A IO N S
f th e
E v e y e qu t i
d eg e h
ts d m e
R el t i s b e twee th e
t s d th e e f ie t s
T h e s el t i s
t s f ie t f th e s l u t i
C se s f s lut i
u de g i v e
di t i s
E sy s e O f sym m e t i l fu t i s f th e t s
E mp le s XXXV
Im gi y d su d
ts u i p i s
F m ti
s wi th su d t s
d s lu ti
f e qu t i
D es
t e s R u le f S i g s
E m pl e s XXXV b
V lu e f f (
D e i v e d Fu t i
s
+ h)
C l ul t i
e s p e ss
ff(
+ h) b y H
h g e s it v l u e g du lly
f
=
b
i
h
t
e
t
w
ee
If f (
0
b
t
y
s
g
f
d
)
f(
f(
)
)
T
on o
on
e r
ca
on
an
or
car
a c
on o
An
ra
ar e o
on o
f an
on o
e t e mi ti
r
)_
(
f
f
()
x
Su m
na
x am
on o
dd
f an
sf m t i
E q u t i wi th
E qu t i w i th
T
r an
or
on
ro o
on
ro o
as
ro o
a,
h as
ro o
th e ro t s
o
on
as
t wo
t s e qual t
r o
ro o
e qu t i s
0
t s O f ig O pp s i t e t th s e O f f (
)
0
t s m ul t iple s f th s e O f f
n s,
ro o
on o
ro c
as o n e r a
ple s XXXV
ro o
on
r ar
e qu l t
f e qu l
ts
m
ss ig e d p w e
on
co n
o ts
h
a
s
r
o
x
If f (
0
r
)
:
ro o
d e g ee h
el t
e v e deg ee wi th i t s l s t t e m eg t iv e h
an
ro o
a r
o rn
e qu t i
equ t i
ts
on
nc
db
a an
on
on
an
an
or
o cc
on o
xa
An
ro o
nc
no
o n an
or
n co n
an
n ar
co
r ca
xa
an
as n r o o
r e
ro o
ar e n o
on
th
o a
el
a
C ON T EN TS
xx
t s r e ci p ro cal s o f th s e O f f (
) 0
Di sc uss io n o f ec ip c al e qu at i s
= 0
E qu at i o n wi th o o t s squ a e s o f th o s e o f f (
)
E qu at i o w i th o o t s e c ee di g b y h th o s e O f f (
) 0
R em o val o f an ass i gn e d t e m
E qu at i o n wi th o o t s giv en fun c t i o n s o f th s e f f (
)
E am p le s XXX V (
1
C ub i c e qu at i o s C a d a s S l u t i
D iscuss i o n o f th e s o l u ti o
S o l uti o b y T ig o m e t y in th e i e duc ib l e c as e
Fe a i s S o l u t i o n
Bi qu ad at i c E qu at i o s
De sc ar t e s S o l ut i o n
U d e t e m i e d m u lt i p lie s
D i s c imi n at i g c ub i c ; o o t s al l e al
E qu at i
on
wi th
ro o
ro
47 5
47 5
47 6
47 3
47 2
on
AG E
477
478
4 80
on
481
on
S lu t
io n
An
s we s
r
484
486
486
th ee S mul t a e o us e quat o
E xam p le s XXX V e
Mis ell a e o us E am p l e s
o
483
rr
4 82
rr
:
1:
(
H
l/
2
c
1 , &0
4 87
488
490
52 5
HI G H E R
A L G E BRA
CH A PT ER I
RA
EF IN I
oth
b e a r s t o an
c o n sid e r in
g
o
th
er
IO N
er
wh at
ut
u tt
u tt
'
uu
a ll
w itte
u titi s
t t m i
A
B
Th e q
ter ms o f t h e r a io
Th e r s
se c o n d e r m t h e c o s eq e
s
an
er
t
t
n u nt
2
T o d wh t m u ltipl
p t A i f B w di id A
th
tio A B m y b m u d b y t h f ti
B; h
t t
d p t t h is ot ti
d w s h ll u u lly d t
by
en ce
In
e rm s
by
or
Of
to
an
u it
n
ra
or
15
x
ws
er
f llo w th t
l
th t i th
a
an d
s,
th e
c o n v e n l en
tt
th
o
re
rac
utb
e ex
on
on
p re sse d
f 2 t o 1 5s is m ea s
.
in
u d
re
r a tio
nu
mb er
r a t io
r ac
is
t i m e s th at
a n a b s t ra c t
one
q u a n t ity
qu t i ty
an
co n
ti
o n s,
ma
mb
the
H H A
.
eas
b is e q al t o t h e r a io m a
mb ;
t h e a n t ec ed e n t
e v a u e of a r a tio r em a in s u n al ter ed
c o n se u e n t a r e m u l t ip lied o r di v ided b g th e sa m e q u a n tity
q
s
it
Sin c e b y t h e l a
ar
Thu
t i o e p e ss e s th e
o th e r a d th e e fo e v
y
.
o r
t wo q u a n i ie s
s t h e r a io
20
co m p are
s am e
the
h e fra c t l o n
NO T E
n
de r
ra
an
t ai
Ra io is t h e r e la io n wh ic h o n e
an i y
q
o f t h e sa m e k in d, t h e c o m pa r iso n b e in
m
ade b
g
y
m l ipl e , p ar , o r pa r s, o n e q a n i y is o f t h e
.
Th e r a io o f A o B is
A an d B a r e c all e d t h e
c all e d t h e ant e c e den , t h e
TIO
HI G HE R A LG E BRA
2
4
i
e
q
Two
uv
al e n
rac
a
c
ti
ra
a:
ratio s
t wo
ar e
Th e
5
.
in
f t wo
ra
r edu c in g t h e ir
T hu s s u ppo se
m or e r a io s m ay b e c o m pa r e d b y
io n s t o a c omm o n d e n o m in a o r
ti
e rs
ay
b
e
by
to ,
u
q
c an
be
ra
l to ,
ex
is
6x
th
l e ss
o r
he
b
3/
y
h an t h e
le ss
or
a
n
a
al
an
on
r ac
eq
t th
ti s
f tw f
Th u s t h
tio
o
No w
b is g r e a e r h an ,
rea er
a c c o r d in
a s ag is
g
g
g
th e
t f
an
o r
p r e sse d
as
u d
m e as
an
re
n ce
ti
ra
bx
ra
ti
th e
by
a
ad
fra c t I o n
o r
an
be
Is
th
ere o re
eq
uv
i
al e n
the
to
ra io
d
ad
be
6
If
eas
ex
re
p r e ss e d
b o h, o f t h e e rm s
h e n n o t wo in e ge r s c a n b e o
h e ir r a io
h s t h e r a io J 2
b y a n y t wo in e ge r s
u
t
t
y
t
i
q
u t
m
an
th
ei
or
e r,
ra tio
b e a s rd
il l ex a c tly
b e e x a c ly
f u d wh i h w
1
t
c an n o
IO N I f t h e r atio o f an y t wo q u an t itie s c an b e
o f t w o in t e e rs t h e
u an t itie s
e x p r e s se d e x a c t l y b y t h e r a t io
g
q
t h e y a re said t o b e
a r e s a id t o b e c o mmen s u r ab l e ; o t h e r w is e
in c o mmen s u r ab l e
A l t h ou gh w e c a n n o t n d t wo in t eg e r s wh ic h w ill e x a c tly
m e a s u r e t h e r atio o f t w o in c o m m e n s u r ab l e q u an t it ie s w e c a n
a l w ay s n d t wo in t e g e r s w h o s e r at io d iffe r s f r o m t h at r e u ir e d
q
b y a s s m al l a q u an t ity a s we pl e as e
7
E FI N I
t
T u
t
Thus
t h fo
th t t h diff
/5 4 i l s t h
an
2 2 36 68
re
e re
559 01 7
5
J
559 01 8
an
1 000000
1 000000
a
e
e re n c e b e
ee n t h e ra io s 559 01 7
1000000 an d
SO
c a r r y in
an
B
i
m
a
d
s
r
s es
00
00
01
t
h
c
a
l
r
e
e
e
,
y
g
N
c l o se r app r o x im a io n m ay h e a r r i e d a t
th
th
g
e
g
fo r
tw
E x an zp l e
R at io s
ar e
en o
wh i h d
ts f
u t
Fi d th e
ti
n
f u th
'
D F I N I TIO
r a c io n s
er t h e
e r t h e a n e c e de n
a n e w c o n se
en
q
8
or a n e
ut
ut
b y m l iply in g t o
m
l
l
i
p
em ; o r b
i
n
o
t
y
y g
e c e de n , a n d t h e c o n se
en s
q
co mp o u n ded
t th
w
t
e
an
ra
o co
mp o
u ded
o f th e
2a :3 b , 6 a b
2
0 , c
th ee at i
t a
u t
H IGH ER
th e
L G EB RA
Th e p r oo f o f t h e f o ll o w i n g
m e th o d o f p r o c e du r e
.
If
wh er e p , q ,
h of these
r a ti o s
ea c
f
'1
ar e a n
y q
L et
tities
wh e n c e
"
a
p
d
bh,
qc
re
wh a tev er
k3
dh,
h
d
q
"
0
9
"
e =
"
"
u an
'
th e n
+ rf +
"
"
re
"
"
q d Vc
"
pb
qd
#
+ rf
"
"
"
k ;
n
"
By g i v i n g diffe r e n t
v lues to p g
se s
m n y p r ti ul r
d ; o r th y m y b
o f this g e n e r l p r o p o siti o n m y b e de d u
r
ov
F
o
r
i
st
n
e d i n de p e n de n t l y b y usi n g t h e s m e m th o d
p
a
r, n
ce
if
eac
ca
ce,
th e s e r at i o s
su c h f r e q u e n t utility th a t t h e f oll o w i n g v e rb a l e q u i
v al e n t sh o ul d b e n o ti c e d : W hen a ser ies of fr a c tio n s ar e equ a l
e n u m er a t o r s div ided b y th e
ea c h of th em is e u a l t o th e su m o
a
l
t
h
l
q
f
s u m of a l l t h e d en o m in a to r s
r e s u lt
Ex amp le 1
If
e
:
3
a
Sh e W
20
3 ae f
b 4 + 2 d if
a
en
b k,
3 bf
8
ac e
R A TIO
a n)
(
M 2 d ft
(+ 2 d
3(
1l
an
b 4 + z al f
3b
3 bf 3 k 3
4
2
_
_
L
s
3 bf3
6
x
ac e
If
E x a mp l e 2
:
1:
%
a
+c
at x = a7c,
m+ a
x
+a
so th
pr o v e t
y +b
+a
L et
y
b
y +b
+
+
y+b
k + 1)
2
k+1
k + 1)
1) b
k+1
k+1
+c
ck ;
+a
c2
k 2 + a2
ak
b k,
k+1
k+1
I f a n e q u a ti o n is h o m og e n e ous w ith r e sp e c t t o c e r ta in
u
a n titi e s we m a
f
o
r
th
e s e q u an titi e s s u b st i t u t e in t h e e u a ti o n
q
y
q
a l t o th e m
an c e t h e e u a t i o n
o
th
r
o
o
r
ti
o
n
F
o
r
i
n
st
an
e rs
p p
q
y
13
lx y
L et
is h om og e n e o us i n x y z
n al t o x
c ti v e l
o
r
ti
o
r
e
s
e
z
y
p
y
p
,
Pu t h
th e n
i
n the
8
,
,
y
la
a
m a IB yk
len /
310
u
ti
o
n
q
b
e
8
,
,
y
k, y
h
,
h
By
Q-
an titi e s
u
q
ro
ma y
0,
o r igi n l
f the
l
;
y
03
s am e f o r m a s t h e
l
a c e s o f x y 2 r e s p e c ti v e l y
p
o
th r e e
7
s
th at is
an
3
,
f
y
Z = 5 s o th a t
E Z
a
a,
o n e,
w i th
H IGHER
6
14
If B
L G EB R A
b2
an
th e sam e
b2
sig n
b3
le ast
f r ac ti o n
an
t h e de n m i n at
al l
bn
'
an
ors
by h
d least qf th em
ar e
p o siti v e
L et
b e th e
th e n
h 3
'
r a c tio n
o t e it
d de n
wh ich th e de
t h en th e
th at
fra c tio n s of
u n eq u a l
be
bn
n o min a to r s ar e a ll o
Su pp o s e
f o ll o w i n g th e o r e m is i m p o r tan t
Th e
hb ;
kb , ;
>
b2
an
iti o n
a dd
by
a
h3
>
so
on
+
a
Si m il a r l y we m ay p r ov e
a
+ a
+ a
is
the g
re at e st
t ll a t
l q >
h ;
th a t
3
+ a ,,
wh e r e
h bg ;
+ a 2 + a3 +
a
>
f t h e gi ve n
a,
6,
"
f rac ti o n s
I n li k e m an n e r t h e
de n m i n at r s a r e n e gati
th e o re m
ve
m ay b e p r ov e d wh e n
al l
th e
o
v u
vo v
15
Th e r e a dy appli c a ti n o f t h e g en er a l p r in cip le i n
l ed
in A rt 1 2 is o f su c h g r e a t al e in all b ran c h e s o f m ath e m a ti c s ,
t h a t t h e stu de n t sh ul d b e ab l e t u se it with s m e f ree d m in
an
a rti c ul a r c a s e th a t m a
c
d
n
r
is
ith
ut
ss
r
il
i
t
r
u
i
n
a
n
e
c
e
a
w
e
y p
g
,
y
y
a n au x ili a r
s
l
m
b
y y
.
E x amp le 1
1
e
r
o
v
mt
t
p
If
x
b +c
+b +c
+a
+b
RA TIO
u e r or
m o f n m at
su m o f en mi n at
su
d o
g in
ul l
+y +z
+b +c
g i v en r
e ac h
o s
o h u e r or d den omin t or
r e s e vely
w+ a
fr ac tio n
ors
0)
if we m t i p y b t n m at
f ac t i n b y y + z , e + x , a:+ y
p cti
a
an
f th e t
k+
e+
ro
f m
an
+y +z
Ex a mp l e 2
p r o v e th at
2 ax + 2 b y + 2 cz
(
1)
n um e rat ors
o f d e n o m in at ors
su m o
su
h r ee
If
'
a:
we h av e
+b +c
a:
l mb +
nc
mb + u c
la
nc
+ la
b y + cz
a
:
no
cz
'
3
.
l a + mb
7n b
nc
71.
2 1a
t wo
+ mz
ny
s i m i l r e p r e ss i on s ;
a
lz + n x
mx + ly
Mu l t i ply
y,
an
th e
h rd
d th e t i
rst
h s e fr
hen
ft
by 2 ; t
o
an y
mxz
ac t
i on s
ly z
am
b y + cz
ab
ov
e an
r
a:
l ow b y
th e
ly z
cz
simil r e pr ss i on s ;
y (+
cz
d be
n xy
by
t wo
m
ax
by)
cz
s on d b y
ec
HI GH ER
I f we h a e two
a n tit i e s i n t h e r st de
u
q
g
16
a x
l
a a
g
we
c an n
fo rm
by
o rdi n a ry
re
wa y
a r dm
an
+ c z =
b eg
c z
t by w
bl
b2
an
u n k n own
as
riti n g th e m
0,
u n k n o w n s s ol v e
the
in t h e
0,
z :
t
h
r ee
g
ln
the
a n
b gc l
b l e2
a
m o re
b ly
ob t i
a:
o r,
a n
as
e e
su c h
c an
o t s o l v th e s e c om pl t l y ;
a
we
L GEB RA
u
t
i
o
n
s
o
n
t
i
i
q
ee,
a b
2 l
b
l
2
s y m m e t r i c all y
0 a
b
l
g
b
2
l
a:
b gcl
b l ez
c ,a
e a
l
z
c al
b
l
z
b
z
l
thus app e ar s th at wh e n we h av e t wo e q u a ti o n s o f t h e ty p e
r e p r e s en t e d b y 1 ) an d 2) we m ay a l w ay s b y t h e ab ov e f o rm u l a
w r it e do w n t h e r a tio s a: 2 g z in t e r m s o f t h e c o ef c i e n ts o f t h e
e u ati o n s b
e :
h
f
o
ll
o
w
i
n
r
u
l
t
e
q
g
y
It
W r it
th o s e
f1 3
ow n
an
the
o e f i ts o f a
c en
r e p e a t th e s e
c,
as
in
in
t h e di ag
o rde r
ra m
b e g i nn i n g wi t h
b l ee
a re
al t o
r
o
o
r
ti
o
n
p p
Th i
s is
ca
ll
b 2 01 ,
a,
'
d th e
c a
l
c a
z
l ,
b
l g
b
z
l
r
s
ti
v
l
e
e
ec
g
p
y
Rul e o f Cr o ss Mu l t iplic at io n
,
R A TIO
E x a mp le 1
By t
rom th e q u tion s
Find th e rat i os o f x z y z
r n sp os i t i on w h ve
a
1 1g
4y
7x
8e ,
1 2x
8z
1 1y
0,
3z = 0
r i te do wn th o e f i ents thu s
c
e c
'
when e we o b tain th
c
or
4)
3)
l1
11
12
8)
7,
11
12
1 2 5;
z
125
75
3)
7 5,
1 00
a
12
1 00,
h t is
11,
rodu t s
x
Z
:: E
yj
-
E x amp l e 2
E i m in at
2 ) an d
F rom (
by
x,
e q u t i on s
ro
f m th e
a1 x
+ b 1 y + c 1z
a x
3
+ b 3 y + c 3z = 0
ross m ul ti p l i
c at
i on
z
o
d en o t i g e h
d divi din g
ac
an
This
he s e r i os
o in
f t
at
b y k, b y m
o u t b y k , we
b ta
o
r e l ati o n is
E x amp le 3
o lv
b ac al
11 203
ca
c 0
2 3
ll e d
th e
the
(
1)
an
by
y
c
()
k b
t h e gi
c at
()
h en e
c
( )( )(
b
b)
s upp os e
,
b)
{b c b
u ti o n s
k,
i on
u s i u in g i
S b t t t
eq
en
()(
c
b , g/ =
b)
)<
b)
in
Z
b
0
z
l
s
s ub s t i t u t i g
e q u t i on s
ab s
l imin an t o f
F rom
u l t i ply ing
( b)
a
( )(
a
b) ;
10
H I GH ER
17
an
I f in A rt
1 6 w e pu t
L GEB RA
1,
( (
ati o n s
u
q
a ,x
b ,g
a x +
b 9y
+ cg =
1)
an
d 2) b e c om e
0,
03
3) b ec m es
b l cg
o r
bgc l
c a
b l c2
b $,c l
He n c e
k n o wn s
y
the
m ultip li c a ti o n
S
o a
b
g l
a ,b
5x
3y
0,
12
2y
3y
0,
2y
12
0;
b
z
l
b
g l
13
59
38
whe n e
EXA MPL ES
c a
b
l 2
5x
o lve
By t r n sp os i ti on
E x amp l e
b
l g
0 a
t w o si m ultan e o us e q u ati o n s i n vo l v i n g t w o u n
rst deg re e m ay b e s o l v e d b y t h e r u l e o f c r o ss
an
in
F in d t h e rati o c o m po u n d e d o f
2
1
a
2
a
b
a
n
d
t
h
e
t
he
r
t
i
o
d
u
l
i
t
r
t
i
o
3
a
e
o
a
f
9
b
)
(
p
2
t
h
e
b
s
u
d upl i cate rat i o o f 6 4 9 an d t h e rati o 2 7
(
)
c
ab
(
)
u l i ate rat i o
th e d p
If x + 7
22 +
14)
in
F in d t wo n u mb e rs in
an
th e
d up l i
r ti o
th e
f 7
rat i o
f5
12
so
8,
th at
56
2 bg
3 ax
n d x
th e g
reate r
es
d th e
t rat i o
ca e
ds t h l s b y 2 7 5
4 Wh t n um b r m u s t b
dd d t o
m k it qu l t 1
3?
5 If m g 3
4 nd t h r ti o f 7
If 1 5 (
2
6
n d t h r ti o
e xc e e
to
2a
e a
e ac
h te rm
of
th e
4g
fx
3x + g
rati o
37
H I GH ER
12
i/
18
h w th
e
19
z,
b
+
y
y
If
G i ve n t h a t
t
be
ca
3x
3x
y
y
72
O,
22
0,
3=
z
+
3x
23
7x
th e
b)
eq
3y
/b
/c
J b + Jc
Jc + Ja
()(
a/db)
Jf
( (
5x
16 7
2y +
/b
2y + 1 7 z
3y + 2 2
at
4 9:y ,
If
'
21
19
ol v
+ 2abc = 1
+ ab
4x y ,
2lyz
y,
18
7y z
2x
s h w th
+ x)
oll owin g q u t i on s
th e f
24
20
22
b x + ay ,
z =
+ cx ,
ro
v
t
h
p
olv
= az
L GEB RA
x = c
_ O
( )(
x/b c)
Vac)
u ati on s :
25
.
b cx + cay
26
a bc a x
ro
v
t
h
p
28
at
(
l
b c)
b l
ca
(
l
ab
If
ro
v
t
h
p
e
If
O,
()(
27
by
a bz =
O,
at
(b
1)
$
c
y
2
f
2
f)
ca
ab
( (e)(
60
ca
ab
h3
)<
yh
f) W
59 )
C HA PTER I I
P R O P O R TI O N
Wh
D EF I N I TI O N
u
an titi e s c m p si n g
q
18
if
th e n
a,
? 5
2
:
s ay i n g th a t
b,
is t o
n t w o ra ti o s
a r e s ai d t o b e
th e m
a ls
r
o
o
r
ti
o
n
p p
0, cl
are
as c
is t o
d,
ll e d
the
an
d the
u l th
p r o p o r t i o n al s
a re
eq
fo u r
Th u s
r
ss
e
ed
p
r
o
o
r
ti
o
is
wr
itt
n
n
e
p p
Th i s
is
by
ex
o r
Th e
t e rm s
a an
dd
a re c a
ex tr e
mes, b
an
t h e me a n s
If fo u r q u a n tities a r e in p r op o r tio n , th e p r o du ct
19
ex tr em es is equ a l to t h e p r o du c t of th e m ea n s
L et
a,
b,
o o rti o ls
d b e t h e pr p
c,
Th e n b y de n iti o n
an
th r e e t e rm s
fo u n d
m ay b e
o n v e r s e ly if th r
e
th a t ad
e x t re m e s
if
bo
o
a , c,
fo u r
r
o
o
r
ti
o
n
p p
an
ar
o r
ce
Qu a n titi e s
a re
n
i
v
th
n
e
e
g
ar e
u
n
titi
s
y
q
a
d
e p r o p o r ti o n ls
s
v i v e rs a
a re
b e, th e n a , b c ,
b an d c t h e m e an
20
D EFI N I TI O N
p ro p rt i n w h e n t h e
t t h e thi r d, a s t h e
ar e i n c
a , b , c , d,
Th u
ad =
H e n c e if
w h en ce
f o u r th
na
i
v
en
g
b
the
b , c , d, s c h
h
an d d b ei n
t
e
g
a,
s ai d t o b e i n c o n t i n u e d
r st is t o t h e s e c o n d as t h e s e c o n d is
Thus
thi r d t o t h e f o u rth ; an d s o o n
o n ti n u e d p r op o r t i o n wh e n
a re
H I GHER
14
I f th r e e q
u n titi e s
a
a,
b,
c ar e
a z
ac
In
this
an
z c
d p r o p o r ti o n ,
th e n
3
rt
A
[
2
.
a an
r st
is to
th e
th r e e qu an t i t i e s
be
NO W
a
X
If
th e n
c = a
I t will b e s e e n th a t
f du p li c at e ra ti g i
b
is:
b,
a,
e
.
this p r o p o siti o n is t h e s am e
v e n i n Eu c li d Book V
as
t h e de n itio n
bf
ae
gE z
For
an
ae
o r
cg
bf
ae
dh
cg
If
CO R
th e n
Thi
is s a i d t o b e a mean p r o p o rt io n al b e t w e e n
is sai d t o b e a t h ir d p r o p o rt io n al t o a an d b
L et t h e
an
o ti u
in
21
thir d in
th a t
L G EB RA
ca e
z x
a :x = c
s is th
th e o r e m k n o w n
a s ex ce
u a
y,
y
li in G e o m e t ry
If
PRO PO R T
ION
(
1)
If
a
Fo
a 22
th e n
d,
a :b = c
th e re fo re
If
th at
ad
d,
t h e r e fO I e
bc
(
3)
Fo r
t h at
o r
If
a
c
t h e 1 e fo
(
For
Z:
,
a,
a +
th e r e fo r e
gl
If
= c
a +
3)
f
l
a +
a +
This p r o p o siti o n
D
v ide n da
i
[
b
c +
a +
= c +
d
3
d
3
d
d
:a
is usu ally
13
d
b
b y d1 v 1 s 1 0 n ,
or
cl
(
I, th e n
(
(
)
Fo r b y
cl
o m o n en da
C
p
[
13
c +
6
a
den do
i s,
d by
b
=
(
l, th e n
o r
an
I)
If
5)
th e n
re
z a
bc
Is
4)
th a t
d,
a z c =
o r
A
l
t
r n a n da
e
[
ad
i s,
z a =
th e n
I
n v er t en cl a
[
o r
Fo r
th a t i s
a =
15
u
o
t
ed
q
as
Co mp o n en do
'
an
d D iv i
Se v e ra l
o th e r pr opo rti o s
n
m ay b e p r ov e d in
s i m il r w
a
H I GH ER
16
L G EB R A
Th e r e s lts o f t h e p r e c e di n g a rti c l e a r e t h e al g e b a i ca l
24
k
o f Eu c li d,
u iv al e n t s o f s m e o f t h e p r p siti n s in t h e fth b
q
m ak e hi m s e lf fam ili a r w ith th e m
a n d t h e st de n t is a d is e d t
r e x ampl e , dividen do may b e q u t e d a s
in th e i r e r b a l f r m
.
fo ll o w s
Wh en
th er e
o o
o
Fo
ar e
fo u r
ro
oo
t he
r tio n a ls,
o
p
d is to th e seco n d,
u r th
i
t
t
h
e
o
o
f
o
u
r
t
h
s
f
th e
th e
as
s eco n
o
b
v
e
f
th e th ir d a b o v e the
th e
exc ess o
ex c ess
r st a
om p r e t h e l geb r i l de n iti o
E
c li d
o
r
ti
o
w
ith
th
t
i
v
i
n
u
e
g
p
Eu c li d s de n iti o n is s f o ll o w s
F o u r q u an tit i e s e s i d t o b e p r op o r ti o ls wh e if a
W e sh a ll
25
.
n o
a ca
f pro
ar
na
n y eq u
In
l geb ra i c a l sy m b o ls
Fou r qu
a c c o r dl n
as
b,
a,
b
q , p
c,
an
thus sta t e d
be
r
o
o
r
ti
o
n
w
h
n
e
p p
in
a re
O
b ei ng
d q
an
iti o n m ay
y p o si ti v e
To de du c e t h e g e o m e t r i c a l de n iti o n
a l e b r a i c al de n iti o n
g
I
the
titi e s
an
t h e de n
in
teg er s
:qd
wha t ev er
f p r o p o r ti o n
f r om
3
:gl
e
Sin c e
b y m ulti p l y i n g b o
th si de s
by
3
,
we
ob t i
a n
P0
96
h e n c e f r om
,
the p
r op e r ti e s
qd
pc
w hi c h p r ov e s
II
the p
G I V en
r i c al
at
de n iti
c
f f ra c ti
ac c
r o po siti o n
To de du c e t h e
t h e ge m e t
qd
on
9d
o r di
on s
as
b
q ,
l g e b ra i c a l
de n iti o n
f p r o p o r ti o n
o rdi n (
O
ac c
as
:2
qb,
t o p1 o v e
f r om
PR O PO R T
ION
If
a
Is
Su p p o s e
w hi c h
n o
u
al t o
q
g5
>
b e t we e n
li e s
th e m
one
Cl
it w i
th e n
ll
be p
an
dp
m ust b e t h e g r e a t e r
th e m
o ssib l e t o d s o m f r t i n
b i n g p o siti v e i n t eg e r s
n
ac
9
9
9
>
[3 20
He n c e
an
17
F r om
(
)
(
1)
f rom 2
an d th e s e
Z
5
9 3
d
9 }
o t r adi t
n
th e
di
h y p o th e sis
g (;
Th e r e f o r e
t he p
an
r op o siti o n
ar e n o
u n e q u al 3 th at is
g5
w
hi
c
h
r
o
s
v
e
3
p
I t sh ul d b e n ti c e d th a t t h e g e m e t r i c a l de n iti n o f r o
p
a ls w ith c o n c r et e m a n itu de s ,
n
d
r
ti
e
su
c
h
li
n
s
r
s
a
s
e
o
r
a
e
a
g
p
,
r e p r e s en t e d g e m e t r i c ally b u t n o t r e fe rr e d t an y c m m n u n it
So th a t Eu c li d s de n iti n is appli c ab l e t in
o f m e a su r e m e n t
c mm e n su r ab l e
c m m e n su r ab l e a s w e ll a s t
an t i ti e s 3 w h e r e a s
q
n ly t c o m
t h e a l ge b ra i c a l de n iti n , st r i c tl y s p e ak i n g , app li e s
m e n su r ab l e q uan titi e s, si n c e it t a c it y a ssu m e s th a t a is t h e s am e
de t e rm i n at e m ulti p l e , p a r t , o r p a r ts , o f b th a t c is o f d
Bu t t h e
r
fs
hi
i
u
w
ch ha e b ee n
e n f r c m m e n su r ab l e
a
n titi e s will
p
g
q
still b e t r u e f r i n c mm e n su r ab l e s , sin c e t h e r ati o f t w in c o m
m e n su r ab l e s c an al w ay s b e m ade t di ffe r f r m t h e r a ti o f t w
i n t e ge r s b y less th an an y a ssign a ble q u a n tity This h as b ee n
sh e w n in A r t 7 3 it m ay als b e p r v e d m r e g e n e ra lly a s in t h e
26
o o
o o
oo
o
o
n ex
t a rti c l e
th a t a an d b a r e i n c o mm e n su rab l e ; di v i de b
in t o
e q u a l p a rts e ac h e q u al t o B s o th a t b
m B wh e r e m is a
o
siti
v e i n te e r
A
ls
o
su
o
s
e B is c o n t a i n e d in a m o r e th an n
p
g
pp
t im e s an d l e ss th an n 1 ti m e s 3
27
m
.
Su pp o s e
E>
6
th en
th at is
so
a
,
th a t
d i ffe
li e s
r s f om 2
mB
mB
b e twe e n
by
Z
Z
an
u
n
t
i
t
y
q
a
d
le
ss th
l
In
d sm c e we
H I G HE R
18
c an c
m a de
as
ho o s e B ou r u n it
r
eat
g
as
we p l e a
e , an
we p
d t wo
r ss th a t o f
w ill
ex p e
o o
f m e a su r e m e n t )
as
L G EB RA
ea e
s m all
1
He n c e
we pl e a s e , m
as
c an
b e m ade
as
772.
i n tege r s
an d b t o
as
c an
s m al l
b e f u n d w h s e r a ti
an
r
e ui r e d de r e e o f a c c u r a c
y
q
g
y
d m
an
c an
ov
Th e p r p siti n s p r e d in A r t 2 3 ar e ft e n us e ful i n
s l i n g p r b e m s I n p a r ti c ul a r, t h e s uti n o f c e r t ai n e q a
ti n s is g r e atly fac ilit at e d b y a s k ilful u s e o f t h e p e r a ti n s co m
o
n en do an d div iden do
p
28
o l
ov
o
ol
E x a mp l e 1
I f 2 ma
6 mb
(
2m
9 n d) 2ma
3720
b
ro
v
e
h
t
t
d
p
p ro p or t i on l s
2m
6 mb 3
9 d
W h ve
6 mb
2m
3
9 d
o m p on endo d divi d ndo
a
a,
ar e
c,
2 ma
6a
3n c
9n d
nc
2ma
6 mb
3 71 0
9n d
(
2 (
6 mb
2 2 ma + 3 n c)
2 2ma
3n o )
9 n d)
2 6 mb
9 nd )
an
2 ma
3 11 0
6 mb
9n d
2 ma
3no
6 mb
9nd
d ividendo
1 2 mb
(
i
18nd
nc
h en e
or
g in om p on n do
a
an
b=
l 6x
x
1 6x
1 6x + 1 0
3 2x
2
'
3 2x 2
when e
divi d ndo
2x
6 mb
4 ma
7 10
l e rn ndo
A g in
om p on endo
a
9 u d)
9 n d) 2 ma
an
A t
3 m:
3 716
6 mb
6 mb
8x + 5
.
1 6x
4 x 2 1 6x 2
D
8x + 53
3nc
9 n d) ,
H I GHER
20
18
by
by
1 m e n in
a
19
2 1 , t h e su m o f t h e m ean s 1 9 ,
n m b e rs i s 4 4 2
.
d th e
ne
t re m e s i s
s q u ar e s o f all fo u r
m
su m o f t h e
an
s to t h wo rk do
1 ay s i
1 0, n d
00+
d y s in t h r t i o f 9
F in d fo u r p roport i o n l s s u h t h t t h
in
m en
+2
or k d on
If t h e w
L G EBR A
e su
f th e
ex
sk
we r e l l e d wi t h two kinds
sh
f e rry , mix e
r ati o f 2 7 , an d in t h e c a B in t h e ati o f
at q an t i ty m st b e t a e n fr m e ac h t o f rm a m i x t u re
in an d 9 a n s o f t h e t e r ?
c n s i s t o f 2 ga
n s o fo n e
20 Two c a s A
t h e c as A in t h e
dB
an
sk
r o
u
u
k
o
o
5 Wh
1
ll o
k d
g ll o
oh
wh i h sh ll o
s k fu ll f win ; i t i s th
dr w fr om
Nin g ll o s
21
ll d wi th w t r the nin g ll o s f t h m i t u r
dr wn d t h
s k i s g in ll d wi t h w t r I f t h q u t i ty f wi n ow in t h
sk
1 6 t o 9 h ow m u h d o s t h
sk
b t o t h q u n t i ty o f w t r i i t
h ol d
in o t i u d p rop o rt i o n sh w
If fou r p o s i t i v q u n t i t i s
22
t h r t
d l s t i s t l st t h r
t h t t h d i ff r n b t w
tim s
t
h
b
t
h
r
t
i
r
t
w
n
o
h r tw
t
d
f
f
g
I En g l n d t h p op u l t i on in r s d 1 5 9 p
n t b tw
23
nt d t h
1 87 1
d 1 8 8 1 3 if t h to w p op u l t i o in r
d 18 p
o u n t ry p o p u l t i o n 4 p
n t o m p r t h t ow
d ou n t ry p p l
in
a e
a e
ea
ce
e e
as
e e n ce
in 1 8 7 1
er c e
a e
e ca
e ca
ea
ee
as
er
c eas e
an
c ea e
t i on s
en
ne
an
an
an
ee
e ar e
ar e
as
e en
a e
a ca
ar e
a a
ca
ce
er ce
an
ee n
an
u a
o u m p t i o n f t a i t i m es t h
If a pe
o su
on f off
n t m or t a a d b p
n t m or
o ff w r on s um d t h aggr g t m o u nt o n s u m d wo u l d b 7 p
n t m or ; b t if 6 p
nt m or t a a d p
n t m or off
w r on s um d t h aggr gat e am ou n t on s um d w o u l d b 3 p
nt
m or
c om p r
a d b
i
ll oy
25 Brass i s a
all oy
f opp r a d in ; b r on
on t inin g 80 p
t f op pe r 4 f in a d 1 6 f t in A f s d
m as s f b r as s
d b ro n
i fou d t o o ta in 7 4 p
nt f opp r 1 6
f in a d 1 0 f t in n d t h rat i o f opp r t o in in t h
om p o s i t i o n
In
24
n mp t i
a ce
c
c
ce
r tain c o ntry
ee
e e c
er
fb
er
ce
ve
er
ce
er
e c
ee
e r ce
c en
an
c,
r ss
ns
a e a
r ce
e r ce
a e a
ee
e e c
th e
ze
c,
er c e
an
ze
e c
rtain c o u r s e u p st r am in 84 min u te s ;
th ey c an r w t h e s am e c o u r s e down s t r eam in 9 m in u te s l e ss t h an
they c o u l d w i t in s ti ll wate r : h o w l on g w o u l d t hey take t o r o w down
wi t h t h e st r eam ?
26
rw
c e
ro
c an
ro
a ce
C HA PTER I I I
VA
su c h
i
r at o
o
o
NO TE
as
29
a s an
R IA TI O N
word
Th e
d irectly
i s ofte n
o mi tt d
e
an
is
d A
s i d t o v ry
a
Fo r i n st a n c e : if a t r a i n m ov i n g at a u n if o r m r a t e t ra v e ls
4 0 m il e s in 6 0 m i n ut e s , it wi l l t ra v e l 2 0 m il e s i n 3 0 m i n ut e s ,
8 0 m il e s in 1 2 0 m i n ut e s , a n d s o o n 3 t h e dist an c e in e a c h c as e
b e in g i n c r e a s e d o r di m i n ish e d i n t h e s am e r a ti o a s t h e ti m e
This is e x p r e ss e d b y s ay i n g th at w h e n t h e v e l o c ity is u ni f o r m
th e dista n c e is p r op o r tio n a l t o the t ime , o r th e dista n c e v a r ies a s
t h e t im e
.
Th e
30
A at B
.
31
is r e ad
If A
c o n sta n
v ri e s
fA
th at
d B
th a t
so
so
a, a
1,
b , b , , 62 ,
2,
are c
me
o rr sp o n di
e
al
6]
62
6
a
:
(
i,
e ac
63
v
alu e o f A
y
o rr e sp o n di g v a l u
n
A
I s,
62
m,
e o
w h e re
A
f B
m
=
b el n g
an
the
o t v r i ti o n 3
Th e n , b y de n I t I o n ,
He n c e
de n
an
as
su pp o s e th at
is u s e d t o
or
v a r es a s
t q u an tity
Fo r
v lu e s
sy m b o l
al t o
u
q
mB
o n st n t
a
so
is a l w ay s
18 c
an
the
sam e
on
H I GHE R
22
If
the
an
y p
a r o
o st nt m
a
L G EB RA
o rre sp o n di n g v lu e s
f A
b e de t e r m i n e d
c an
Fo r
an
d B
i n stan c e if
,
a re
k n o wn
3 wh e n
B = 1a
have
we
an
d
32
as a
D EF I N I TI O N
n o th e r
Thus if
B
i
v a r i e s i n v e r s e ly
12 3
when
B,
B, A
as
wh e r e m
is
o stan t
n
E x a mp le 1
x
when y = 3
By
Th e
n d
upp osi t i on
P u tt ing a = 8
ub roo t
e
when g =
3 , we
v ri s invers ly
a
as
th e
s qu r
a e o
f y ; if
whe re m i s c o n s tant
77L
x:
f
1
hv
a e
m : 1 8,
an
18
he n e
c
b y p t t in
gy
we
ob t
in
u re
l e s r vo l u o v r e
e
e u s r vo l u o
e u s ro
o f t h e ti m
Th e sq a
o f a p an t
e
t i n a i s as
Ex a mp le 2
t h e c b o f it s i t an c f m th e Su n ; n d t h e t i m o f V n
e
ti n ,
an d V n
f m t h e Su n t o b e 9 1 } an d
o f t h e Ea t
m in t h e di tan c
a
66 mi i n o f m i
y
p cti
ue
ssu g
d s e ro
s es
rh
ll o s
le s r e s e vel
L t P b t h p r i od i t i m e m e s u r e d i d y s
D
P
f m i le s ; w h ve
P
kD
or
whe r e k i s som e on s t n t
3 6 5 36 5 k
F or th E rth
9 11
.
0:
when e
c
365
P =
2
365
3
.
D th e
di s t
a c
ei
mi
ll i ons
VA
F or V e nu s
R I A TI O N
3 6o
wh en e
P=
66
2 64
264
H en
ce
23
th e t m e
'
2 24 4
264
'
7 2 33 ,
ap p
ro
i m at ely
85
r v o l u t i o n i s n e r ly
d ys
33
D EF I N I TI O N
On e q u an tity is s ai d t o v ary j i n tl y
n u m b e r o f th e r s , w h e n it v a r i e s di r e c tl
r
u
t
a s th e i r
d
c
y
p
.
v a r i e s j o i tly
Thus A
stan c e , t h e
i n t e r e st o n
r
i
n c i a l t h e ti m e a n d
p
p
,
34
D EF I N I TI O N
d 0, wh e n A = m BC
o f m on e
v
a r i e s j o i n tl
y
y
.
r ce
e
p
is s a i d t o
nt
Fo r
as
in
the
v ary di re c tly
as
an
d in
B
as
3 5 If A v ar ies a s B wh en G is
wh en B is co n stan t, th en will A v a r y
.
v a r i ti on
an
rate
th e
v ari e s
0, w h e n A
v e r se l
as
y
B
su m
as
as a
d A v a r ies a s C
B C wh en b o th B a n d C
co n s ta n
as
an
th a t o f B an d p a rtly o n
th a t o f 0 Su pp o s e th e s e l att e r v a r i ati o n s t o ta k e p l ac e s e pa
a c h in its tu r n p r o du c i n g its o wn e ffe c t o n A ; a ls o l e t
r at e l
e
y
B 0
a b c b e c e rt a i n si m ult an e o us v a lu e s o f A
Th e
f A dep e n ds par tl y
t,
on
1
L et C b e
u n de rg a pa r ti a l
c o n sta n
c
whil e B c h an g e s t o b 3 th e n A m ust
a n d will a ssu m e s o m e i n t e rm e di at e v a lu e
h an ge
A
a
L et B b e
A
a
'
t,
th a t is
o r
( (
an
d 2)
'
1)
F rom
co n s ta n
h an g e s t o c 3 th e n
i n te rm e di a t e v a lu e
w h e re
a
;
be
v rie s
a
3 0,
as
BC
H I GHER
24
36
Th e
f ol l o w i n g
ar e
L G EB RA
illust r a ti o n s o f
th e
th e o r e m
r
ov
e
i
d
n
p
l a st a rt i c l e
Th e am o u n t o f w o rk do n e b y a g iv en n u m b er of men v a ri e s
di r ec tl y as t h e n u m b e r o f day s th e y w o rk an d t h e am o u n t o f
w o rk do n e in a g iv en time v a r i e s di r e c tly a s t h e n u m b e r o f m e n ;
th e r e f o r e wh e n t h e n u m b e r o f day s an d t h e n u m b e r o f m e n ar e
b o th v a r i ab l e t h e am o u n t o f w o rk w ill v a ry a s t h e p r o du c t o f
t h e n u m b e r o f m e n a n d t h e n u m b e r o f day s
A gai n in G e o m e t ry t h e a r e a o f a t r i an gl e v a r i e s di r e c tl y a s
its b a s e wh en t h e h e ig ht is c o n stan t an d di r e c tly as t h e h e i g ht
w h en t h e b as e is c o n sta n t 3 an d wh e n b o th t h e h e ig ht an d b as e
v a r i ab l e t h e a rea v ar i e s a s t h e p r o du c t o f t h e n u m b e r s
ar e
r e p r e s e n ti n g t h e h e ig ht an d t h e b as e
th e
v ol um e
r i g h t i r ul r o n e v r i e s th s q u r e f th
r diu s
s e when th he i gh t i s on s t n t d th he ight when t h
I f t h r d i u s f t h b s e i s 7 fee t
d t h he i gh t 1 5 feet
b se i s o st nt
on e wh os e vo l m e i s 1 32
t h v o l u m e i s 7 7 0 u b i fee t ; d t h he i g h t f
ub i fee t d wh i h s t nds on b s e wh os e r di u s i s 3 feet
L t h
d
deno t e r e sp e t ively t h he i ght d r diu s f th b s
m e su r e d i fee t ; l so l t V b t h v o l u m e i
ub i fee t
m h whe r e m i s o n s t n t
Then V
By s upp os i t i on
15
7 7 0_ m 7
22
whe n e
E x amp l e Th e
o f th e b a
.
an
a c
an
as
an
as
an
an
fa
a e
22
V _
by
s ub s ti tut ing
132,
21
o o
o
h : 14 ;
o o
v
21
22
when e
dt
3 , we g et
132
an
Th e p r p siti n f A r t 3 5 c a n e a sil y b e e x t e n de d t t h e
c a s e i n w hi c h t h e
a r i a ti n o f A de e n ds u
n
th
a
t
r
th
f
m
o
an
e
p
p
t wo
a r i ab e s
u r th e r, t h e a r i ati n s m ay b e e ith e r di r e c t o r
i n e r s e Th e p r i n c i p e is i n t e r e sti n g b e c a s e o f its f r e q u en t o c
c u rr e n c e in P
a l Sc i e n c e
i
c
Fo r e x am p l e , in t h e th e ry o f
y
a s e s it is f u n d b
x
r
i
m
n
t
th
a
t
h
r
ssu
r
e
e
e
t
e
e
e
o
f
a
a
s
g
y
p
p
p)
g
v a ri e s a s t h e
ab s lut e t e m e r a tu r e
w
h
its
l
is
t
n
m
e
e
v
p
)
)
c n st a n t , a n d th a t t h e
r
ssu
r
ar i e s i n e r s e l
lu
e
e
a
s
t
h
e
m
e
p
y
wh e n t h e t e m p e r a tu r e is c n st a n t 3 th at is
37
h s
or
t,
when
(v
is
o n st n t ;
a
(
vo u
(
vo
A R I ATI O N
an
at
w hen
25
is
o st n t
a
Fr o m th e s e r e s u lts we sh ou l d e x p e c t th a t w h e n b o th
v a r i ab l e we sh o ul d h a v e t h e fo rm ul a
an
v a re
an
d by
ac
0c:
tu a l
ex
E x amp le
t a c an d
o r p v = ht w h e re
It
Is c
o n sta t
n
r i m e n t this is f o u n d t o b e t h e c a s e
durat i on f a r i lway jou rn ey vari e s di re tly
pe
Th e
as
th e
th e
th e
th
di s n e
inve rs ely
vel o i ty ; t h v el o i ty v r i e s d i re tly
s qu r e roo t f th q u n t i ty f o l u s ed p m i le d inve rs ely
n um b e r f rr i g e s i t h t r in I jo ur ey f 2 5 m i le s i h l f h o u r
rri g e s 1 0 wt f o l i s r eq ui r ed ; h w mu h o l wi ll b
wi th 1 8
on sum ed i jou rn ey f 2 1 m i le s i 28 m inu t e s wi th 1 6 rr i g e s ?
L t t b t h t i m e e p r e ss e d i h o u rs
d t h d i s t n e in m i le s
t h v el o i ty in m i le s p
h ou r
wt
q t h q u n t i ty f o l i
rr i ge s
th n u m b e r f
W h ve
t
g
.
as
ca
n a
an
ca
n c
at
an
ca
er
as
as
an
er
ca
1)
when e
Cd
t o:
or
s/q
M whe r e k i s on s t
/q
v l u e s g i v en w h v
t
nt
u sti tu t in g th
S b
at
is
H ence
u s u g
q ue st i on w h v
S b t i t t in
,
no
w th e
v lues
a
60
at
is
Jq
2 5x 3 6
2 5x 3 6
o
f t,
cd
/q
c,
16
g ive n
1 5X 28
32
5
e
q u n t i ty
a
fc
o l is 6
a
21
.
2 5x 3 6
whenc e
H ence th
25
a e
28
J ib
JE
79
18
a e
c wt
Jq
5
in th e
s ond
ec
rt
pa
f th e
H I GHER
26
L G EB RA
EXA MPL ES
III
If x
lu
e ac
h v ry
6
If A
Q
8
is
as
t ly ; if A
vari s
as
Qw
as
f 0,
as
y , pr
wh en
th en
0,
an
B=
4,
an d
'
C=
27
an d
VA B wi l l
ove th t
a
su
an
as
R;
d in v e rs e y
+y
v ri s a
a
l so
s x
P=
wh e n
one
x =
vari s
e
an d
4,
an
as x
as
P = x/48 an d
en
e su
f t wo q u an t i ti e s , o f wh i c h
t e in e e y as x ; an d if y = 6 w e n
t h e eq at i n b e tween x an d y
th e
t i ti e s
an
one o
wh i c h var i es
d if y = 1 9 wh en
x =
2,
or
ec
d if A
th e
as
s q u r r o ot
a e
w h en B = 2 56
an d
inv er s e ly as
n d B wh e n A = 2 4
fB
12
nd
th e
an d
r i es
y
2
as z
va
wh en
x =
1
d
an
an
d 0
13
If A
vari s
as
an
d C
'
o
in
t
l
w
h
i
l
j
y
v ar i s i v r s ly a A s h ew th at A v r i es a D
I f y v ar i e s
th
m f th
14
q u an t i t i s
on s t n t t h s on d var i s a a d t h th i rd
.
ec
e su
e
s x,
as
'
wh i c h
of
2
as x 3 an
r ee
vari s
rs t i s
d if y = 0 w h e n
th e
= 7
= 3
d
e
x
w
h
w
h
n
en
x
3
y
y
1 5 Wh e n a b o dy fall s fro m r e s t i t s d i s tan c e from t h e s tart i n g
p oin t v ar i e s as t h e s q u ar e o f t h e t i m e i t h as b e e n fall in g :if a b od y fall s
th ro ug h 4 02 fee t in 5 sec on ds h ow fa do e s i t fall in 1 0 seco n ds Z
,
1, y
.
lso h
wh en
as
vari s in v r s ly
o h r v rs l
u o
3 3 n d
t
h
t
m f two q u
u
l
q
d t h ot h r
i v r s ly ;
d th e
an d
n d
an
R=
If y
ub e
3 wh en y
x =
d B
d i r tl y
n d y in t rm s f
I f A v r i s di r t l y
11
c
o in
th e n
ec
th e
an
B 0,
ec
J3
B= 3
vari s d i r tly
as x an
as 9:
.
vari s a
an
v ri s
I f y v ari s
10
d C
0,
wh e n x =
an d
54
an
vari es a
If x
d i r tly
ec
va
wh en
s
ri e s as t h e c ub e o f y
fx
as
an d
If A
u re
e o fy
n d U wh en A
vari s a
If t h e s q
va
ri es as y an d x = 8 wh en y = 1 5 n d x wh e n y = 1 0
v ar i e s in v e rse l y as Q an d P = 7 w h en Q= 3 n d P wh e n
va
If P
n d t h e
x=
2,
w far
do
an d
s i t fall in
th
th e l 0
s e c on d ?
'
C HA PTER I V
D EF I NI TI O N
Q a n t i ti e s
Pr o gressio n w h e n th e y i n c re as e
38
sai d to
are
o r
de c r e a
b e in A r it h met ic al
b y a co mm o n dif1
er en c e
Thus
e ac
Pr o g r e ssi o n
fol l ow i ng
f th e
i s fo rms
er e
an
r ith me tica l
3, 7 , l l , 1 5
8 , 2,
10
d,
a +
a,
4,
a +
2 d,
a +
3 d,
o mm o n diffe re n e is fo u n d b y sub t r c ti g a y t e rm f
I t h e r st f t h e ab ov e
th e s e r i e s f r o m th a t w h i h f ll w it
6 i
m p l e s t h e c o m m o di ffe r e e is 4 3 i t h e s e c o d it is
e
Th e
thi rd it is
39
I f we
o ti
ce
t h an th e
th a t
nu
e x am
in
m b er
the
a +
2 d,
a +
lfd
th
t e rm
te rm
t e rm
te rm
th
is
is
is
is
a+
2d 3
5d ;
1 9d ;
b e t h e n u m b e r o f t e r m s, an d
t e rm , w e h a e
I: a
1) d
n
To
Pr o g r essio n
fin d
d is
o ne
th e
su
m of
nu
l) d
if
l de n o t e t h e
l a st
o r
de n o t e t h e r t t e rm , d t h e c omm o n di ffe r e n c e ,
n u m b e r o f t e rm s
A ls o l e t I de n o t e t h e l a st t e r m ,
L et
th e
d,
d, g e n e ra ll y , t h e
40
s e ri e s
e ic ie n t
t
r
t
h
co
e
m
e
y
th e ter m in th e ser ies
2O
th
an
th
If
nc
ine
Thus t h e
an
a,
we
xa
the
d
an d
an
P R O GR ESSI O N
A R ITHMETI OA L
r e qui re d su m 3 th e n
the
29
(
l
an
d, b y
wr iti n g t h e s e r i e s i n
s =
A ddi n g
l+ l
2 d)
t oge th e r th e s e t w o s e ri e s
(
a
r e v e r s e o r de r
the
a +
+ a
to
t e rm s
l) ,
an
= a +
(
n
l)d
1) d}
h a v e th re e u s e fu l fo r m u l ae
th e s e an y o n e o f t h e l e tt e r s m ay de n o te
Fo r
t h e u n k n o w n q u a n tity w h e n t h e th r e e o th e r s a r e k n o w n
in stan c e i n 1 ) if we su b stitut e g i v e n v alu e s f o r s n l we ob tai n
a
a n d si m il a r l
e
a n e u a ti o n f o r n di n
i
n t h e o th e r f o r m u l a
3
q
g
y
Bu t it is n ec e s s a r y t o g u a r d ag ai n st a t oo m e c h a n i c a l u se o f th e s e
e n e r a l f o r m ul ae a n d it w ill o ft e n b e f o u n d b e tt e r t o s o l v e si m pl e
g
a n a c tu al r e fe r e n c e t o t h e
u
sti
o
n s b
a m e n t a l r a th e r th an b
e
q
y
y
r e quisit e f o rm ul a
41
I n t h e la t
in e a c h o f
r ti
we
c e
Ex amp le 1
e t h e c mm
Her
th e
Find th e s m o f t h e s e r i e s
on d iffe r enc e i s 1 1 ; henc e from
17
su m
to 1 7 t
8,
e rm s
l
x
17
17
31
rs e r f s e r i e s i s 5 th l t 4 5
u e r er s d th o m m on di ffe ren e
1)
num b e r f t e rm s t hen from (
Th e t t m
E x a mp l e 2
4 00 : n d t h e n m b
o ft
m ,
.
If n b e th e
an
e c
4 004
when e
c
3
2
16
as
an
d th e
su
30
H I GH ER
If d b e
L G EBRA
wh en ce
42
1 5d ;
If
an
t e rm s o f
r ithm e ti c l Pr ogre i on b e
co m pl e t e l y de t e rm i ne d 3 f o r th e d t a
t wo
an
ss
g i ven th e ser i e s c an b e
fu r n i s h two si m ultan eo u s e qu ati on s th e s o luti on o f
g i v e th e rst t e rm an d th e co mm o n di ffe r en ce
term s o f an A P are 6 1 an d
Th e
E x amp le
an d 4
2 3 te rm
If a b e th e rst te rm an d d th e c omm on differen ce
,
w hi c h will
th
64 ; n d
the
'
61 =
an
64
when ce we ob tai n
an d
the 23 te rm
rd
43
%
a
d:
a
er
71
22d
E F I NI TI O N W h e th ree qu a titi e s a
th e 54 t m = a + 53d ;
3d
th e
term
th
Progre ssi o n
th e
m i ddl e
is
one
th e o th e r t w o
Thu s a is th e a r ith m e ti c
sa
id t o
th e
in A ith m e ti c al
ar it h met ic mean o f
re
44
To
Let
Th e n
nd
th e
m e an b e t ween
d b b e th e t w o qu a n titi e s ; A th e
a , A , b a re in A P we m u s t h a ve
.
an
r ith m e ti c
tities
m e an
diffe r e n ce
e ac h b e i ng e qu al t o th e co mm o n
w h e n ce
ar ithm etic
an
i nce
an
t
ithmeti c m ean s b etween 4 a d 6 7
In cl ud i n g th e e trem es th e n um b e r f t e rm s wi ll b 2 2 ; s o th at w e have
to d a seri es f 22 te rm s i n A P o f w h i ch 4 i s the rst a d 6 7 th e l ast
L et d b e the c ommon d ifferen c e ;
6 7 = th e 22 te rm 4 21 d
th en
wh en ce d 3 a d th e seri es i s 4 7 1 0 6 1 6 4 6 7
a d th e r equ i re d m e an s a
7 10 13
58 7 1 6 4
E x amp le
In ser 20 ar
"d
re
A R I TH
M ETI CA L P R O G RESSIO N
To in se t a g iv en
46
two g iv en q u a n t ities
.
m b e r of
n u
31
r ith metic
m ea n s b etween
th e g i v e n qu an titi e s n th e n u m b e r o f m e an s
I nc lu di n g th e e x t r e m e s th e n u m b e r o f t e rm s w ill b e n + 2 3
2 t e r m s in A P o f w hi c h
so th a t we h a ve t o n d a s er i e s o f n
a is th e r st an d b is th e l as t
L e t d b e th e co m m on di b r e n c e 3
h
b
th en
th e n 2 ) t er m
Le t
a an
be
w h ence
d
b _a
n +
()
2 b
a +
a,
a +
n +
is
27 ,
an d
th e
su m
()
b
th e i r squares i s
th em
L t
b
the middl numb er
d
nu m b e r s a e
a+d
e
n +
Th e su m
29 3 3 n d
1) d 3
th e r e qui r e d m e a n s ar e
(
0+
Ex a mp le 1
an
He n ce
wh en ce a = 9
an d
th e th ree num b er s a
d, 9, 9 + d
re
wh e nce
an d th e nu m b e r s
Ex amp le 2
e rm
1
3n
is
By p
utti ng
ar e
4, 9 , 1 4
F i d the
n
d:
5;
su m o
the rst
an
d n =p
st te rm
su m
st t
2, l a
2 + 3p
(
9
1
=
Su m 4 9 , 4 4 ,
3
t o 2 0 t e rm s
t o 1 7 term s
to
19
t erm s
3p
1
=
IV
Su m 2 , 3 i,
erm =
EX A MPLES
.
te rm s
1 ;
the
ri es wh o s e
se
H I GH ER
32
4
Su m 3 ,
Su m 3 7 5,
Su m
73
Su m
10
.
Su m
11
Su m 2 a
12
13
14
15
.
16
17
18
n d t
en c
Su m
12
J3
t o 50 term s
to
3 b, 2 a
+h
a,
t o 4 0 terms
t o n term s
t o 2 1 te rm s
r i th m e ti c
I n se t 1 9
te rm s
3b, 6a
3a
25
56, 3 a
6, 4 a
m e an s b etween
%
an d
d 3x
h e d i fferen c e
.
7,
3 l,
t o 1 6 term s
t o 2 4 ter m s
t o 1 0 term s
Su m
L G EBRA
Su m
t o n terms
29 ,
th e
su
m 1 553
Th e su m o f 1 5 t erm s
19
e is 53 n d th e rst ter m
.
f an A P is 6 00,
.
an
th e c omm on d iffer
20
n d t
Th e
su m
th
24
Fi nd th e
25
F i nd th e
su
su
m
m
of
35
term s
o f 2? term s
f the
f th e
eri e s wh os e
e ri e w h o s e
s
m
n
te
2
rm is 3
7
n
t erm is a
]
26
i nd t h
e su
fn
t erm
s o
th e s e r i e s
I)
A R ITH
r ith m e ti c l
I n an A
47
de t e m i ne th e
v alu e s
33
Pr o g r e ssi on w h e n
to
M ETICA L P R OG RESSIO N
3 , a,
(
l a r e g i ven ,
we h a ve th e q u adra ti c e q u a ti o n
2a
(
n
1)d
E x a mp le
te rm s
Ho w m any
tak en t h at the su m m ay b e 6 6 ?
Here
th at i s
18 +
th e seri es
e t ke 1 1 t e rm s
a
9,
the su m o f w h i ch i s 6 6
6,
ust
(
44
7n
O,
or
Ifw
9,
(l l)
or
6,
3,
6 , 9, 12,
f th es e t rm a d
e ei
th
t b
k w r d fo
term s th e
is s
thu s lth ug h th e n eg tive s oluti on does not d i rectly
n s w er th e qu esti on p rop o sed we
en b l e d to give it i ntell i gi b l e m e n in g
th t it n s w er s qu sti on lo sely c onn cte d with th t to wh i c h
d we
th e p o s itive oluti on ppl i es
e la st
If w b g n at
al o 6 6 ; an d
su m
see
ac
ur
ar e
co u n
an
an
in
e qu ati o n t o de t e r m i n e
Th e
is
d)
2s
(
n
1) d 3
thi s t e rm an d co u n t b ackwar ds th e c o mm o n
d an d th e su m o f n t er m s is
di e r e n c e m u st b e de n o t e d b y
if we
b eg i n
at
2
an
a + n
we sh a ll sh ew th at thi s
H H A
.
is
e qu a l t o
d)
34
H I GH ER
Fo r
Tl
th e e x p r e ssi on
2an 2
2n
2n
O
L
L G EBR A
2a
2n
l)d
d
2
d
2
cl / 2
.
(
n
2a
l) d
n
is th e
i nce n sati se s da
n
2a
d) n
23
O a d
d
o f th e r oo t s o f thi s e qu a ti on
ro
u
c
t
p
49
W h e n th e v alu e o f n is f ra c ti on a l th ere is n o e a c t n u m
b e r o f t e rm s w hi c h corre sp o n ds t o s u c h a s o luti o n
H w m ny te rm s o f th e ser i es 2 6 2 1
E
mp l
b t k en t
am o u t t
74 ?
s
xa
um o
f7
2
2
5n
h u th e n m b e r
i s g r e ter w h i l e t h
s
a dd s
We
or
e su
50
71
n =
148
57 n
5
( 4) (
or
o m e Mi s c e ll a neo u s
Th e
sum
s o
Ex a m p l e s
ar e
i n the
th
te rm s
a2 ,
He r e
a
th t i s
e a
a,
an
a1
a2
No w W e h av e
to
thu s th e requi r e d r ti o i s 4
se i es w h se
1, 2, 3,
by p
utti ng
21 ,
we
th e s
an
g1 + S2 + S3 +
ar e
h ence
+ 1 0d 2
111
1 0dl
2 a2 + 2 0d2
are
a u
1 48
S2 ,
st t e r m s
th e v l e
2 a1 + 2 0d1
th e value
ob tai n
E x amp le 2
If
r
o r
n d
1 , 3 , 5,
"
term s
ith eti c
m
f ar
ff r n
wh se com m on d i e e ces
+q
ar e
36
H I GH ER
9
If
10
nd th e
11
that
su
th e
su
term s
f7
o f n term s
If th e p
1
x
is 4 9 ,
term s o f an
th
Th e su m o f p t e m s o f
12
m
s
t
e
0 ; n d th e su m o fp
3
g
Th e su m
13
9 4 53 n d th em
Jx
an
th e
t o n terms
su
ar e a,
b,
f 17
terms is 289
(
g
L G EBRA
th e seri e s
Su m
A P
A P is g,
an
re pectively sh ew
s
th e su m o f
an d
terms is
o f fo ur i n tegers i n
A P is 2 4 ,
.
th ei r prod u c t
an
is
D i v i de 20 i n t o fo u p a ts w hi h are i n A P , an d s u h th at t h e
14
o
u
c
t
th
e
Th e p
15
th
t erm
th
term o f
A P is g,
an
an
the
th
t erm
is p ; n d
th e
Ho w man y
16
mak e 3 06 ?
.
o f n term s o f an
m u st b e
9 , 1 2,
tak en t o
the r term
If th e su m o f m t erm s o f an A P is to th e su m o f n t erm s as
18
2
2
1 is to 2
m t o n sh ew th at th e m te rm is t o th e n t erm as 2 72
l
Prove th at th e su m o f an o dd n umb er o f term s i n A P is eq u al
19
t o th e mi ddl e term m ultipli ed b y th e n umb e r o f term s
5n
3 ) fo r all v alu es o f n nd th e p
t er m
20 I f s n (
Th e n u m b e r o f t er m s i n an A P is even ; th e su m o f th e o dd
21
term s is 24 o f th e even terms 3 0 an d th e las t t erm excee ds th e rst b y
n d th e n u mb e r o f t e rm s
Th ere are two se ts o f n um b e rs eac h con sisti ng o f 3 term s i n A P
22
an d th e su m o f e ac h se t is 1 5
Th e co m m o n d i fference o f th e rst se t
is greater b y 1 th an th e co mm on di fferen c e o f th e se c ond se t an d th e
s
s
e
t
i
s
d
ro
u
c
t
o
f
th
e
r
t
to th e product o f th e secon d set as 7 to 8 : n d
p
th e n u mb ers
23
F i n d th e rel ati on b e tween 1: an d g i n o rder th at th e
m ean
b etween x an d 2g m ay b e th e s am e as t h e
me an b e tween
an d g
n me an s b ei n g i n se r ted in e ac h c as e
If th e su m o f an A P is th e sam e fo r p as fo r 9 t erm s sh ew
24
that I ts su m fo r p + g t erms is z ero
17
If th e
terms o f th e seri es
su
A P is 2 n + 3 a
.
11
n d
tn
th
7.
72.
th
C H A P TER
D E FI N I TIO N
Pro gr essio n w h e n th e y
.
PR O GR ESSI O N
G EO M ETRI C A L
51
Qu an titi e s
sa
a re
id t o
b e in G e o me t rical
r e ssio n :
g
3 , 6 , 1 2, 2 4 ,
1
27
a, a r , ar
g
,
ar
3
,
Th e co n st an t fa c t o r is al so c a ll e d th e co m mo n r a t io , a n d it is
f o u n d b y di v i di ng a n y t e rm b y th a t w hi c h i mm e di at e ly p r ecedes
it I n th e rst o f th e ab o ve ex am pl e s th e comm o n r a ti o is 2 3 in
1
th e sec o n d it is
3 in th e thi r d it is r
.
5
-
52
I f we
e x am i n e
t he
a , ar , a r
e ri es
ar
a
,
ar
we n o ti ce th a t in a n y te m th e in d ex of
t ha n th e n u m b er of th e ter m in th e ser ies
a lwa y s
less b y
on e
th e 3 t e rm is ar 3
th
th e 6 t e rm is ar 3
m
th
th e 20 t e r m is ar ;
u
a n d ge n e r all
i
s
th
e
t
r
m
e
y
p
If n b e th e n u m b e r o f te r m s an d if l deno t e th e l a s t
t e rm we h a ve
2
Thu s
o r n
th
E F I N ITI O N
W h e n th r ee qu an titi e s ar e in G eo m e t r i c al
Pr o g r e ssi o n th e m i ddl e o ne is c all e d th e g e o met r i c me an b e t wee n
t h e o th e r t wo
53
H I GH ER
38
L G EBRA
To n d th e g eo m etr ic m ea n b etween t wo g iv en qu
Let
Th en
d b b e th e t wo qu a n titi e s 3 G
'
a , G, b a r e i n G
P,
an
ince
tities
th e g eom e t r i c
m e an
e a c h b e i ng e qu a l t o th e c o mm on
r ti o 3
a
ab
w h en c e
To in ser t a g iv en
t wo g iv en q u a n tities
54
an
n u
mbe
r f
o
eo
g
me t r ic m ea n s b et ween
Let
th e gi ven qu a n titi e s n th e n u m b er o f m e a n s
I n all th e r e w ill b e n + 2 t e rm s 3 s o th a t we h a ve t o d a
2 t erm s i n G P o f w hi c h a is th e r st a n d b th e l a st
se r i e s o f n
L e t r b e th e co m m o n r ati o 3
h
b
th en
th e n 2 ) t erm
a an
d b be
ar
+ l
(
1)
th e r e qui re d
H ence
v alu e f o u n d
m e an s
a re
ar ,
ar
"
wh e re
s i th
x
In
be
th e c omm n r ti o ;
th en 5 th e si th term
o
1
32
h ence
d th e m e s
w
an
an
L et
an
th e
in
s rt 4 g eo m etri c m e n s b etw ee n 1 60 d 5
We h ve to d 6 term i n G P f w hi ch 1 6 0 i s th e rst
E x amp le
h as
ar e
8 0, 4 0, 2 0, 1 0
an
d 5
th e
G EO M ETR ICA L
To
P o g r essio n
n d th e
i
f
55
.
Le t
t e rm s
b e th e r s t
an d s th e s u m
m ulti pl y i ng
n u
mb e
ar
u b t ra c ti o n
by
ar
we h a ve
r,
'"
ar
1)
ar
"
th e sig n s in n u m era t o r
ar
'
form
Th e
Su m
th e se r es
com mon r ti o
ar
"
(
1)
d deno m i n a t o r ,
"
"
os
n r
wh i ch i s s om eti me u sef l
E x a mp le
th e
r
(
)
s
r
1
N E I t wi l l b found c onven i ent to r em e mb e r
2 ) i n ll c ses e ce p t w h e
usi g (
i s p it i
Si n ce
th e formul (
1 ) m y b w ri tten
a7
an
"
s,
(
l
( )
r
a r
th e n u mb r
OT
G eo m et ic a l
fo r
t er m s i n
rs
Ch a ng i ng
r (
3f
t e rm r th e co m m o n rati o
r e qui re d Th e n
eve ry t e rm
rs
Hence b y
su
39
PR O G REsSI O N
1,
g re a t e r
t o 7 term s
h
e
n ce b y form ul
3
;
su m
ve an d
bo
4 63
23 1 5
1 28
X a
5
(
2)
th an 1
H I GH ER
40
56
C o n si de r
th e se r i e s
L G EBRA
3 ,
1
Th e
su
to
t e rm s
1
2
e
a r s th a t h oweve r m an y t e rm s b e
pp
t ak en th e su m o f th e ab o ve seri e s is al way s l e ss th an 2 A l so we
se e th at b y m ak i ng n sufc i en tl y l a r ge we c an m ak e th e f r a c ti o n
F
r o m thi s r e sult it
1
2
o
11
a s sm al
t e rm s th e
fr om
Thu s b y
t ak i ng
t o differ
b e m ade
s u m c an
by
as
F r om
A rt
m ore
55 we
ge n e ral c ase
a
littl e
as
um b e r
we p l ea se
h ave
1
l
Su pp o se
th e
u f c i e n t
is di sc u sse d
a s
th e n e x t a r ti c l e
In
57
l
e
ase
p
we
as
sm a
is
a c ti o n
ro
e
r
f
r
p p
ar
th en th e gre at e r th e v alu e o f
a7
a n d co n se qu e n tl
o
f
n d
a
y
3
ll e r
is
th e v alu e o f
"
nu
mb er
o r m o r e b r i e fly
E xamp le 1
is 2 1 6
p rod
u ct
D eno
th e
su
Pr o gr essio n is
F i nd thr e numb er i n G P w ho e
s
m to in n ity is
e
su m
is
19,
an
wh o se
te the num b er s
6r
by
.
2
,
a , ar
th e n
Cz
x a x ar
21 6 ;
h nce
e
a:
6,
an
P R O GRESSIO N
GEO M ETR IC A L
41
6
Wh
en ce
'
hu the numb e rs
ar e
4, 6, 9
3
_
i n nite n um b er f term s in G P i s 1 5 d
m f their squ r s i s 45; d the e ri s
th
d enot the r s t t e rm r th e c mmon ti o ; th e n th e m f th e
L t
m f th e i r squ r e i s
t rm s i s I
d th
1
Ex amp le 2
e su
su m o
Th e
an
a e
ra
e su
an
2)
(
45
( (
rom (
)
) d(
df
g 2) b y
1 an
wh en ce r
hu the
1)
iii
th e r efore
an
eri e s
is 5,
5;
= 5
.
3
3
EXA MPLES
Su m
Su m
Su m
1
,
2
,
Su m 1 6 2
Su m 1 , 5,
Su m 3 ,
Su m 1 ,
J3
term s
to
t erm s
t o 7 term s
m
s
t
r
e
p
2,
to
10
to
to
4,
t o 8 te rms
Su m
to 6 t erm s
to
2,
Su m 2 ,
an
Hen ce
su
ivi d i
an
2n
12
term s
te rm s
to
te rm s
H IGH ER
42
10
Su m
11
I n se r
12
13
14
18
ge
o m e tr i c
1,
1 6 6 5,
J3
3,
1 1 1,
-
74 ,
19
%3
fa
an
4 5,
01 5, 0 005
an
14
J42
7,
t erm
Th e fth
eri es
17
h e r t 6 term s f
t h e c omm on r t i o
15
is
ti m es th e
th e se c ond t e rm i s
su
P is 8 1 ,
an
2 4 3 n d
c om m on r ti o
Th e s u m o f a G P w h o s e
term is 4 8 6 3 n d t e rst term
22
l as
th e
e n s b e twe n 2
tr i c m ean s b etw e en 3 3 a
20 Th e su m o f t
e rs t 3 t e rm 3 n d
21
I n s er
t3
t o 7 t e rm s
16
I n se r 5 geom e
Su m
th
L GEBR A
is 3 is 7 2 8,
an
th e
G P th e rs t t erm is 7 th e l ast t er m 4 4 8 an d th e su m
h e com m on rati o
Th e s u m o f th ree n u m b ers i n G P i s 3 8 an d t h e i r p rod u c t is
24
1 7 2 8 ; n d th em
25 Th e con t i n u ed p rod u c t o f t h ree n u m b ers i n G P is 2 1 6 an d
th e su m o f th e p rod u c t o f th em i n p ai rs is 1 56 3 n d th e n u m b ers
If
a d in
denot e t h e su m o f th e s e r i es
an d
26
f
2
p
th e s u m o f th e s eri es 1 r + r p
a
a d in
rove
t
h
t
f p
In
23
8 89 3 n d t
27
th at
If
th e p
th
terms o f
aq
l c p
P be
.
q=
su
it
a,
b,
r es p ec t i v e ly
f an n n e n m b er
is 1 9 2 3 nd
e s er
xa
e.
23
4 2 32 3 23
4
23
23
10
4
10
23
+
i0
23
+
5
rove
p
o f t erm s o f a G P i
u
h i c ub e s
th
i es
58
R ec u r r i ng dec i m al s fu rn i sh a goo d illu st ra ti o n
G eo m e t r i c a l Pr ogre ssi on s
E mp l
F ind th e value f
Th e
28
su m o f t e r
4,
an
th e
f in n it e
44
H I GH ER
To
60
d th e
d)
a,
su
2 d)
L G EBRA
t er ms
th e
(
a
in wh ic h ea ch ter m is th e p o du c t
a r ith m etic a n d g eo me tr ic ser ies
ser ies
3 d)
co
rr
3
,
esp o n
din g ter m s in
an
D en o t e
th e
su
By
S 3 th e n
m by
a+n
ar
u b t ra c ti o n
S l
(
(
(
(
()
dr 1
a +
COR
W r it e
a + n
dr
dr
I d)
"
"
() ()
l d)
a + n
th e f o rm
S in
l d)
dr 1
a + n
a + n
in v o lv e
o b t ai n
ca n
t o thi s p o i n t
E x amp le 1
If x < 1 ,
su m
the s eri e s
to in n ity
L et
3
xS
S l
2
3
2
x
3
x
+
+
+
is
u ally b e st t o
us
G EO M ETR IC A L
Ex amp le 2
Su m
PRO G R EssIO N
th e se ri es
4
Let
10
S:
1 +
3n
3 11
16
'
v b
Su m
Su m
Su m
t o n terms
Su m 1 +
Su m 1
Su m
EXA MPLES
35
oo
1 +
31
15
t o i nn ity
t o i n n ity
3
22
te rm s
45
+
5
t o i nn ity
t o n t er m
t o i n n ity
that th e (
term o f a G P o f wh i c h th e r t ter m
n + l )
is a an th e thi rd ter m b is e q ual t o th e
t e rm o f a G P o f
whi c h th e rs t term is a an d th e fth te rm 5
Th e su m o f 2 n term s o f a G P wh os e r t t erm i s a a d c m
8
m o n rati o r is eq u al to th e su m o f n o f a G P w h o s e r t term i b a d
c ommon rati o r Prove that b is eq ual to t h e su m o f t h rs t t w o
terms o f th e rs t s eri es
7
Prove
46
H IGH ER
9
F i nd th e
r an
d b b ei n g p ro p e
+ 1+b+b
r frac ti on
3
r
10 Th e su m
b e m ult pl ed e a
n d th e n u m b er s
.
G EBR A
o f th e i nn it e seri e s
su
AL
i i
Th e rs t two t erm s
11
an d every t er m is 3 t m e s t
it
togeth er eq ual t o 5
th e term s t h at foll ow it 3 nd
G
f an in n e
e su m o f al l
o
th e seri es
Su m th e fo ll owi n g s er i e s
ar e
12
13
+ a,
14
15
3a
t o n term
+ 2 a,
y)
1
a
to
i2
16
17
t o n t erm s
2p
term s
t o Inn i ty
(y )
+x x
5a +
7
I f a, b ,
d be
c,
in G
P , p rove
.
th at
d)
2
.
If
th
1)
27
'
21
an d
.
a,
22
deno te th e su m o f n term s o f a G
c om m on rati o r n d th e su m o f SI 8 3
If
If
wh o se rs t term s
ar e
1 , 2,
ar e
rove
t
h
a
t
p
23
If r
is
il
S2 ,
I
+
P
r e sp e c t iv e ly ,
Hen c e sh ew th at
r h
(
-
C H A P TER V I
H A R M O N I CA L
P R O GR ESSIO N TH EO R EM S
THE P R O G RESS I O N S
.
CO
NN EC TE D
W IT H
61
E F I N ITIO N
Th r e e
o
o
Harm o m c al Pr o gr e ssmn
qu a n titi e s
wh en
b,
a,
c a r e sa
u
er
qu
a n titi e s
ar e
sa i d t o b e in
m
b
f
o
y
Progre ssi on w h e n eve ry th ree con sec uti ve t er m s
m o n ic a l Pr og r e ssi on
A
id to
b e in
Ha r m o mc a l
ar e
i n Ha r
62
Th e r ec ip o ca ls of q u a n tit ies in fl a r m o n ic a l Pr o g r e ss io n
a r e in A r ith m et ic a l Pr o r essi o n
g
.
By den iti on ,
if
a,
b,
c a re
in
a
Ha r m on i c a l Progre ssi o n ,
b
d i v i di ng
e very t erm
by
()
b
b) ,
a b c,
l
c
w hi c h
rove
th
e
ro
o
iti
on
s
s
p
p p
Ha rm on i c a l p ro p er ti e s
c hi e y i n t ere ti g
b ec a u s e
o f th e i
i m p o rt a nce i n G eo m e t ry an d in th e Th eory o f So u n d
i n A l ge b a th e p o p o siti o n j u st p rove d is th e on ly o n e o f a n y
i m p or ta nce Th ere is n o ge n eral f or m ul a fo r th e su m o f a n y
n u m b e r o f qu a n titi e s in
Ha r m on i a l P ogre ssi on
Qu e ti on s i n
H P a r e ge n e a ll y so l ve d b y i n ver ti ng th e t e r m s, a n d m a k i ng u s e
o f th e
P
o
e
ti
e
o
f
th
e
cor
e
o
i
ng
A
s
n
d
s
p p
p
63
ar e
r
.
H I GH ER
48
64
a,
Let
l
h en
L GEBRA
t w o qu an titi e s H th e i r h arm o n i c
b e the
1
I
;
2a b
Here 6 is
sert 4 0 h rm on i c m e n s b twee n 7
a
th e
m e an 3
H
In
[I
tit ies
A P 3
are In
Examp le
an
term
an
an
P wh o se r st t rm i s
3 let d b
th e
c ommon di fferen ce ; th n
e
hu the
m on
i c me
r thm eti c
a i
41d ,
ar e
41
3 an d
th er e fo e
r
t h e h ar
a s are
65
.
I f A , G,
m e an s b e t wee n
H be
a an
d b,
th e a r ith m e ti c ge o m e t r i c
we h av e p r o ve d
,
H
Th e r e f ore
th at
wh en c e d
mean s
AH
2 ab
h a rm on i c
my
H
J
ab
th e ge o m e t r i c m e an b e t wee n
th e se r e sult s we se e th at
a
an
is, G is
F r om
5
6
J
G 3
2
an
dH
P R O GRESSI O N
H A R M O N IC A L
w hi c h
m ea n
me a n
49
a r ith m etic
m e tr ic
eo
A H, we s e e th a t G is i n t er
A l s o f ro m th e e qu a ti on
m e di a t e in v alu e b e t ween A a n d H 3 an d it h as b een p rove d th a t
66
fo r sk ill
b y so m e
.
hi n ts u se ful
I f th e sa m e qu an tity b e a dde d t o , o r s u b t r a t e d f ro m , a l l
t e ms O f a n A P , th e e sulti ng t e m s w ill f or m a n A P w ith
rt
s a m e co m m on difference a s b e f o e
A
[
th e
th e
I f all th e t er m s o f a n A P b e m ulti p li e d
th e sam e qu an tity , th e e sulti n g t er m s w ill f orm
w ith a new co m m on di ffe ence [ A r t
2
r
r
3
sa m e
sa m e
4
all
a re i n G P ,
I f a, b , c,
s i nce , b y d en iti on ,
.
r ti
on
th e y
E x amp le 1
in H P
.
If
ar e
di v i d e d b y
G P w ith
.
in
A P
.
co n
t in
d p ro
u e
i n con ti n u e d p ro p or ti on
s h ew th t
a
e ch te rm w e
a
th t i s
a
(
a
b + c,
d ivi d i n g
e c h t rm b y
a
( (
a
+c,
b +c
+ c b + ab
ca
+ b ) ar e
ar e
in A P
.
in A P
.
1
c
+b
re
In
A P
H P
t h a t is ,
H H A
.
m ay
+h
+ b ) b + c)
1
,
th at
see
( (
b + c)
+ h)
th e
th e
ddi n g a b + ac + b e to
By
l o in
r r
o r
ar e a s
be
an
di v i de d b y
A P, but
th e t erm s o f a G P b e m ulti p li e d
qu an tity th e r e sulti ng t erm s w ill f or m
co mm on r ati o a s b e f o r e [A r t
If
o r
are
H I GH ER
50
.
o r an
l:
H en ce b y sub stituti on
(
d
o r
8ad
2
2 a)
q g
r, r
I f th e
n um b e r
e ch
a
1) d
f an A P
.
1) d
{ +
{a +
He n c e p
q, q
(
p
r, r
(
()
68
mb e
7 2.
To
n u
t e rm s is
rs
d}
+ a
1) d }
s ar e
in G
pu
in G
su
a
a
1 d
(
n
im il a rl y
l)
(
n
(
( 1 ) d}
r
66
1 ) d}
1) d }
()
-
1 d}
o ft en r e f e r re d t o a s th e
o f th e ser i e s is n
an d th e s u m o f
ar e
s h ew th t
[A rt
1 d
su
th e
sq u a es
th e
r st
th en
+ n
th e n
(
;
m b e deno t e d b y S 3
d th e
We h a ve
c
h
ang i ng
an d b
y
P,
L e t th e
th e rst
+ q
1 ) d}
Th e n u m b er s 1 , 2 , 3 ,
th
te m
n a tu r a l n u m b er s ; th e n
67
l) dl
(
-
1) d
th ese r ati o s
a
ar e
()
()
(
(1 ) d
+ q
a+
t e rm s
+ p
2 a) 2 ,
With th e u su l not ti on w e h ve
a
3.
te rm s
th
in G P
s ar e
O;
d : 2a
d
(
th e s m
p rov e th t
Si n ce th e g i v e n r el ti on i s ru e f
a
d : 2a
E x amp le 3
th e l st te rm d th e com m n di ffer e n ce a
d + 2 l)
P b c o n ecte d b y th e equati on 8 d (
If l
E x amp l e 2
rm o f an A
o fn
te s
L GEBR A
in
(
to
( (
( (
1)
3n
3
2
3n
1,
2
.
l 3
(
()
n
1)
1 3
13
n a tu r a
52
H I GH ER
L G EBRA
70
.
En ;
En
by
b y 2n 3
w h e r e 2 p l a ce d
w hi c h th a t t e rm
E x amp l e 1
b e f ore a t erm si g n i e s
is th e ge n e a l ty p e
Su m
the seri es
an
d by
an
th e s
um
Eu
L et
th e s
um
be
S
2 2
one
1
2
-
( (
+ 1 ) 2n + 1 )
( 1)
+
82
8u
2,
2,
I n s er
In
th
te rm i s
(
n
2
1
+ )
6n
2
( 1) (
n
+ 1)
2n
2n
(
)
)
(
n n
2u
VI
se rt fou r h rm on i c m e n
a
th e followi ng s eries :
t erm s o f
EXA MPLES
1
all
term s th e se ri es wh o se
d enot e d b y S th en
Su m t o
E x amp l e 2
te rm s
writi n g dow n e ch te rm i n a
c on s i stin g f th e r st atural
n
th
su
Th e
th e
b etwe
5 an d 1 1
en 3
an d
2
'
13
8n 3
6n
2
.
EX A
M P L ES
PRO GR ESSI O N S
O N THE
I f 1 2 an d 9 3 ar e th geo m e t r i
4
iv ely , b e twee n two n u m b ers, n d th e m
.
If
5
.
e c
th e
h an
m t ri m e an s
o f 4 to 9
n o n ic
to
12
as
53
an
rm on i c
m e an s ,
re p e c t
s
m ean b e tween
13,
re
If a , b ,
be
H P,
in
h e w t h at
a :a
eq ual t o
8
th at
9
m,
I f b is
(
q
q
term s o f a H
th e h arm on i c
p)
F i nd t h e
10
3n
13
16
P,
11
14
2n +
17
I f l , m,
f an A P w o s e
d fferen e as m + l
o
19
7,
re pe c tiv e ly p rov e
s
+ p
a an
c,
rove
t
h
t
a
p
ri es wh o s e
"
12
3 4 + 2n
n
f
) t e rm
(
h ew t h t th e r ti o
d
+ 1
th
4n 3
A P
an
o
in
th e c om m on
7t
th
to
f
of
term s o f a ser i e s
n d
be
t h e s er i e s
F ind th e su m o f n term s o f th e s erie s wh o se n term
th e
is
(
n
+ 1)
(
6n
u titi t h
If b ween an y wo q an
e s ere b e n
o geo m e
m ean s A 1 , A 2 3
m e an s G 1 , 0 2 ; an d
H2 ; s ew a G 1 0, H, H,
20
th
4n
et
ar e
A P is
.
is
15
"
term
th
th
t e rm h e
ar e
If th e s u m
18
term an d th e n atu re
.
se
an
b,
a,
r ar e i n H P
G
d i fferen c e t o th e rst term i n th e
.
P be
the
d
mn
'
th
If
e
an d m , n ,
t e rm s o f th e
fn
ca
m e a n b e twe e n
su
th
If t h e
H P be
t rm o f
e q u al t o n a
m i 7%
p rov th at th e (
) t erm is eq ual t o
If t h e m
th
tw
tri c
h th t
I f p b e th e rs t o f n ar ith m et i c m e an s b e tween two n u m b e s
21
an d q th e rs t o f n h ar m on i c m ean s b e tween th e s am e two n u m b e
p
p rove th at th e v alu e o f q c anno t l i e b etween p a d
.
rs ,
F i n d th e su m o f t h e c u b es o f th e t e r m s o f an
th at it is exac tly d i vi s i b l e b y th e s u m o f th e term s
22
A P,
.
an d
s hew
54
H I GH ER
Pi L Es
To
71
n
r
mi
o
a
d
py
d th e
a sq u ar e
to p
ex t
sh o
ELLS
g ed
arr an
in
(
( )(
+
2u
1)
To n d t h e n u m b er
m
i
a se of wh ich is a n
r
a
d
t
h
e
b
py
Su pp o se th a t e a c h
o f s h o t in th e
n um b e
th a t
A
rt
[
sh o
eq u
in
g ed
a r an
(
)
(
;
n
S
n
thi s r e sul t wr it e n
th e n u mb e r o f s h o t i n th e
o r
f or n an d w e thu s o b tai n
l ay e rs
1, n
2,
2 n d, 3 r d,
:
13
1
2
( (
l)
n +
n +
2)
A
rt
[
r f
To n d the n u mb e
73
r a m id th e b ase o
i
w
h
i
c
h
s
a
py
f
.
an
re sp ec ti ve ly o f
Il t
b e th e
th e b ase
Th e t o p l ay e r
n l l Sh 0t
3
-
ho t
r ec tan le
g
o
ar r an
so
d in
u m b e r o f s h o t i n th e l o n g
an
co n si st s
i gl e r ow o f
s n
mp le te
h or t si de
on
co
th e n ex t l ay e r th e n u m b e r is 2
i n th e nex t l ay e r th e n u m b er is 3
d
e
g
in
an
mp le te
i de o f th e b ase co n ta i n s n sh o t 3 th en th e
l owe st l ay e r is
In
L et
co
is
mp lete
i de o f th e b a se con t ai n s n s h o t 3 th e n th e
l owe st l ay er is n 3 i n th e ne t it is n l ) 3
u
on
an d so
p t o a s i n g l e sh o t at th e
s
72
co
SH
A ND
b ase
L GEBRA
SH O T
m b er
n u
Su pp o s e th a t e ac h
n u m b e r o f sh o t in th e
i n th e
OF
i n th e l owe st l ay er th e n u m b er
is
(
m
(
m
(
m
2) 3
3) 3
l ),
o r
P I L ES
S
OF S
HOT
A ND
H ELL S
55
(
(
(
m
+ u
n + n
2
n
0
2
1)
3
m
{
( (
n +
1 ) 3m
n +
2n
l}
l)
74
To fin d th e n u m b er of sh o t a r r a n g ed in
a
m
i
r
d th e b ase of which is a r ec ta n g le
py
.
in co mp le te
an
Let a
to p l yer
a
o f s h o t i n th e
t wo
i de s o f t h e
( (
( (
in
in
d b de n o t e th e n u m b e r
th e n u m b e r o f l ay e rs
th e t o p l ay e r th e n u m b e r o f sh o t is a b 3
th e ne x t l ay e r th e n u mb e r is a l ) b l ) 3
th e n e x t l ay e r th e n u m b e r is a 2 ) b 2) 3
In
an
an
so
0 11
( (
( )( ) (
i n th e l o we st l ay e r th e n u m b e r
ab +
o r
ab n
a +
is
l)
l)
(
n
l)
l)
l)
(
2n
In
xa
ac
an
al
n um b e r
s o n um b e r
27
s hot i n th e dd e d p i l e
11
sh ot i n th e c om p l et
pil
n um b e r o f s h o t i n t h e i n c o m p l ete p i l e
28
6930
12
23
6
6 42 4
506 3
[ A rt
56
H I GH ER
L GEBRA
EX A MPLES
VI b
F i nd th e n um b er o f sh o t i n
A sq u ar e p i l e h avi n g 1 5 s h o t i n e ac h Si de o f th e b ase
1
A tri an g ular p il e h av i n g 1 8 s h o t i n e ac h s i de o f th e b ase
2
A re c tan gul ar p il e th e l eng th an d th e b readth o f th e b ase c on
3
tai n in g 50 an d 2 8 s h o t resp e cti vely
A n i n co mp l et e t ri an gul ar p il e a si de o f th e b as e h avin g 25s h o t
4
an d a Si de o f th e t o p 1 4
5 A n i nco m pl ete sq u ar e p i l e o f 2 7 co u rs es h avi n g 4 0 sh o t i n eac h
s i de o f th e b as e
Th e n u m b e r o f sh o t i n a c o m p l e te re c tan gul ar p i l e is 2 4 3 9 5 ; if
6
th ere are 3 4 s h ot i n th e b read t h o f th e b ase h ow m any ar e t h ere i n it s
l en gth l
Th e n u m b er o f sh o t i n t h e t o p l ay er o f a sq u are p il e is 1 6 9
7
an d i n th e l owe st l ay e r is 1 08 9 ; h ow m an y S h o t doe s th e p i l e con tai n ?
Fi nd th e n um b er o f s h o t i n a com pl et e re c tangul ar pil e o f
8
1 5 c o u r se s h av i n g 2 0 s h o t i n t h e l on ger s i de o f it s b ase
F i nd th e n um b er o f Sh o t i n an i n c om pl et e rec tang ul ar p i le
9
th e n um b er o f s h o t i n th e s i des o f it s u pp er c o urs e b ei ng 1 1 an d 1 8
an d th e n u mb er i n t h e s h or t er S i de o f it s l owe s t c o u r s e b e i n g 3 0
1 0 W h at is th e n u m b er o f sh o t r e q ui red t o c o m p l et e a r e c tan gul ar
a
n
d
a
n
d
l
i
l
e
h
v
i
n
1
s
h
o
t
i
n
th
e
l
on
er
h
or
t
er
i
de
re
e
c
ti
e
a
5
6
S
s
s
o
f
v
p
g
g
p
y
it s u pp er c o ms e ?
Th e n u m b er o f sh o t i n a t ri an g ul ar p i l e is gr eat er b y 1 50 t h an
11
h alf t h e n u m b er o f sh o t i n a sq uare p i le the n um b er o f lay ers i n eac h
b ei n g th e sam e 3 nd t h e n um b er o f S h o t i n t h e l owes t l ay er o f t h e t ri
an gu lar p il e
Fi nd t h e n u m b er o f Sh o t i n an i n c o m pl ete sq uare pil e o f 1 6
12
c o u rses wh en th e n u m b er o f sh o t i n t h e upp er cou rse is 1 005 l ess th an
i n th e l owest c ou rse
Sh ew th at t h e n u m b e r o f s h o t i n a s q uare p i l e is one fo ur th th e
13
n u m b er o f sh ot i n a t ri angular p i l e o f do ub l e t h e n um b er o f c o urse s
If th e n u m b er o f s h o t i n a t r i an g ular p il e is t o th e n u m b er o f
14
s h o t i n a s u are
l
i
q
p e o f do u b l e t h e n u m b er o f c o ur s es as 1 3 t o 1 7 53 nd
th e n um b er o f sh ot i n e ac h p i l e
1 5 Th e valu e o f a tri an gul ar p i le o f 1 6 lb s h o t is 51 3 if t h e
v alu e o f i ron b e 1 03 6 d p er cwt nd th e n um b er o f s h o t i n t h e
l owest l ay er
I f from a co m pl et e sq u are p i l e o f n c o u r ses a t r i an g ular p il e o f
16
th e sam e n umb er o f c ou rse s b e form ed 3 sh ew that th e r e m aining sh o t
wi ll b e just s uf c i en t to form anot h er t ri ang u l ar pil e an d n d th e
n um b er o f sh o t i n it s s i de
,
C H A PTER V II
L ES
SCA
N OTA TI O N
OF
o r di n a ry n u m b er s w ith w hi c h we a r e a c qu ai n t e d i n
A r ith m e ti c a r e e x p r e sse d b y m e an s o f m ulti pl e s o f p o we rs o f 10 3
f o r i n stan ce
76
Th e
2 5= 2
1 0 + 53
Thi s m e th o d o f r e p re s en ti ng n u m b er s is c a ll e d th e c o mmo n o r
d en ary scal e o f n o t at io n , an d t e n is sa i d t o b e th e r adix o f th e
s c al e
Th e sy m b o l s e m p l oy e d i n thi s sy st e m o f n o t ati o n a r e th e
n i n e di g it s a n d z ero
.
li k e m a nne r
th e ra di x o f a sc al e
r th a n t e n m a
m
u
e
r
o
th
e
b
b
e t ak en a s
y
y
o f n o t a ti on 3 thu s if 7 is th e r a di x a n u m b er
e x p re sse d b y 24 53 re p r e sen t s 2 7 + 4 7
5 7
3 3 an d i n
thi s sc al e n o d igit hi g h e r th a n 6 c an o c c u r
A g a i n i n a s c al e w h o s e r a di x is deno t e d b y r th e a b ove
n u m b er 2 453 st a n ds f o r 2r
5r
3
More genera lly if i n
th e sc al e w h o s e r adi x is r w e den o t e th e dig it s b eg i n n i n g w ith
s
th a t in th e u n it s pl ace b y d a
m
th
en
th
e
n
u
b
e
r
o
3
f or m e d w ill b e r ep r e sen t e d b y
In
an
a ?
n
,
+ a _ r
2
"
o ,
re
2
1
a r
o ,
a r e i n t eger s a ll l e ss th an
w h ere th e coe ffi c i en t s a
w hi c h a n y o n e o r m o r e a ft e r th e r s t m ay b e z ero
n
Hence i n
ran g i ng f r o m
thi s scal e th e di g it s
0 to r
l
are
i n n u m b er th e i r v alu e s
,
77
58
H I GH ER
th e
In
AL
G EBRA
c l e we h ll r e qui re Sy m b o l
w hi c h a e gre at e r th n n i e I t is u u su l
s c l e hi g h e r th an th at w ith r di x t we l ve 3 w h e
de n ar y ,
th e di git s
un
s a
r
a
t o r e p re sen t
n
n
a
t o con si de r an y a
a
n
n ece ssa r
we
s h a ll e m l o
th
e
m
b
o
l
s t e T a s di g it s t o den o t e
s
y
p y
y
t en
e l eve n an d t we l v e
I t is e sp ec i all y wo r th y o f n o ti ce th a t in e v e ry s c a l e 1 0 is th e
s m b ol n o t fo r
t
n
f
o
r
th
e
r
a di x it se lf
e
b
u
t
y
.
Th e
th e sc le
E x amp le 1
In
m l ip l y
d ff r n
th e i e e ce b y
.
ut
27
e i ght ub tr ct
rom
3 7 1 53 2 f
53 022 5,
an
53 022 5
3 7 1 53 2
1 3 647 3
27
1 3 647 3
1 22 6 2 3 5
2 7 51 6 6
4 2001 1 5
st u e f th e s ub tr cti on s i nce w c nn t
w
thu s w e h e t t k e 3 from ten which l e ves 7 ; t h e n
h i ch e es th e
ei ght wh i c h l e ves 6 ; d s o
te
E xp la n a t io n
A f r th e r
g r
3 from 2
e add 8 ;
o
ak
av
n, w
l av
4;
n 2 from
6 fro m
.
t e
te
in i n multiply i ng b y 7
A ga
w e there fore p u t
Next
p u t down 3 an d c arry
In th e additi on
we
do w n
an
on
E xp l a n a t io n
we p
7
63
an
3+6=
1
an
c rry
a
n in e = 1 x 8 + 1 3
1
ivi d e l 5
e t 20 b
i n ce 1 5
i th e sc l e f twelve
y 9 n
9 ) l 5e t2 o
T+ 5
eventeen
down 1 an d c arry 8
A l s o 8 x T e one h undr e d an d sev en e
we th erefore p u t do wn e an d c arry 8 ; an d s o o n
u
7 + 2 : fty
o n
E x a mp le 2
an d so
an
w e th erefore p
Sim il rly
ve
3 x 7 = t wenty one
do wn 5 an d c arry 2
8,
60
HG HER A L G EBRA
th en th e r e m a i n der
D i v i de N b y
a r
"
+ a
"
is
c,
+ a r + a,
an
th e qu o ti en t
is
qu o ti en t is di v i de d b y r th e rem ai n de r is a 3
if th e ne x t qu o ti en t
a ;
an d so on u n til th e r e is n o fu r th e r qu o ti en t
a r e de t er m i ne d
Thu s al l th e r e qui re d di g it s a a
s u cce ss i ve di v i si on s b y th e r a dix o f th e p rop o s e d s c a l e
E p r ess th e d en ary nu m b e r 52 1 3 i n th e sc l e f eve n
E
mp l 1
If thi s
,,
by
xa
5
2
1
2
hu s
d th e n um b e r r equ i re d i s 2 1 1 2 5
T
an
E x a mp le 2
sc l e seven to sc l e el eve n
a
) 21 1 25
) 1 2 44
e) 6 1
th e requi re d n um b er i s 3 t0t
E p l a ti
I th e r s t l i e
an
on
work
7 + 1 = ft e e n
x e
+4;
xa
an
u ce
v er 1
f
i?
7 21 5
by
work i n g in
21
7
0 5
1.
86
t ) t4
12
t) 1 0
1 03 3
12
In
Of
8 03 Ie
tw elve
1 24 01
h u s th e esult i s 1 2401 i n e ch c se
ti
E pl
7 2 1 5 i n sc l e t w el v e m e n s 7
12 + 2
12
5 in
Th c l cul t i n i s m o t r e di ly e ffecte d b w r iti n th i s e
sc l e t
r
ess
i
n
y
g
p
th e form
thu s w e m ulti p ly 7 b y 1 2 d
dd 2 t th e p r du ct ; th e n w e m ulti p ly 8 6 b y 1 2
d dd 1 t t h p roduct ;
th e n 1 03 3 b y 1 2 d dd 5 to th e p roduct
T
an a
en
on
1n
an
an
an
SCA
80
Hith e r t o we
f ra c ti on s m ay al so
be
'
'
c le
c le
s a
'
deno t e s
10
deno t e s
s ix
s a
in
61
h a ve on l y di sc u sse d w h o l e n u m b er s ; b u t
e x p re sse d i n a y s c a l e o f no t ati on 3 thu s
s a
25 in
20
N O TA TIO N
o r
c l e t en de n o t e s
2 5 in
'
L ES
10
"
w h ere
o r m o re
81
Let
c le
s a
62 ,
m ay b e
To
exp
a re
z
e ro
i n t eger s
r, o
w hi c h
an
o ne
r ess a g i
v en
r a alix
th e g i ven f ra c ti on
F be
l e ss th a n
al l
f c tio n
in
ra
an
an
y p
ro
o sed sc a le
th e r a di x o f th e p ro po se d
Let
be,
l e ft ; th en
th e re qui re d di g it s b egi nn i ng f ro m th e
Z+
r
We h a ve
t o n d th e v alu e s o f
Multi p l y b o th s i de s o f th e e qu ati on
no
rF =
+J
H ence 6 1 is e qu a l t o
th e f ra c ti on al
Multi ply
rt
by
b e , 63 ,
by
th en
L +
2
th e i n t egral
a
we
h
ve
R
rt of
an
d,
if we deno t e
i
s th e i n t g r a l p a rt
i
n
th
en
e
f
ore
b
a
b
6
r
s
g
y
ac h o f
o f
u
c
ce
e
a n d s i mil a r l
b
s
ss i ve m ulti pli c a ti on s b y r
y y
th e di g it s m ay b e f o u n d a d th e f ra c ti on e p re sse d i n th e p o
se d sca l e
o
p
a
62
H I GH ER
I f in th e
o
u
c
t
s is an
d
p
L GEBRA
E x amp l e 1
Ex p r
es
rad i x fracti on i n
as a
3
i
:
the requi re d
E x amp l e 2
fr ac t io n
5+
r al an
5
+
2
3 :
5
c e e ight to sc le
d th e fr cti on l p rt s ep ar te ly
-
We mu st t re t the i nteg
Tr an form 1 6 06 4 24 from
al e six
62 3
sc
s al
s
-
ve
24
5
5
2 64
A f er t
n um b er
h i th e d ig it i n
s
racti on al
th e f
is 2 1 2 3 40 12 4 0
p ar
82
I n a n y sca le of n o ta tio n of which th e r a dix is
th e su m
,
of th e dig its of a n y wh o le n u m b er div ided by r
l wil l lea v e th e
sa me r em a in der a s th e wh o le n u m b er div ided b
1
y
e t [ V den o t e th e n u m b e , a o , a , , a2 ,
a th e di it s b eg i n
g
n n
g w ith th at i n th e u n it s p l a ce, an d S th e su m o f th e di git s ;
t l en
a r
l
a r
a r
l)
"
l)
SCA
No w every t er m
L ES
th e r i g ht h a n d si de
o n
is,
w h ere
I is
o m e i n t e g er
1 3
'
r
o
ve
ro
o
iti
on
s th e
p
p p
s
n u m b e r in sc al e r w ill
di g it s is di v i si b l e b y r
b e d i v i si b l e b y
1
f it s
is di v i si b l e b
y
S
r
w hi c h
63
n t eger ;
Hence
su
an
_ 1
th a t
N O TA TIO N
o r
w h e n th e
By t ak i ng r = 1 0 we l e a n f ro m th e ab ove p r o o siti on
p
th at a n u mb e di v i de d b y 9 w ill l e a ve th e sam e e m ai n de as th e
s u m o f it s di g it s di v i de d b
ul
e
now
c
ti
ng
9
T
k
h
e
a
n
s
a
s
out
y
83
th e n i ne s f o r t e sti ng th e a cc u ra cy
o n thi s
ro
e
r
t
p p
y
f o u n de d
r ul e
Th e
m ay b e
thu s e
l
a i ne d :
p
Le t t wo n u m b e rs b e re pr e e t e d
th e i r p r o du c t b y P; th e
s n
b y 9a
an
d 9c
an
th ere f o re th e
d,
an
H ence
h as
th e
8 1a c
sa
9bc
9 ad
bd
r e m i n de r
me
bd
as
9
su m o
i
P
n
d
d
d
b
w
h
e
i
v
i
e
g
i
ve
th
e
e
t
h
d
i
t
o
f
9
s
e
s
s
a
m
,
,
g
f
y
e m ai n de a s th e su m of th e digits o f b d, w h e n di v i de d b y 9 I f
o n t i a l thi s sh o ul d n o t b e th e c as e , th e m ulti li c a ti o n m u s t h a ve
p
I n p a c ti ce b an d d ar e e a dil y
b ee n in co ec tl y p e f o m e d
f o u n d f o m th e sum s o f th e di g it s o f th e t wo n u m b e s t o b e
m ulti pli e d t o ge th e
rr
r r
Can
re
re
o r
su
84
If N den o te a n y n u mb e r in th e sc a le of r , a n d D den o te
i
i
t
s in th e
o
d
h
u
t
e
u
i
v
t
e
n
t
h
e
s
m
s
w
th e d
er
en
c
e
o
se
d
s
t
i
e
b
e
e
s
o
,
g
f
,
f
pp
p
D o r N + D is a m u ltip le of
o dd a n d th e ev en p l a ces ; th en N
r 1
.
64
H I GH ER
Let
a,
o ,
i n th e u n it s pl a ce ; th en
N
a r
a ,r
L GEBR A
deno t e
2 ,
a r
th e di g it s b e g i nn i ng w ith th at
"
"
a r
"
.
(
(
l) + a r l) + a r
th e r ig ht w ill b e a r + 1 ) o r a r
1)
Thu s every t er m o n th e r i ght is
o r eve n
A
an d
th e l ast t erm o n
is o dd
a cco r di ng a s n
1
h e n ce
di v i si b l e b y r
N
(
i
2
+ a
CO R
th e su m
by r
1
an
r
o
o
iti
on
p p
s
i n te e r
an
i s squ
a
re n um b e r i n
In
b e th e
wh at
c e
s al
h ence
th t i s
(
77
th e r d i i s 4
So m e ti m e s it is b e s t t o
E x amp le 3
b y 1 01 2 1 5
se
7r
h en
tati on
Hen ce
f no
E x amp l e 2
c e
an y s al
2 +
P rove th t
who se r di i s gre ter th n 4
L t b th e r d i
th en
i n t eger
th e su m o f th e di git s i n th e e ven p l a ce s is e qu al t o
th e di g it s i n th e o dd p l a ce s D O an d N is di v i si b l e
E x a mp l e 1
L et
If
is
ro
ve
s th e
p
N; D
wh i c h
(
"
r +
No w
"
'
7
1 67
1 2)
'
48
(
r
4) = 0
In
wh at
u se
th e f o ll ow i n g
m e th o d
c e wi ll th e non ry num b e r
s al
2 5607 b e
e p ress d
x
SC A
L ES
N O TA TI O N
or
65
w ork i n g i n th e duod en ry sc l e d th e h ei gh t f
r ec t ngul r s ol i d w h o se volu m e i 3 64 b it 1 048 b i
d th e r e
f
wh o se b s i s 4 6 sq ft 8 q i n
b ft w h i c h e p re sse d i n th e c l e f tw e lve i
Th volum e i 3 6 4 493
E x amp le 4
By
a e
26 4 7 3 4
cu b
ft
cu
cu
an
a o
}
5
3 cu
s a
sq
4 6T
ft
wh i ch e
xp
3 t 08
'
22 t 4 8
hu s th e h e ight i s 7 ft
3 627 4
3627 4
.
1 1 in
EXA MPLES
V II b
.
Ex p
s a
12
Exp
17
ss
%
as a
c et
t o sc al e twel ve
Tran sform 2 002 1 1 fro m th e t ern ary t o t h e non ary s c al e
Tran sfo rm 7 1 0 3 fro m th e d u o den ary t o th e oct en ary s c ale
s al
en
ss
1 552
n
26 2 6
as a
r v ulgar fracti on
20
21
In
'
den a y
F i n d th e v al u e o f 4 an d O f 42 in t h e s c al e o f seven
I n wh at s cal e is th e den ary n u mb e r 1 82 deno ted b y
19
'
16
re
15
i n it s
18
14
s a
th e sc al e o f th re e
Ex p re ss 53 8 1 i n p owers o f n i ne
Tran sfor m 2 1 223 1 fro m s c al e fo u r t o s c al e ve
Ex p ress th e d u o den ary n um b er 3 9 8 6 i n p owers o f 1 0
Tran sform 6 t 1 2 fro m sc ale twe l v e to s c al e e l even
Tr an s form 2 1 3 01 4 fro m th e sen ary t o th e non ary s c al e
Tran s form 2 3 8 6 1 fro m sc al e n i ne t o s c al e eig ht
Tran sfor m 4 008 03 fro m t h e non ary t o th e q ui n ary s c al e
Exp ress th e sep t en ary n um b er 206 6 51 52 i n p owers o f 1 2
Tran s for m ttteee fro m s c al e tw e l ve t o t h e c o mm on s c al e
10
13
ss
e s a
Exp re ss 1 4 58 in
re
Ex pres s
11
in th c le f e en
6 2 4 i n t h e c l e f ve
206 i th e b i n ry c l e
Ex p re ss 4 9 54
'
H H
.
wh at
A
c le
s a
is
deno
ted
2 22 ?
b y 0302 ?
H I GH ER
66
22
f 24
F i nd t h e r ad i x o f th e
L G EBRA
c e i n wh i c h 554 repr e en t th e
s al
sq
uare
wh at s c al e is 51 1 1 9 7 d e not ed b y 1 7 4 6 3 3 5?
F i nd th e rad i x o f t h e s c al e i n w h i c h th e n u m b ers deno ted b y
24
4 7 9 6 9 8 9 07 ar e i n ar i t h m e t i c al p rogress i on
25 I n wh at s c al e are th e r ad i x frac t i on s 1 6 2 0 2 8 i n geo m e tric
?
ro
e
ss
i
on
r
g
p
Th e n u m b er 2 12 54 2 is i n t h e S c al e o f s ix ; i n wh at s c al e wi ll i t
26
b e deno ted b y 1 7 4 8 6 ?
Sh ew th at 1 4 8 8 4 i s a p erfe c t sq u are i n every s c al e i n wh i c h t h e
27
rad i x is greater th an ei ght
Sh ew th at 1 2 3 4 32 1 is a p erfec t sq u are i n an y s c al e wh o se radi x
28
is g re at e r th an 4 ; an d t h at t h e s q u are roo t is al way s ex p re ssed b y th e
s am e fo u r d i g i ts
Prove th at 1 3 3 1 is a p erfec t c u b e in an y s c al e wh os e r ad i x is
29
re
t
e
r
th
a
n
th
ree
a
g
lb s m u st b e u sed t o
30 F i nd wh i c h o f th e we i gh ts 1 2 4 8
w e ig h one t on
F i nd whi c h o f th e wei gh ts 1 3 9 2 7
lb s m u s t b e u sed
31
t o we i gh t en th o u s and l b s not m or e th an one o f e ac h k i nd b ei ng used
b u t i n e ith e r s c al e th at is n eces sary
Sh ew th at 1 3 6 7 6 3 1 is a per fec t c ub e i n e v e ry s c al e i n whi c h t h e
32
rad i x is greater th an seven
Prove t h at i n th e ord i n ary s c al e a n u m b er wil l b e d i vi sib l e b y
33
8 if t h e n u m b er for m ed b y it s l ast t h ree d i gi ts is d i v i s i b l e b y e i ght
Prove th at t h e sq u ar e o f r r r r i n th e s c al e o f s is rrr gOOOl wh e r e
34
r s are an y thr ee c on s e c u t i ve i n t eger s
q
35 If an y n um b er N b e t ak en i n th e s c al e r an d a new n u m b e r N
b e form ed b y alt er i n g t h e order o f it s d i g i ts i n an y way s h ew t h at th e
d ifference b etween N an d N is d i v i si b l e b y r 1
If a n um b e r h as an even n u m b er o f d i gi t s s h ew t h at it is
36
d i vi si b l e b y r + 1 if th e d i gi ts e q u i d i st an t fro m eac h end are th e sam e
If i n t h e ord i n ary s c al e Sl b e th e su m o f t h e d i gits o f a n u m b er
37
N an d 3 8 2 b e t h e su m o f t h e d i gi ts O f th e n u m b er 3 N p rove t h at th e
d i fferen c e b e tw e en S, an d 8 2 i s a m ult i pl e O f 3
Sh ew th at in t h e ord i n ary s c ale an y n u m b er form ed b y
38
wr i ti ng down t h ree digi ts an d t h en rep eati ng t h em i n t h e s am e ord e r
is a m ul t i pl e o f 7 1 1 an d 1 3
I n a s c al e wh o s e rad i x is odd s h ew t h at t he su m o f th e
39
di gi ts o f an y n u m b er wi l l b e odd if t h e n u m b er b e O dd an d even if
th e n umb er b e even
40 I f n b e odd an d a n um b er i n th e den ary s c al e b e for m ed
b y wri t i ng down n d i gi ts an d t h e n rep eat i n g t h em i n t h e s am e order
s h ew th at it w i ll b e d i v i s i b l e b y t h e n u m b e r for m ed b
i
i
t
t
h
e
n
d
y
g s
c on tai ni ng n 1 d igi t s
an d al s o b y
23
In
'
'
'
H I GH ER
68
To
86
m ia l su r d
.
fa c to r
d th e
L GEBRA
which will
r a tio n a lise a n
y g iv e
ASE
an d
a ll v alu e s o f n
f
or
i
s di v i si b l e b y x
No w as
y
y
C
Su pp o s e
"
"
"
"
()
"
ASE I I
Le t x y
is
( (
,
"
x +
y)
"
I f n is
Thu s
dd,
"
"
is
"
"
E x amp l e 1
x +
y
2
is
is
y,
"
xy
an
"
y
2
'
"
.
then
= 3 2,
an
o r x an
d y,
3
2
3
32
E
3
dy
(
x
ar e
4
x y
th rati onal
bo
+ wy
3
+x
an
2
3
5
'
th e r ti onal p rodu ct i s
"
or
+ xy
,
is di v i si b l e b y
"
+ x
_2
is
th e ra ti on ali sin g fa c t o r
th e ra ti o n al p r o du c t
"
"
y
,
y
(y ) (
"
"
th e ra ti on a l p ro du c t
2)
"
an
Thu s
L et
"
is
"
I f n is even x
i
s di v i s i b l e b
x
an d
y
y
y
1)
_2
Su pp o s e
an
th e ra ti on a l p ro du c t
an
"
Thu s
an
32
3
5
5
.
5 ;
E x amp le 2
Ex pr
A ND
IM AG I N A RY QUA NTIT IE S
l
ess
w h i c h i s qu
e
s
2
5
th e require d f ctor i s
a
3I
1
3
() (
the e press i on
x
i 2
1
2
5
52 g l
al
3
3 : 52
1
2
5
3,
2
to
3
pu
t 53 =
3
-
+3
22
To
an
69
()
a s an
3
3
U RD S
2
4
3
2
3
22
22
i
1
!
11
We h a ve sh ewn i n th e Elem en ta r y A lg eb r a A r t 2 7 7
h o w t o n d th e squ ar e r o o t o f a b i no m i a l qu a dra ti c su r d We
m ay so m e ti m e s e x t ra c t th e s qu a r e r o o t o f an e x p r e ssi on con ta i n
in g m o r e th an t w o qu a dra ti c s u r ds s u c h as a
b
c
J
J
87
I f th e n
an
x
if
at
th e
a,
E x a mp le
A
ss um e
21
5
J
o,
Jy
2 =
d
J ,
e ti m e th e v alu e s o f x y z thu s f o u n d
we sh a ll h a ve O b t ai n e d th e r e qui r e d r oo t
sam
sa
ti sfy
F i d the qu re root
n
21
4J 5
4J 5+ 8J 3
P ut
=8
f 21
4J 5
4J 1 5=
8J 3
4J l 5z
8J 3
+Jy
J
2
+y +z
4J 1 5
J5
Jy
3
J ,
= 4 1 5;
u ti i c ti
xy = 2 4 0 ; th at is n
J
h e c it
th at J = 2J 3 J y = 2 J = J 5
A d s i n ce th e se val ue s sat i sfy th e e qu ati on
root i s 2J 3 2 J 5
b y m l pl a on ,
w n e foll ows
th e requi red
70
H I GH ER
88
L GEBRA
will
th en
Fo r
f/
b
J
Jy
c u b i n g we o b t a i n
by
b
J
Equ a ti ng
ra ti o n al
= x
3x
Jy
3x y
i rrati on a l
an
r ts we h a ve
,
J9
3x y ,
90 +
Jy
th a t
f/
b
J
Jy
Si m il a r l y b y th e h el p o f th e Bi no m i a l Th eo r e m
it m ay b e p r ove d th at if
is,
th en I/a J b =
h e re
89
f th e
is
an
o
siti ve i n t ege r
p
C h ap X I I I
Jy
By th e f o ll ow i ng m e th o d th e c u b e
f o rm a J b m ay so m e ti m e s b e f o u n d
r oo t
an
e x p re ssi o n
Su pp o s e
i/
th en
gai n
as
in
th e l ast a rti c l e
a
Th e
v a lu e s
fx
an
dy
(
we
)
(
In
b
J
I ) s u pp o s e
O b ta i n
th a t z/a
is,
4x
th en
3x
(
x
3 0x
f ro m thi s e qu a ti on th e v alu e
t r i al th e v alu e o f y is o b ta i ne d f r om
,
fr om
b e de t e m i ne d
If
N O TE
extracti on
h ave
Jy
b
3
3 xy
h a ve t o
a = x
th a t
= x
u b stituti ng f o r y i n
c an
b e de t e m i ne d b y
x
x
or
+ db =
or
w
a
an
as
an
an
by
(
1)
ra
al
we
c not equ te
an
S U R DS
E xamp le
IM A G I N A RY
A ND
f72
UAN TITI ES
71
3 2J 5
s um e
s
th e n
u ti i cati on
By m l p l
that i s
4 = x2 _ y
A g ain
72
wh ence
1)
From (
th t i s
an
3 2J 5
3x
3
=
72 x
3x
3
x
we
B y tr ia l,
th at
3;
W h en th e
90
.
c o n si st s
n d
h ence y
f 9J 3
3 xy
5,
18
3x
b i no m i a l w h o se
q u adr ati c su ds, we p
f t wo
E x a mp le
Jy
an
th e c ub e root is 3
c u b e roo t we a r e
r ocee d a s f o ll ow s
.
1 1J 2
11
By p ro
cee ding
as
i n th e l st rti cl e w e d th t
a
N/
3 +
91
We
E x a mp le 1
a dd a
Ex p r
1 +
3
J
J3
J2
f ew h a r de r ex amp l e s i n su r ds
es
wi th
rat1 0n al
de n o m in at O I
73
Th e
e press ion
x
3
33
(
3
N2 1 )
3
i+ 1 )
J5
ee k i ng
72
H I GH ER
E x a mp l e 2
Th e
h ence
e xp
by
F i nd the qu r e root
s
r e ss i on
2 +1) (
J(
3
x
{
L GE BR A
(
J
3
2x + 1 +
E x amp le 3
G iv n J 5= 2 2 3 607
J3
Multiply i ng num er tor a
a
th e
express i on
2+
J5
5
J
5
J
44 7 2 1
VIII
1 + J2
J3
'
Fi nd
J 10+ J 5
J3 + J 10
a
J3
J5
6J 5
as
J5
EX A MPLES
Exp re ss
th e value
n d
d enom i nator b y J 2
14
J2 + J3
2
A/a
am
J2 + J3 + J5
10
.
J2
1
8
11
12
5
a
35
i
b
33
S U RDS
Exp res
13
A ND
UA NT I T I ES
M A G IN A R Y
73
s wi th r t i on l d e no m i n t or :
a
14
15
3 9 + f/8
J2
gy
8
.
/3
/2
l3
16
$3 41 79
17
Fi nd
th e
s q u re roo t
19
16
6 + J 12
21
23
21 + 3
24
J 20
J8
25
1 0+ 6
28
38 J 14
Find t h e
31
J3
c ub e roo t
th e
J3
sq
J35
.
20
24 + 4
22
V3 6
J7
V3 a b
J 24
Jl5
J IO
3S+ I7
29
54
J5
30
2a
J3 a
99
J5
J3
J 3 J2
2
2 + J3
36
F i nd
37
39
JL
th e
1 3 5J 3
1 5J 3
41
1 0J 3)
G i ven J
5=
7 + 4 J 3)
2a b
2
.
2 2 3 6 07 , n d t h e
43
A/3 + J 5
ivi de + 1 + 3 7: b y x
Fi nd t h e c ub e r o o t o f 9 a b
D
3
x
44
Of
7 a + 1 1 ab
lu e o f 3
va
Evalu at
V a:
2
J IB
.
J6
87
2
.
5xy
7b
2
.
3y
wh en
J3
19 J3
6+2
1
-
1 0J 2
42
valu e
n d th e
38
'
28
valu e o f
J26
70 J2
n d th e
J3 + J2
34
a
uare r oo t o f
32
If
27
J3 + 4 1
J35
J 56 + 2 J 2 1
26
35
J 1 5+ J 6
33
J2 1
100J 2
J8
+ 3b + 4 + 4 Ja
F ind
.
J 24
18
J 28 + 2
40
33
26 + 1 5 J 3 )
valu e
2 6 + 1 5J 3 )
J 10+ J 1 8
J 8 + A/3 J 5
2 4a
2v=
Jb
,(
N I
2
a
H I GH ER
74
AG I N ARY
L GEBRA
S
U
A
N
T
I
T
I
E
Q
IM
lth o u g h fr o m th e r ul e o f si gn s it is e v i den t th at a
m
a
a
a
t
t
a
s
e
eg
ti
ve
qu
tit
c
o
t
h
ve
a
r
e
l
qu
r
e
r
oo
i
g
i
n
r
a
n
a
n
a
n
n
a
y
y
y
ar e o f
qu an titi e s r e p r e sen t e d b y sy m b o l s o f th e f o rm J Td J
f re qu en t o cc u rr e n ce in m ath e m ati cal i n ve sti gati o n s an d th e i r
We th e r e f o r e p r o cee d t o e x p lai n
u se l e a ds t o v a lu ab l e r e sult s
in w h a t s e n se su c h r o o t s a r e t o b e r egar de d
W h en th e qu an tity u n de r th e radi c al Si gn is n ega ti ve we c an n o
l o n ge r con si der th e sy m b o l J as i n di cati ng a po ssi b l e a rithm e ti cal
o p e rati o n b u t j u st a s Ja m ay b e dene d as a sy m b o l w hi c h ob ey s
n
a
d
s
we
h
ll
e
e J a t o b e su c h th at
a
so
a
a
th e r e l ati on J J
:7 ;
L7 E
a a n d we Sh a ll a cce p t th e m e an i n g t o w hi c h thi s
J
a ssu m ti o n l e ads u s
p
I t w ill b e f o u n d th a t thi s den iti o n w ill e n ab l e u s t o b r i n g
i m ag i n ary qu a n titi e s u n de r th e do m i n i on o f or di n ary al geb rai ca l
r ul e s an d th at th r o u g h th e i r u se r e sult s m ay b e o b ta i ne d w hi c h
c an b e r e li e d o n w ith a s m u c h ce rt a i n ty a s o th e r s w hi c h de p e n d
s o l e l y o n th e u se o f r e a l qu an titi e s
92
93
th a t
By de n iti on ,
.
J
j
J
I I
j
J )
is,
th e p r o du c t Ja J:1
th e i magi n ary qu a n tity J a
Thu s
1
=
m ay b e
l) ;
r eg r de d
a
as
e qui v al en t t o
94
It
i m a gi n a r y
s mb o l
y
J
thu s
x ed
e
s t a t e m e n t t o th e con t r a ry , o f th e s i gn s w hi c h m a
b
e
y
p
b e f o e a a di c al th e p o siti ve Si gn is t o b e t ak en
Bu t in th e u se
o f i m ag i n a y qu an titi e s th e e is o n e p o i n t o f i m p o t a nce w hi c h
de se v e s n o ti ce
.
76
H I GH ER
L GEBRA
im ag in ar y exp r essio n s ma y b e eq u a l it
is n ec essar y a n d suicien t th a t th e r ea l p ar ts sho u ld b e eq u a l, a n d
th e ima gin a r y p a r ts sh o u ld b e eq u a l
Th u
in
o r der
th a t t wo
c o n u g at e
Thu s
Si m il a r ly
j
J
2
J
two
co n
g a te im ag in a r y
j
J
+ a
1)
:
1
J
2a
1 02
2
b is
(
a +
conj u gat e t o J 2
1 is
d th e p r o du c t
r ea l
a +
gai n
an
Fo r
conj u g at e t o
is
Th e su m
1 01
exp r essio n s ar e b o th
W h en t w o i m ag i n a ry ex p r e ssi on s diffe r
th e i m agi n a ry par t th ey a r e sa i d t o b e
D E FI N ITI ON
th e Si gn o f
1 00
o n ly in
Th e p o s iti ve
D EFI N I TI ON
c a ll e d th e mo du l u s o f e a c h
.
: I and
J
2
.
v a lu e o f th e squ a r e r oo t o f
o f th e co n j u g a t e e x re ssi on s
p
a +
:
I
J
1 03
Th e m o du lu s of the p o du ct Qf two im ag in a r y
s io n s is e u a l t o th e
r
u
o
t
h
e
r m o du li
o
d
i
c
t
q
p
f
.
exp
es
L e t th e t w o e p re ssi o
Th en th e i r p ro du c t
x
i m ag i n a r y
ex
r e ssI O n
w hi c h
s
rove
th e
p
bd
ad
m o dulu s
ac
w h o se
Ja
b e den o t e d b y
n s
b d
J( )
a
r
o
o
iti
on
s
p p
+ a
(
2
0 +
:1
an
d c+d
w hi c h
1,
an
r
deno m i n at o r b y th e co ju g t e e p re s i on
a
is
r
r
1 04 I f th e de n o m i n at o o f a f r a c ti o n is o f th e f o m a
m ay b e ati on ali se d b y m ulti p l y i ng th e n u m e at or
.
it
be
J
)J
a +b
:
1
J
b J 1,
a n d th e
S U RDS
Fo
i n st a n c e
IM A G I N A RY QUA N TI T I E S
A ND
c +
1)
h,/ l
a +
bc
bd
ac +
ad
J
5J f 1 )
:
I
)J
l)
77
bc
To
1 05
.
d t h e sq u
ar e r o o
:
J
A s su m e
w h ere
x an
d y
ar e
r e l qu n titi e s
a
qu a r i ng a + b
th e r e f ore b y e qu a ti ng re a l
By
so
an
l,
1;
d i m a g i n a r y p a r t s,
"
( r) ( W
:
(
1)
Fro m
an
x
8
Thu s
we o b ta i n
d
2
+ a
th e r e qui r e d r o o t
is
o b ta i ne d
3)
d th e re for e i n (
ce
re l qu ntiti es
dy a
+ y i s p o s i t i ve
th e p s itive i gn must b p re e d b e fore th e qu ntity J
b ;
2 ) w e see th t th e p rodu c t y m u s t h ve th e s m e s i g n
Al s o from (
d u nl i k e i gn s if b i s
h e nce
d y m u s t h ve l i k e s i gn s if b i p o s i ti ve
n e g tive
Sin
x an
re
an
an
a2
an
as
H I GH ER
78
E x amp le 1
As
L GEBRA
F i nd th e qu r e root
a
24
s um e
th e n
an
1.
2x y
24
6 2 5;
x
Si n ce th e p rod uct
xy
i s n e g t iv e w e m u s t t k e
a
3, y
x =
h u s th e roots
I t r e m ai n s t o
As
ar e
s,
mp le 2
To n d
n d
4 J7 1
24
th e value
'
2
d
1
2
1
{13
d n all y
3, y
1 ;
64a
J:
:1
:
_ x _
2
J
:1:
2
J
2
J
d:
1
,
(J
1+
..
,
J
(J
2a l i
1 ;
x3
/
1
:
_1
2 8y
0 an d
or a:
an
N/
Sl ml l arl
an
su m e
Ge
or x
4;
t h e val u e
th e n
wh en
th at i
Ex a
+ y = 25
2
I)
H I G H ER
80
A
l so
sa
a)
ti se s th e e qu a ti on
is, th e
su
g ai n
th ere f o r e 1 )
2)
A
t h e th
r ec
e
(
(
,
th e p r o d u
ev er
+ w+ w =
03
be
to
L G EBRA
th a t
o we
n te r a l
i
g
p
y
ity is
u n
z er o
13
th e two
ct o
ts
ro o
im ag in
r f
is
r o o ts
ar
y
n it
y
is
u n
ity ;
it m u s t b e o f th e f or m 3 m an d w ( 1
I f n b e n o t a m ulti pl e o f 3 it m u st b e o f th e f or m 3 m
1 or
1 09
is
It
a)
3m
If
If
3m
3m
1,
2,
"
01
3m
2 :
01
J
(
Re duce
fo r
to th e form
exp re ss i on
is
th e r equi re d form
Ex amp le 2
i n ce
1 )2
J
2+ Ji
(
5+ 1 2
wh i c h
E x amp l e 1
Th e
R eso lv e
1 0+ 1 2 + 2 9
1)
+y
+y
in to t h
3=
w + w2 =
( )(
33
+y
1,
333
/+
H wy )
(
an
S U RDS
Ex a mp le 3
the p roduct f
th e c oef c ients o f b a
the coef ci ent o f b
th e coef c i ents o f a
(
a
ca
are
or
3
<
3 ,
w4
we ,
(+
bc
ca
ab .
1+w
w)
9
w
w+
2 3
0, we
h ve
a
2 3
w)
ab
ca
wb
+ w b + we ) :
i
'
be
h ew th t
l +
2
=
b
a
w + w:
in c
b + c2
u e an
w?
ao
+wb +
2
b
0
2
0
+w +
)
In
E x a mp le 4
M A G I N A RY QUA N T ITI ES
h ew th t
A ND
2 w)
2x l )3
3
6
8(
o + 8w
.
EX A MPLES
VIII
3 +3 JT 2 by 4
J3
Mu lt iply
Mu l ti ply
Multi p ly
Multi ply
Expre ss
I +
x
by
1
x
3+2
11
1 i
J
5J
:
J 3
by
:
V 7 + 5V
5l T 2 b y 3
'
(V
+ A/
F i n d th e v alu e o f
:
/
1
A
v
cl a m / 7
a
a
a
"
T i
2+5
if
V
T
V
10
-
1)
4n + 3
wh en
is
p os
iti ve i n teger
H I GH ER
82
Fi nd t h e
13
16
18
8 x/
4 ab
3i
22
26
) /
28
29
co
1 + 2M
15
47 + 8
J3
20
21
Wb
( lb )
th e th r e e c ub e roots
are
a) , 00
i J2
_ i /2
3
J
~
u n ity
5 =
m
_ z
rove
p
ib
25 (
(
( )( )( )( l
(
( ) ((
1
1
30
1 + co
2 + 5w l
-
+ cu
co
Pr ove
3
th at
3
Z
34 3
If
to
x = a
+ 2)
+ b, y
43
= a co
+2
2w
+ bw
2 n fa
2
=
z
aw
c tor
s=
b w,
h ew that
(
)
(
(
)
1)
31
s
(
a
11
WW
17
23
If 1 ,
27
14
3 + 5i
'
24
i n th e form A + iB
Ex p ress
19
J
1
a-
uare root o f
5+ 1 2
sq
L G EBRA
h ew th t
3
x
If
a
3
=
x z
a
y
(
a
+b
+y +3
+y
+b +
3
.
6ab
3=
+z
z
c
bc
ca
ab
(y
x
Y,
2
+2
yz
X + Y +Z
2
ex
2
y)
YZ X Z
XY
H I GH ER
84
B
,
L G EBRA
l e t th e t wo r oo t s i n
In A r t 1 1 1
1 13
so t h a t
.
4ac
2a
2 ) b e de n o
te d b y
a an
4 ao
.
2a
th e f o ll ow i n g r e sults :
If b
4 ao th e qu an tity u n de r th e ra di c al ) is p o siti ve
1)
a r e re a l a n d u ne qu al
an d
B
an d
a r e r e a l a n d e qu al
If b
2)
4 a c is ero
eac h
B
6
re du c i ng i n thi s c ase t o
t h e n we
(
(
(
(
)
ne qu l
3)
h a ve
ga
If b
neg a ti ve or an d Ba r e i m a g i n a ry
is a p er f ec t s qu ar e a an d Ba r e
4 a o is
If b
4ac
u ne qu al
r a ti on al an d
an
th e n atu re o f th e r oo t s o f a n y
w ith o ut s o l v i ng th e e qu ati on
6 + 7 = 0 c annot b e s ati s e d
e qu ati on 2
By a pp ly i ng th e s e t e s t s
qu adrati c m ay b e de t e rm i n e d
E x amp l e 1
b y an y
al v al
re
Here
Sh ew th t t h
ues o f
a=
herefore th
E x amp l e 2
2, b
4o
ez
ar e
or
so
h ew th t th
a
ht
a
0 h as
9k
equ l roots
a
n d k
9k,
5k
0,
4 ) ls
or 1
roots o f th e
2p x + p
equ ti n
a
2
r
+
g
g
rati onal
2
2
l
Th e roo ts wi l l b e r ati on a p rovi d e d
p)
e
r
ec
t
sq
u
r
u t th i s e x p r ess i on r e du ce s t o 4
B
e
a
f
p
Hen c e th e roots ar e r ati on al
are
20
()
2 k
k = 4,
k
(
E x amp le 3
i m gin ry
If th e equ t i on
roots
x.
Th e
1 14
we h a ve
Si nce
by
iti on
a dd
(
q
is
or
4 q
T HE O R Y
THE
an d
b y m ulti pli c a ti o n
OF
QU A D RA TI O
85
we h av e
b)
4ao
4a
4a
4a
By
E QUA T I O NS
4 ao )
w r iti n g th e e qu ati o n
th e f o r m
in
(
6
th e se r e sults m ay al so b e e x p r e sse d as fo ll o w s
I n a qu adra ti c e qu a ti o n wh er e th e co elcien t of
.
u n
th e
ity ,
(
(
r st
te
rm
i ) th e su m o f th e r o o t s is e qu al t o th e c o e fc i e n t o f x w ith
it s si g n c h an ge d
ii ) th e p r o du c t o f th e r oo t s is e qu al t o th e thi r d t e r m
N E I a y e quati on th e term wh i ch does not contai n the u nk no w
quantity is fre quently c alled t h b l t t rm
OT
e a so u e
1 15
an
l n ce
CL
th e e qu ati o n
x +
c
x
0 m ay b e
0
x
B
,
w ritt e n
qu
adrati c m a
al s o b e e x r e ss e d i n th e f o r m
y
p
y
O
x
r
o
u
c
t
su m o f r o o t s x
d
o f r o o ts
p
)
A ga i n f ro m 1 ) we h av e
He n ce
an
(
(
( ) (B)
x
We m ay
e asil y fo rm
an
e qu ati o n w ith g i ve n r oo t s
E x a mp l e 1
Th e
n o
o r
W h e n th e r o o t s
me th o d
.
are
are
an
i rrati o n a l it
is
e asi e r t o
u se
th e f o ll o w i n g
H I GH ER
86
L GE B RA
su
ar e
2 +J3
an
d2
3
J
116
By
m e th o d
th e l ast a r ti c l e we
roo t s
ar
n al ogo u s t o th a t u se d in Ex am pl e 1 o f
f o rm an e qu ati on w ith th ree or m o r e gi ven
c an
th er e fore th e equ ti on m u st b
a
h t is
a
or
i ng
f t h e foll ow
su p
{It
+3
(
x
2x
E x amp le 2
as
0,
th e re for e it i s
lx
117
Th e
r e ult s
s
a,
a,
()( )
( )(
or
re
0,
a,
5x
5x
th t i s
Th e
( )( )
(
(
x
an
+ 3 : 0,
3,
po
ar e
6x
bx
a l) x
f A rt
O,
1 14
are
m o st
i m p o r tan t an d th ey
connec t e d w ith th e
,
Ex a
(
1)
mp l e 1
(
2)
We h ve
a
If
+ l3
a
3
an
B ar e
the roots
a
p,
n d
th e val ue o f
H I G HE R
88
.
e q u a l i n m agn it u d e an d opp o s it e
i s z e r o 3 h en c e th e r e qu i r e d c o n diti o n i s
su m
will
O,
or
i n th e oot s will b e e i p o l s wh en th e i r
it y 3 h en c e we m u s t h ve
A ga
s ign if
in
u n
T h e r oo t s
th e i r
LG EBR A
h
h
e c o n d itio n
t
a t the r o o ts of th e eq u a t io n
d
t
1 ) eq u a l in m ag n itu de a n d o pp o site
c = 0 sh o u l d b e
r ecip r o c a ls
To
1 18
2
ax + b x
in sig n ,
ca
odu c t is
1,
or c = a
s t o f th ese es u lt s i s o f f e qu en t o
en e i A n aly t i
ti l a
se o f a m o e
a d th e se o n d i s a p
c l G e om et y
a
ene
b
l
e
t
o
e
ti
o
s
o
f
d
e
ee
r al c o n diti o n app li
y
g
q
g
The
c c u rr
ar
ca
ua
cu
ca
W e h av e
oo t
) If
(
h v i e si gn
th e
l k
a e
Al
s
igns
s are
o th p o itiv
s
s.
s o i nc e
,
+ Bis p
osi t ive
1
,
(
1
5
e a
b e 1)
ay
is p
o i t iv
s
e , an
n e g t ive ; th e refor e b
is
e, a
%
a
th er e fore
an
an
da
h ave u nl ik e
r e u ir e d c on di t i on i th t th e signs f d sh oul d b l ik e
d o pp o i t e
ign f b
f
2
h
I
f
t
roo
t
o
o
i
t
e
i
gn
i
s
n
e
g
t
i
v
th
e
r
e
for
e
d
d
pp
5
(
)
h ve u nl ik si gn
A l o si c
th e i gn f th e g e t e r roo t i t i s n g t iv
d th e r
+ 5h
for fi p o it iv ; th e r e for e I d h ve l ik e ign
H nc e th e eq u i r d c o n d i ti on i th t th e si gn f
d b h ou l d b l i k e
d opp o i t e t th e i gn f
H enc e
an
th e
q
t o th e
a an
s, a
0 an
e , an
s are o
as
e a
r a
an
e a
e , an
an
IX
F o rm th e e q u at i o ns wh ose r oo ts
1
'
m
u
5
.
EXA MPLES
a an
s o
ar e
u
5
.
p
.
p +g
P
p
H EORY
THE T
3 i 5i
_3
,
10
,
13
Pr
l)
val u es o f m
'
2a i +
'
a2
2
72
l u es
what
va
s are r
8)
eq u al r oots fi n d th e
O h as
( m) 7 (
2 m)
((
b
(
)
If a
bx
m+ 1
[3
ar e
th e oot
3a
Fi n d th e v al u e
x
8 33
3
12
wh
l
w h en
+ 1 5 w h en :
s ar e
12 :
4 a wh e i
3
th e oots
73
b re + c
0,
n d th e v l u e s
a
20
s o
b)
((
ar
e
26
"
fo
rm
th e e q u a t i o n
an
ar e
ar
2)
2i
12 :
d B ar e
an
ab
2
a re
o e oot
( d
25 Pro ve th t t h e oo t s of ( )
If
th e root f + l w
26
1
b
+
<) ( )
.
ti on l
ar e r a
2
2a x
If
th e e q u t i o n
22
a
;
2
3x
6a
ox
19
s o
s o
+o
z 2
a c a
24
al
l)
wh t v l u e of m w i ll th e e q u t i o n
Fo r
23
w i ll th e eq u ti o n
22
b)
ax
21
(
a
f 722
h ave e q u al r oot s ?
18
foll o w i ng eq u ti on
f th e
15
89
'
16
12
Fo r
15
o,
th e eq u ti o n
If
(
(
) (
11
E QU A TI O N S
ove th t th e oots
2
14
QU A D RA TI C
o r
(
a r2
ar
b)
3
.
b)
c=
O,
lw y e l
n d t h v l u e of
ar e a
s r
H I G HE R
9O
.
ti
28
are a
+B
an
th e d i ff e nce
er
f the
oots
119
o
f th e
i u s th e s i gns
sc
es u lt s
oots
m +n
f
2=
th e su m
If
is
ua
th e e q u ti o n
a
ra
a u
se fu l
li
c
ti
o
pp
11
2x
+ 2x
11
( 3)
so
()
3
an
ss
th e n m ul t i plying u p a
as
s ex e
ss
an d
l ill s t t es
xa
mp e
A r t 1 13
o ve d i n
th e sq u a es
ar e
th e oot s
f o ll o wi n g e
p
be
form th e eq u ti o n wh o s
re l q n t i ty p rove th t th e e p re i on
h ve ll n um e ri c l v l u e c p t u c h l i b e tween 2 d 6
L e t th e g ive n e p r e i o n b r ep r e e n t e d b y y
th t
E x amp le
c an
The
s h all
2x + 2 m + n )
.
30
roo t
one
ax
F o rm th e e q u ati o n wh o se
LG E BRA
ar e
a,
oots
29
i n d th e c onditi o n th t
the o th e
th e oo ts f
If B
F
27
m es
t r an sp o sing w e h ave
()
+ 2x 1
y + 6y
u dr t ic e u t i on
i n ord e r th t m y h v re l v l u e s
l
u
t
o
i
t
i
v
e
d
i
i
d
i
ng
i
m
i
f
y
i
ng
b
4
d
)
p
y
y
(
u t o i tive h t ( 6 ) (
H enc e
8y
y 2 ) m u t b p o i t ive
th e f c t or
th i roduc t u t
o th p o i t iv
I n th
b o th n e g t ive
form e r c e y i gre t e r th n 6 ; i n th e l tt e r y i l e th n 2 The r e for e
2
6
b
m
c
nn
o
t
e
t
w
e
en
h
v
e
o
th
e
r
v
u
e
l
i
b
d
l
t
y
y
3]
I thi s e m p l e it w ill b n o ti e d th t th e q
d ti
i
p
b
i
s
o
s
iti
ve
s
o
l
o
d
o
es
li
e
e
tw
ee
th
e
o
o
t
s
8
1
2
t
g
3/
p
g
9
hi
s is a
2
, an d
q a
q a a
4 6y
1 1) m s b e p s
;
12 m s b e p s
3 t a is , y
s o f
m s be b
s p
as
an
th e o esp o n di n g q
T hi s i s p r ti l
i n th e e t a ti c l e
rr
cu
u ad r a t ic e
ar c a
as
se o f th e g ene r a l
u a
ra
c ex
n o
u at o n
an
ss
e, o r
s
a e
an
xa
o r
a:
r ess o n
83/
12
1 20
Fo r a ll r ea l v a lu es of x the exp r essio n a x
bx
2
t h e sa m e s ig n a s a , ex c ep t wh en th e r o o ts of th e e u a t io n ax + b x
q
a r e r ea l a n d u n e u a l, a n d x h a s a v a lu e l in
q
y g b etween th em
2
C A SE I
Su pp
o se th t th e oot s
a
ax
are r
ea l 3 d en ot e th e m
by
a an
bx
d ,8 ,
an
th e e q ati o
u
l et
be
th e
e ter
r a
h as
0
c
HI G H E R
92
Ex a mp le
in d th e l imit
twee n whi c h
be
dx
5x
m ay b e
ap ab
v lue
f all
ax
5x
th e n
a
5y )
(
In orde r th at the val u es o f as
e p re i o n
x
u t l i in ord e r th t
7x + a
re
an y
al
u n t i ty
a
7x + 5
'
7x 1
7x + 5
eing
s, :
1:b
Pu t
LG EBRA
y) 2 0
ea
ss
s,
or z
an
an
2
a
an
he w th at
If x b e
5
.
e l
r a
pr
o ve th t
IX b
.
are
or
or
an
n m
2=
c
2)
'
+x + 1
r
p
7:
u t lie i o de th t
s
lie
o ve th t
be
5x
tw een 3 a
+ 34x
2
u s t li e b etwee
9
.
e l
r a
an
5 an d 9
If a b e
or z
th e e q ua
s z
ss
e or z
an
as a
EX A MPLES
1
as
as
or z
ss
as
s, a
s
m ay
+ 2x
71
7
fo r all
an d
l
11
e l val u es o f x
r a
c an
Fi n d th e e q u at i o n
I f a , B ar e
oo t
( (3
(
) (
1)
2
s o
1 _
wh
ose oots
r
th e e q u ti o n
a
3) + 5 3
2
61
Ja
ar e
J a j; Va
px
+ q = 0,
nd th e v l u e
a
H EO R Y
TH E T
I f th e
If
cep t s u c h
oots
be
r a
f lx
QU A D R A TI C
o r
+ nx
e l th e e
,
as
e sio n
11
12
ex
s r a
13
ao
hew t h t i f
re ss
e l
r a
(
x
n o r eal v al u es b etwe e n
I f th e r oo t o f ax
13
t h e r oot s o f
ii
will b i m p o ss i b l e
e
14
he w th
val u es wh en
r
p
b e ) 2x
2 bx +
v ice v ers
r a
f al l
an d
e l v l u es of
fo r
le
0 be p
c=
o ss i b l e
an
i r en t th en
d d ffe
( b )(
2
ac
36
+ 1)
)
(
(
b c p b le
t th e e p ess i o n b
w
i
ll
) ( d)
(
d h ve th e s m e s i gn
e l if
b
d
b ) dx
r a
is
an
ess i o n
c ap ab
val u e b etween
+2
2 r + 3x
an d c
be
W l ll
2
_
4x
x
ax
th
an
ax
an
all
ex
W e s h ll o l u d e thi s h pt e with s om e m i s e ll e o s
122
e or em s
+ c)
s an
+ 2 bx +
( (
a
the
h as
B,
o ve th t
+ 3x
is
val u e
al l
Fi n d th e g r e ates t val u e
AO
d m i ts
ro
v
e
th
t
p
+ 2 b x + c = 0 b e a an d
b e a + 8 an d
r
p
h ew th t th e p m
3
+
P
v l u es wh en i e l p o v i d e d th t p h a
S
10
ax
fp
93
n an
ra
r
s
p
l i e b etwee 2
d 2m
If th e oo t s f th e e q u t i o n
9
th o e of t h e e q u ti o n
ex
i n th e t i o
0be
+n
E QU A TI O N S
nc
an
ex am pl es I t w ill b e c o nven i en t h e r e t o i n t r o d u c e
h
a
r a se o l o y an d n o t a ti o n whi c h th e s t u d en t will f r e u e n tl y
q
p
g
m ee t with in hi s m a th e m ati c a l r e a di n g
D EFI NI TI ON
A n y e x p r ess i o n whi c h i nv o l ves x a d wh o se
v al u e i s d ep en d e n t o n th at o f x i s c all e d a fu n c ti on o f
F u n c ti o ns o f x a r e u s u all y d e n o t e d b y s y m b o l s o f th e f o r m f x )
an
)
(
<
>
l
96
m y b e o ns id e e d
th e e q ti o n g f
e q u i v l en t
t o a s t te m en t th t a y h n g e m d e i n th e v l u e o f x will p o
du e
c o se q u e t h n g e i n g
T h e q n titi es
d i
l
d g
e c ll e d v ariab l e s
di s ti n g u i s h e d s th e
d
e f u th e
in dep e n de n t v ar i ab l e
d th e d e p e n d e n t v ar i ab l e
T hu s
ua
an
ar
an
an
an
ar
as
v c e v er s c
r
ua
94
H I GH ER
LG E BRA
i s a q u n tity whi c h m y h ve y
d th e o esp o n di n g d p n d t
v l e w c h o o se t o ss ig n t o it
s soo n
s th e v l e o f th e i n d e
a i b l h s it s v l u e d e t e m i ne d
en
d
en
t
i
l
e
i
s
k
n
o
w
b
v
p
A
r a
ar a
1 23
po
x
,
"
o
1
'
an
rr
en
a u
ex p r ess i on
an
a u
v a r ia b le
in dep en den t
fo
f th e
+ 29 2 2)
rm
th
e
o
e
c
i
en
t
s
d
p
p
p
an d in t egr al al g eb r aic al fu n c t io n
i s c ll d
t i nv o l ve
ofx
th e p esen t h apt e we s h all o n e o
tt e ti o t o
I
f nc ti o s o f thi s k i n d
wh er e
is
n o
x,
in teg er , an d
e a rat ion al
o sitiv e
,,
0,
u r a
f n ti o n i s s id t o
in ear wh e n it o tai ns n
high e p o w e r f th e v a i b l e th n th e s t 3 th s a b i s li ne
f nc ti o o f x A f u c ti o n i s s id t o b e q u adrat i c wh e it
o t i s o hi g h e p o w e o f th e v i b l e th an th e se o n d 3 th u s
f
a ti
x
f
t
h
d
u
d
f
n
ti
o
n
F
c
ti
o
ns
th
e
i
a
bx + c i s
q
d eg ees a e th o se i whi c h th e hi gh es t p o w e f th e
v a i b l e i s r esp ec ti ve l y th e th i d
T h s i n th e l s t
ti o n o f f th e
d eg ee
a ti c l e th e e p ess i o n i s a f u
*
1 24
1 25
ab es
.
i l
are r
x an
esp e c ti ve l y li near
The
ti
o,
o r di n g
un
an
x o
c, a n
()
f t wo
b xg cg + dx
u n c ti o n s o f x ,
g
2
s aid t o
( ()
f ) f
u n c t io n s
f nc ti o n
ax +
O a re
d q u a d r a ti c
x,
th
by
ax
th e f
as
ar
i
s
u
se
d
t
o
d
en
o
t
e
y)
O, f
eq u a t o n s
ac c
ra
y 3 th u s
n c
T h e sy m b o l f
r a
ar a
v ar
a n
r a
x,
be
ar e
ar ,
u
d
q
ar ,
ua
li ne
li e
n
W e h ve p o ve d i n A t 1 20 th t th e p i
d m it s o f b e i n g p t i th e f o m ( ) (B)
wh e e
d B
th e o o t s o f th e q ti
b
0
Th s
d
ti
e
ess
i
o
n
i
s
l
e
e
i
n
b
b
f
+
b
p
q
p
g
es ol ve d i n t o t w
ti o l f c t o s f th e s t d eg ee wh eneve
*
ax
126
bx
ua
ra
ra
na
th e e q ti on ax + b x + c
6
4 o i s a p e fe t sq
e
2
u a
u ar
ax
ra
ax
x + c
0 h as
on
ca
na
()
x,
ax
wh en
r ess o n
ti o l oo t s 3 th t i s
1 27
To n d th e co n ditio n th a t a q u a dr a t ic
m ay b e r eso lv ed in to t wo lin ear fa cto r s
o t e th e f n ti o n
D en
ex
e u a
are
a an
byf
+ 2hx y
(
x,
fu n ctio n of x y
w
re
h
e
y)
by
2g x + 2fy
c.
96
H IGH ER
*
LG EBR A
EX A M PLES
IX
Fo r
w h at v l u es
a
w ill t h e e
f 722
xpr
2
x
2
x +m
+
+
g
g
g
2
es i o n
s
be
c ap ab l e
fr
A
a
( 0)
B
g
ar
h ve
a
a c
om m o n oot sh e w th t it m u t b eith e
r
Pi
33
0"
g
.
lx
m ay
mt g
lx
'
e p r e s i on
'
m my
'
2g
2d x
r s
4g
s,
ax
bg
2 hx g
espectivel y div i s ib l e b y
2
a x
2
,
fa
3 xg
c t o rs
Zg
'
'
2 h xg
be
one
th e
bg
th e for m g
If x
an d
ar e
mx ,
in
32
+
g
/
If
a ra
3 5= 0,
e l v l ue
a
f g,
an
t i o n al fu nc t i o n
9 2x
d 6,
o
fg
an
an d
fo r
eve r y r eal
tw o eal q u antities c o n ec te d
2 xg
t h en w i ll l i e b etween
133/
a r a
2x
10
may b e
u st
fo r
h e w th t i n the eq u t i o n
m ay b e
e o l ve d i n to l i near fac t or p ro ve th at
r oo t s o f t h e e q u ati o n
Fi nd th e c o n diti o n th at t h e e press i o ns
7
be
'
2n
c an
F i n d the c o n d it i o n th at t h e
by
the e q u ti o n
a
2 0g +
dg be
tw een 1 d 1 0
n d th e c o n d iti o n that
an
a:
C HA P TER X
MIS C E LL A N E O U S
ION S
EQU A T
thi s h p t e r we pr op o se t o c o ns id e r som e m is
ti
o
s
it
will
b
e seen th at m a n y o f th ese
b
s e
e
c ella e o
;
q
s o l ve d b y th e o di a y u l es fo q u ad ati e q ati o s b t o th e s
e qu i e s om e s pe c i al arti c e fo th e i r s ol u ti o
1 29
In
ua
c an
E x amp le I
Mul t i pl y
by
371
an
S ol v e
8 x 27
8x
t r an sp o s e ; th us
3
5
8 17
3
8)
3
x 2n
8,
or
2n
or
E3
1
E xamp le 2
o ve
S l
L et
+ 3
= y ; t h en
2
6a
6 a g b y 3ab = o ;
3 a) = 0 3
2 ay
b) by
2 ab y
_
l
Z
;
th at
30
'
2a
74
o r
2
3
9a
o r
3
a
9
18,
H A
.
a
;
o r
98
H I GH ER
E x amp le
5)
7)
h ave
( 20) (
whi ch b eing arr ang e d as a q u adrat i c i n
We
(
x
wh enc e
0,
3,
3
:
x
Q
x
x
or x
2, 8,
g iv e
x,
6)
e qu a ti o n whi c h
An y
th o w i t o th e f
be
c an
56 2 0 ;
x + c =
m ay b e
s o l ve d
as
f o ll o w s
P u tti n g y
504
62
(
x
1 30
=
4
6
(
) ( ) 504
( (
S o l ve
LG E BRA
ax
o rm
bx
c,
ob t i n
we
w q
th e oo t s o f thi s e q ati o n s o th t
0
Let
an
f o m th ese e q ti o s w s h ll o b t i n f v l es f
W h en s ig i s p e e d t o
di l it i s s ll y n d e
h
en
e
i
f
th t it i s t o b t k en
o
s
iti
ve
d B
3
p
f
o
s
iti
ve
th
e
f
o
v
l
es
s
ti
s
f
y
th
e
i
e
ll
i
l
g
q
p
i
s
ne
ti
ve
th
e
oo
t
s
f
o
n
d
f
o
th
e
es
m
I f h o w eve
g
B
d
ti
will
s
ti
s
f
y
th
e
e
ti
o
q
q
ua
no
but
ra
n o
ua
th e o ig i l e qu ati o
na
E x amp le
2J
5
o ve
e c h s i d th n
S l
A dd 3 t o
u tt ing
S q uari ng
an
na
s t oo d
a r e b o th
u a ti on
r
lti n g
5x
12
5x + 3 = y ,
?
ar
or
u a
a u
r a o r
u a
ca
as
u r
a u
ou r
a ra
o in y
we b t a
when e y = 3
15
+ 2y
or
an
an
2
x
5x
Jx
sa
1 00
H I GH ER
1 33
T h e s o l u ti o n
ax
e qu ati o n
f an
s
bx
LG EBR A
cx
bx
th e f o
O,
+ a
whi c h th e o e f c i en t s o f t e m s e q u idi s t t f o m th e b eg i n g
b
e m a d e t o d e p en d
l
th
e
s
o
l
ti
o
n
e e
f
d en d
o
q
d
E
ati o ns o f thi s t y p e
e know
ati
i
a
s
o
l
q
p
q
q
m e d b e c u se th e y
e n ot
lt e e d wh en i s
a d
e so
ti
1
h an ge d i n t o it s e c i p o al
in
ar
an
ua
o n s,
an
ua
c an
ar
na
ar
r ec
ar
i nn
on
ca
u a
o m pl e t e di s c u ss i on o f r e c ip r o c al e q u ati on s th e
s t u d en t i s r e f e r r e d t o A r t s 56 8 57 0
Fo r
m or e
E x amp l e
D
S olve
ivi ding b y
an
1 2x
56x
re rr nging
a
12
(
z
ai
o r
s o l ve d i n
E x amp le
ua
s i m ila r
Sol ve
W e h ave
m an n e r
o r
e o
2 5x 3
1 2x 2
25
r ec ip r o ca l
m ay
x=
b t am
n o
25
2 ;
13
(
( (
6x 4
wh enc e
wh nce w
= z2
l
+
f oll owi n g e q ti o th o g h
Th e
{Io
12
56z + 8 9 = 0 3
2)
wh nce w ob t n
1 34
56 x
2
= z
; t h en x +
12
e
56
89x
Pu t
+ 24 = O ;
2,
W h en o ne oo t
3,
f a q u a d r ati c e qu ati on i s o b v i o u s b y
i n spe c ti on , th e o th e r r oo t m ay o te n b e r e adi l y ob t ai ne d b y
m a k i n g u se o f th e p r op e r ti es o f th e r oo t s o f q u a d r ati c e qu a ti o n s
4
r o ve d i n A r t
1
1
p
135
.
MIS C E LL A N E O U S EQU A TI O N S
So v ( ) (
2 (
1
+ )
)
Thi s i a q u adr at i c o n e o f wh o e roo t s i s c l e ar l y
A l so s ince th e e q u at i o n m a b e wr i tt e n
y
E
xa
mp le
(
3
2 ax + 1
)x
an
(
1
th e refore th e o th e r roo t
EXA M PLES
1 01
l
is
g:
1
3
Jx
+ 2x
5
.
+6
4
6x =
xm
5x n
7x
22 3
3x
2x
4
.
1
.
11
13
6Jx
5x
13
12
14
15
J2
2
x +3
2
57
65 2
'
16
T
i
21
H I G HE R
1 02
26
27
28
A LG
E BR A
7x
30
.
31
32
34
%
3
3
x4 + x 3
37
10
39
41
(
4
34
+ 1)
6 3x
(
x
1)
52 v
.
2=
+l
40
+ 2x + N/a
+ 2x
g a
4x
4x2
5x
a
42
Jx
8
.
2x =
JF
3x
7
3
48
49
5
2
44
46
~ x
43
45
J ae
x
+1
1 8 7x
47
5
2
2x + l
3)
250
2x + 1
3 N/7 x _ 3
2 3
50
51
v4
52
2 7 x + 2 1x + 8 = 0
1 04
H I GH ER
ro m
LG EBRA
7 x + 5y
29
e q u t i on
1, by
=
y 3
ga n from
i
19
7 x + 5y
43
82
29
82
Q
J
82
or x
Ex amp le 4
1 2 47
82
82
o ve
2
2x 3]
xy
s ub t i t u t e i n b o th e q u ati ons
an d
4 + 3m + m
8m + 1 9 m
s,
a e
an
1) m
I 2 = O;
mz 1 ,
m= l ,
an
or
3,
or
1)
s ub t i t u t e in ei th er (
s
or
1;
x=
13
d
=
k
ii
T
e
3
m
()
a
an
th u s
ub t i t u t e i n
s
iii )
(
5x 3 2 1 ;
d
I
Tak e m = 4 ; we
ob t i n
a
1 0x 3 _ 1
an d
an
3
m
(
)(
(
th at i
i) T k
(
From
S l
2x
Pu t y z mx ,
82
551
H enc e
e q u t ion
b y
1 24 7
551
1
1
10
hus
M ISC ELL A N EO U S
Q U A TI O N S
1 05
s
3
{I}
=
1, 3
y
.
N O TE
e qu ti o s
a
Th e
ab
ove m eth od
f t he
ar e o
sa me
S o lv e
x amp l e
2 ) we h v e
rom (
3 1 x 3}
3 1 x 3]
3
4
7 xy + y
(7
x
3 1 x 3)
4y
xy
?
dz
i g th se c es in succ s ion
as
4y
7 xg
2=
0;
7 x 3/
()
0;
O3
9y
0;
or
an
e s
(
2
7xy
u e d wh e n th e
be
'
sub t i t u t ing i
14xy
( (
x
Z z
x4
h ence
d,
4g
7 x 31
an
w ys
64
s,
Tak
th at i
al
d h o mo g en eo u s
'
14x y
x
m ay
1 1 2 x 31
= x2
an
3 1 x 3)
deg r ee
so lu t i o n
sub st i t utin g i n
w e o b t in
a
m y=
z
l ;
I7
17
ob r e d th t e q u t i on (
3) i h m g
Th
m e th od h e r e e m p l oy e d b y wh i c h
eq u ti on i m d e h om og en eou b y
u i t b l e c omb in t i on wi th th e o th e r i s v lu b l e r ti e It i e p e ci lly
u e ful i A n ly ti c l G om try
N OTE
It sh oul d
be
se v
on e
E x amp le 6
S o ve
l
%
(m
(
e
iv i d e e c h t e r m
a
()
W
33
e )
r
(w
or
+g
en eo u s
13
2y
( (
f 1) b y
i?
3x
y)
ill
H I G H ER
1 06
L G EBRA
x
Thi s equati on i s a q uadrat i i n
5
17
31
w h i c h we e
from
asily
n d,
+y
or
wh ence
1 ;
a3 +
or
17
l ;
or y = 0
Co mb
w e ob t i n
wit
13
7;
or x
2y
7,
11
y +y
19
5x
6x
2=
3,
25
.
12
13
14
16
17
19
s :
2=
EX A MPLES
So
=
y 0
+y
3=
+y
1 07 2 ,
20
18
20,
'
21
16
65
.
+y
l
5,
H I GH ER
1 08
so from
wh en c we ob t i n
Thu we h ve
Al
or
=7
6;
+y
E x a mp l e 2
Wr ite
Solv
+ x,
my 2 1 0
i,
0r
a
:
a:
6,
= 3 i ~/
+y
an d
( y) (
w fo r y + 2 ,
v,
10
or
or
2!
7,
xy
He n ce
or
=6
+ z = 13 ;
L G EBR A
w= 3 0, wu
3 0,
re sp ectively thus
+y
1 5, wv = 1 8
u v
= 30
x 1 5x 1 8
uv
C omb
i n i ng th i r esult with e ch
u
wh en ce
Ex a
mp le 3
= 3,
xz
y + yz + z
u tracti ng (
2) from
S b
or
th at i s
2
2
+zx
+
)
(
xy
+y
an
(
4)
an
1,
wh en ce
22
39
3 ;
(
Z)
32
= 19
a:
5;
d ivi s i on
-
)
(
= 49
(
Z
4, y =
w e h ve
6 , w=
by
Hen ce from
x6
v =
3,
(
y
rom (
d(
)
)
S m il arly f
15
the equati on s i n
x=
d: 9 0.
or u =
4, y = 1,
Sol v
2x
3)
(
M ISC ELL A N EO U S
u stituti ng i n equati on
3z
From
332
2:
13
19
Solv
yz
F om (
1)
by
an d
2 z
b o
x,
mr
k
a
:
0 a
2
b z
(
a
b6
5
.
2=
+y
2
z =
my
add
th e n
th e n
d add
sup po se
0 a
2
l
)
a
2 1,
5
.
50,
1
1
1 8,
3 x z + 3y z
x
5;
S2 = O,
an
3 a2b 2 02)
6
0
th e followi n g e q u ation s
9x +y
a n
th e give n equati on s ; th en
w e ob t i
= 0
EXA MPLES
Sol ve
my
ely an
y
2
res p ectively
esp ectiv
z
2
ny o n e o
2 2:
u stitute i n a
a:
S b
+a y +
Art 1 3 6 ,
an
xa
an
E x amp le 4
as
12 :
or
1 09
w e ob t i n
S b
Sol v
Q U A TIO N S
N/as
X c
.
3a b
2 2
H I G H ER
1 10
9
11
10
z z
z u
2
2
1 2,
12,
L G EBRA
8 , my z
2
2
zu
A
2
54 ,
7
x
3 2
2
13
14
+y
6z
52 ,
7 z , y z + x = 8z ,
15
3x
16
3y z + 31
xz
2m
g
12
zz 2 2
u
3 xy
72
I ND
1 38
ti on :
e
r
s o n sp en ds 4 6 1 i n
p
h orse co st s 2 3 an d e a c h cow
x,
b
y
E TE R MI NA TE
Let
6a
3x + y
2z
3a
EQU A TI O N S
th e f o ll ow i ng p r ob l e m were p r op o se d
Su pp o se
th e n u m b er
fo r
b u y i ng h or se s an d cow s
1 6 , h ow m a n y o f e a c h d oe s
h or se s
2 3 50 + 1 6 3/
an
46 1
o lu
if e a c h
he b u y ?
cow s r e sp ec ti ve l y
th en
He r e we
I f th e n u m b e o f u n k n o w n qu an titi e s is g e at e th an th e
o f i n de p e n den t e qu ati on s, th e e w ill b e an u n li m it e d
n u mb e
o f so luti on s, an d th e e qu ati on s a r e sai d t o b e in det er
n u mb e
min at e I n th e p e se n t s ec ti o n we Sh all o n ly di s c u ss th e Si m pl e st
k i n ds o f i n de t e m i n at e e qu a ti o n s, co n n i ng o u a tt e n ti o n t o p o si
tiv e in teg r a l v a lu es o f th e u n k n ow n qu an titi e s ; it w ill b e s ee n
that thi s e st i c ti on e n ab l e s u s t o e x p e ss th e so luti on s in a ve y
Si m l e f o m
p
r
r
.
r
r
in
Th e
C h ap
gene ra l th e o ry
XX V I
.
be
fou n d
H I GH ER
112
28
h n ce
e
th at
2+
i s,
d, fro m
te g e r ;
m t e g er
11
1 419
upp o se ;
an
m t eger
11
an
in
11
an
L G EBRA
en e a
so u
on
an
0,
1,
2,
3,
= 6, 1 7 , 28, 39,
= 5, 1 9 , 33 , 4 7 ,
y
E x amp l e 3
L et
In
h ow m
5x
43]
2 00
50,
i nt g e r
50
an
5p
uppo se
re
or
e ch m p i d
th ere f e ch ?
re
3.
6d
an
e ch chil d
a
h ow m
.
s.
ny
w er e
.
L et
e ch wom n 2
an
or n
xa
su
o r n s,
su
su
x,
then we h ave
l 0x
Elim
i n ti n g
a
Th e gen
er
al
we ob tai n
sol ut i on o f th i s
z
43
5y
2z = 2 29
8x
33;
1 43
equ ti on i s
a
an
He n ce b y
He re
fro
p
m 1
s ub stituti n g i n
c nnot
a
to 5
be
hu s
U A TI O N S
N D ETER M I N A TE
EQ
113
in
we o b ta
n e gativ e or
x
5p
2
z
ero
4,
5,
1,
2,
4,
7 , 1 0, 1 3 , 1 6
3,
o
s
i
t
i
v
e
i
n
t
e
v
u
r
l
a
l
es
a
p
g
h ve
b u t m ay
5,
z
7 , 1 2, 1 7 , 22
EXA MPLES
So lve
1
i n p o itive i n tegers :
s
3 x + 8y
l 3 x + 1 1y
1 03
=
4 14
5x + 2y
53
2 3 m+ 2 5y
9l5
5x
1 7y
10
.
11
1 3x = 0
6x
l 3y
1 9y
2 3x
an
12
7 x + 12y
4 1x + 4 7y
d th e
8x
7 y
2 1y
33
3 0x
lu e s
va
2 19 1
l east
"
1 52
29 5
.
onl y
iv i de
136 n o
nder 2 , an d
s pend 301 h ow m ny O f e c h do I b y ?
overei gn h l f c rown s
I my p o c k e t I h ve 2 7 c o i n w h i c h
21
or s h i lli n g s
f
d t h e m o u n t I h v e i s 5 0 6 d ; h ow m ny c o i n
e c h s or t h v e I 7
.
at
if I
17
an
ar e s
s,
s,
s o
H H A
.
C H A P TER X I
P ER M U TA TI O N S
13 9
s
om e
o r
EA C H
al l o f a
C O M B IN A TI O N S
A ND
O f th e a r r a n g em en ts w hi c h c an b e m a de b y t ak in g
n u m b e r o f thi ng s is c a ll e d a p ermu t at i o n
.
each
a,
ab,
a c,
a d,
b c,
b d,
b a,
ca,
da,
b,
db ,
do ;
di ffe
r en t
d,
l e tt er s
Th e c o m b in atio n s w hi c h c an b e m a de b y t ak i n g th e l e tt er s
b c d t w o at a ti m e ar e six i n n u m b e r : n am e l y
o
f th e s e p re se n ti ng
a r r an
e
m
en
g
f t wo
ab,
e a c h o f th e se
b c,
a d,
a c,
b d,
cd
d
f
ele ti
o f t wo l e tt er s
r
e
e
ti
ng
if
e
r
en
t
p
F r o m thi s it pp e rs th t i f o rm in g c m b i ti n s we e on l y
c once r e d w ith th e u mb e r o f thi g e c h se l ec ti o c o n t i n ;
w h ere s i f o rm i ng p m ta tio n s we h ve al o t o con i de r th e
o r der o f t h thi ng s w hi c h m k e u p e a c h r r nge m e t ; f or i n t a ce
if f ro m f o u r l e tt e r s a b
d we m k e
se l ec ti on O f th r ee s u c h
thi i ngl e co m b i ati on dm it s O f b e i ng rr ge d i th e
s ab
a
c,
s s
n a
an
so
g i ve s r i se t o
a cb ,
six
b ca ,
di ffe
b a c,
r en t p erm ut ti on
a
ca b ,
c b a,
s
f o ll ow i ng w ay s
ab c,
ar
c,
on
er
s n
an
116
H I GH ER
L G EBRA
th e s e w ay s th e se c on d pl a c e c a th en b e ll e d u p in n 1 way s
a n d s i n c e e a c h w ay o f lli ng u p th e r s t p l a ce c a n b e a ss o c i a t e d
w ith e a c h w ay o f lli n g u p th e s econ d th e n u m b e r o f w ay s i n
w hi c h th e rst t wo p l a ce s c an b e ll e d u p is g i ven b y th e p ro du c t
A n d w h en th e r st t w o p l a c e s h a ve b een ll e d u p i n
n
n
n
th
e
thi
r
d
l
a ce c an b e ll e d u
i
n
2
w
a s
w
an
a
nd
A
p
p
y
y
y
re a so n i ng as b e f o r e th e n u m b e r O f w ay s in w hi c h th ree p l ace s c an
1) n
b e ll e d u p is n n
Pr o cee di ng thu s a n d n o ti c in g th a t a new fa c t or is i n t r o du ce d
w ith e ac h n e w p l a c e ll e d u p an d th a t at an y s tage th e n u m b er
o f fa c t or s is th e sam e as th e n u m b e r o f p l a c e s ll e d u p we sh all
h a v e th e n um b e r o f w ay s i n w hi c h r p l a ce s c an b e ll e d u p
n
( (
,
u al
to
( (
(
an
th e
th
1)
fa c t o r
Th e
re
fa c t or s ;
r +
2)
2)
thi n g s t ak en
77.
thi n g s t ak e n
r at
1)
f p e m ut ati o n s
to
fa c t o r s
a ll a t
u su al t o de n o t e thi s p ro du c t b y th e sy m b o l L
n
w hi c h
fa c t o r i a l n
A l s o n ! is s o m e ti m e s u se d f or
is
is
We sh all in futu r e
thi ngs t ak en r at a ti m e
1 42
of
ad
( (
( )( )
It
l)
u mb e r
or
f p erm ut a ti on s
( (
u
or
th e n u m b e r
n
CO R
ti m e is
to
2)
is
Th ere f o r e
ti m e is
deno t e th e n u m b er
b y th e sy m b o l P
"
o f p erm uta ti o n s
so
th at
ri
l o
"
a s
wo rk i n g n u m e ri c a l ex am p l e s it is u se ful t o no ti ce th at th e
s u f x in th e s m b o l
P
a
a
s d e n o t e s th e n u m b e r o f fa c t o r s in
l
w
y
y
th e f o rm ul a we ar e u si n g
In
"
1 43
Th e n u m b e r o f p e rm uta ti on s O f 97 thi n gs
ti m e m ay a l so b e f o u n d i n th e f o ll ow i ng m an n er
.
t ak en
at
Let
t ak en
r at a
r ep r e se t th e
n
ti m e
u m b er o f
er
ut
ti
on
m
a
s
p
thi ng s
PER M U TA TI O N S A N D C OM B IN ATI O N S
Su pp o se we f o rm al l th e p er m ut a ti on s
a t a ti m e
th e n u m b e o f th e se w ill b e
1 17
thi n g s t ak en
"
'
"
"
I"
"
wr iti ng
By
i mil a r ly
(
r
(
l f o r r i n thi s f orm ul a we
'
"
"
"
P3
x
_
r
3
"
"
P2
r _2
(
(
(
"
= n
( (
n
1)
tai n
Ob
an
c a nce l li k e f a c t ors
2)
rt
o r
a r a
a e
e r
an
an
are s x
six
out
3 60
E x a mp le 2
Of
an
c an
Ho w m any di er en t n um b er s
t h e n i n e d i g i ts
we h
c an
1 , 2,
form
e d b y u sing
ve
f p er
5x 4
604 80
144
To
thin g s t a ken
L et
n
h
d
t
e
a t a tim e
m b er
n
n
o
a
c
o
m
b
i
t
i
o
s
n
f
of
dissim ila r
th e r e qui r e d n u m b e r o f co m b i n ati on s
Th en e a c h o f th e se co m b i n a ti on s co n si s t s O f a g r o u p o f r
b e a rr a nge d a m on g th e m se l v e s 11)
di ssi m il a r thi n g s w hi c h c a
A
rt
: w ay s
[
1
"
C"de n o t e
1 18
H I GH ER
GEBRA
AL
t o th e n u m b er O f a rr an g emen ts
tim e th at is
H en ce 0"x ]r is e qu al
"
thi ng s tak en
"
r at a
"
(
( )(
n
2)
(
n
1)
r +
L1
7
f o rm ul a f o r C m ay al so
r if we m ultip ly th e n u m e ra t or
we Ob t ai n
Thi s
COR
f orm ; f o
.
"
( (
1)
|I |
Th e n u m e r a t o r now
n u m b er s f r o m n t o 1
w r itt e n in a di ffe r en t
a n d th e deno m i n at o r b
y
be
r
o
u
c
t
d
p
co n si st s o f th e
all
th e
n a
tu r a l
(
2)
It
an
N O TE
If
2) we p
i n formul (
a
we h ve
= n,
On
so
or r
=n,
th e sy mb ol I
)
i
mu
st
s i h o w m ny w y s
sel ecti on f 5 b
2 ) wh en
e s ec i e
i s lw y s i nclude d (
sp eci e d
E x amp le
ro m 1 2 b o ok n
m ad , 1 )
en on p d b ook
b ook
alway s ex l ded ?
wh
(
is
.
c an
one
cu
1
i
n
c
e
t
h
e
ec
i
e d b ook i s t b i nclu ded i n every selecti on we
S
p
(
)
h v only to ch oo se 4 out f th e rem in ing 1 1
He n ce th e n um b e r f w y = 0
s
a e
a s
11
11
10x 9
3 30
.
1 20
H I GH ER
L G EBRA
146
To n d th e n u mb er of way s in wh ich m n th in g s c a n b e
div ided in to t wo g r o u p s co n tain in g m a/n d 11 thin g s r esp ec tiv e ly
.
t o n di n g th e n u m b e r O f co m b i
a ti m e
f o r every tim e we se l ec t
thi ngs we l ea ve a gro u p O f n th ings b e hi n d
Thi s is c l e a r ly e qui v a l en t
n thi n g s m at
n a ti o n s O f m
g ro up o f m
on e
th e r e qui r e d n u m b e r
Thu s
+ n
i n thi c e th e numb er f
i n y on e w y it i po ib l e
dif
f
t w y
f ub d i is i on i
t i :IE
t o i nterch n g e the two gro p with out ob t in i ng n ew distrib uti on
N OTE
If
az
a s o
eren
m,
the group s
s
equal
ar e
an
an
or
as
ss
h
n g s c an
147
To n d th e n u m b er of way s in which m n
t
i
p
div ide d in to th r ee g r o u p s c o n tain in m , n , p th in g s sev er a lly
.
be
F i r st
an
c an
n g s in t o t wo
n t a i n i ng m
thi
r
o
u
s
co
p
g
p
thi n g s r e sp ec ti v e l y th e n u m b er o f w ay s i n w hi c h thi s
d i v i de m
+ n +
b e do n e is
c an
Th en th e n u m b e o f w ay s i n w hi c h th e
b e di v i de d i n t o t wo g o u ps co n t a i n i ng
In
t iv e l y is
group
n
an
dp
thi ng s
thi ngs
res
c
e
p
10
th e n u m b e r O f w ay s in w hi c h th e s u b di v i si on i n t o th ree
co n t ai n i ng m n p thin g s c an b e m ade is
H ence
g r o u ps
m m m
)
as di ffe rent all th e p o ss i b l e ord e r s i n wh i o
Hie th r ee g roup s c an o ccur i n
an y on e m od e o f sub d i vi s i on
A n d s i n c e t h er e ar e 3 s u ch ord er s c or
)
r e sp ond in g to e ach mode o f sub di vi s i on the numb er 07 d ier en t way s i n
)
'
th ee equal
r
c an
be
Th e
u s
gr o p
drafted i nto
n u m b er o
f way s
l5
W
h ee i e e
is
b e m ad
ei
i n which 1 5 recruit
b di vi ded i nto
d th e n um b er f w y i n wh i c h th ey
s c an
; an
d ff r nt regi m e nts
ve
a s
i nto e ch i s
a
15
'
Ef E
I
P ER M U TA TI O N S
A ND
CO
M BI N A TI O N S
1 21
th e e x am pl e s w hi c h f o ll ow it is i m p o rta n t t o no ti ce
th at th e f or m ul a fo r p er mu ta t io n s Sh o ul d no t b e u se d u n til th e
s uit ab l e selec tio n s r e qui r e d b
th
e
qu
e
sti on h a ve b een m a de
y
E mp l 1
From 7 Engl i sh m en a d 4 A m eri can s a c mm ittee f 6 i s to
b form e d ; i n h o w m any w ay s
1 ) w h e n th e c o mm i ttee
thi s b e don e (
tai n s e actly 2 A m eri c an s (
2 ) at l e ast 2 A m e r i c an s
1
2
m
A
We
h
a
v
e
t
o
c
h
oo
se
e
r
i
c
a
n
s
a
d
4
E
n
l
i
s
h
m
en
g
)
(
Th e n um b e r f w ay s i n wh i c h th e A m e ri c an s a b e c h o se n i s
d
th e numb e r f w ay s in w h i c h the Engl i sh m en
b e c h o se n i s
E ch f
t h s t grou p s a b ass o ci ate d wi th e ch f th e sec ond ; h e n ce
th e r equir e d num b er o f w y s 0 0
14 8
In
xa
c an
co n
an
c an
x 7
I]
2 10
2 2 3
L L1 :
2
c
o
i
tt
ee
m
T
h
m
m
ay c ontai n 2 3 or 4 A m e ri c an s
e
(
)
We s h all exh au st al l th e s uitab l e com b in ati on s b y form i ng all th e group s
c ontai n ing 2 A m eri c an s an d 4 En gl i s hm en ; th en 3 A m eri c an s an d 3 En gl i sh
m en ; an d l astly 4 A meri c an s an d 2 En gl i shm e n
He n ce th e r equ i re d
Th e su m o f t he th r e e r esul t s wi l l g iv e th e an s w e r
4
7
4
7
7
x 02
02 x 04 4 03 x 03
n um b er o f way s
L
4
2 2
| l
.
sw
thi s
l
1
3
11
7
na
co
Ex am pl
ar e
or
o n s,
u a
or
c s
t d 4 vo w e l s h w m ny w ord s
b
s
ts d 2 vow el ?
m d e e c h c ont in i
Th num b e r f w y s f c h oo s i n g th e th r e c on s on nt s i s 0
d th e
num b e r f w y s f c h o s i ng th e 2 vo w el s i s 0 ; d s i n ce e ch f th e r st
ss oci ted with e c h f th e second th e num b er f c om b in ed
b
g roup s
d 2 vo w e l s i 0
g roup s e c h c ont i n i n g 3 c on s on nt s
F urth e r e ch f th ese group s c ont in s 5 l etter s w h i ch m y b rr ged
m on g th e m se lves i n 5 w y s
H
en
c
e
[
the r equi re d n umb e r f word 0 0 [E
E x amp le 2
an
an
3 X
5x 7
2 52 00
E
I IE
Q
3 , an
an
c an
s an
e a
c an
f 7 on on an
n g 3 con on an
Ou t
s 7
e a
an
H I G H ER
1 22
Ho w m any
E x amp l e 3
vowel s
a
.
th t th e
L G EBRA
o ccupy th e
the letters a
r tic le ,
h ve to p t th e 3 vow el i n 3 p ci e d pl ces
n n t i n th e 4 r e m i n i n g p l
b
; th e r t o per ti on
Hen e
d th e ec ond i n
L
4
3
4
t h re qu i ed n umb r f word s
' L
Her e we
an
c an
an
th e 4 c on s o
ace s
so
144
or
EXA MPLES XI
In
,,
10
3,
Ho w m any c h anges
c an
Ho w m an y
way s b ei ng l as t ?
.
al
nd
I f 2o,
2
c h n ge
a
s c an
be
Ho w man y arrang em en s
12
word dr a u g h t, e vowe s neve b
.
th
ru
w
ith
a
e
l
o
f
5
e
ll
s
a
b
?
g
p
r u n g with a p eal o f 7 b ells t h e t enor
n
be
On h ow m any n g hts m ay
11
re w Of 2 4 , so th at no two wat h es
wo ul d an y one m an b e tak en ?
.
b e m ade
c an
r e i n g ep r ted
s
a a
o ut o f th e
e tt e r
s o
f th e
H I G H ER
1 24
L GEBRA
t h at t h e n um b er o f way s i n wh i c h p p o si t i v e a d
n egati ve S i g n s m ay b p l aced i n a row s o th at no two n e gat i ve s i g ns s h all
H
P
b t og eth er is
C
31
Prove
32
33
I f P,
56
1,
+6
Ho w m an y d i fferen t
e n tly c ol ou red
h oi ted
m ay b e
34
ag
s one
a s c an
1 1,
an
If
i gn l
b m de b y h o i s t i n g 6 d i ffer
b
f
m
m
n
u
er
th
e
b ove t h e o t h e r w h en
y
on ce ?
at
nd
nd
H ith e t o , i n th e f or m ul ae we h a ve p o ve d, th e thin g s
149
h a ve b een ega de d a s u n like Be f o e c on si de i n g c ase s in w hi c h
b
s o m e o n e o r m o e s e t s o f thi ng s m a
e like, it is n ece ssa r
t
o
y
y
a t s en s e th e wo ds like an d u n lik e a r e
o
i
n
t
o
ut
e
w
h
x a c tl
i
n
p
y
u se d W h en we sp e ak o f thi ng s b e i ng dissimila , difer en t, u n
like, we i m p l y th at th e thi ng s ar e visib ly u n like, so a s t o b e
e asily di sti ng ui sh ab l e f o m e a c h o th e
O n th e o th er h an d we
s h all al w a s u se th e t e m l ik e thi ng s t o deno t e s u c h as a re a li k e
y
t o th e ey e an d c anno t b e di sti ng ui sh e d f o m e a c h o th e
Fo
i n st an ce , i n Ex 2, A rt 1 4 8 , th e con son an ts an d th e v owe l s m ay
b e sai d e a c h t o con si s t O f a gro u p O f thi ng s u n it e d b y a co mm o n
c h a a c t er i sti c , an d t hu s in a ce t ai n se n se t o b e o f th e sam e k i n d ;
b u t th ey c a n n o t b e reg a de d as lik e th ing s, b ec au se th e e is a n
i n di v i du ality e x i stin g am on g th e thi ng s o f e ac h gro u p w hi h
m ak e s th e m e a sil y disti ng ui sh ab l e f ro m e ac h o th e
H e n ce, in
th e n a l stage o f th e e x am pl e we con si de e d e ac h g o u p t o
co n si st o f ve dissim ila r thi n gs an d th e e f ore c apab l e o f L5
.
r
r
rrangem e ts
n
am
ong th em se l v e s
A
rt
[
1 4 1 Co n
1 50
Supp o se we h a ve t o n d al l th e p o ss i b l e w ay s o f a rr an g
a ti n , 4 Eng li s h , an d
1 2 b oo k s o n a s h e lf, 5 o f th e m b e i ng
em ai n de i n di ffe en t l an g u age s
.
i ng
th e r
e l ve s th ey
ar e
reg arde d as b e l on g i ng t o
co mm o n c h a rac t e r i sti c ; b u t if th ey were
r
e ac h o th er th e n u m b e r o f p erm ut a ti on s
r th e p u rp o se o f ar r a ngem en t am ong th e m
e ssen ti all y di ffe r en t
Th e b ook s in e a c h
O n e c l ass, u n it e d b
a
y
di sti n g ui sh ab l e f o m
wo ul d b e )1 2 , Si nce f o
s
l an g u age
m ay b e
,
P ER M U TA TIO N S
A ND
CO
M BI N A TI O N S
1 25
To n d th e n u m b er of way s in wh ic h 11 thin g s m a y b e
a rr a n g ed a m o n g t h emselv es, t a kin g th em a ll a t a tim e, wh en
p
of
t h e thin g s a r e ex a c tly a like of o n e k in d, q of t h em ex a c t ly
a like
a n o th er k in d, r of th em ex a c t ly a lik e of a t hir d k in d, a n d
qf
t h e r est a ll difer en t
1 51
to
Le t
b e b,
Le t
th e r e b e n l e tt e rs ; su ppo se p o f th e m t o b e
r O f th e m t o b e c an d th e re st t o b e u n li k e
,
a,
f th e m
th e r e qui re d n u m b e r Of p er m ut ati o n s ; th e n if i n
an
n e o f th e se p er m ut ati on s th e p l e tt e r s a were r e p l a ce d b
o
y
y p
u n li k e l e tt e r s differen t f r om a n y O f th e r e s t f ro m thi s si ng l e
er
ut
m
a ti on W ith o ut a lt e r i ng th e p o siti on O f an y o f th e re m a i n i ng
p
l e tt e rs we co ul d fo rm Ip n ew p e rm uta ti on s H e n ce if thi s c h a nge
we r e m ade in e a c h o f t h e x p e rm ut ati o n s we sh o ul d Ob t a in x [p
e
r
m
u
t
a ti o n s
p
be
th e
Sim il a r l y , if th e q l e tt e r s 5 were r e p l a ce d b y q
e
r
ut
n um b e r o f
m
a ti on s wo ul d b e
p
r x
u nl i k e l e tt er s
lik e m an n er b y re pl a c i n g th e r l e tt e rs 0 b y r u n li k e l e tt er s
er
m
ut
a ti on s
r
we sh o ul d n ally O b t ai n x I
p
lq ) p
In
a dm
it
tr d
k r
=
it
th at
is
w hi c h
is
th e r e qui re d n u m b e r
Ek t
o
f p er mut ati on s
i
n
w
hi
c
h
th
e
thi
n
s
g
y
t r e a t e d si m il a r l y
A
a se
a re
no t
a ll
differe n
may b e
H I GH ER
1 26
L GEBRA
Ho w m any
We h ve h er e 1 3 l etter f wh i ch
Hen ce th e num b e r f p ermut ti on
s o
ar e a ,
ar e
i,
e out
an
d2
th e
ar e n
ar e 3 ,
b e m ad
c an
13
EBIW
1 001
E x amp le 2
1 , 2 , 3 , 4, 3 , 2 , 1 ,
.
Th e
Ho w m any
th at th e
so
odd di gi ts 1
3 , 3, 1
c an
be
) wa s
y
2 2
I7
b e arr ang e d i n thei r th r ee pl aces i n
4
Th e
even d i gits 2
4, 2
c an
Eway s
2,
1) a b
th e way s i n (
[4
H en ce the re qu ired numb er
ch
Of
Ea
tim es
sso ci te d with e ch
a
3 : 18
th e way s i n
u ta tio n s of 11 th in g s r
o
r
m
m
b
r
e
e
fp
u
wh en ea ch th in g m ay b e r ep ea ted o n c e, twic e,
p
in an y ar r an g em en t
1 52
t im e,
To
th e
n u
at a
to
He r e we
h av e t o con si de r th e n u mb e r o f w ay s in w hi c h r
l
a ce s c a n
ll
e
w
h
e
n we h a ve n differen t thi ng s a t o u r
b
e
d
u
p
p
di sp o sal e ac h o f th e n thi ng s b e i ng u se d a s o ft en a s we p l e a s e i n
an
a rran ge m e n t
y
Th e r st pl ace m ay b e ll e d u p i n
w ay s an d w h e n it h as
b een ll e d u p in an y o n e w ay th e s econ d p l a ce m ay al so b e ll e d
u
i
n n wa s
a r e n o t p re c lu de d f ro m u si n g th e sam e
i
nce
we
s
p
y
thi ng aga i n Th e r e f o r e th e n u mb e r o f w ay s i n w hi c h th e r st
t wo p l a ce s c an b e ll e d u p is n n o r n
Th e thi rd p l a ce c an
a l s o b e ll e d u
i
n n w a s an d th e r e f o r e th e r st th r ee
l
ce
i
n
a
s
p
p
y
,
w ay s
Pr ocee di ng i n thi s m an n e r an d n o ti c i ng th a t a t a n y st age th e
i n dex O f n is al way s th e sam e as th e n u m b e r o f p l a ce s ll e d u p
w e s h all h a ve th e n u m b e r o f w ay s i n w hi c h th e r p l a ce s c an b e
ll e d u p e qu al t o n
'
L G EBR A
1 28
H I GH ER
th e v a lu e s
i n su cce ssi on
u n til
1 , 2, 3
1 b
ecom e s e qu a l t o
1
No w
so
l ong
th a t
O is
on ti n u a ll y i ncre ase d
l e ss th a n
o r
1,
r
n
"
as
I S,
We h a ve t o
thi s i ne qu ality
c h oo se th e gre t e t v lu e
con si st en t w ith
Of r
(
1)
Let
be
even
2m
e qu a l t o
an
1
-
2
an
fo r
a ll
v a lu e s
H ence b y p uttin g
9,
1
+
i n c lu si ve thi s is grea t e r th a n r
we n d th at th e gre a t e st n u m b e r o f
to
th en
2m ;
c o m b i ti on s is
na
L et
dd,
e o
an
e qu a l t o
2m + 2
2
2
an
but
f o r all v alu e s o f r
w h en r m 1 th e
"
0m l
-
2m
=
th en
l ;
s i ve thi s is g r e a t e r th a n r ;
t
o
i
nc
lu
m
p
m ulti p l y i ng f a c t or b eco m e s e qu al t o 1 a n d
th at is
C
"
th ere f o re th e n u m b er o f c o m b i n a ti on s is g r e a t e s t w h en th e
n + 1
l
n
thin g s a r e t ak en
a t a ti m e ; th e r e s ult b e i n
th
e
o r
g
2
2
sam e i n t h e t wo c a se s
an
Th e f or m ul a f o r th e n u m b er o f co m b i n a ti on s Of n thi n g s
r a t a ti m e m a
b
e f o u n d w ith o ut a ssu m i ng th e f o rm ul a f o r th e
y
n u m b e r O f p er m ut a ti on s
1 55
.
Let
r
at
a,
b,
c,
deno t e th e n u m b e
tim e ; a n d l e t th e n
d,
R M U T ATI O N S
A ND
PE
M BI N A TI O N S
CO
1 20
'
Th e
re f ore
e qu a l t o th e n u m b e r O f co m b i n ati on s
con tai n a t oge th e r w ith th o se th a t con t a i n b
is
ti m e w hi c h
th o se th a t co n ta i n c an d so o n
Bu t b y f o rm i ng th e co mb i n a ti on s i n thi s m a n n e r e a c h p a r
t ic u la r o n e w ill b e r e p e a t e d r ti m e s
Fo r i n s ta n ce if r 3 th e
co m b i n a ti on a b c w ill b e f o u n d am o n g th o s e co n t ai n i ng a a m ong
th o se con tai n i n g b an d am o n g th o se c o n t ai n i n g 0 He n ce
at a
"
w riti ng
By
Si m il a r l y ,
"
n all y
X
_
1
r
+2
"
'
0 _3
+l
r +
91
'
( (
n
l)
2)
( (
r
1)
2)
r e p e c ti ve ly
C,
an
C,
0 _2
i n st e a d o f n
'
an
an
it
an
(
n
r +
c a n c e l li k e fa c t or s
l)
1 56
To n d th e to ta l n u mb e of way s in wh ich it is p o ss ib le
t o m a ke a sel c tio n b y ta kin g so me o r a ll o u t of p
+
q
th in g s, wher eof p a r e a like of o n e kin d, q a lik e of a sec o n d k in d, r
a like o
f a thir d kin d ; a n d so o n
.
Th e p thi ng s m ay b e di spo se d O f i n p + l w ay s ; f or we m ay
b
e
s ma
t a k e 0, 1 , 2, 3 ,
o f th e m
i
il
r
l
th
e
thi
n
m
a
S
y
g
p
q
y
di s p o se d o f in q + l w ay s ; th e 7 thi ng s i n r + 1 way s ; a n d
.
'
SO o n
H A
.
1 30
H I GH ER
H en c e
di sp o se d
w ay s i n w hi c h
Of
( ( ()
f is
1) q
1)
th e thi n g s
all
m ay b e
+ 1
Bu t
t ak en ;
w ay s
th e n u m b e r
L GEBRA
a re
is
1
A gene a l f or m ul a e x p e ssi ng th e n u m b e o f p e m ut a
ti o n s, o r com b i n ati on s, o f n thi ng s t ak e n r at a tim e , w h en th e
thi ng s a r e n o t all di fferen t , m ay b e s o m ew h at co m pli ca t e d b u t a
c
b
e s o l ve d i n th e f o ll ow i ng m a nne
ase m a
a ti c ul a
y
p
1 57
Ex amp le
rangem ent
t
i
o
n
r
o
r
o
p
p
F in d th e numb r
e
f fo
tters
le
1)
w s i wh i ch (
sel ecti on (
2)
e from th e l etters f th e word
f ay
n
b e m ad
c an
an
ar
h ere
ar e
10 le
s x
ur
ve
r,
ou
or
or
r,
r,
0,
or
s x 0,
i
v
es
r
i
s
e
t
o
5
g
(
1)
(
)
2
gi
ve s ri se t o
'
or
rrangem ent s
20 a
x
1
2 2
or
18
r ng e m ent s
ar a
( ives i se to
ive ri se
(
)
3)
4
3 0x
rrang em ents
)
Thu s th e total n um b e r O f arr an g e m e nt s i s
s
t o 1 5x 4
3 60 a
2 0+ 1 8 + 3 6 0+ 3 60;
th t i s
a
7 58
H I GH ER
1 32
L G EBRA
e,
s,
th at th e n um b er o fp er mutati on s wh i c h c an b e form ed
fro m 2 n l e tters whi c h ar e eit h er a s or b s is gre at es t wh en th e n um b er
f a s is eq u al t o th e n u m b er o f b s
If th e u + 1 n u m b ers a b c d
33
b e all d i fferen t an d eac h o f
t h em a p ri m e n um b er p rove t h at th e n um b er o f d i fferent fac tors o f th e
32
Sh ew
p re
ss
i on
b cd
is m
1) 2
C H A P TER X I I
MA TH EMA TI CAL
I N D U C TI O N
S pp o
su m o
th e c ub es
h
We
e s il y
b y tr i l th t th e st t e ment i t ru i n s i m ple c se
wh en = 1 or 2 or 3 ; d from th i we might b l d to j t th t
th e form ul w tru e i n ll c s e A ss um e th t it i true wh en term
t ken th t i s upp o s e
c an
as
an
see
s.
th e
s ar e
(
n
s, su c
co n ec u re
to
A dd
as
term th at i s
to
(
n
to e ach s i d e ; th en
+1
( I
( (
u
+ 1)
2
11
4n
+1
4)
wh i c h
e sa
ea
one
ar e
are
an
e, I
Is
or n
as
or
13
ar e
1 84
H I GH ER
E x amp le 2
x
d ete rm in e th e p roduct o f n
To
L G EBRA
inom i
ctors
al
fa
th e form
Of
By
ctu
al
i i c ti on we h ve
mult pl
( (
( )( )()
+ a)
x + b)
+b
+c
ab o
x3
(
(c
ab
+ ac +
b c + b d + c d)
ad +
a b d + ac d
ab
b e d)
ab c d
a,
c,
su
e su
( )( (
a
b)
h)
+p 1
n"
+ p 2x
"
+p 3
+ p ,,
wh ere
=
P3
ab c
+ ab d +
Pn _l
w + 191 +
"
thus
k;
( ) (+ b ) (+ h ) (k)
x
+a
(
19
in
ii
HM
No w
= su m
o f all
th e
etter
s a,
b,
su m o
n
etter
s a,
b,
ro
uc
a,
all
th e
k;
c,
pn
t im
at a
c,
e n
a,
c,
all
C H A P TER X III
BIN O MI AL TH EO R EM
161
I T m ay b e
()
x
h ewn
by
+ a
c tu al
m ulti p li c a ti o n
th at
d)
'
a,
(
d
b
,
c,
E x amp l e 1
( ( (5) (9)
x
2)
+ 3)
4
x
+ 5x
47 x
6 9 x + 27 0
1 3 5)
18
+ 27 0
4 s)
B IN O MI AL T H EO R EM
E x a mp le 2
F i nd the coef c i e nt
f x3
1 37
i n the product
( 3 ) ( 5) ( 1 ) (2 ) (
re e o
39
.
e qu a ti o n
we O b t ai n
1)
If in
()
x
su
4 ax
re
1 02
o u
an
40
16
th e p rece di ng a r ti c l e we su pp o s e
6a
4a
Th e m e th o d h e r e e x e m p li e d o f de du c i ng a p a r ti c ul a r c a se
f ro m a m o r e genera l r e sult is o n e o f f r e qu en t o cc u r rence i n
Math e m a ti c s ; fo r it O ft e n h app e n s th a t it is m ore e a sy t o p rove
a ge n er a l
r
o
o
s iti o n th an it is t o
rove
a
a r ti c ul a r c a s e o f it
p
p p
p
.
1 63
To
in teg e
C on si de
d th e
exp a n sio n
wh en
is
o sit iv e
r th e e p r e i o n
th e n u m b e r
ss
f fa c t o r s b e i ng
Th e hi g h e st p o we r o f x is x an d is f o rm e d b y t ak i ng th e
l e tt e r x fr om each o f th e n fa c t o rs
a r e f o rm e d b
t
Th e t e r m s i n vo l v i ng x
a k i n g th e l e tt e r x
y
h
f ro m a n y n l o f th e fac t o rs an d o n e o f th e l e tt er s a b c
f rom th e r e m ai n i ng fac t o r ; thu s th e coe fc i en t o f x
i n th e
k ; den o t e it
n a l p ro du c t i s th e su m o f th e l e tt ers a b c
Th e
"
"
by
Th e t e m s i nvo l v i ng x
a k i ng th e l e tt e
x
t
a r e f or m e d b
y
f ro m a n y n 2 Of th e fa c t ors, an d two o f th e l e tt e s a, b , c , k
2
f ro m th e t wo re mai n i ng fa c t o rs ; thu s th e c o e ic ie n t O f x
in
th e n al p o du c t is th e su m o f th e p ro du c t s o f th e l e tt ers
a b , c,
k
t
ak e n t w o at a ti m e ; deno t e it b
y
,
"
'
"
H I GH ER
1 38
L G EBRA
in th e n a l p r o du c t is th e su m o f th e p r o du c t s o f th e l e tt e r s
x
k t ak e n r a t a ti m e ; deno t e it b y S
a b c
A n d,
"
l ast t e rm i n th e p r o du c t
Th e
H ence
x
Sl x
"
'
k ; de n o t e
ab c
'
"
up p o se
01 a ; S2 b eco m e s
()
a
b,
C
"
ub stituti ng
x
"
"
"
k, e a c h e qu a l
a g ; S b eco m e s
3
(
I
ax
fo r
"
+ n ax
"
"
(
l
we
to
c,
"
z w
a x
Ob
a x
"
th e s e r i e s c on ta i n i n g n 1 t e rm s
Thi s is th e Bin o mial Th eo r em
is sai d t o b e t h e e x p an sio n o f x
"
an
C aa
t ai n
2
thi n g s
an
so
"
ti m e
at a
so o n
on
t er ms is
th en
m b er
nu
"
"
x
_
n
l
"
by S
I n S l th e n u m b e of ter m s is n ; i n S2 the
th e sam e as th e n u m b e o f co m b i n ati on s o f n
th a t is, 02 i n S3 th e n u m b er of te ms is 03 ;
No w
it
k)
x +
is
S l b ec o m e s
;
thu s
"
Ua ;
"
(
g
r
2)
(
,
th e e x pr e ssi on
th e r i g ht
on
l o b e p r ove d as f o ll ow s
By i n du c ti o n we c an n d th e p r o du c t O f th e n fa c t o rs
a s e x l ai ne d i n A rt
x + b
x + c
1
E
X
2
we
5
8
x + a
;
p
th e n de du ce th e e pan si o n o f x + a ) a s in A rt 1 6 3
c an
164
Th e Bi no m i al Th eo
m ay
a s
rem
an
"
ar e v e r
coe fc i e n t s i n th e e x pan si o n o f
y
conven i en tl y ex p r e sse d b y th e sy m b o l s
C
We s h all h oweve r s o m e ti m e s fu r th e r ab b r ev i at e th e m b y o m itti n g
W ith thi s no tati o n we h av e
an d w r iti n g
0
n
C
Th e
165
.
"
"
()
I f we
(
x
3 ,
"
x
x
03 a
"
w r it e
"
"
C,
th e pl a ce
in
"
Cz a
"
f a,
we
03
02
g
Ob
C3 a
"
"
(
r
"
t a in
"
Thu s th e t e m s i n th e e x pa n si o n o f
x
th
e
ar e
n u mer ic a lly th e sam e , b u t in
a
y
)
o
an d neg ati ve , a n d th e l as t t e m is
siti ve or
p
a s n is eve n or O dd
"
an
)
(
t l o iti ve
x
"
ar e
lt e rn a e y p s
n eg ati ve a cco r di n g
H I GH ER A L G EB RA
140
E x amp le 1
Th e
F i nd th
th te
requi r e d term
17
rm
o f
3 17
2
x
+
)
13
38 08 0a
= 1 501 3
1 67
Th e sim p l e st f or m
an sio n O f
i
T
s
s
hi
1
p
O f A rt
1 6 3 , b y w r iti ng 1 in
Of a
Thu s
(
1
( (
n
l)
15
13
[ A rt
1)
th e gene ra l t e rm b e i ng
n
1,
f th e b i n o m i al th e o r e m is th e e x
o b t ai ne d f ro m th e gene ra l f o rm ul a
th e p l ace Of x , an d x i n th e pl ace
+ ux +
)
13
9a )
13
4
9 561
I 6
f 3
a
= 1 5G x
,
,3
ee
required term
Th e
12
13
04 06
E x amp le 2
"
"
+ x
2)
I
];
Th e e x p an si o n O f a b i no m i a l m ay al w ay s b e m ade t o de p en d
s
u
s t t er m is u n it
on
th
e
c
e
i
n
w
hi
c
h
th
e
r
thu
a
s
p
y;
1
E x a mp le 1
We h ve
a
(
x2
fx
2x )
ls
1 0=
h ere
i n th e e
n si on
xp a
20
d,
20
m ult pl
(
2
s e
r
a s
16
3 3 60
In
om e
e th e f o ll ow i ng
c as s
m e th o d
I s SI m
i i e every t rm i n th e p n i on f 1 E
th i e p n s i on to e k th e oef c i ent f th e term wh i ch c ont i n s
Hen c th e requi e d c o effi ient = 0
an
i n ce
1
(
F ind th e c o ef ci ent
l
er
p
10
we
h ve i n
a
BI
T H EO R EM
N O M IA L
OS ITI V E INT EG RA L
F i nd the c o e c i ent f i n t h e
o ccur s i n th e (
Sup p o se th t
1 ) te rm
p
E x a mp l e 2
1)
hu s t h
n s i on
xp a
141
()
"
13
t e rm
l l
wy
i
l
Bu t t h I s
t ll
Th e p
"
I ND Ex
2n
51)
term c nt n s a d th e re fore 2
r equ i re d c oe f ci e nt
ai
5p = r ,
or p
2n
i
y
3
(
g
1
+7
2n
U n l ess
5
th e exp an s i on
Is a
p o s I tI v e I
nteger th ere W i ll
no term c ontai n i n g
be
"
in
I n A r t 1 6 3 we de du ce d th e e x p a n si on o f x
168
f
ro
a
m
)
th e p ro du c t o f n fa c t or s x a ) x b )
x
k ) , a n d th e m e th o d
Of
i
s v a lu ab l e in con s e qu ence O f th e w i de
roo
f
th
ere
g
i
ven
ene
p
g
r alit
o f th e
sult s O b t a i ne d
e
Bu t th e f o ll ow i ng Sh o t er p oo f o f
y
th e Bi no m i al Th eo e m sh o ul d b e n o ti ce d
( (
I t w ill b e see n i n C h ap X V
O b t a i n th e ge n e a l t e m o f th e
.
to
"
th a t
e x p an si o n
i m il a r
m e th o d is
ed
us
Of
W
16 9
To p
o ve
ex p a n si on
the Bin
o m ia l
(
r
Th eo r em
i
s th e
f
o
u
c
t
f
c
t
o
e
h
d
O
a
s
a
n
,
p
)
e qu a l t o x + a, an d eve y t e m in th e e x p an si o n is O f n dim e n
m
d
b
o
d
u
c
t
f
or
e
m
ulti
l
i
ng
t
oge
th
e
l
e
tt
er
s i o n s, b e i n g a
n
s,
p
y
y
p
Thu s e a c h t er m i nvo l v i ng
o n e t ak e n f o m e a c h o f th e n f a c t o s
is O b tai n e d b y t a k i n g a o u t o f a n y r o f th e fa t or s, a n d x
a
x
e m ai n i ng n r fa c t or s Th e e f o e th e n u m b e O f
o u t O f th e
t erm s w hi c h i nvo l ve x a m u s t b e e qu a l t o th e n u m b e O f w ay s
i n w hi h r thi ngs c an b e se l ec t e d o u t O f n th a t is, th e coe fc i en t
n in
a
is C , an d b y g i v i n g t o r th e v a lu e s 0, l , 2 , 3 ,
Of x
H ence
c i en t s O f a ll th e t er m s
s u cce ssi on we o b t ai n th e c o e f
Th e
""
x + a
"
'
""
'
" "
"
'
()
a
i ce
s n
"
00
"
an
"
d C
"
a re
"
e a c h e q u al t o u n ity
"
H I GH ER A L G EB RA
142
EX A MPLES
X II I
Ex p and
1
(
(
3a
2 5
13
Th e 4
15
.
17
18
Th e 1 2
Th e 4
an
term o f
Th e 7
t erm
20
tu
Th e 5
ih
21
14
J2)
24
26
F i nd th e
m i d dl e
term o f
29
Th e 2 8
F i nd th e c oef c i en t
Of x
18
Fi nd th e c oef c i en t
Of x
18
F in d th e
c o e i c ien t s o
F i nd th e two
(
(M
A/x
t erm o f
Th e l 0
22
m i dd l e
28
th
t e rm o f (
l
term o f (
5x + 8y ) 3
F i nd th e
25
27
th
16
39
term o f
Fi nd t h e valu e
23
Th e 5
tb
x
term o f (
2x
t erm o f (
term
(m
( yy
s
2x
12
i m pl ify
19
th
th
11
th
W r i te down
( w
s :
3x + 2
10
m i d dl e
in
in
32
an
ax
terms o f
bx )
17
in
(
A/x
H I GH ER A L G EB RA
1 44
L e t th e
Th e
(
+
1)
th
c uti ve t erm s
t e rm b y
r
d
t erm is
b e a n y t wo
on se
O b t a i ne d b
ulti
l
i
ng
th
e
m
y
p y
th a t I S
by
th
an
r +
th
A
rt
[
1 de c re a se s as r i nc r e a se s ; h ence th e
fa c t o r
th
h
r + 1
m
i
s no t a l w a s gre a t e r th a n
t
er
th
e
r
u
b
t
e
r
m
t on l y
)
y
b eco m e s e qu a l t o 1 o r l e ss th an 1
u n til
Th e
NO W
1,
o l on g
th a t
as
7
>
1,
I s,
o r
7
x
If
be
an
n t ege r
deno t e
It
th en
by p
If r
th e
m ulti p l y i ng fa c t o r b eco m e s 1 , an d th e p
1 ) t e r m is
th
a
n
d
s
a
r
th
e
e
e g r e a t e r th a n an
o
t
e
r
t
er
h
m
n
y
th
e qu al t o th e
If
be
n o
an
i n t ege r
deno t e it s
i n t egra1
'
r
t
P
1 ) is q ;
by q ;
h ence th e
BI
Ex amp le 1
D
T H EO R EM
N OM IA L
enote the
If
1
x
th e g e atest te rm i n the e
n d
:
,
te rm s b y
m
an d r + 1 )
Tr + 1
T,
h ence
so
lo
9
n
T7
Tr+ 1 > Tr
as
th at i s
36
4 r > 3r ,
36 > 7r
or
18
4x
f 1 + 4x )
respective ly ; th en
an d
+l
n s i on
xp a
1 45
an
Ex amp le 2
0 _X
03
= 39
H er e
Tr
10
f 3
2x )
wh e n
2
X
n u me
rica l ly
Tr ;
T, + 1
lo
o l on g as
th at is
2 0> 5r
He n ce
num e ri c
Tr
n s i on
xp a
h ence
n s i on
pa
2x )
fo r al l
an d
ally e
al
value s
th ese
qu a d g
ar e
H H A
.
>l
b t if = 4 th e n
to 3 we h av e TH
the g e atest term s Thu s th 4 a d 5 te rm s a
e ater th n y oth e r term a d th ei r value
up
(
a
03
an
'
tu
re
= 36
84
4 8 9 8 88
10
H I G H ER AL G EB RA
1 46
17 3
1
t
p
th e
su
COR
su
()
th e i den tity
1 ; thu s
In
u
To
o f th e
th e
co e
C2x
'
C,x
"
n
c
i
e
n
t
s
i
i
th e
03 x
c o e i c ie n
exp an sio n
"
ts
1;
thi n g s
i 2
s
"
To p r o v e th a t in th e exp an sio n of 1
s o
t
h
e o dd ter m s is equ a l to th e su m
i
th e c o e
c
i
e
n
t
f
of th e ev en t er m s
17 4
m of
c o e icien ts
th e
th e
su
In
t
p
u
th e i den tity
I ; thu s
02 x
"
03 x
05 +
(
Q
1
su
of
all
th e coe fc i en ts)
Th e Bi no m i a l Th eore m m ay a l so b e app li e d
e x p re ssi o n s w hi c h con tai n m o r e th an t wo t e rm s
17 5
.
to e
E x amp le
R g ard
F i nd th e e
i ng 2
()
x
17 6
E x a mp le
n d
an
2 3
If
the value Of
() (
6 x5
seri e
(+ 2
x
9x
2x
4x
2c 1
c0
((
1) 2
00
c,
01
2 +u
n
c0
9x
cl x
36 2
26 22
Cg
6x
c 296
2
(
x
1,
on r e ducti on
i n st r u c ti ve
is
2
()
4c3
2
3 03
on
7l
n s i on
xp a
3 x 2 2x
1)
3
()
1
a
o
d
Th e
an s i on
f o ll ow in g ex am pl e
Th e
.
as a
xp
"
,
n c ,,2
(
) (
2c 2
0
1
3 c3
non
+ 1
nd
H I G H ER A L G EB RA
148
t h t th e
eq ual t o t h e su m o f t h e
7
Sh ew
c o e i c ie n
th e
If A b e
e ve term i n t h e e
.
9
108 0
Th e 2
na
re pec ti vely ;
su
x,
(
i on o f (
11
F in d th e expan s
3x
th
Fi nd th e r t erm from th e
13
F i nd th e
2
+
)
p
th
B th e
2
"
su
2=
13
2n
ar e
th e
2 40, 7 2 0,
l + 2x
2
12
an
(
l t
f 1 + x)
is
m dd e er m s o
th e two
F in d th e exp an si o n o f
i dd l e term
th e odd term s
10
io o f
p rove t h at A
term s in th e expan si on o f (
x
y)
th
n d
c o e ic ien t s
x p an s
rd
,
o f th e
2 4
2 ax + 3 a 2) 3
en
in
2n + 1
th e e
ion ( the coefci en ts o f th e (
2 r + 1 ) an d
th ( t erms are e q u al ; nd r
1 5 F in d th e re l ati o n b e twee n r an d n i n order th at th e coef c i ent s
r + 2)
1
t erm s o f (
m ay b e eq u al
o f t h e 3 r an d (
2
Sh ew th at th e m i d dl e t erm in th e e p an si o n o f (
16
1 + x)
is
In
14
th
e r + 2)
a
n
s
p
f 1 + x)
43
th
th
th
(
2n
1)
I
f
If co ,
c1 , 02 ,
a
17
c1
th t
p rove
18
19
co
+ 2 c2 + 3 03 +
a+
C
o
g C2
0n
+
n
+1
n +
l _
+ 1
:
+
01
02
cu
20
21
22
23
2 00
2
2 0
2 3c
-
4
2 c3
2
00 +
1
'
+1
+ 1
l2n
l ir
a
2n
)
o
+1
f 1
C HA PTER X IV
BIN O MI A L TH EO R EM
A NY I N D EX
v
v
I N t h e la st c h ap te r w e in e st ig a t e d t h e Bin o m ial
177
Th e o r e m wh e n t h e in d ex wa s an y p o siti e in t e g e r ; w e sh al l n o w
c o n sid e r w h e t h e r t h e f o r m u l ae t h e r e o b t a in e d h o l d in
t h e c a se
al u e s o f t h e in d e x
o f n e a t i e a n d f r a t io n al
g
.
v
eve
Sin e , b y A r t 1 6 7 ,
c o mmo n
ty p e , it will b e
b in o m ial s o f t h e fo r m 1
.
1
an
d by
ct
u al
(
1
an
d in
In
b
i
n o m ial m a
b
d
d
e
r
u
e
e
c
to
y
y
su f
c ie n t t o c o n n e o u r a tt en t io n
e v o lu t io n w e
ac u a l
By
/1
d iv isio n
x
ha
+ a
to
a
s
a,
a,
'
16
o ne
1 _x )
x +
3x
4x
o m ar e
C
p
[
Ex 1 , A r t
.
ea c h o f t h e se se rie s t h e n u m b e r o f t e r ms is u n lim it e d
t h e se c ase s we h a v e b y in d ep en d e n t p r o c e sse s o b tain e d
.
an
W
1
d
1
(
)
(
)
l
ti l
c e f
1
e x pan sio n
x
fo r e a c h o f t h e e x p r e ssio n s
ar
ar e o n
s h all
r e se n t l
r o v e t h at t h e
y
y p
p
y p
of
1
e n e r a l f o r m u la fo r t h e e x an sio n
p
g
r a t io n al
u an t it
y
q
an
ar
cu
as s
wh e re
the
is
an
Th is
17 8
w e rs
w as
d isc o v e r e d
Su ppo se w e h a
o f x , su c h as
an
fo r m u l a
mx
m;
(
(
m m
+
ve
1)
t wo
3 +
b y Ne w t o n
e x p r e ssio n s
ar ra n
( (
)( )
1) m
m m
2)
a)
q
o
d in
a sc e n
di
H I GH ER AL G EB RA
1 50
Th e p r o d u c t o f t h e se t wo e x pr e ssio n s will b e
c e n din g p o w e r s o f x 3 d e n o t e it b
y
t h en
se r i s
in
as
it is l e ar th a t A , B, C,
are f u n t io n s o f m an d n ,
in an y p ar ticu l ar
a n d t h e r e fo r e t h e a t u al v al u e s o f A , B, C,
c a s e wil l d e p e n d u p o n t h e v al u e s o f m a n d n in t h a t c ase
Bu t
in 1 ) an d 2 )
t h e way in wh i h t h e c o e f c ie n t s o f t h e p o we r s o f
is q u it e in d ep e n d en t o f m a n d n 3
o m b in e t o g i e A , B, C,
in o t h e r wo r d s, wh a tev er v alu es I n a n d 11 m ay h av e, A , B, C ,
h
r e f o r e we c an d e t e r m in e
f
t
e
r eser v e th e sam e in v ar ia b le fo r m
p
fo r an y v al u e o f m an d n , we c o n c l u d e
t h e f o r m o f A , B,
will h a e t h e sam e fo r m fo r a ll v a lu es o f m
th at A , B, C,
an d n
( (
.
t h e p e r m an e n e o f e q u iv al e n t fo r m s 3 in t h e p r e se n t as e we
of
h av e o n ly t o r e c o g n ise t h e fa c t t h a t in an y a lg eb r a ica l p r o du c t t h e
w
w
h
r
u
l
l
h
m
h
r th e
i
r
m
o
f
t
e
e
s
t
l
b
e
t
e
s
a
e
h
e
t
e
u an tit ie s in
o
f
q
v o l v e d a r e wh o l e n u mb e r s, o r frac tio n s 3 po sitiv e , o r n egativ e
We
the
i
ve
g
sh al l
m ak e
u se
Bin o m ial Th e o r e m
is du e t o Eu l e r
f t h is p rin c ipl e in t h e g en e r al pr o o f o f
fo r an y in d ex
Th e pr o o f wh ic h we
Wh a tev er b e th e
r a c t o n a l,
th en f
If
le t t h e
m
wil l
m
b
ol f m
y
)
s an
m , p o sitiv e
m m
va u e
) 96
fo r t h e
s an
fo r t h e
( (
m m
+
or
1) m
n eg a t v e,
e e
in teg r a l
or
s ri s
e e
s ri s
we m u l tiply th e se t wo se r ie s t o g e th e r t h e p r o d u t will b e
an o t h e r se r ie s in a s e n d in g p o w e r s o f ac, wh o se co e icien ts will b e
u n a lter ed in fo r m wh a tev er m a n d 11 m ay b e
To d e t e rm in e t h is in v a r iab le fo r m of th e p r o du ct we m ay g iv e
t o m an d n an y v al u e s t h at a r e m o st c o n v e n ie n t 3 fo r t h is p u r p o s e
I n t h is ase f
su pp o s e t h a t m an d n a r e p o sit iv e in t e g e r s
an d f
is t h e e x pan d e d fo rm o f
is t h e e x p an d e d f o r m o f 1
1
a ) 3 an d t h e r e f o r e
H I GH ER A L G EB RA
1 52
To p r o v e th e B in o m ia l Theo r em wh en th e in dex is
180
n eg a t iv e q u a n tity
.
an
is
It h
as
b een pro
v d th t
a
es o f m
ave
w
e
h
sit iv e
o
p
)
fo r
al l
alu
(f
m)
an
R epl ac in g m b y
()
n
(
m
(
f(
)
f
n + u
wh ere
1,
sin c e a l l
t e rm s
se r i s e x c
f th e
ep t
1
=
fo r
an
yp
r st v an ish 3
th e
()
n
o sitiv e
v al e
)
(
()
f
() (
1
o r
Bu t
t
)
s an
w h ic h
H en c e
ro
p
t he
ves
ds
"
+ x
+ a
c
fo r t h e
fn 3
e e
s ri s
m ial Th e o r e m fo r a n y
t h e o r e m is c o m pl e t ely e stab lish e d
t h e Bin
n e ga
tiv e
in d e x
Th e p r o o f c o n t ain e d in t h e t w o p re c e d in g a r tic l e s m ay
n ot a
a r w h o ll
i
r o b ab l
r e se n t so m e dif
t
f
a c t o r , a n d will
e
s
a
s
pp
y
p
y p
y
c u l t ies t o t h e st u d en t
Th e r e is o n ly o n e p o in t t o wh ic h we
sh all n o w r e f e r
181
I n t h e e x p r e ssio n fo r f m ) t h e n u m b e r o f t e rm s is n ite w h e n
m is a p o sit i e in t e g e r , an d u n l im it e d in all o th e r c a se s
See
A rt 1 8 2
t is th e r e fo r e n e c e ssar y t o e n q u ir e in w h a t se n se we
.
B IN O MI A L
T H EO R EM
IN D EX
A NY
1 53
( ( (
(
t t h a t f m ) x f n) f m
I t w ill
b e see n in C h ap t e r XX L t h a t wh e n x < 1 e a c h o f t h e s e r ie s f m )
i
n
m
n
s c o n v er g en t an d f m
n
i
h
s
t
t
r
e
r
i
t
h
m
t
e
u
a
e
i
a
l
c
f
f )
)
)
x
>
w
e u iv al e n t o f f m
B
u
h
t
n
e
90
1
al l t h e s e se r ie s a r e
f
q
)
div er g en t an d we c a n o n ly asse r t t h a t if w e m u l t ipl y t h e se r ie s
d e n o te d b y f
b y t h e se rie s d e n o t e d b y f n ) t h e r s t r te r m s
r o d u c t will a r ee wit h t h e
o f the
t
t
rs
e
r
m
s
o
f
r
p
g
f
w h a te v e r n it e v a l u e r m a h a v e
rt
S
e
e
A
y
[
to
a re
eg a r d
s a emen
the
( (
t t
E x amp le 1
Ex p an d 1
(
1
"
g
_
) 1+
fo u r term s
to
()
'
E x a mp l e 2
Exp an d
f o ur
to
r s
te m
(
(
.
5)
3 a:
6)
3 a:
1 35
45
1 82
fo r m u l a
.
In
n di ng
n
the
n e ral
rm
e
t
e
g
( (
u
l)
2)
we m u st
r
+ 1)
K
w r itte n
wh e n n
in f u l l ; fo r t h e sy m b o l
is f r a tio n al o r n eg at i e
c
c ef
c an
n o
n o
w
.
the
u se
w
r
l o ng e r b e
e m plo y e d
e
c ie n t o f t h e
n e r a l t e r m c a n n e v e r v a n ish u n le ss
A l so t h e o
g
o n e o f t h e fa c t o r s o f it s n u m e r a t o r is z e r o 3 t h e se r ie s w il l t e re
th
fo r e s t o p at t h e r t e r m , wh e n n r + 1 is z e ro 3 t h a t is, w h e n
1 3 b u t sin c e r is a p o sit iv e in t e g e r t is e q u al ity c a n n e v e r
r = n
Th u s t h e
h o l d e x c e p t w h e n t h e in d e x n is p o sit iv e a n d in t e g r al
e x pan sio n b y t h e Bin o m ial Th e o re m e x t e n d s t o n 1 t e rm s w h e n
o sit iv e in t e e r , a n d t o
a n in n it e n u m b e r o f t e rm s in a ll
n is a
g
p
o t h e r c a se s
H I GH ER A L G EB RA
1 54
E x amp le 1
Fi d th e g
n
Th e
+ 1)
th
Th e mimb e r
e,
E x amp l e 2
Th e
(
r
e x p an
1)
a;
th e
sio o f (
1
e x p an
th
1
sio of (
(
3
te m
of
t e m in t h e
iv ; t her for b y
w i te t h e ab o ve e press i o
t
e n e al
m 3)
(
1
2n )
( (
( (
n
l ) 2n
1 ) 2n
1)
1)
I:
;i
+1
na
e
te m
"
)9r
.
1)
1)
si
1)
n ce
E x amp le 3
1)
Fi d th e g e er al t rm in
n
Th e
2r
th e
e x p an
sio
5)
-
>
r
()
r
by
r em o
vi
g l
H )
+ 2)
r
()
f 1
a:
+1
i k e fact or s from t h e um
n
er at
or
an
den om in at or
H I GHER AL G EB RA
1 56
an
be
d, if
u s
n o
ed
t,
as
un
it s
de r wh a t c o n d itio n s t h e
t r u e e q u iv al e n t
th a t
()
1
t h is
u a
T is
tio n
tak e
t
p
t ru e
the
r e ss o n
e su l t
+ nx +
a su
f c ien
little
g
as
re a e r
an
nu
n u
pp
mb e r
mb e r
so
1, t h e
r o x im a
w) in
al l
c e
as s
1, b y
we
as sm al l as
t er m s
al u
t io n
tak in g
su
f ie n tly
su
the
c an
wh e n
a:
in c r e ase s wit h
al u
1
1
t a k in g
b e m ade t o
is
06
l
e
as e 3 t h a t is, b
p
y
Bu t
to the
Of
1
t he
f ro m
f t erm s
t h an
so
'
l
e
a
e
s
p
we
c an n o
'
m e r ic ally l e ss
n u
m ak e
th an
su c h a
n o
is
c an
we
l a r g e we
th a t
f o r m u la fo r t h e su m o f a g e o m e tr ic al p r o
k n o w t h a t t h e su m o f t h e r s t r t e r m s o f t h e
l
a;
ve
th e
d, w h e n
sh e w
to
f 1
an
m ay
f 1
b t ain
f c ie n t
v le t
i
q
u
1)
1)
se r ie s
I s su
th m e tic al
we
ari
No w fr o m
we h a
th e n
13
w e t h en
23
a;
1
as
t r a d ic t o ry
co n
an sio n
Su p po se , fo r in st an c e ,
in
ex
is
a:
r,
d iffer as
n u m e r ic al l
y
an
d t h e r e fo r e
b t a in e d b y
tak in g
s r ie s
no
It
will b e se e n in t h e c h ap t e r o n C o n e r g e n c y a n d D i e r
b
t
h
e Bin o m ia l Th e o r e m
e n e y o f Se r ie s t h a t t h e e x p an sio n
y
g
in a sc e n d in g p o we r s o f
is al way s arit h m e tic ally in
o f
1
is l e ss t h an 1
t e lligib l e wh e n
the
Bu t if
s e rie s
a:
is g r ea t e r
1
th an
n
+ nx +
1,
th en
(
n
1)
sin
ce
the g
e n e r al t e r m
B IN O MI A L
T H EO R EM
A N Y IN D EX
1 57
m
a
r
a
b
i
t
a
n
r
h
a
c
e
d
e
e
t
e
t
n
an
t
t
t
n
i
e
u
a
n
i
b
,
g
y
q
y y
tak in g r su f c ie n t ly la r g e 3 in wh ic h c a s e t h e r e is n o l im it t o t h e
n
a l u e o f t h e ab o
e se r ie s ; a d t h e r e fo r e t h e e x pan sio n o f 1 x )
a s an
in n it e se r ie s in a sc e n d in g p o w e r s o f a: h as n o m e a n in
g
a r it h m e t i a l l
i
n t e ll i ib l e wh e n a:is
e
t
e
t
r
a
r
h an 1
g
g
y
co n
tain s
'
e m ay r em a r k t h a t we c an al way s e x p an d
1 84
b y t h e Bin o m ial Th e o r e m 3 fo r we m ay w r it e t h e e x p r e ssio n
e it h e r o f t h e t wo fo llo win g fo r m s
.
in
ll
r st
o r
se c o n
t h e se
1 85
To n d in
x
ex a n s io n of
1
p
)
Th e
(
r
1)
th
its
simp lest
fo r m
th e g en
er a l
1)
1)
r +
n +
2)
1)
n + r
I:
()
1
it
is po siti
rm
e
t
e
a
rs th a t e v e r
pp
y
ve
1)
+ r
ll
2)
1)
+ r
( (
1)
F r o m t h is
the
te rm
1)
in
11
ter m
in
the
e x pan sio n
( (
I
:
on
ly in t h e
c a se o
ve
f p o sit i
in d ic e s
H I GH ER A L G EB RA
1 58
E x amp le
In
th e
ex p an sI o n O f
3x
3.
3x
()
Th e
+1
th
te
rm
I
r si o
r lt
I f th g i v
en e x p e s
fo rm ul a fo r th e gen e
186
(
(
h ad b een
(
1
erm , repl ac n
3x) ?
we
g 3x b y
Th e
'
3x
sh o u
u l d h ave u s e d th e sam e
ld b e
em e m b e r e d
1
l
l
i
Th e g e n e r al in e st igat io n o f t h e g r e at e st t e rm in t h e
1 87
wh e n n is u n r e st r ic t e d in
e x p an sio n o f 1
al u e , will b e
fo u n d in A r t 1 8 9 3 b u t t h e stu d e n t will h a e n o d if c u lty in
an
a
l
i
n
t
o
n u m e r i al
e
x am l e
h
e
t
d
e
x lain e d in
t
m
h
e
o
y
p
p
pp y g
A rt 1 7 2
E x amp le
so
an
We
hv
lo n g
as
at
Fi d
n
th e g
eate
st
term in th e
exp an s o n
f 1
wh e
= 20
Tr
a e
x x
n u merical ly ,
38
is,
H en c e fo r
are
v lu
hv
r s T hu s
oh
if
h
r
t o 3 7 , we a e
but
r = 3 8 , t en
th
t hl
r
h
t h e 38 an d 3 9 t e m s
an d t e e a e t e g re at e t t e m
e q al n m e c al ly an d g e at e t an an y
t er t erm
all
hs
ri
es o
r up
s
r h
H I GH ER A L GEB RA
160
E x a mp le 3
Fi d th e val u e o f
n
fo u r places
to
d ec im al s
1
1
To
Ob t ai n
th e
47)
4
W
v l u s of th
a
'
2)
e se eral
te m s
we pro cee d
foll ows :
as
1 4 28 57
$
an
d We
5c p
c an
h rs
e
se e
t h e t erm
18
deCIm al
fr ac ti on
b eg i n n i n g W i t
8 57 + 002 9 1 5
'
'
#4 7
000088
1 4 58 6 ,
an
dt
hi
s re
s ul t i s orr
Exa mp le 4
ec t
o at
l east
fo u r pl ace s o f dec im al s
Fi d th e c ub e r o ot o f 1 2 6 t o
n
(
3
5
'
I)
04
5 p l ace s
of d im l s
ec
'
0003 2
'
'
00001 2 8
00003 5
t o v e p l ac e
s of d
ecim al
B IN O MI A L
TH EO R EM
A N Y IN D EX
EXA MP L ES XI V
.
F in d t h e
1
ter m
1 + x)
in
e ac
(
a
Fin d
t h e g r e at e s t t e r m in
13
1 + x)
(7 )
( y)
( )
15
17
18
21
1 + x) 2
2x + 5
4x
12
en x =
t o v e p lac e s
19
J 53
24
# 1 28
e ac
12
f t h e f l lo wi n
g
Va
ux
e xpan s io n s
ls
x =
an
en x =
d y
9, y
2,
f dec im als t h e
sex
15
If x b e so s m al l t
n d t h e al u e o f
al u e o
21
15
u =
Sh o es
22
$2 4 00
it s
50
sq
25
u ar e
an
6 30
h i gh
er
26
J 3 1 28
5
p o we rs m ay b e
(
(
M
(
8 + 3x )
28
5x
3 1? ) 2
(
4
H H
.
n e lec t e d
g
ion s :
1
p an s
ex
23
29
20
en
F in d
27
en
en x
o wi
x =
en
11
J1
f t h e f ll o
16
10
14
161
I1
H I G H ER A L G EB RA
1 62
31
32
3 8+ 3 x
Pro ve
th e
IE
(
f
e x pan sio n
f 1
4 x)
34
in t h e
"
I)
(
is
1 + 5x ) 5+
ef c ien t
co
/17
33
Pr o v e oh at
n
2
(
n
+ 1)
1+
35
th e
e x p an sio n o
36
F in d t h e rst t h re e t er ms in
th e
e xp an s o n
Of
<
ef ci
s ?
a
S ew
o f th e
37
d o u b le
.
189
l
we
L et
r +
1)
th
1
.
d th e
ar e
te rm s
on
tin u e
ly
sh al l
on
be
c c e e d w ith
c id e th
on
o r
f 1
t e rm
is
th at
Is,
t o in
tiv e
o si
is
n u
f the
in t ege r
b t ain e d b y m u l t iply in g t h e r
t erm
1
by
1 x 3 an d t h e r e fo r e t h e
as
th
so
lo n g
as
x >
( 1)
n
the
ce e
r
r x
ons
m er ica l v al u e
r o u h o u t as
t
v
e
s
i
i
o
g
p
rn
is,
t h e e xpan s i o n
in
n u
th at
e t e st t e rm
by
en
co
"
m
er ica lly g r eatest ter m in th e
n
r a tio n a l v a lu e of 11
r
a
o
f
y
n
r a
Th e
To
C ASE
th e
Sin c e we
t h at
th
+ x
x,
13
H I G H ER A L G EB RA
164
I
(
th at
f x b e g r e ate r
1)
t h e r e is n o g r e at e st
I
f
(
2)
th an
t e rm
b e l e ss t h an
1 , so l o n g a s
e at e r t h an
un
t h a t is,
(
m
(D
If
>
be
t
e
r m is
1
p
)
o t h e r t e rm
an
y
th
e qu al
in
as
II
C ase
tiv e
o si
to the p
will b e
fa c t o r
x,
1)
ew
13
x >
o r
sh
ity , t h e m u l t iply in g
1)
it y we m ay
un
in t eg e r ,
th
t e rm
d e n o t e it b y p 3 t h e n t h e
an d t h e s e a r e
r e a t e r t h an
g
If
g
r al
m_ 1
l
ar
t 3 th en
the
m_
If
b e p o sit iv e b u t
be
1)
th at
t h e pr
ec
it is
e d in g,
al wa
term
,
l e ss
fac t o r
h
n
t
a
y
an d c o n se u e n tl
y
q
s
an
in t eg e r , le t 9 b e it s in t e
is t h e g r e at e st
egat iv e th e n
w ritin g t h e m u l t iply in g
s ee
th
n o
in
m is l e ss t h an
un
fo rm
the
ity 3
By
d iv isio n
or
b y t h e Bin o m ial Th e o r e m , we h a
1
1
ax
1
1
bx
1
1
cx
m
x,
we
wer s
d by
1 : h e n e e a c h t e r m is l e ss t h an
t h e r s t t e r m is t h e g r e a t e st
190
To n d th e n u mb er of h o m o g en eo u s p r o du c ts
sio n s t h a t c a n b e fo r m ed o u t of t h e 11 le t ter s a, b , c ,
po
an
(
f
dimen
a n d t h eir
r
B IN O MI A L
en ce ,
T H EO R EM
b y m u l t ip lic a t io n
d u c ts
a,
b,
t h e ir
Cw
se
o
pp
m s o f t h e h o m o g e n e o u s p ro
d im e n sio n s t h a t c a n b e fo r m e d o f
the
t wo , t h r ee,
an
c,
bx
su
a re
o n e,
8
o
ax
8 3a
wh e r e
1
'
165
1
1
A N Y IN D EX
w
e
rs
p
o
su
m b er o f t h e se p r o d u c t s, p u t a , b , c ,
e ac h
h
n
w
n
d
e
a
t
e u al t o l 3 e a c h t e r m in
o
b
e
c
m
e
s
1
o
8
8
,
,
3
,
q
2
i
v al u e s o f
s o o b t a in e d
v
e
t
h
r o f the
82, 83 ,
e
u
m
b
n
e
g
h o m o g e n e o u s p ro d u c t s o f o n e, two , th r ee,
d im e n sio n s
To
O b ta in
the
n u
A l so
be
<
1
en ce
w)
c o e ffic ie n t
"
bx
ax
mes
o r
ofx
ex
()
1
the
ex
an s o n
f 1
1)
19 1
To n d th e n u m b er of ter ms in th e
m u ltin o m ia l wh en th e in dex is a p o siti v e i n teg er
.
exp a n sio n
an
In t he
ex pan sio n O f
(
a
ar
is o f n d im e n sio n s 3 t h e r e fo r e t h e n u m b e r o f t e r m s 1 3
n
s
m
n
s
n
n
e
d
f
n
o
s
u
c
r
o
n
e
o
u
s
h
m
o
e
e
d
t
f
o
r
o
t h e sam e a s t h e n u m b
p
g
an d th ei r
a
t h a t c an b e fo r m e d o u t o f t h e r q u an tit ie s a , , a 2 ,
o
a
l
t
u
e
I
S
I
l
e
n
a
r
c
t
e
e
f
e
r
e
e
d
i
t
h
c
t
e
b
r
h
r
o
r
a
n
o we s 3
d
q
p
g
y
p
e v e ry t e rm
H I GH E R A L G EB RA
1 66
F r o m t h e r e su l t o f A r t 1 90 we m ay d e d u c e
192
r ela t in g t o t h e n u m b e r o f c o m b in at io n s o f n t h in g s
.
th eo re m
C o n sid e r
if we we r e t o writ e
d o wn all t h e h o mo ge n e o u s p r o d u c t s o f r d imen sio n s wh ic h c an b e
fo rm e d o f t h e se l e tt e r s an d t h eir p o we r s, e e r y su c h p r o d u t
wo u l d r e pr e se n t o n e o f t h e c o m b in atio n s, r at a t im e , o f t h e n
l e tt e r s, wh e n an y o n e o f t h e l e tte r s m igh t o u r o n c e , t wi e ,
t h r i e,
u
t
o r t im e s
p
l e tt e r s
a,
b,
d,
c,
th e n
cc
m b e r o f o m b in atio n s o f n t h in g s r at a t ime
a r e all o w e d is e u al t o t h e n u m b e r o f h o m o
q
n e o u s p r o d u c t s o f r d im e n sio n s wh i h c an b e f o r m e d o u t o f n
e
g
n + r 1
l
l e tt e r s, a n d t h e r e fo r e e q u al t o
or
Th e r e fo r e t h e
w h e n r e p e tit io n s
n u
Th a t is, t h e n u m b e r o f c o m b in a t io n s o f u t h in g s r a t a t im e
wh en r ep e t it io n s a r e allo we d is e q u al t o t h e n u m b e r o f c o m
b in at io n s o f n + r 1 t h in gs r a t a t im e wh e n r ep e titio n s a r e
e x c lu d e d
193
We
lan e o u s
e x a m pl e s
E x amp l e 1
Th e
sh a l l
s io
ie
ively
o
,
en
of
(
1
cha
t
r
e
p
wit h
"
4 x2) 1 + p 1 x
4x
in t h e
e xp an
sio of
n
+ p rx
19250
wi l l b o b t a i d b y m u l t i p l y i g
r s ul t s ; h
a d add i g th
re q u ir e d c o e f c i e t
41
4p
f
"
ne
Bu t
s up p s
p r _1
r eq
(y
_
u i red co ef c ien t
3 , A rt
by 1,
en c e
[ Ex
th e
fe w m isc e l
th e
Hen c e
d e t h is
Fi n d th e co efc i
exp r e s
Th e c ef c
4 , 4 r espe ct
c o n clu
H I GH ER A L G EB RA
168
F d t h e c o ef c
4
l en
n
of x
the
In
e x p an s I O n
2 +x +x
P r o v e t h at
5
.
in
Pro v e t h at
P r o v e t h at
1 + 23
2n + 2 )
2n
2n
( (
2n + 4 )
2n + 2)
n
2
P r o ve th at
(
u
ap p r o x
+ 1
1)
( (
l)
i m ate ly w h en
2)
is
e r y sm all ,
3 07
2 56
10
p o siti
hw h
11
o sit i
p
12
fx
S ew t
in te ge r
be
dd, if
be
is
o dd,
at
i n tegral
is
th e
r
a
p
F i d t h e c o ef c ie
n
h
In
14
(
1
13
if
t h e in t egr al p ar t
S e
t
in te ger
at
e e x pan s
ro v e
(
1
wt
th t
2x + 3x
t h e mi dle
mn
the
3n x
in t h e
e xp an sio n o
4x +
4x)
e xp an s o n
n
.
c ie n t
t erm O f
f 1
(
1
fx
"
is e q u al t o t h e c o e f
(
m(
is
f 1
/
3 71
3
x
3
x
m ay b e p u t in to t h e f rm
2
(
1
B IN O MI A L
Pr o v e
15
.
1,
16
the
.
17
Il l
If
if n b e
at
co
@l
cl
1)
co
cO
fx
in t h e
"
3 m, 3 m
te r m s
fthe
I ND Ex
ex
1,
3m + l
o r
2)
+ co
umb e r
2 e l + 3 ez
f te r m s ,
th e
t eg e r
c o e ic ie n
ov t h
e
ln_
t s in
th e
e xp an s
ion
at
0
3
+2
73
22
"
are
sio
169
in te ge r ,
en
K
il
n
a
p
1) th e
o
i
t
i
v
i
p
1s a
AN Y
n d
an e
c,,
fo r m
f th e
whe n
ef
c ie n
18
is
as n
In t h e e xp an s i n o f
c ie n t s
su m o f t h e c o ef
P r ov e
the
ac c o r d n
T H EO R EM
4o s +
el
ac c o r
d in g
19
as n I s o
dd
+ ez
o r e
de n o te t h e
If
2
3
0,
en
su
rs t
f th e
((
1)
n n a t u r al n u m b e r s ,
ov t h
e
I f g,,
(
) 9n
(
)
{e
1
2
n +4
i
u su l )
+ s
+ 1
zu
27
2 1 9 2n
+ 9 1 9 2 + 9 29 2
2n _ 1
(
o
v
h
2
i'
+ 229 2n
at
+ qn
2+
I)
93
1
9n
F i d t h e s u m O f t h e p ro d u c ts t wo at a tim o f t h e o f i
i
e pan s i o n o f (
1
wh e n n i a p o s i t iv e n t ge r
If (
22
7 +4
+ 3 w h e r e n a d p are p o sit iv e i te ge rs a
a
r o e r fr ac t i o
1
s h e w t h at
1
(
B
B
p p
)
( )p
t h e e p an s io
I f co
a re t h e c o e f ie t s i
23
1
w
er
w
a
h
e
i
s
i
t
v
t
h
e
t
h
t
n
a
o
s
i
e
i
e
(
g
p
21
the
'
c en
ts
db
c3
_ _
er , s
1
m
cg ,
c2
0 _ _
e,
at
2)
20
o r
C HA PTER X V
MU LTI N O M IA L
TH EO R EM
W E h a e al r e a dy se e n in A r t 1 7 5, h o w we m ay
194
b
a i n t h e e x a n si n o f a m ulti
l
t
h
e Bi n m i a l Th e r e m t
t
a
p
pp y
I
n
t
h
e p r e se n t c h a te r o u r
t
is
n m i a l e x r e ssi n
b
e
c
n ot
p
p
s m u c h t o b tain t h e c m pl e t e e x pan si n o f a m ulti n m i al a s
t o n d t h e c e f c i e n t o f a n y a ssig n e d t e r m
.
o
o
o
o
E x amp le
oo
th e
e f c
ient
(
a
e
e ve r e r
o
o j
2 3 5
a b 0 d
d)
in th e expan s i on o f
l4
Th e xp a
y t m in th e
b + c + d , an d
ct f m
by
p
t o f m t h e t m a 4 b 203d5,
I) o u t o f an y t wo o f t h e re
t
Bu t t h e
mb
of
th e
mb
o f
ay
o f ar
t wo 6, t ee 0, an d v e d ;
to
a+
rodu
Find
nu
er
or ed
w s
er
[ A rt
HEEL?
f t i m e s in whi h t h t rm
s
Th i s i s t he r efor t h n umb
b
d
pp
in th n l p rodu t d o ns e q u nt ly th o e f i ent r e q u i red i s 2 52 2520
e
195
n sio n
a
p
.
er o
an
e c
2 3
c
ear
ex
d
ct
o
f
r
o
u
f
a
t
o
r
s
h
u
l
t
o
c
a
e
c
a
e
p
p
q
a n d e v e ry t e r m i n t h e e x an si o n is f o r m e d b
a
d
p
y
t ak i n g o n e l e tte r o u t o f e ac h o f th e s e p fac t o r s ; a n d th e r e fo r e
s
y
a
n
c
m
h
n
u
m
b
r
w
a
s
i
n
w
hi
h
t
e
r
w
ill
r
a
t e
e
of
a
l
b
c
a
a
e
y
y
pp
in t h e n al p r o du c t is e q u al t o t h e n u mb e r o f way s o f a rran gi n g
m
m
b
w
e a 8 m ust b e 6
l
tt
r
s
h
e
n
o
f
th
e
ust
m
0
e
e
b
ust
e c;
1
7
Th e
c
b
e x p an
si on is
the
an
the
so
on
Th at
oef c ie t
wh e r e
is
b crd
is
H I GH ER
1 9 5, t h e g e n e
r l
172
L G EB RA
d, b y A r t
(
690
8
05
is
te rm
+ cl x
8, y, 3
are
He n c e
t h e ge n e
e
r
p ss i o n is
( (
an
ex
is p
si o n
1)
o siti v e i n t e g r s w h o s e
ra l t e r m i n
2)
the
Si n c e
a +
bx
+ cx
+ clx
b
+
c
x +
f the
t h e gi
en
ex
wr i tt e n i n
m ay b e
the
+
a
t o c o n si de r
is u n i ty
b e su f c i e n t
m ulti n m i a l
it w i l l
of
si o n
e x p an
w he re
197
rm
su
l)
l ll lf
i
f th e
1, 50d
w h e re
fo
the
ca e
in wh ic h
r st t e r m
the
Thus t h e g en e r a l
t e rm
(
( )( ) (
1
is
rt
1)
a
g
y
b c d
8
+
+
+
2
3
B
y
x
w h e re
E x amp le
Fin d th e c o e fc i ent o f x 3 in
(
1
Th e
th e
n s i on
xpa
2x
3x
g n e ral t rm i s
e
3)
+ 2Y+ 33
h ve t o b t in b y t r i l ll th p os i tiv int e gr l v l u e s f 8 7 6 wh i h
s ti sfy th q u t i on B+ 27 + 3 6 3 ; d t h n p i s found from th e q u t i on
m f th
orr e sp ondi g
Th r e q u i r e d o e f i nt wi ll b t h
1
13 + 7 + 6
l u s f th p r s i o n
We
e e
9 =
va
e ex
an
e s
c e
e su
e c
M U L TI N O M IA L TH EO R EM
173
it wi ll b b e s t t
mm en e b y g iv in g t 6 su e ss iv
o
d
i
g
6
Oin e gr l v l u e s b eg nning th th g r te s t dm i ss i l
s
b
I t h p r e s en t
t
found t b
th v l u e s
In n
a
Wi
ar e
:
4
ca e
( r e u i r d o e i en
1 ) th e
f c
D
C
S m e ti m e s
198
Th e r e m
cc
e e
ea
u s u g h s v lu s i
S b t i t t in t
it is
m o re
ex
e
d
p
iti o us t o
u se
t h e Bi n m i a l
we
s t op
t a
3 2x
at
3x
h i s t e rm
6 2x
fo r
al l
3x
th e
2 2
1 0 2x
3x
1 5 2x
r qu ir d
e
c ien
c o ef
t= 6
66
3)
10 3
15
EX A MPL ES
XV
F in d t h e c oe f c i e n t o f
1
5
.
b
a
c + d)
in t h e e x pan s i o n o f (
8
2 5
c
o l)
a b al in t h e e x p an s i o n o f a + h
3
3
a b c in t h e e x p an s i o n o f
9
2 3z 4 in t h e e x an s i o n o f a x
z
b
c
x
+
( g )
p
g
9 3
3 in t h e e x an s i o n o f 1
2x )
x
+ 3x
p
4 in
l
t h e e x pan s i o n o f (
x
6
2x
1
in t h e e xp an s i o n o f (
x
2
8 in t h e e x an s i o n O f 1
2
x
3
x
x
+
(
p
3 4
2
a 6 c d
3x
Th e
2 ?
"
10
9 4
;
x
h i gh r
e
H IGH ER
1 74
F in d t h e c oe f c i en t o f
9
13
14
15
17
18
19
in
in
16
th e
th e
12
e xp an s
ion
in t h e
s io
Expan
d(
l
2
Expan
1+3
d(
Ex pan
d(
8 9
2x + 3 x
n o
%
1
-
2x + 3 x
4x
(
f (
f(
of 2
2 32 4
s i on
e xp an
L G EB R A
n s i on
n
a
p
e x pa
t h e ex
f 1
s i on
e x p an
(
f (
f(
i on
e x p an s
th e
in
s i on
e xpan
in t h e
11
in
in t h e
x5
10
12
23
4 x + 3x
3 2
2
3
1 + 4x 2 + 1 0x4 + 20x 6 ) a
3
1 5x +
2x
1 as far as
)
2
.
33
6 93
5
as far as x
8
a
r
as f
as x
If 1 + x + x +
an
np
r
o
t
h
t
e
a
v
p
(
)
(
)
l
If
20
(
.
f 1
do
21
a0 + a l
a1
+ a2 +
+ 2 a 2 + 3 a3 +
ao , a 1 , a2 , a 3
a
e
p
rov t h t
If t h e
e x p an
be
ao
s h ew t h at
a0+ a 3
2
a2
+ a6
a3
+ np
ar e
th e
+ a ix + a 2 1 +
p p +l)
f 1 +x +x
3
c e fc e
1 )n
s i on
an
+ a, x
+ a2n x f,
H I GH ER
17 6
2 01
L G EB RA
W h en it is u n de r st oo d th a t
r ti c ul a r sy stem
of
p
l ga r ith m s is i n u se , t h e su f x de n t in g t h e b a s e is m itte d
Thus in a r i th m e ti c a l c a l c ul a ti n s in w hi c h 1 0 is t h e b a s e , w e
usu a ly w rit e l o g 2, l o g 3,
in st e ad o f lo g l o 2 , l o g m3,
.
u m b e r m i g ht b e t ak e n as t h e b as e o f l oga r ith m s an d
c o rr e s p o n di n g t o a n y su c h b a s e a s y st e m o f l o ga r ith m s o f a l l
Bu t b e f o r e d i s c ussi n g t h e l o ga r ith m i c
n u m b e r s c o ul d b e f o u n d
sy ste m s c om m on l y us e d we sh all p r ov e s o m e g e n e ra l p r op o siti o n s
w hi c h ar e t r u e f o r al l l og ar ith m s i n dep en den t l y o f an y pa r tic ula r
b as e
An y
2 02
The l o g ar ith m
For
th e b
a e
2 03
fo r
m ay b e
a ll
To
1 is 0
v lu e s
a
th e r e f o r e
lo g
a
a
n d th e lo a r ith m
i
g
f
s o th a t
b e t h e b as e
b y d e n iti
on
III N
lo g
du c t
ro
a
a
MN
so
o n
E x amp l e
i y
-
y
l o g M + lo g N
lo g P ;
a
2
3
l og 4 2 = l o g (
7)
l og 2 + l og 3 + l o g 7
x
2 05
.
L et
To
d th e lo g a r ith m
b e the
f ra c ti o n
x
so
th a t
f the
MNP l o g M + l o g N
fo r a n y n u mb e r o f fac t o r s
Si m il a r y , l o g
d
0, wh at e
ve r
an
o u t
Thus t h e p r d
lo g l
th e b a se itse lf is 1
L e t III N b e t h e p r du c t 3 l e t
su pp s e
wh en c e
th e r e f o r e
Th e l o g a r ith m
Fo r
2 04
a =
an
l o g l ,
a
f f
a
r a c tio n
su pp o s e
g
a
lo g N g
s y st e m
an
L o G A RI THMs
Th u s t h e
f ra c t i o n
1V
17 7
"
(
t
w he n ce
b y de n i t i
lo g
IV
l o g JI
lo g
Ex a mp l e
l og 7
log 30 l og 7
2 3
5)
l og (
l og 7
x
lo g 2 + l o g 3 + l o g 5
l
e
d
t
h
o g ar ith m
o r fr a c tio n a l
To
2 06
in tegr a l
30
l og
a n u
l og 7
mb er
r a is ed
to
o
p
wer ,
L et
be
r e q ui r e d
x =
an
l o ga
M s o th a t
211
th e n
su ppo s e
(Y
M ;
:
wh e n c e , b y de n iti o n ,
th at
px 3
is,
lo g ,
(
M
( i
M)
P
l
l
I
l
o
1
g
)
l og
Si m il a r l y ,
l o g
f o ll o w s f r o m t h e r e sults we h a v e p r ove d th a t
1 ) t h e l og a r ith m o f a p r o du c t is e q u al t o t h e su m o f t h e
l oga rith m s o f it s fac t o r s 3
2) t h e l o gar ith m o f a f ra c ti o n is e q u a l t o t h e l o g a r ith m o f
t h e n u m e ra t o r dim i n ish e d b y t h e l og a r ith m o f t h e de n o m i n at o r 3
th
3 ) t h e l og ar ith m o f t h e 19 p o w e r o f a n u mb e r is 11 t im e s t h e
l oga rith m o f t h e n u mb e r 3
2 07
(
(
(
.
It
4) t h e
l ogar ith m
f the
r oo t
th
fa
u m b e r is
eq
u al
to
11
l ogar ith m o f t h e n u m b e r
A ls o we se e th at b y t h e u se o f l oga r ith m s t h e ope rati o n s o f
mul ti p li c ati o n an d di v isi o n m ay b e r e pl a c e d b y th o s e o f a ddi t i o n
an d su b t ra c ti o n 3 an d t h e O e r a ti o n s o f i n vo luti o n an d e vo luti o n
p
b y th o s e o f m ulti pli ca ti o n an d di v isi o n
o
f the
H I GH ER
17 8
Ex a mp le 1
l og
Exp
re s
Zg
l og r i thm
th e
L G EB RA
in t
e rm s
l og
a,
l og b
an d
lo g h,
an d
0.
?
5
l og
Nm_
103
?
ET
(
)
l og l og ()
l
o
g
l
o
g
l
g
(
2
3
5 ?
0 b
l
o
g
2
5
0
5l o g
2 lo g b
E x amp l e 2
lo g
l(
og
l og
2x
2 lo g c
l og b ;
3 l o g b ) = l og b
10g b
io g a
2 lo g
XV I
to
ba
1 25 t
ob
16
2 56
5
,
a e
5J 5,
se 2 J 2
to b a
06 2 5 t o b a
a e
a5 ,
1 ,
2,
'
1 7 28 to b a
an
d 25 t o b a
an d
an
'
an
ob s
a e
'
e a
01
d i t o b as e 9
a to b a
t o b as e 9
d 1 000 t
001 ,
J3
'
J3
F in d t h e val u e o f
1
103 8 1 2 8 : 10g6
2 16
o ll owin g v
Exp res s t h e f
l og o
'
an d
s
0001 t o b s
'
3 10g b
EX A MPL ES
F in d t h e l o g ar i th m s
se
en
10g2 7
gi
lo g343 4 g
l og ar i th m s in t erm s
Of
l og
a,
lo g
(
Ja
3 6
lo g
/
E
(
,
10
lo g
H IG H ER
1 80
A ga in ,
'
10
06
l o g 06
an
f ra c ti o n
2 09
D EFI N ITI ON
Th e i n t eg r a l pa r t o f a l g a r ith m is c a ll e d
c h ar ac t erist ic , a n d t h e dec i m al
a r t is c all e d t h e man t issa
p
.
the
L G EB RA
Th e c h a r ac t e r isti c O f t h e l g a r ith m
b as e 1 0 c an b e w r itt e n d w n b y i n s p e c ti
2 10
To deter min e th e
n u m b er g r ea ter t ha n u n ity
.
on
an
as
ch a r a c ter istic o
y
we
th e
u mb e r t o t h e
sh all n o w sh e w
n
lo g ar ith m
an y
Si n c e
10
1 0,
10
1 00,
10
1 000,
"
N be
L et
u m b e r w h o s e i n t eg r a l
th e n
1 ) + fr
(
N 10
n
ac t io n
8;
lo g
1)
Hen c e t h e c h a ra c t e r isti c is
th e
th e
a.
r t c on t ai n s
dig its ;
f rac ti o n
1 3 th a t is , th e ch ar a cter istic of
lo g ar ithm of a n u m b er g r ea ter th a n u n ity is less b y o n e than
n u mb er of dig its in its in tegr a l p ar t, a n d is p o s itiv e
n
211
To deter min e th e
dec im a l fr a c tio n
.
Si n c e
10
-
10
_2
10
10
1,
01 ,
1 00
3
1
=
1 000
'
001 ,
L O G A R ITH M S
181
it f o l l o w s th a t a de c i m a l w ith o n e c i ph e r i mm e di ate ly a ft e r t h e
de c i m a l p o i n t su c h a s 03 24 b e i n g g r ea t e r th an 01 a n d l e s s
th a n 1 l i e s b e t w e e n
an d
a n u m b e r w ith t w o c i h e r s
p
a ft e r t h e de c i m a l
o
i
n
t
li
e s b e t w ee n
a
n d
3 an d s o o n
p
He n c e a de c i m a l f rac ti o n w ith n c i ph e r s imm e dia t e l v a ft e r t h e
de c i m a l p o i n t li e s b e t w e e n
an d
'
'
L et D b e
de c i m al b eg i n n i n g
w ith
a
D _ 10
(
n
lo g D
He n c e
i ph e r s
th e n
fract io n
f r ac ti o n
h ar ac t e r isti c is
n 1 ) 3 th a t is th e ch ar a c ter istic
of th e lo g a r ith m of a dec im a l fr ac t io n is
r
e
t
er
b
u
i
t
a
n
t
h
a
n
t
h
e
g
y
y
i
n u mb er
c
h
r
m
a
a
e
s
i
m
e
di
t
l
e
of p
y fter th e d ecim a l p o in t a n d is
the
n eg a t iv e
Th e l o ga r ith m s t o b a s e 1 0 o f al l i n t eg e r s f r o m 1 t o
212
2 00000 h av e b ee n f o u n d a n d t ab ul a t e d 3 in m o st Ta b l e s th ey a r e
T
h
i
v
his
is
r
t
e s st e m in
ac ti c a l
n t o s e v e n p l ac e s o f de c i m als
e
y
p
g
u se , an d it h as t wo g r e a t a dv an t a e s
g
.
F
r
o
m
(
r e sults al re ady p r ov e d it is e v i de n t th a t t h e
s o th a t o n l y
c h a r a c t e r isti c s c an b e w r itt e n d o w n b y i n s p e c ti o n
t h e m an t issae h a v e t o b e r e g ist e r e d in t h e Tab l e s
2)
Th e m an t issae ar e t h e s am e fo r t h e l og a r ith m s o f a l l
n u m b e r s w hi c h h a v e t h e s am e si n i c an t d i g its 3 s o th a t it is
g
su f c i e n t t o t ab ul at e t h e m an t issee o f t h e l o gar ith m s o f in teger s
This p r op o siti o n we p r o c e e d t o p r o v e
1)
the
L e t N b e an y n u mb e r, th e n si n c e m ulti pl y i n g o r
213
di i di n g b y a p w e r o f 1 0 m e re l y alt e r s t h e p siti n o f t h e
de c i m a p i n t w ith ut c h an gi n g t h e s e q u e n c e o f g u r e s , it f ll ws
th a t N x
an d N
wh e r e p a n d g a r e a n y i n t e g e r s , a r e
n u m b e r s w h s e s i n i c an t di its ar e t h e s am e a s th s e o f N
g
g
.
l o
No w
lo g N
A ga i n ,
lo g N
o o
.
10
l
o
10
g g
lo g N
lo g
1 ) an i n te g e r is a dde d t l o g N, an d in 2) an i n te g e r
su b t ac te d f r m l o g N 3 t a t is , t h e m a n tissa 0 r de c i m al p r t i
a r ith m r e m a i n s u n alt e r e d
o f the l
g
In
is
o on
H IGH ER
1 82
AL
G EB R A
this an d t h e th r ee p r e c e di n g a r ti c l e s t h e m an t issae h av e
I n o r de r t o s e c u r e t h e a dv a n t age s o f
b ee n su pp o s e d p o siti v e
Br i gg s s y st e m we a rr a n g e o u r w o rk s o as a lway s to keep th e
m a n tissa p o sitiv e s o th a t wh e n t h e m an tiss a o f a n y l ogar ith m
h as b e e n t ak e n f r o m t h e Tab l e s t h e c h a r ac t e r isti c is p r e x e d
wi t h its app r op r i at e sig n a c c o r di n g t o t h e r ul e s al r e ady gi v e n
In
v l ogar ithm t h e m i n us S ig is
o t b f o r e it t o i di c at e th at
wr itt en
t h e c h a r c t e r isti a l o e is eg a ti v e a d o t t h e w h o l e e p r ssi o n
Thus 4 3 01 03 t h e l og ar ith m f 0002 is e q u i v l e n t t o
4
3 0103
4 3 0103
w
e
r
ssi
o
n i
hi
h
d m ust b e disti n g uish e d f r o m
e
p
b o th t h e i t e g e r
d t h e de i m l a e e gati v e
I w o rk in g with
r ith m e ti al ar ti e wi l l s o m e ti m e s b e
e ga ti v e l o g a r ith m s a
o r de r t o m ak e t h e m a tissa p ositi v e F o r i st c e
e c e ss ry i
i
a r e sult su c h
s
w hi c h t h e w h o l e e p r e ssi on is
m
d
b
e ati v e
b
t
r
sf
o
r
su
b
t
r
ac ti n
f
r
o
m
m
e
t
h
e
1
y
g
g
y
h a ra c te risti c
d ddi n g 1 t o t h e m an tiss a
Th u s
214
I n t h e c as e o f a n e gati
o v er th e c h a r a c ter is tic , an d
a
'
an
an
an
an
s s w ill
Req
ci
e c
ls
a ac
n o ti c e d i n
6 9897 )
the
we n d t
c o
u i r d t h l o g r i thm
as
an
4 3 0103
Ex am pl e s
f 00024 3 2
as
e c
'
a ac
h t 3859 6 36 i s th m nt i ss
de m l p o int well th h r ter i s ti b e i g om i tt ed) ;
th
h r t e r i sti f th l og r i thm f th given numb r i s
l o g 000243 2 48 8 59 6 3 6
I n t h e Tab
be
ca e
E x amp le 1
3 69897
O th e r
'
an
he
(
log
2 43 2 t
f
an d , b y A r t 2 1 1 ,
4
'
E x amp l e 2
l og 1 6 5 2 2 1 7 4 8 3 9 l o g 6 97 4 24 58 43 49 6 8
d n o t th v l u r q u i r d ; t hen
l og = l g
l og (
0 00001 6 5)
:
L et x
th e
man tissa
c h a ra c t er is t ic
No w
l og
e g th s
rule
000001 6 5 b in
b y th e
p x
3
e ing re ed
am e as
5
2 84 3 4 9 6 8
at o
l og 1 6 5
an
d th e
H I G HER
1 84
This
r e sult
m ay
L et
th e n
ls o
x
by
LG EB RA
b e p r ov e d di r e c tl y
10gb
t ak i n g l o ga r ith m s t o
b a s e b , we
l og
th at
so
lo
as
b 3
f oll o w s :
h a ve
l o gb b
a
b
l o gb a
Th e
E xamp le 1
Th e
Gi
v log
r qui d v lu
re
n d
en
3 lo g
log
81
l
o
g
1 00
5
l(
og 3
16
l
o
g
3
10
10g 9 0
2)
(
Z
lo g 3 2 + 1 )
97
l og 3
(
27
4 6 2807 66
2 7 7 8 07 6 6
stu de n t sh o ul d n o ti c e th at
o
w
e r s c an a l w ay s b e o b t a i n e d f r o m
p
Th e
lo g 5=
Ex amp le 2
lo g
1Q
l o g 10
lo g
l og 2
'
l og (
87 5 )
16
3 01 03 00,
l og 7
16
'
umb er o f di git s i s 4 8
2 9 4 2008 0
A
rt
[
lo g 2
16
87 5
g iv n
e
8 4 509 80
1 2 5)
l og (
7
16 (
l og 7 3 1 g 5)
16 (
l og
3 l og 2 )
16
h en ce t h e
l og a rith m
l o g 2 3 thus
the
f 5
an
its
L O G A R ITH M S
185
v lu e
a
i ve n
l og 2
e q u t i on
G
E x a mp le 3
o f x f m th e
.
ro
an d
42:
in g l og ar i th m s o f b o th s i de s
x +5
l es
ac
de
i m al s
th e
h ve
=
3
4
l
o
g
l
o
g
l
o
g
6
5
4
8;
+
(
( )
)
4 ) (
3
l og 2 + l og 3) (
l og 2 3
+ 5) 2 l o g
(
l
o
g
4
2
3 1 g2
3 l og 3
(
we
n d t o t wo p
6
Tak
l og 3
l 010 g 2 ;
1 0 10g 2 + 3 10 g 3
2 10g 2
4 10 g 3
13
4 44 1 6 6 3 9
2 51 054 52
17 7
EX A MPL ES
XV I b
F ind
2 1 7 3 5, 2 3 8
in s p e ct i on
by
3 50, 03 5, 2 , 8 7 ,
'
'
'
th e
875
hr
t i st ic s
r i te down
Th e m an t i s a o f
7 6 2 3 is 88 2 1 2 59 3 w
o f 7 6 23 7 6 2 3
0 07 6 2 3 , 7 6 2 3 00, 0 00007 6 2 3
,
,
l o g r i th m s
the
of
a ac er
l og
'
the
l o g r i th m s
a
Ho w m an y
wh os e l ogar i th m s
.
d i gi t s
ar e
h os
G i v e t h e p o s i t i on
l og ari th m s ar e
1 4 7 7 12 1 3,
o
f th e
2 7 7 8 1 51 3 ,
G i ve n
v lu
a
lo g 2
'
t h e re in
th e
r esp ec t i ve ly
4 3 01 03 ,
are
'
3 6 9 89 7 ,
54 8 7 13 8 4
6 9 1 08 1 5,
'
4 7 7 12 13,
e Of
l o g 64
lo g
i/i
r t Of t h e n u m b e rs
a
p
rst s i g n i c an t gure in
lo g 3
3 01 0300,
in tegral
l og 8 4
l og 1 4 4
l og 7
7
14
io g
12
'
F i n d t h e s ev en t h r oot o f
'
003 24 ,
l o g 4 4 09 2 3 88
15
.
G i ven
8 4509 8 0, n d t h e
l o g 1 28
'
10
lo g 4 3
13
io g t/ 01 05
lo g
n umb ers
ii
the
h av ing gi ven th at
7 6 44 3 6 3 6
n d t h e
l v n t h r oo t
e e
H IGH ER
186
16
F in d
th e p
i
v
e n t h at
g
.
r od u c t
G i ven
lo g 2
an
f 3 7 2 03 , 3 7 2 03 , 003 7 203 , 3 7 2 03 0,
'
l o g 3 7 2 03 : 1 6 7 057 8 0,
17
L G EB RA
d lo g 3 ,
an
h v ing
a
d l o g 1 9 1 56 3 1 6 2 8 2 3 ] 2 0
2
n d lo g
1
giv
18
19
en
G i ven
lo g 2
l ul
an
d l o g 3 , n d lo g
six
lo g 2, lo g 3 , lo g 7 3
Ca
Ca
20
to
a e
l ul
c
t to
i m al
l
p
ac e
l so l g
f
l
s
d
p
six
a e
ec
3
1 08
v lu
th e
e o
ac e
ec
i m al s
v al u
the
e o
2 2 x 7 0;
giv n l
e
l so
g 2 , l o g 3 , lo g 7 3
an d
l o g 1 1 = 1 04 13 9 2 7 ,
'
21
22
23
F in d
21
32
d i g i t s in 3
g
is
r e at e
r th
28
1 00
an
i ph e rs th e r e
00
0
rs t s i g ni c ant d i g i t in
e
x + y
li
2
=
=
2x + 1
30
y + 1
2
g 10
G i ve n lo g102
'
26
~
b e t we e n t h e d e c i m a
n lo g 2
28
10
vnl
25
3 :
are
95
31
oll owin g q u ti on s h v in g g iv
27
29
th e f
wt
d th e
24
an
ol v
D e te m in e h o w m an y
o
in
t
p
S
n umb e r
th e
12
2x 1
6
x
2=
y =
_
4
3
lo g 3 ,
5 3x _
5
2x
5
-
an
d lo g 7
2
x +
3y
3 01 03 , n d l o g252 00
'
3 01 03 , l o g 107
'
8 4 509 , n d l o g 7 J 2
an d
l o g ,/2 7
H IGH ER
1 88
hence
the
se r ie s
(
1)
is
L G EB RA
w
er
o
p
the
a
s
s e r ie s
f the
th a t is
+ x +
H
l
d this is t r u e h w e e r g r e a t
i n de n it e ly i n c r e as e d w e h a e
an
+ x + 7
g
m ay b e
s e rie s
Th e
is usu al ly
13
de n o t e d b y
h
e
n
c
e
3
th e re fo re
N E E
-
If
L_ l_
2
+ x +
1_
E E G
.
Wr it
e 096
fo r
th e n
x,
No w l e t
ob t i n
a,
ex
s o th a t
1
=
lo g a
c =
Wh
en
is
su b stituti n g
(
lo g
l og a )
e
i n n it e
10g a 3 b y
CO R
wh e n
t h e lim it
in t h e p r e c e di n g i n v e sti gati
i n de n it e ly i n c r e as e d,
x
we
J"
as
is
r c
1
+
S
ee A r t
[
Al s
fo
o n it
,
m ay b e
sh e wn th at
EX P O
th a t i s w h e n
,
N EN TI A L
is i n n ite
BY Pu t t in oir
.
L O G A R ITH M IC
A ND
li m it
the
thus
the
is i n n it e w h e n
li m it
the
v alu e
"Q
,
I n t h e p r e c e di n g
1
si n c e
O f 23 3 a ls
is i n n ite 3
He n c e t h e li m it o f
221
1 80
we 1111 v e
mx
No w m
s ERi Es
r ti c l e
r e st r i c ti o n is pl ac e d u p o n
n o
is l e ss th an u n ity
the
ex
an
si o n s
we
A
rt
[
th e re is an o th e r p o i n t in t h e f o r e g o i n g
W e h a v e a ssu m e d th a t w h e n
de s e r v e s n o ti ce
Bu t
r
oo
f
w
hi
ch
p
is i n n it e
n
r
f
o r a ll v a lu es o
Let
de n o t e t h e
us
is i n n it e
L1
3
fu 4
is
we
r _l
the
r _l
i s c l e ar th at
th at
It
v lu e
Th e n
Si n c e
a:
n r
h av e
3
l im i t
th at
i s, u
is
_l
h en c e
the
an
d ge n e r all y
th a t O f
,r
is
:
13
limi t
u s IS
H I GH ER
190
22 2
L GEB R A
s e ri e s
Th e
i2
w hi c h we h a v e de n o t e d b y e is v e ry i m p o r tan t a s it is t h e b a s e
t o w hi c h l oga r ith m s a r e r st c a l c ul at e d L og a r ith m s t o th i s
b a s e a r e k n o wn a s t h e Napie r ian s y st e m s o n am e d a ft e r Nap i e r
th e i r i n v e n t o r Th e y a r e a l s o c a ll e d n a tu r a l l ogar ith m s f r o m t h e
fa c t th a t th e y a r e t h e r st l oga rith m s w hi c h n atu r ally c o m e i n t o
c o n si de r a ti o n in a l e b r a i c a l i n v e sti a ti o n s
g
g
,
us e d in th e o r e ti c al w o r k it is t o b e
r em emb e re d th a t t h e b a s e e is a l w ay s u n de r st oo d j u s t a s i n
m
l
o
d
a r ith m e ti c a l w o rk t h e b a s e 1 0 is i n v a r i ab l
e
e
y
p y
W h e n l oga r ith m s
are
F r om
s e ri e s
t he
the
x i m at e v a lu e o f e c a n b e de t e rm i n e d
r
o
pp
o f a c c u r a c y 3 t o 1 0 p l a c e s o f de c i m a ls it is
t o an y r e q ui re d de g re e
f o u n d t o b e 2 7 1 82 8 1 8 28 4
Ex amp le 1
Find th e su m
1+
b y p t t in
'
o r e
I
4
s erie s f
1 in th e
+
n
su m o
E xa mp l e 2
Find
th e
(
1
s eri es i s
f th e
ax
o ef i ent
c
a
t
th e
ce
hen
E li: I
[
s ri s
W e h av e
an d
inni t e
f th e
f x in th e
"
n s i on o f
e xp a
H IGH ER
192
L G EB RA
(
o v r
22 4
Ex c e p t w h e n x is e r y s m all t h e s e i e s fo r l o g, 1 + x )
is o f litt e u se f r n u m e r i c a l c a l c u l a t i n s W e c an , h w e e ,
de d u c e f r m it th e r s e r i e s b y t h e aid o f whi c h Tab l e s f L ga r
it h m s m ay b e c n st r u c t e d
.
By
o
o
wr i t i n g
s i gn s
on
fo r
o th si de s
l og
n
e
l og
(
()
F r om
1)
n +
an
u
ti
o
q
a
(
n
1)
1)
zu
l o g,
1
g
h
n
ce
e
3
by
h an g i n g
iti o n
3 h e nce
a dd
by
l og
Ob t ai n
we
l o g,
a n
l og
f th e
l og
Fr o m
1)
fo r
ob t i
we
wr iti n g
l ge
By
2n
1
,
2)
3n
3n
5n
this f o rm ul a
b y p utti n g n = 3 we O b t a i n l g e 4
l ge 2 ,
th a t is l o g , 2 3 an d b y e ffe c ti n g t h e c al c ul a ti n we n d th at t h e
w
l
n
n
h
is
k
w
v alu e o f l o , 2
n
e
o
8
e
c
3
g
g,
A gai n b y p utti n g
n d l o g, 1 0
To
o v e r t N p i e ri
a
we m ulti p l y b y
10
;
6
9 we
10
an
ob t ai
w hi c h is
t h e m o du lu
83
w h en c e
o r
we
b ase 1 0
rt 2 1 6
A
[
]
l og
l o g, 1 0
o m m o sy st em a d its v lu e is
we sh ll de o t e this m o dulus b y )
f the
4 3 4 2 9 4 48
I n t h e Pr o ceedin g s of th e Ro y a l So cie ty of L o n d o n , V o l X X V I I
a e 8 8, Pr fe ss r J
A
a
m
s
h
a
i
n
t
h
a
lu
s
C
d
s
e
e
e
o f e, ,a ,
p g
g
l o g, 2 , l o g, 3 , l o g, 5 t m r e th an 260 p l a c e s o f dec i m als
.
22 5
.
O b t ai n f o
Thus
ov
I f we m ultip ly t h e ab
e se ries
r m ul ae a dapt e d t t h e c al c ul ati n
f r om
l
o
g
ge
(
n +
1)
th ro ug h o ut b y p we
O f co mm o n lo g arithms
,
M
n
2n
L
3n
EX
th a t i s
P O N EN TIA L
lo
Si m il a r ly
(
n +
g 10
lo g w n
F r om
1)
10 g l u9z
f rom
108 m
I _
()
1.
2n
7,
19 3
3n
i t h e r o f t h e ab ov e r e sults we se e th a t i f t h e l oga r i th m
o f o n e o f t w o c o n s e c uti v e n u m b e r s b e k n o w n t h e l o g a r i t h m o f
t h e o th e r m ay b e f o u n d an d thus a t ab l e o f l o g a r ith m s c a n b e
c o n st r u c t e d
e
sh o ul d b e r e m a rk e d th a t t h e ab ov e f o rm u l ae a r e o n l y n e e de d
t o c al c ul at e t h e l oga r ith m s o f p r im e n u m b e r s f o r t h e l o ga r ith m
o f a c o m o site n u m b e r m a
b
O
t
ai n e d b
a ddi n
t
o
th
er the
e
b
e
p
g
y
y
g
l oga r ith m s o f its c om p o n e n t fac t o r s
It
I n r de r t c al c ul a t e t h e l g a r ith m f a n y o n e o f t h e s m all e r
m
r
i
e n u m b e r s , w e do n t usu a
su
b
stitut
h
n
m
r
i
n
i
th
er
e
t
e
b
e
e
p
y
O f t h e f r m u l ae 1 ) o r
b u t we e n de a u r t n d s m e
a lu e
o f n b y w hi c h di isi n m ay b e e a sil y p e r f r m e d, an d s c h th a t
We
1 o r n 1 c n t a i n s t h e gi e n n u m b e r a s a f a c t r
e ith e r n
th e n n d lo g n + 1 ) r l o g n 1 ) an d de du c e t h e l ga r ith m O f
t h e g i e n n um b e r
(
v o
o
o
vo
u
o
l ul
E x amp l e
By p t t in
1
Ca
n :
1 0 in
l og 3
l og 2
at e
we
P ut tin g
l og 3
1
3
'
'
a e
0 02 1 7 1 4 7 2
0 001 4 4 7 6 5
0 0001 08 57
0 000008 6 8
0 0000007 2
0 00000006
'
'
an
0054 2 8 6 8 1
l og 2
log 2
=
4 3 4 2 9 448
n
l og 3 0457 57 48 8
l og 3 4 7 7 1 2 1 2 56
ob t i l o g 8 1 l o g 8 0 3 t h u s
we
8 0 in
3 10g 2
l o g 3 g iv e n
h v t h v l u e f l o g 1 0 l og 9 ; t h u s
an
0 4 3 4 2 9 44 8
ll
'
'
0 00033 9 29
9 08 4 8 5024
3 01 029 9 9 7
'
'
0000002 8 3
0 00000003 ;
0053 9 503 2 ,
sh all g i v e an o th e r s e r i e s fo r
lo g n + 1 )
l o g n w hi c h is o ft e n us e ful i n t h e c o n st r u c ti o n o f
L o ga r ith m i c Tab l e s
Fo r f u r th e r i n f o r m a t i o n o n t h e s u b j e c t t h e
the
n ex t
r ti c l e
we
En cy c lo p cedia B ri tan n ic a
13
H I GH ER A L G EBR A
1 94
226
h a v e p r ov e d th at
I n A r t 2 2 3 we
.
l og e l
cha
i
n
g g
a: in
to x
+ x
()
l oge 1
su b t r a c tio n
By
Pu t
10ge
(
+
n +
+ x
1
1
5
6
s o th a t
=
Io ge n
+ x
1)
= x
10D0 e
1
ha v e
we
2n
3 2n
c h apt e
f oll o w in g e x a m pl e s
If
a
l og (
ha t
Si n
ce
1)
b u t in p
ract i ce i s
n o
alway s
il l us
t ra t e th e su bje c t o f th e
E x amp le 1
t
b t al n
Th e
thus
5 we
2n
B are
a,
th e
roo ts o f
th e
a
e q uat io n
b
a
0
z
( ) ( )
1 + ax
1+
a
b x + cx ) = l o g a + l o g (
1+
l og (
2
43
ax
) + log
3
13
1 + 523 )
3 3
x
__lo g a + a x
3
a
3
a
hat th e c o ef ci en t o f x in th e ex pan s io n o f
o r a c c o rd i n g as n i s o r i s n o t a m ul t i p l e o f 3
Pr o
1 + x + x ) is
l og (
2
ve
have
we
m+
z
+ ,8 =
E x amp le
s h ew
"
log (
1 + x + x 2) = lo g
55
2
1
log (
x 3)
log (
1 x)
9
33
+i +
H IG HE R A L G EBR A
196
3
S h e w t h at
l og
(
u
3n
s h e w t h at
'3
Sh e w t h at
5
.
Fin d th e
of de c i m al s
7
Pr o v e
t h at
(
1
1 +x
1 =
(
1
10
an d 1 3 ;
.
y +
(y )
I3
(
r
2
t
h a if awe
an d
g
2
are
e ac h l e ss u n it y
Pr ov e t h a
t
5
d n d
13
n d t h e
3 51 3
14
an d
th e g e eral t e rm of t h s e rie s
Pr o e t h at
n
g e n e ral te rm of th e s e r i e s
Ex p an d
e
6
336
in
1 + ax + a +
ces
an
pl a
'
12
i ee n
o s xt
S h ew
999
c o rre c t t
11
F i n d t h e v al u e of
th m of
1 001
0
0D
Nap ie rian l o ga r i
Pr o xe t h a t
l o ge b
3
.
s er e s of a
i
sc en
dm g p o
we rs o f
x.
7, 1 1
EX PO N EN T I A L A ND
in as c e n d in g p owe rs of
15
Ex pr e ss
16
Sh e w t h a t
211)
17
an
18
(
1
a
1 +
If
20
o
w
e
rs
of
p
lo g
r,
+B
[ l )G
+B
(
u
l +x +x
b e e x pan de d
3
+x
s he w t h at th e c o ef cien t of
an d
if n
+ 1)
b e of th e fo rm
23
Pr o
in
is
"
s e rie s of a s c e n di n g
if
b e o dd o r of
4m
Sh8 W
l o ge
t h at
I f lo g
To
l og 2 = 7 a
c al c ul a t e l
a,
l o g.
2 b + 3 c, l
og
24
+
3
271
25
3
e
53
v e th at
2 l o ge n
0
4
S h e w t h at
24
s hew th at
a
th e fo rm 4 m + 2
23
2
.72
22
wh e r e
S h e w th a t
21
1 97
of th e s e rie s
su
19
+ 10
+ B)
1 , n d th e
If
r o ots of
d B be t h e
10g 1
.
11
l o go ? )
It )
2 lo g,
If a
S ER I ES
L O G A R IT HMI C
1 1a
3 71
I) , l o g,
81
gb
= e
,
s h e w t h at
3 b + 5c, l o g.3 5: 1 6 a
g. 2 , l o g. 3 , lo g. 5 t o 8 p la
c e s o f de c im ls
a
4b + 7c ;
CHA PTER X V I I I
I N T E R E ST
A N N U IT I E S
A ND
2 29
qu e s io n
.
n n
ex
an
u a
u se
ra
nv
sco u n
o r o n e
To n d th e in ter est
230
n t im e a t sim le in ter est
i
v
e
g
p
an
o n
a u e
r esen
o n
er es
or one
am o u n
i
v en
g
su
m in
Le t P b e t h e prin cip a l in
y e a r n th e n u m b e r o f y ear s
,
te es t o f P f
i
t
h
t
3
Th e in
is Pn r
or one
o
u
n
s
r
t
h
e
d
p
I t h e in t e r es t
in
an
y ear
is Pr ,
an
te est o f 1 f
d M t h e am o u t
or one
th e r efo
fo r
y e ar s
s,
1)
A ls o
that i
s,
Fr o m
or
P,
(
M
r,
1)
an
i
i
P
w
e
see
t
h
t
o
f
t
h
e
qu
a
t
t
e
s
if
(
d
m
t
h
ee
b
e
i
e
t
h
e
f
o
ur
t
h
b
e
f
o
u
y
g
y
d 2)
an
I ;
231
To n d th e p r esen t
du e in a g iv en tim e, a llo win g
.
v a lu e an
s imp le
d disco u
in ter est
r,
I,
su
en
i
v
g
L e t P b e t h e giv e n su m V t h e p r e sen t v al u e D t he
th e in t e r e s t o f 1 fo r o n e y e a r n th e n u m b e r o f y e a rs
,
dis
c ou t
n
A L G E BR A
H IG H E R
200
tt
t
t t
t
h e e n d o f h e r s y e a r is PR 3 an d, s in c e
Th e a m o u n o f P a
h is is t h e p r in c ip a l fo r h e s e o n d y e ar , h e a m o u n a h e e n d o f
2
h e s e o n d y e ar is PR x R o r PR
he
Sim il a rl y he a m o u n a
3
h e h ir d y e ar is PR , an d s o o n ; he n e he am o u n in
en d o f
h a is,
n y e a r s is PR 3
t
t
t t
If r
2
+
;
an
is P13
th e
am
f o r o n e y e ar
we have
year s
is PR
oun t of
P in 4
tim e c o tai s
th e
i te rest f
a
or
y ea r
1 in
is
y e a r s a t c ompou n d
th e
Sim il a r l y
on
te es t
1
b us in e s s t r a n s a c tio n s w h e n t h e
o f a y e a r it is u s u al t o al l o w simp le
o f t he y e a r
Th u s t he am o u n t o f
e c k on e d
in
P 13
In
23 3
io n
io n
fr a c t
fr a c t
PR 3
"
de n o t e t h e i n t e r e s t
R
t tt
t
"
I
.
t
c t
"
N O TE
t tt
am o u n t o f P
in
"
I f t h e in t e r es t is pay ab l e m o r e t h a n o n c e a y e a r t h e r e is a
dis tin c t io n b e t w ee n t h e n o m in al a n n u a l r a te o f in t e r es t an d t h a t
a c t u ally r e c e iv e d wh ic h m ay b e c al l e d t h e tr u e an n u a l r a te t h u s
if t h e in t e r es t is p a y ab l e t w ic e a y e a r an d if r is t h e n o m in al
,
a n n u al r a t e o f
in
t e est th e am o u t o f
th e re fo r e
in
t h e w h ol e y e a t h e
an
or
1
T
+ r +
th at t h e
so
tr u
1 in
h alf
am o un t o f
year
1 is
a n n u al r a t e o f
is 1
in
te est
r
is
th e
234
If
th e
t e es t i pay ab l e 9 tim e s a y e a
d if
r t e t h e i t e es t
1 f e a c h i te r v al
l
m
for e th e am o t o f P
y e a rs
t
q
in
n o m in al a n n u a l
an
th e
re
yea r
on
in
un
th is c a se t h e i t e r e s t i
In
im es
t
9
r , an
or
s a id t o b e
or
e r v a s, i s
c o v e r t e d i t o p ri
n
is
is
c pal
i
I N T ER EST
the
t
p
u
2 01
,
,
rx
amo u n
the
nv
N N U ITI E S
t h e i te res t i c o e r tibl e i t o p r i c ip a l e v e r y m om e t
i
l
i
T
d
b
e
c
o
m
es
t
e
y
r
e
a
t
t
h
e
a
l
u
e
o
f
t
he
m
o
u
t
g
g
1
s o th at q
3 t h us
g
If
n
A ND
'
P 1
A
rt
2
20
,
[
s in c e
a:is
in
it e w h e
n
i
s in
q
ite
n
To n d th e p r esen t v a lu e a n d dis co u n t
2 35
du e in a g iv en t im e, a llo win g c o mp o u n d in ter es t
.
i
v
e
n
g
su
th e g i e m V t h e p ese t lu e D th e dis c o u t
R t
t of 1 f
yea r th e u m be o f y ea rs
t t o i t e r es t a t t h e p r e s e t
m w h ic h p t
Si c e V i t h e
tim e w ill i n y e s am o t t o P w e h a e
Le t P b e
h e am o u n
or
o n e
VB 3
"
V
an
ou
un
va
ar
su
su
P 1
'
He r e
L et
b e th e
'
i
_
_
1 00
24
'
um b er o f years ; t he
dR
an
25
51
or
0g
1. g
24
1 26
96
l(
o g 1 00 l o g 9 6 ) = l o g 1 6 l og 3
4 l og 2
log 3
n 2 5 l og 2 l og 3
,
7 2 7 00
th e t m
v ry
e
16
'
67 2
th
24
e arly
H I GH ER
2 02
L G E BRA
EXA MPLES
X VIII
W hen
a;
r e q u ir e d th e fo l lo win g logar i t h m s m ay b e us ed
lo g 2
'
lo g 7
'
30103 00,
lo g 3
8 4 509 8 0,
lo g 1 l
'
47 7 1213,
1 04 1 3 9 2 7
'
F in d t h e am o un t of 1 00 in 50 y e ars at 5 pe r c en t c om p oun d
2 059 4 6 50
i n te r e s t ; g i v en l o g 1 1 4 6 7 4
A t s im pl e in t e r e s t th e in t e r e s t o n a c e r tain s u m of m o n e y is
2
9 0 an d t h e d i s c o u n t o n t h e s am e su m fo r th e s am e t im e an d a t t h e
s am e r at e is 8 0 n d t h e s u m
I n h o w m an y y e ars will a su m of m on e y do u bl e it s e l f at 5 p er
3
c en t c om p o un d in t e r e s t 2
F in d c o rr e c t t o a far t h in g t h e p r e s e n t v al u e o f 1 0000 du e
4
8 y ears hen c e at 5 p er c e n t c om p ou n d in t e r es t ; g i v e n
1
'
lo g 6 7 6 8 3 9 4
m an
In h o
o m p oun d in e r e s ?
5
y y ears w i ll
4 8 304 8 56
b e c om e
1000
2 500 at 1 0 p er
ce t
n
t t
S h ew t h at t Si m pl e i t e r e st the di s c o u t i h l f the h m o ic
6
m d
d t h i t eres t
it
m e a b et wee th e
S h e w t h at m o e y w i l l i c r e s e m o r e t h a
h u dr e dfold i
7
c e tury t 5 p c e t com po u d i te re st
m of m o e y t 6 p
c e t c om pou d i te re s t will
Wh t
8
am ou t t 1000 i 1 2 y e ars ? G i e
c
u e an
su
lo g 1 06
lo g 4 9 6 9 7
2 02 53059 ,
er
ar
on
su
er
4 6 9 63 2 9 2
A NNU I TI ES
an n u it y
is
2 04
H I GH ER
L G EBRA
th e p r e s e t al u e o f a u ities it i a lway s
c us t om a y t o r e ck o c om p o d i t e r es t ; th e e su lt s o btai e d
wh e
s im pl e i t e e s t i r e c k o e d b e i g c o t r a dic t o ry d
t ru s t w o t h y O t his p oi t d f fur t h e i f o m a tio
th e
ities t h
s u bje c t o f
e de m y c o s u l t J o es
th e V l
P
t
A
i
t
i
d
R
i
m
d
t
h
e
t
i
c
l
e
A
iti
f
y
y
i t h e E y c l p di B it
ic
2 39
In
din g
un
nc
2 40
i
v
e
n
g
th e
ae
the
th e p re s e t
th e p re s e t
n
on
s, a n
en
un
on
on
a u e
ar
nn u
es
a n n u ity It t h e a m o u n t o f 1
y e a r s V t h e r e qu ir e d p r e s e n t v al u e
A be
n um b er of
so
an
co n
tin u
or
Le t
an n
o r
To n d t he p r esen t v a lu e of a n a n n u ity to
u m b er of y ea rs, a ll o win g c o m o u n d in t er est
p
w V
a
y
m
e
t
s
;
p
No
al u e o f
in
2
y ea rs
is A 113
yea rs
is A R
alu e o f
A du e in
al u e o f
A du e
in
y ear
o ne
is A R
"
the
is
yea r
A du e
rt
A
[
in
Th e p r e s e n
an
ev er s o n a/r
es a n
n nu
an
an n u
n n
su
o f th e
n t
r
e
s
e
p
th e
al u e s o f
diffe r e n
Alt
AR
A lt
m ay
CO R
o
If
"
.
we m ak e
AR
t o t e rm s
"
N O TE T h i s r e sul t
g i ven in A r t 2 3 8 b y R
al so
[A rt
ob t ai n e d
by
d ivi d in g
th e
l ue o f M
va
in
be
it e
n
we
o b t a in
fo r
t h e p r e se t
n
al u e
IE 1
is
241
s aid
In
I f m A is th e p r ese n t v a l u e o f
t o b e w o r th 7 27 y e ar s p u r ch ase
.
the
th e a uity
c a s e o f a p e rp e t u a l a n n u it y
m
a n n u it y A
an
1 00
1
r
mA
rate
er
ce t
n
h en c e
n n
N TER EST
A ND
N N U IT I ES
2 05
th a t i the u m b e o f y e a rs p ur c h a s e o f pe rp e tu a l a u it y i
o b t i e d b y div idi g 1 00 b y t h e r a t e p c e t
i s t a c e s o f p e r pe t u a l a
u itie s w e m y m e t io t he
A
i c o m e r is i g fr o m i e s t me t s i irr e de e m ab l e St o c k s su c h a s
m a y G o e r m e t Se c r itie s C o r p o r a tio
St o c k s
d R a il w a y
A g oo d t es t o f t h e c e dit o f
D e b e t u es
G o e r m e t i fu r
i h d b y t h e u m b e o f y e a rs p ur c h a se o f it St o c ks 3 t h u s t h e
a r e w o r t h 3 5 y e a r s p ur c h a se ; Egy p t ia
2 p c Co s o l s a t 9 6
4 p
St o c k a t 9 6 i w o r t h 2 4 y e a s p u r c h a s e 3 w h il e A us t r ia
5p
St o c k t 8 0 i o ly w o r t h 1 6 y e s p u ch se
r
s,
a n
%
v
th e
an
ar
d th e p r ese nt
en d of p y ea r s
mp o u n d in ter est
To
o m m en ce a t
co
24 2
in g
e
.
n v
n n
n n
er
v a lu e
an
d to
d efer r ed
an n u
c o n t in u e
a r s,
e
y
or n
ity to
a l lo w
L e t A b e t h e a n n u ity
r
e
s
e
n t v al u e
p
th e a m o u
of
in
yea r V th e
on e
rs t
Th e
m
n t
a
y
e
p
t he p r e s e t
t s a r e r e s pe c t i e l y
He n c e
m en
at
is m a de
alu e s of th e
th e
rst
of
en
1)
p
A
rt
[
+
se c o n d
ye a rs
th ir d
p y
(
p +
AR
1)
AR
(
PH )
AR
AR
"
AR
Th e p r e s e n
COR
a f t e r p y e a rs is g iv e n
.
to
"
AR
:
"
t t
u al
e
r
e
t
p p
tat e is e qu a l
A fr eeh o l d e st at e is an es a e wh i h y ie l ds
c all e d h e r en t ; an d h us h e v al u e o f h e e s
r en
r
e
s
e
e
o
h
e
r e u it y e qu a l
v al u e o f a
n
p p
p
2 43
an n u i y
t e rm s
Alt
AR
P+ 3 )
I
the
t
t
t t
t
I t f oll o w s fr o m A t 2 4 1 t h t if w k ow t h e m b e o f y e a rs
i fa r m w e o b t a i
h
d
ur
c
h
se
t
h
a
t
t
e
a
t
a
y
s
o
e
r
t
o
b
u
y
i
p
p
1
0
i
i
i
0
d
d
d
i
r
a
t
e
c
e
t
a
t
h
c
h
t
e
e
s
t
e
c
k
o
e
b
y
i
w
i
h
t
g
p
b y t he u m b e r o f y e a rs p ur c h a s e
to
er
s r
n u
2 06
H I GH ER
L G E BR A
2 0000
05
l og A
l og A
A
x
'
l og
3 1 2 7 1 3 58 =
1 3 4 0 09 6 ,
an
t t
'
log
re
d th e
t
tt
is
1 3 40 l s 1 1 d
.
c t
t t
Su pp o s e h a a e n a n b y p a y in g do n a e r ain su m
h a s o b a in e d a l e a s e o f a n e s a e f o r p g y e a rs , an d h a wh e n
r en e
l
y
e
a
o
he
e
e
r s h a e e l a p s e d h e wis he s
a se fo r a
rm
g
n e fo r
a
i
l
y
e
he
h
a
h
e
m
us
a
e
h
e
a rs ;
su m
s
l
d
n
+
p y
p
r e n e in g n y e a r s o f h e l e as e
2 44
t t
w t
L e t A b e t h e a n n u a l v a l u e o f t h e e s t at e ; t he n s in c e t h e
t e n an t h a s p aid fo r p o f t he p + n y e a rs t h e n e m us t b e e qu al
t o th e p re s en t v alu e o f a de fe rr e d an n u ity A t o c om m e n c e a fte r
y
e
ar s a n d t o c o n t in u e fo r n y e a r s 3 t h at is
p
,
t h e n
AR
e
AR
"
R_
EXA MPLES
15
,
X VIII
A
rt
[
24 2
s a
en
an
l o g 1 04 5
er
'
019 1 1 6 3 ,
nn
n n
an n u
ar
lo g 2 4 1 1 7
1 3 8 232 60
C HA PTER X I X
IN EQU AL ITI ES
A NY q u an t ity a is said t o b e gr e at e r t h an an o t h e r
2 45
is p o sit i e 3 t h u s 2 is g r e at e r t h an
a
b
3
u an t it y b wh e n
,
q
A l so b is said t o b e l e ss
o r 5 is p o sit i e
b e c au se 2
th an a wh e n b a is n ega ti e 3 t h u s 5 is l e ss t h an 2, b e au s e
3 is n e ga t i e
o r
5
.
v
v
v
v
In
g
co r
e a t e r t h an
d an c e
with t h is d e n it io n ,
u a n tit
n e at i e
an
q
y
g
y
ero
m u st b e
ega r d e d
as
I n t h e p r e se n t c h ap t e r we sh al l su pp o s e u n l e ss t h e c o n t r a ry
is d ir e c tly s tat e d ) t h a t t h e l e tt e r s al way s d e n o t e r e al an d p o sit i e
u a n t it ie s
q
24 6
If
b,
th e n
it
is
v id e t t h t
a + 0 >
+ c
c >
be ;
ac
th a t
an
h o ld after each
o r d iv ided b y th e
h as b een
same
o sit iv e
p
sick
24 7
by
dd in g
If
c
to
e ac h
de
si
b,
a>
If
b,
th en ev id e n tly
is,
th e sides of a n in eq u
in equ a lity m u st b e r ev er sed
th at
3
e t r a n s o sed
h
b
t
e
,
p
y
a lit
sig n
IN EQU A L ITI ES
If
is1
b,
b)
b is p o sitiv e , a n d b
n e o a t iv e , a n d t h e r e f o re
D
th e n
is
sig n s
th e
th e t er m s
a ll
in eq u a lity m u st b e
A ga in , if a
th en
b,
is
n e
tiv e
th at
b 3
h e n ce,
th e sig n
2 09
an
in eq u a lity b e
r ev er sed
b,
an
d t h e r e fo r e
be 3
ac
is,
th e s ides of a n in e q u a lity b e m u l tip lied b y t h e
n eg a tiv e
u a n t it , th e si n o
i
u
l
i
t
m
u
n
e
a
t
s
b e r ever sed
q
y
g
f
q
y
th a t
sa
me
24 8
If
a,
b, ,
+ a
+ a3 +
b2 ,
b3,
b m , it
is
cl
ear
th at
a
an
a a a
24 9
o r
+ am
If
b,
a>
an
d if p , q
7
a
;
b
;
a
tiv e
o si
h
r e fo r e
t
e
d
3
u an tit
y
q
an
b l bz b 3
ar e
bm
tiv e
o si
bm 3
in t e g e r s,
th e n
5
b
is,
th at
"
"
wh e r e
is
an
an
F u r th e r
1
,
Th e
2 50
t h e r e fo r e
E
,
re a e r
u ar
t h at is
t h an z e r o
"
"
e v e ry
Th u s
2ab
(
6
2
i
t
t
is
o sit iv e
q
y
p
b ) is p o sit iv e 3
e al
(
a
u an
2
>
2a b
O3
x y
j;
Sim ila r ly
th at
th a n
Th e in e q u al ity b e
e
m es
an
e q u ality
wh en t h e q u an t itie s
a re
u al
2 51
Th e r e su l t s o f t h e p r e c e d in g ar t ic l e wil l b e f o u n d e r y
u se f u l , e s e c ial l
h
i
n
t
e c a s e o f in e u alit ie s in wh ic h t h e le t t e r s
p
y
q
a re in o l e d s m m e t r ic a ll
y
y
.
v v
1 1L
H I G H ER A LG EBRA
210
E x a mp l e 1
an
If
b,
a,
den o te p os it ive q u an t it i e s
wh
by
en c e
dd it i on
I t m ay b e
oti
a n
ce
at
e al v al
at
> 26 a ;
+ b > 2ab ;
be
hi r s
I) ?
ab .
ca
i s true f r
e u lt
1)
(
Ag i from
an y
be
bc
w it i
By
d o wn
s im il i
t h e t wo
ar
()
ho l d
f to b +
l o g r h ol d
It
ac
c,
n eq
3) i s
s v d th t (
h t i f thi f t b
be ob
an d t
er e
ob
ac o r
If
(
c
an
a
ddi
No w
g , we
ob t i
a n
rd i
If a :
wh i h i s
n d
+1
or
+x
o di
ac c r
n g a s a:
H
n
(
a
ve
if S is gi
S is l e ast wh e n
e n ce ,
b)
b)
an
is
d S
a =
(
a
B
:
e a t e st
or
4P = S
a:
e at e
en c e
4 ab
we h a
1)
v
.
L e t a an d b b e t wo p o sitiv e q u an t it ie s, S
d P t h e ir p r o d u c t 3 t h en f r o m t h e id e n t ity
2 52
th e g
(
( )( )
( (
+1
i s p o s i t ive
as a:+
1,
a:
a:
v lu
re al
a e an y
that
2 ) b y i t r o du c i g th e
i ed fr om (
l
i
v
h
e
i
u
l
i
t
3
w
i
a
t
t
e
a
e
q
)
g
y ( l n
ta
ve
) + ab
e ne
hv
m ay
a;
i
g
b,
Ex a mp le 2
2
1 o r x + zv
ac co
u al it i e s
b + c + ca
ues of a
()
b + e > be b +
an
b + e > 2b e
c
rov t h
F or
b)
t h e ir
su
2
,
4P +
wh e n
b)
a =
2
.
b3
an
d if P is
b;
th e
su
H I GH ER A L G EB RA
21 2
2 54
is
a lu e of a b c
h
e
r
e
a
t
e
s
t
v
d
t
g
t ; m, n ,
b ein g p o sitive in teg er s
To
c o n s ta n
Sin
ce
m,
c o n s an
are
f m
He e
w ill
n c
a r e all e
Fi d
ex
um er i c ally
e
+ c +
en e x
le
su
en c e
vi
al u
e at e
an a
wh o s e
su
th e r e fo r e
is
co n
fa c t o r s
+ c +
st v
al
+ c +
ue o f
() (
a
ea e
) for
4
re
en
e 18
en
s ex
r ea e
an y
e al
v lu
a
r ea es
l a st
th is
is
is
e at e
or x=
st ; b
or
2a ;
us
r e ss
Bu t
a +
ac
will
an
e ssio n
fa c t o r s
s th
Th g iv
i o i gr t s t wh
p
E
th
m f th f t or o f t h i
ss
i
o
i
p
(
h (+ ) ( ) i s g t st wh Egq if
6
8
T h th g t t v l u
7
x n
b e g r e a t e s t wh e n t h e
th e g
Th u s t h e g r e a te s t
of
is, w h en
u
al t h a t
q
E x a mp le
+ n +p
o r
wh en
is g r eat e st
is t h e p ro d u c t
e x pr e ssio n
the
ts
wh e n
t t
s an
"
r ea e s
g
7
a .
E x a mp le
is
m ax imu m
D en o t e
th e p
ro du
Divi d e an
dd
t eg er
in t o
t wo
t eg
al
r t wh s
pa
ro d
u ct
t h e n t e ger b y 2 n + 1 3 th e t wo p a t s b y
2
=
2
e
n
ct b y y ; t
n +1 x
en c e
x
y ;
)
h (
wh
an
d 2u + 1
; an d
I NEQUAL ITI ES
i
b u t th e q u an t ty
be g
eat er
an
v lu
m u st b e
an
+1
2 56
th e
1
+
+u
wh i h cas e
+ u 3 in
mu t b e p
c al
So m e t im e s we m a y
or n
a
2
r di
3 an d
Fin d
+x =y 3 t
si o
ex p r e s
H en c e
en
y) b
r ss i
exp e
re
on
is
on
5
.
is
If
ne
2
er
+b
e th o d
+b
th e
sq
()()
/a
rs
th e
1,
an
su
an
an
5: S
11
ew
t h at
u are t e rm i s
ro
z e
ro ; t h
at
an
4 a b xy
Ba b e
p o siti
r eal
q u an t t y
+y
2=
1,
h ew t h
h w th t (
y y
F i d wh i h i t h g
b
P ov th t b
P v th t G b
b
Sh w t h t b
S
10
X IX
ax
b
(
(
y)
b
b
)
)
(
)
(
(
my )
If
If
ar e n
/( H
+2
+ by < 1
ax
ew
ax
ab
l ess t
2=
wh en
m i n im u m
d in g val u e o f x i s
P r o v e t h at
P r o v e t h at
Sh ew t h at
ea e
v lu i s
m i n i m um
or sp
re c i r o c al
i s
y)
ot
t st
c an n
EXA MP LES
.
e e
v lu of
min i m u m
th e
th e
T h u s th
is in
t h e fo llo wm g m
u se
Jy
d th e
d t
e , an
ce
= n + 1,
an
h r for y
m
t g r l t gr
y
or ; th u s th tw p r t s
os i t iv
E x a mp le
Pu t
u n d e r th e
213
a 3
2 2
c
2 2
0 a
an
(
y
2
tr
3ab
r eat e r
a e
2
z
()
b
lo
?
e
at
or a
g
?
2b
108
9x y
2 2
2
3
.
4
.
()
b (b
ea
a
ab
c
b)
an
d it s
H I GH ER A L G EB RA
21 4
W h ic h is t h e g
12
13
14
19
d t h e m i n im u m
8
9x
h ew t h
Sh w t h
S
If
be
th at
Sh ew
(y
x
al u e o
o
i
s
p
val u
tiv e
ew
th at
21
Sh e w t h at
1)
22
7 an d
23
(
r
+
sin c
ha
at
+ 1 1 m ay b e
2,
an
al u e
val
an
ew
at
d b
is a
we r s
l)
o si ti v e
p
en x
i
o
v
a
n
s
t
i
e
p
l ie s b e twee n
u ne u a
q
p r op er fr a c tio n
a
a +
ar e
>
2 + 33
2 +x
we m ay
po
wh en m
t h an
5+ x
ue 0
() ()
(
)
(
)
f
of 7
ve
en d in g
d t h e m ax im u m
"
a sc
an
(
n
is l es s
1 2 x + 4 0,
1 + n x/
t h e m in mu m
ex pr e ssio n s in
f 502
in t ege r gr eater t
t h e m axim u m
der
ex c ep
We
or
v
.
i v e val u es o f x ?
To p r o v e tha t
in
v
.
if
an
Fi n d
2 57
m
m
a + b
w
a
F in d
2
+z)
"
20
(
(
)
+ x + 2 fo r p o s it
5ax + 9 a
2n
f 24 x
18
2
13a x
Fi
al u e o
th an
17
or x
t h e gr e ate s t
3
32 + l 7 x
15
16
th at
ew
F in d
r
t
e
r
a
g
3
r ea e r x
ex pan d e ac h
A
rt
[
b
3
o
l,
an
t h e se
H I GH ER A L G EB RA
21 6
He ce
l o n g a s a n y t wo o f t h e q u an t it ie s a , b ,
a re u n e u al
q
so
"
'
"
'"
to
an
d th e
al u
en ce
fa
wh e n
"
"
"
b,
a,
ar e u n
"
th en
e q u al
be
m es
If
t h at
t t e d v e r b ally
Th e p r o po sit io n m ay b e
Th e
a r ith m eti
is g r ea ter th an th e
ex c ep t wh en m lies
* 2 59
o sitiv e
If
u an
a an
s a
as
f o llo ws
db
ar e
tity ,
o sitiv e
in teg er s,
an
a>
b,
an
be
Fo r
2
th e
e e
s ri s
o n sis
e e
s ri s
fa
1
l
b
th e
tin g
x
o n sis
tin g
fb
t erm s 3
x
I
E
t e rm s
an
ft e r th e se c o n d t e r m e ach t e r m o f
c o r r e s o n dl n
e
rm o f
t
2) 3 m o r eo v e r t h e
p
g
is g r e a t e r t h an t h e n u m b e r o f t e r m s in
is e stab lish e d
A
l ) is g r e at e r t h an t h e
l)
n u m b e r o f t e r m s in
ro
o sit io n
e
n e the
h
3
p p
IN EQU A L ITI ES
*
26 0
To p r o v e th a t
if x
an
Fo
d y
ar e
rO
er
r a c t io n s a n
cc
o r din
as
lo g
an
lo g
$i
A
rt
[
2 26 3
]
i
i
; :
lo g
d t h u s t h e p r o po sit io n
* 26 1
is
+ x
ro
ved
To p r o v e th a t
x
a+ b
d edu
lo g
<
o r
an
i i:
:
Bu t
an
d p o sitiv e,
> o r
217
ce
th a t
D en o te
by P3
2x
H c
en
lo g P
is
73
{B
t iv e
i
o
s
p
(
1
th e n
an
d t h e r e fo re P > 1 3
x
<
1,
an
d to
H I GHE R A L G EB RA
218
In
th is r e su l t
t
p
x =
:
z
wh er e
u >z
th e n
>
13
1
_
13
o r
() ()
u
+z
+ z = a,
XIX b
.
3
b e rs is
.
h w th t 2 7 (+ b + )
Sh w t h t (
8
+ 1)
Sh w t h t t h
m f th m p
m
1
t th
i
f
m
1
+
g
()
r ea e r
If a
an
ar e
in
ov h
7
8
If
wt
is
os
b,
n >
If
a,
th
+n
o
we r s
f th e
if
ar e
at
e su
d ,8
an n
h w th
He n c e
EX A MPL ES
>u
9"
2u
a +
No w p u t
rst i t v
e
i ti v e
n
u
a
q
1 th e
i ties
al u e
an
B, sh e w t hat
l i e s b et we e n 2
1+
f m agn it u de ,
lo g
i ve
po s ti
1 +a
m
'
in tege r
1
76
an
+1
lo g 1
d
l
at
en n u
1,
"
if m
wt
at
wt
at
an d
XX
C HA PTER
26 2
IMITIN G V AL U ES
IF
b e m ad e
we
by
t ak in g
wh e n
a
s
is
A gam , t h e
as
th u s
p
s m al l
wh e n
esse d
by
as
t h is
t h e lim i t
f rac ti o n
C
is
e ro
su
to
is
a
Is z
x
I n c r e ase s
h as
c an
n o
is
ero
ero
n ite
in
as n
ab
ce
r
asin
e a r ly
r
fr a c tio n
th e
as
e v iat e d
c
S
an
th at
we pl e ase
by
i
n
y g,
sa
d e c r e ase s
as x
m ak e
z ero
tity
f c ie n tly
u su a ll
5
6
wh e n
u an
we pl e ase we
i
n
y g,
sa
pp
r o x 1 m at e
e n o u gh
O
In n i te
lar g e
t n it e
we pl e a se b y
a
m ak e
c an
V AN I S H IN G F RA C TI O N S
A ND
c o n s an
a s sm all a s
i s,
la rg e
as
96
l im it 3
t h e l im it
an
th is
f
is
d b y m ak m g
as
is
we pl e ase ;
u su all
ex
i fi it e
n
Th e sy m b o l 00 is u se d t o d en o t e t h e v alu e o f an y q u an t ity
wh ic h is in d e n it e ly in c r e a se d , an d t h e sy m b o l 0 is u se d t o
d e n o t e t h e v al u e o f an y q u an t ity wh ic h is in d e n it ely d im i
n ish e d
.
IMITIN G V A L U ES
Th e t wo s t a t e m e n t s
26 4
s m b o l ic a l ly a s f o l lo w s
y
a;
1 8 00
is
th en
0,
Is
f A r t 2 6 2 m ay
th e n
221
n o
03
IS
00
:
1:
B u t in m ak in g u se o f su c h c o n c ise m o d e s o f
m u st b e re m e m b e r e d t h a t t h ey a r e o n ly c o n e n ie n t
e r b al s ta t e m e n t s
o f f u ll e r
w ritt e n
w be
r e ssio n
ex
it
p
ab b r e ia t io n s
Th e s t u d e n t will h a v e h a d n o d if c u l ty in u n d e r st a n din g
t h e u s e o f t h e w o r d limit, wh e r e v e r we h a v e a l re a dy e m p l o y e d it 3
b u t a s a c l e a r c o n c e p t io n o f t h e id e a s o n v e y e d b y t e wo r d s
lim it a n d lim itin g v a l u e is n e c e ssa r y in t h e h ig h e r b r an c h e s o f
Ma t h e m at ic s we p ro c e e d t o e x plain m o r e p r e isely t h e ir u se an d
m e an in g
265
.
a n d if w h e n x a
D E F I NI TI O N
f y =f
ro ac h es a
pp
c a n b e m a d e t o d iffe r b
a l u e a , t h e f u n c t io n f
a s l itt l e a s
y
we p l e a se f ro m a x e d q u a n t ity b , t h e n b is c all e d t h e l imit o f
w
h
n x
a
e
y
266
Fo r in st an c e , if S
1
l
+
e re
8 is
t he
th e n
'
d en o te
su
1
2
f u n c t io n
an
as
n
we
a se b
i
n c r e a s in
l
e
p
y
g
is in n it e
th at
te r m s
f the
e r ie s
rt
A
[
1
1
c an
b e made
2
is, t h e l im it
"
fS
s m all
as
is
w h en
26 7
e sh all o ft e n h a e
c o n sis t in g o f a s e r ie s o f t e r m s
so m e c o mm o n l e tt e r , s u c h a s
.
wh e r e t h e
in d e p e n d e n t
u n l im ite d
c f ie
oe
o
x,
a ,x
ts
an
o ,
d th e
a x
d e al w it h e x p r e ssio n s
a r r a n e d a cc o r d in
o we r s o f
t
o
g
g
p
c a sio n
a x
1 ,
n u
to
2 ,
mb e r
3 ,
are
te rm s
n it e
m ay b e
u an
t it ie s
q
l im it e d
o r
I t w ill
t h e re f o r e
the
c o n n e c t e d w it h
c e r ta in c o n d it io n s
.
b e c o n e n ie n t t o d isc u ss
lim it in g
al u e s o f s u c h
so
ex
m e p r o p o sit io n s
p
r e ssio n s
u n
der
H I GHE R A L G EB RA
22 2
26 8
Th e lim it
wh en
th e
ser ies
a x
a x
,
a x
Su pp o s e t h a t t h e
e e
s ri s
is in de n itely di m i n ishe d is
o n sis s o
f an in n ite
L e t b b e t h e g re at e st o f t h e c o e f c ie n t s
S 3 th e n
l e t u s d e n o t e t h e g i e n se r ie s b y a o
n u
a,
mb er
2 ,
f t er m s
s ,
an
3
an
d if
l , we h a
ve
S<
bx
l
Th u s w h e n x is in d e n it ely d im in ish e d , S
l
a se 3 h e n c e t h e l im it o f t h e g iv e n
e
s m al l a s w e
p
If
s r ie s
th e
t h an in t h e c ase
sitio n is t r u e
o
p
c o n sis s
we h a v e
n ite
n u
d ered
o n si
mb er
h en c e
c an
e e is
s ri s
m ade
a
as
t e r m s S is l e ss
r
i
t
h
o
r
o
t
i
e
ro
f
p
26 9
I n th e
s er ies
a
+ a l x + a2 x
+ a3 x
Th e
ra
tio
t e rm
f the
a x
u
"
x + a
u
+2
the
to
su
al l
t h at f o l l o w
it is
a x
a
d I
Wh e
we
+ 1
is
we
l
a se
e
p
a s sm al l as
as
"
+2
iZ
- -
in d e n it ely sm al l t h e
l
a se 3 t h a t is, t h e f r a
e
p
d en o m in a t o r
c ti
on
c an
c an
b e ma d e
b e m ade
a s l ar e
g
A gain , t h e
r e c e d e it is
p
ra
t io
f the
t erm
a x
:
3
"
wh e r e y
+l
_,y
to
the
a _ y
n
2
su
a ll
th a t
H I GHER A L GEB RA
224
V A NI S H IN G F RA C TI O N S
27 1
is
Su pp o se it
re
r e d t o n d t h e l i mit
i
q
2
If
2a
ax
x
the
wh e n
we pu t x
r o a h es t h e
a
pp
al u e a
Su b s t it u t in g
It
w ill
pp
r o ach
al u e z e r o
as x
h fo r
a
x
t he n
h,
+ ax
x,
2a
3 ah
3a
wh en
d
3
an
2ah
It is in d e n it e ly
2a
t h e l im it
sm al l
t h is e x p r e ssio n
Th e r e is h o we v e r
x
+ ax
x
an
d if we
3
5
as
n ow
b e fo r e
an o
2a
th e r
way
f r e ga r d in g t h e q u e st io n 3 fo r
( )(
(
2 a)
x +
x +
x + a
t
p
u
th e
x = a
al u
2a
f th e
e x pr
e ssio n
is
If
ve e
in t h e g i
m pl i
si
2a
ax
,
fo u n d t h a t
it will b e
t io n
e ssio n
it
we p u t
a ssu
m es t h e
b efo r e
f o rm
t he
f wh i h is in d e t e r m in a t e ; al so we s e e t h a t it h a s t his
fo r m in c o n se q u en c e o f t h e fa c t o r x a ap pea ri n g in b o t h
n u m e r at o r an d d e n o m in a t o r
No w w e c a n n o t d i id e b y a z er o
t
o
r
b
u
a
l
h
a
c
t
s
o
n
l
a
t
e
a
c
t
e
e
f
t
a
s
i
n
a
l
l
u
a
t
o
or
x
s
t
b
s
u
o
o
,
f
g
y q
x
a m ay
b e r e m o e d , a n d we t h e n n d t h a t t h e n e a r e r x
a
r o ac h es t o
h
l
t
h
a
u
h
a
l
e
u
h
e
e
d
e
t
e
o
f
e
t
n
r
r
s
e
t
e
a
e
a
o
,
pp
3
f r a tio n appr o x im at e t o 1 , o r in a c o r d an e with t h e d e n itio n o f
al u
A rt 2 6 6,
.
Wh n
(
t,
2a
th e
Of
3
IS
V A NI S H IN G F RA C TI O N S
If f
27 2
b ec o m es
.
f ra c t io n
Frac t io n
an
e qu a l
f
) t ke
(
(
)
a
<
15
fo r
fo r m 9
t he
vi
If
r ss i o
3 fr
to
1
Wh
en
u ir e d l im i t
5x + 7 x
x
re
om
5x
du ces
fr ac t i o n
Th e
i i
3 t
in g
b y p u tt
E x amp l e 3
re
an
d u c es
rm i t form o f b t b y
d om i tor t h fr ti
w
h
i
h
i
s
f or th
th
i
e te
na e
en
to
n a
ac
on
er e
3 1 :_ a
c + d
/(
jj
r io
= a we n d t
d en o
en
na
e s
u rd co n
b ec m es
en
Th e fr act l o n
an
s 3wh m
m i t o b y th
b eco m e
To n d its l im t , p u t
u
t h e f act n
Th s
in d
t o th e
hi s
u i
3x
en ce
an ish in g
To n d it s l m t , m l t p ly n u m er at r
t
e fr act o n t
h
a
3
x
a
t
e
t
o
x
a
;
g
n u m e at o r
E x amp l e 2
ju
all e
i i of
ex p e
fac
290 4
"
re q
3 , n d th e l m t
x:
3 , th e
g th e
f x , e a c h o f wh ic h
al u e a o f x
the
,
mo
is
an
re
t wo
are
E x a mp le 1
Wh en
fu n c t io n s
so m e p a r t ic u l a r
d g6
ero
to
22 5
1
1
i i is
th e l m t
at
" c
9 when
b eco m es
= 1 + h an
1+
b y th e
1
x:
e xp an
J 23
.
Bi
no
m i al
Th o
e rem .
h2 +
l
'
1
+
No w h : 0 w
en x
=1 ;
en c e
th e
h_
eq
u i re d l i m i t i s
e q u at io n
H H A
27 3
So m e t im e s t h e r o o t s o f an
d e t e r m in at e fo r m in o n se q u e n c e o f
b e t we e n t h e c o e f c ie n t s o f t h e e qu a t io n
.
so
me
r ela
a ssu
t io n
me
in
s u b s i t in g
an
15
H I GH ER A L G EB RA
22 6
e x a m pl
Fo r
if
ax
()
a
d,
= cx
d b,
e x =
x
a
Bu t if
t h en
a,
o r 00
th at
in d e n it el y g r e a t if t h e
e e qu atio n is
in d e n it el y sm all
sim p l
e co mes
is, t h e
ro o
is
c o e f c ie n
27 4
so l u
Th e
tio n
I f
ab
ua
a
e
'
su
be
tio n
0,
pp
c me
o
ab
th en
o se
'
x an
ca
d y
su
by
s ax
by
e qu atio n s
f th e
bc
IS
ab
'
c a
'
'
b o t h in n it e
ar e
b stit u tin g
fo r
'
In
t h is
the
c a se
e co n d
If g
is
n o
77 b
e qu al
to
c,
e q u atio n s
t h e t wo
by
te t e rm s
an
ax
an
ax
in
+ by +
o n sis ten
If m
c
ar e n o
ch
is
d iffe r
e qu al
sin c
a ssu
an n o
to
w id en t ic al
He e
ea
c,
sa
t h eir
ly in
tis e d
we h a
ve
by
an
9
a
fo r m
0 an d
an
ea
d th e
an
fx
d t h e t wo
0 the
c a
so l u
v v
n it e v alu e s
w
n t
a se
h
a
r
e
e
e
h
s
i
e
n
t
,
p
in o l in g two u n k n o w n s, a n d su c h
b y an u n limit e d n u m b e r o f al u e s
fa c t
ab so l u
d b e in g
an
dy
e qu atio n s
bc
me th e
be
on
tio n is
v e e ally
r
an
v al u
an
in deter min a te
on
e qu atio n
rt
A
[
es
ly
dy
In
e q u atio n
b e sat is e d
on e
m ay
H I GHER AL G EB RA
2 28
EX A MP L ES
XX
Fin d t h e l i m i ts o f t h e follo wi
(
( )(
h
1)
2x
7x
(
(
en
x = oc
3
4x
22 3
F in d
Z
:ii
e _ e
x
lo g
11
"
5)
12
13
2a
1+
1
x2
4
(
(
a
14
2x )
w
1
x
2 2
(
(
+ a
co
en
x =
en
x =
en
a
.
2a
18
5x
3x + 1 )
i
x)
x _ a
17
3) 2
m
a
m
x _
e
e
15
16
7x
+9
10
x
lo
en x =
Jx
2
x
2x
x =
wh en
+ )
( ( )(
(
7
(
(
x
x =
en
3x
2x
t h e lim it s
(
1
(
(
2
h
2)
1 + x)
5
17
e x p r e ssio n s ,
5x )
)
9)
6x + 4
3 + 2x
_n
,
lo g
wh e
wh
en
en
n = oo
n = oo
v h en
x =
en x = a
CHA PTER X X I
RG ENC Y A ND
27 6
by
so
D I V ERG EN C Y
S ER I ES
OF
is c al l e d a ser ie s ; if t h e s e r ie s t e r m in a t e
it is c al le d a n it e se rie s ; if t h e n u m b e r
it is alle d a n in n it e serie s
me
m e a ss
te rm s is
so
at
we
sh al l
d en o te
u su all
+ u
a s
e r ie s
by
+
It
Su pp o se t h a t w e h a v e a se r ie s c o n sist in g o f n te r m s
Th e su m o f t h e se rie s will b e a f u n c t io n o f n 3 if n in c re a se s
in d e n it e ly , t h e su m e ith e r t e n d s t o b e o m e e q u al t o a e r t a in
n it e limit, o r el se it b e c o m e s in n it e ly g r e at
27 7
A n in n it e se r ie s is sa id t o b e co n v erg e n t w h e n t h e su m
r st n t e r m s c an n o t n u m e r i all y e x ee d so m e n it e
o f the
b
w
e
v
e
r
r eat n m a
e
u an t it
h
o
y
q
y
g
in n it e s e r ie s is said t o b e div e rg e n t w h e n t h e su m o f
t h e r s t n t e rm s c an b e m a d e n u m e r i ally g r e a te r t h an a n y n it e
r eat
u an t it
t
ak in
su f ie n t l
b
it
q
y y
g
y g
A
If w e
n d t h e su m o f t h e r s t i t t e r m s o f a gi e n
s e rie s , we m a
a s e r t ain w h e t h e r it is
n e r e n t o r d i e rg e n t
o
y
g
b y e x am in in g wh e t h e r t h e s e r ie s r e m ain s n it e , o r b e c o m e s ih
n it e , w h e n n is m a d e in d e n it e ly g r e a t
27 8
c an
c v
Fo r
e x am p l e
the
su
f the
r st
it
is
t e rm s
1
l
x
x
o
"
f the
se r i s
H I GHER A L GEB RA
230
If
n it e
is
n u
l
e ss
y
d th e
th an
e e
s ri s
an
b e m ad e gr ea ter
d i e rg e n t
d by
t h an
an
1, t h e
th an
t ak in g
c v
on
1, t h e
su
n it e
su
is t h e r e f o r e
m e r ic ally gr e at e r
all
an
is
m eri
l im it
If
n u
su
f cien tly
tity ;
u an
If
e e
s ri s
If
1 , t h e su m
is d i e r g e n t
x =
f the
r st
t e rm s is
th e
1, t h e
e e
s ri s
e co m e s
f an e e n n u m b e r o f t e r m s i
o f an
o dd n u m b e r o f t e r m s is 1
b e twee n t h e
T
al u e s 0 a n d 1
wh i h m ay b e alle d o scilla tin g o r p er io
Th e
su
27 9
Th e r e a r e m an y a se s in w
o f n d in g t h e s u m o f t h e r st n t e r m s
t h e r e fo r e t o in e stigat e r u l e s b y wh i
e rg en c y o r d i e rgen y o f a giv e n se
.
v
v
su
mm at io n
L et t h e
e e
s ri s
d en o t e d
u
+ u
by
u
wh e r e
Th e giv e n
fo r m s :
m ay b e writt e n in
se r i s
e ac h
( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) (
F
t
t
(
)
t ve
tt
f
t
t
(
)
te
t
e e
e e
c
u
f the
fo ll o win g
m 1 we see h a t h e su m o f an y
a
si i
u an i
an d
ro m
2
o
h
a
h
t
e
;
p
q
y
o f
r m s is l e ss
h an u l 3 h n c t h e s r i s is
ro
mb er
su m o f
nu
on
an
v e ge t
r
t er m s is
nu
m b er
H I GHER A L G EB RA
23 2
r o m a n d after s o me
A n inn ite ser ies is o n v er g en t
f
x d ter m th e r a tio of ea ch ter m to th e p r ecedin g ter m is n u mer ica lly
less th an so m e q u a n tity which is itself n u m er ica lly less th an u n ity
2 84
e e
b eg in n in g
s ri s
Let th e
d let
an
wh er e
<1
<
r,
fro m
x e d t e r m
the
< r,
d en o t e d
by
< r,
3
Th e n
u
1+
u
u
3 +
)3
t
<
I s,
He e th
n c
sm c e r
i
g
ve
<
e e
s ri s
is
co n
I n t h e e n u n c ia t io n
285
s h o u l d n o t ic e t h e sig n i an
.
c c
e d te m
r
f t h e p r e c e d in g
e o f t h e w o r ds
o
ar
tic l e
fr o m
t h e Lst u de n t
an
fte r
C o n sid e r
v e ge t
the
s r ie s
u
ere
u
"
n a;
d b y t ak in g n su f c ie n tly l a r g e w e c an m ak e t h is r a t io ap
r o x im a t e t o x a s n e ar l
w
l
a se , a n d t h e r a t io o f e ac h t e r m
a
s
e
e
p
y
p
t o t h e p r e e d in g t e r m will u l t im a t e l y b e x
e n c e if x < 1 t h e
s e r ie s is
o n v e rg en t
an
Bu t t h e
th a t
is,
un
til
ra
will
tio
ma
Fo r
e x am
b e gin t o
a c as
as
d e c r e ase
e ss t h a n
1,
e o f a c o n v e rg en t se rie s
c e r t a in p o in t an d t h e n
If x
t be l
un
til
<
13
l
e
p ,
n o
H e w h ve
i
c
e
e
t
y
p
er
99
2
th e n
1 00
th
u n t il a ft e r t h e 1 00
1 00,
te rm
an
in wh ic h t h e
b egin t o d e
d the
te r m s
ce e
t e rm s
do
as
no
A N D D I V ERG EN C Y
c o N V ERG ENC Y
S ER I ES
or
23 3
L e t t h e x e d t e rm b e d e n o te d b y u ,
f t h e r a t io is e qu al t o
u n it , e a h o f t h e su c ee d in
r m s is e u al t o u
t
e
a
h
n
d
t
s
u
m
e
,
g
y
q
,
o f n t e r m s is e u a l t o n u l 3 h e n c e t h e s e r ie s is d i e r e n t
q
g
If
is g r e a t e r t h an u n ity , e a c h o f t h e t e r m s a ft e r t h e
t e rm is g r eat e r t h an u , , an d t h e su m o f n t e r m s is g r e a t e r
i
h
n
h
s
r
i
s
s di e r en t
e
e
e
e
n u
t
e
3
g
l
ed
x
th e
ra
t io
th a n
I n t h e p r ac t ic a l a pp lic at io n o f t h e se t e st s, t o a o id
28 7
h a in g t o a sc e r t ain t h e p a r tic u l a r t e r m a ft e r w h ic h e a c h t e r m is
e
r e a t e r o r l e ss t h an t h e p r e c e d in g t e r m , it is c o n
n ie n t t o n d
g
.
t h e lim it
be
d en o te d
l , the
tity
He e
co n
u a l ly
tin
A rt
all
.
wh ic h is
t e st
th e
n c
y pp
28 6
pp
r o a c h in
o l
t
g
sh all
u se
as
g to
a se
we
t h an
If
as
its lim it wh en
c an n o
an
n am
an
d y e t g r e a te r
h o we
it
e r,
>
is
n it e
y
t h an A
1 but
co n
se r i s
it s lim it , t h e
16
L im
wh e n
u
n
E x a mp le 1
en
is
d iv e rge t
n
by
t h e lI m I t
ch i
c
fa il s
f A rt 284
Hem
en
In n ite
r e v ia
tio n
et
er
th e
e n
th
te m
nx
L im
ll
_1
1)
(
n
18
+ 1)
n
f the
wo rds
s ri s wh os
e
it I S
ab
Fi d wh
or div rg
an
as
n
v rg
ro a
I n t h is
itse l f l e ss
it
t in u
l im it
i n cr eas ed
t h is
by
1 bu t
u an
in d e n it e ly in c r e a se d 3 le t
is
e rie s is c o n v e rge n t [ A r t
1 t h e se r ie s is d iv e r g e n t
A
rt
[
= l
t h e se r ie s m ay b e e it h e r c o n v e r g e n t o r d iv e r g e n t
fu rt h e r t e st will b e r e qu ir e d 3 fo r it m ay h ap pe n t h a t
w h en
"
If A
If A
If A
an
2
.
13
co n
H I GHER
23 4
if
if
en c e
If
1, t
E x amp le 2
en
L im
Is th e
< l th e
>1
1,
He
en
or div rg
en
se
an
ri
+3
L im
if
i
1 th e
E x amp l e 3
s ri
I n th e
fu rt her t e s t is r e q u i re d
+4
u m
x.
s r i s i o v rg
s i i div r g t
1 th e
b ec o m e s 1
ser es
es
s c n
if x > 1 t h e
If
t?
H en ce
1 +2
v rg
ser e
r
co n
GEB RA
i s is c o verg n t ;
th e se i e s i s d iv r gen t
AL
er e s
en
en
an
o vi o u sly div rg
d is b
en
es
n
nu
L im
t;
L im
( 1) d
n
d)
lb
hus if
i e s i s c o n ve r g e
< 1 t h e se r
t,
an
d th e
su m
i s n ite
[ See A rt
6 0,
C or ]
.
L e t t h e t w o in n it e
an
e e
s ri s
alu
f ra c t io n
f th e
u
l+u
is th e r e fo r e
u
He e
n c
e is
se r i s
ro
if
a
u
one
d l
f the
f rac tio n s
A
"
v"
u an
tity
u
L
L
sa
y 3
(
v
+ v3 +
e i s n it e in v al u e so is t h e o th e r ; if
v al u e
so is t h e o t h e r 3 wh ic h
r o v es
p
se r i s
in n it e in
1t i o n
o
s
p
an
n ite
+
+ u
l ie s b e twe e n t h e g r e a t e st
by
Th e
an
d en o te d
be
one
the
H I GHER A L GEB RA
236
E x a mp le
rov t h
th e
at
se i e s
+1
is div erg en t
a e
Th u s i f
uxili ary
Com p r
a
t h e gi
an
u ,,
v s r s W th
e ie
en
de
vn
ec
1
+
ot
s r i s r s p t i v ly
e
we
th e
hv
of
t erm s
th
th e g
ive s er i e s
an
d th e
a e
an
+1
+ 1
vn
L im
en c e
v rg
di
se
un
vn
en
B u t th e
r i s i div rg t
T h i s om pl t
s
en
lim it
sh o u
f
1
au x 111 a r
se r l
a x
th e
a u x i l i ar
E xa mp le 1
d ivergen t
As
s ri s
di v r g
e
en
ii vn
th e
Bu t t
t
er e
en
en
A rt
287
is
will b e t h e
e c e ssa r y t h a t
c a se
we
if
n d
the
our
2 7 0,
an
m ay b e
t ak e n
as
the
th
t erm
s ri
th e
at
es
o se
th
r is
te m
'
13
3n 3 + 2 n + 5
e n ce ,
e e
f t h e giv en se r ie s an d r e tain o n ly t h e
D en o te t h e r e su l t b y v ; t h en t h e l im it o f
ap p
ro im t s t
a e
2
s
a
h
t h r for
t,
en
7
2
o h o v rg t or b o th
for l so th g v
th
b t
are
f A r t 2 8 8 it
h w th
i cr as e s
is
it e ; t h is
term
th
e es
se
t h e fo ll o wm g wa y
s ri
ri s
d iv r g
t wo
f Ex am p l e 1
li
c a t io n
pp
es l n
it e b y A r t
e i es
so l u t o n o
ld b e
Ta k e u , t h e n
h ig h e st p o w e r s o f
i
Z
th e
In t h e
e e
e es
29 1
h r for th
u il i ry s r
dt
an
1
z
s ri
e
hi
es
s se
ri
we
h os
w
es
hv
a e
th
v lu
th e
1
01
'
L im
te m
i s divergen t
23
,,
N3
is
[ A rt
Wt
IS
n i te
u an t ty ;
i
1
m
ay b e t a
T
k en
12
hrfr
e e o
as
th e g
ux il i ary
th e a
iv
en
s ri s i s
e
CO N V ERG EN C Y A N D D I V ERG EN C Y
E x a mp l e 2
Fi d wh
n
et
He
or d iv
e rg e n
"
= n
3n
ke
vn
9n
nu
Lim
vn
e
t, t
h r for
e e
th en
+1
9n
iven
e p r e se n t
32
th e g
se
ri s i s
e
th e
H 1
v rg
co n
th
an
en
()
t
e
()
exp an sio n
+ x
b y th e Bin o m ia l
th
r +
rms
f the
ex
r +
Wh e
Let u
a n sio n 3
p
275
1
_
3
To sh ew th a t the
292
Theo r em is o n v er g en t when
.
+
3
1
n
s ri s
a x
i s co v rge
u il i ary
a e
Bu t t h e
hv
we
I f we t a
(
(
23 7
h r th s ri s i wh i h
3
i s c o ve rg e
SER I ES
o r
r
r
t h is r at io is n e gativ e 3 th a t is fr o m t h is
r m s a r e al t e rn at e l
i
n t the
t
e
o
sit iv e an d n eg a t iv e w h e n x
o
p
y p
is p o sit iv e an d al w ay s o f t h e sam e Sig n w h e n x is n e ga t iv e
r > n +
1,
No w wh e n
e
sam e
sin c
the
in n it e , L im
is
+1
l t h e se r ie s is o n v e r g e n t if al l t h e t e rm s a r e o f t h e
Si n 3 an d t h e r e f o r e a fo r tio r i it is c o n
r e n t wh e n s o m e o f
e
g
g
t e r m s a r e p o sit i e an d so m e n e ga t i e
rt
A
[
x
29 3
To she w th a t th e exp an sio n
x is c o n v er en t
o
r
r
ev
x
e
v
a
e
o
l
u
g
f
y
f
a scen d in
in
ax
g p o wer s
He e
t he
t h e r e fo r e
m e r ic all y 3
n u
it
n
al u e o
l o D0r
72
f x 3 h en c e t h e
an
t h e r e fo r e
se r ie s
is
co n
Li m
it n
er
en
1 wh a t e v e r b e
H I GHER A L GEB RA
23 8
He e t h
e qu al
is
If
n
If
th e
A
rt
[
f
u
x,
_l
n
wh i c h
e s ri
s r
s is
on
es
x is
in
l e ss t h an 1
an
'
t h e li m i t
is
co n
e es
the
l,
v al u
c e t h e e c v e ge t wh e
1
1
l
e ie b e c m 1 l +
4
2
3
e
n
h
3
1,
x =
v e ge t
r
to
m e ri c al
e nu
d iv e rge n t [A rt
in n it e an d n e ga t iv e
.
be
s ri
m es
1
an
is
2
4
3
Th is sh ews t h at t h e l o gar it h m o f z e r o is
as is o t h e r wis e e id e n t f r o m t h e e u a t io n
q
295
Th e r e su l t s o f t h e t wo f o ll o win g e x am pl e s ar e im po r t an t ,
a te r
h
a n d will b e r e u ir e d in t h e
o u r se o f t h e
r e se n t
p
p
q
.
E x amp l e 1
Pu t
Fi n d th e l im i t o f
; t
ell
lo g
wh
(
B
i s i n ite
n
en x
en
lo g x
e21
l +v+
y
2
l_
1
al o
is
en x
E x amp le
L et x =
1
2!
al o
l et y
2
,
so
2 , so
h t y>13
th t l g y
ere
is
_n
i it e
n
du ct
lo g 2 ; t
l lo g
'
is
fore
29 6
ro
n x
whe
i n i te y is i n n i te ; h e ce th e val u e o f th e fr ac t i on i s z ero
= 0 wh e
Sh w t h at wh en n i s i n n i te th e l i mi t o f n
No w
en
lo g y
in n ite
L im n x
It
e
.
lo g y
an
l g
lo g
z
z
:
0;
al
so
l o g y is
n i te ;
is s o m e t im e s n e e ssary t o d et e r m in e wh e th e r t h e
o f an in n it e n u m b e r o f fac t o r s is n it e o r n o t
.
Su ppo se t h e p r o d u
ct t c
o
o n sis
u u
g
t o f n fa c t o r s an d t o
u
be
d en o t e d b y
"
"
H I GHE R A L G EB RA
24 0
e x am
Fo r
n d
we
l
e , if w e
p
ex
()
an
su
b y t h e Bin o m ia l Th e o r e m ,
"
(
l
B u t if w e
l
ain e d in A rt
p
l
wh en
o
.
b t ain
6 0, it
2x
By m ak in g
g
de d
t h at
t e rm s
ar s th at
e
pp
+ nx
n x
,
3x
t h is
"
n x
we
se e
se r ie s
as
ex
7 2x
(e i
t h at
f th e
"
"
1
in n it e
c an
o n
ly b
a n ish
es
r es
is in n it e , th is q u an t ity b e o m e s in n it e wh e n
> l , an d d im in ish e s in d e n it e l y w h e n x < l , A r t
[
it is o n l y w h e n x < 1 t h at we c an asse r t t h a t
n
()
d
e
f( )
v e f
-
l,
t o in f 3
.
w e sh o u l b e l e d t o
1
x
t h e e p an sio n o
t r u e fo r all al u s o x
2x
3x
i n it e s e rie s 1
if t h e s e r ie s is c o n v e r g en t
is d iv e r g e n t
d
so
re
an
l _x
in n it e ,
2x
e
t r u e e qu iv al e n t
the
If
x
as
wh en
or
3x
ce
ar
the
eo u s
c cl
if we we r e t o u se
b y t h e Bin o m ial Th e o r em a s if it w e r e
I n o th e r wo r d s, w e c an in t r o d u c e t h e
2
in t o o u r r e a so n in g wit h o u t e r r o r
b u t w e an n o t do so w h e n t h e s e rie s
,
rr o n
on
u sio n s
v c
wh at e
c all
ed
al e n
er
it s
m ay b e ,
an
so
a lg eb r a ic a l eq u i v a len
ce d e
o
n o
in
ce
t ; y et ,
r a in
as
e al ly ex ist e x c ep t
(
v e ee
e e
s ns
m ay b e
we h a
s
n , t e e ui
q
wh e n t h e se r ies is c o n
v er
as
n t
e
g
O NV ERGE NC Y A N D D I V ERG EN C Y
It
t h e r e fo r e
is
t h e g en er a tin g
mo re
u n c tio n
pp
3x
i
p
to
r a e
SER
ea
XX I
F i d wh e th er t h e fo llo wi
'
x
x an
+a
'
d in a
titie s
n
u
a
q
+ 3a
w ill
d iv e rge n t :
m o re
e r ge n
or
y
( (
n
u
a
q
2
v
t it
+ 3)
4
x
3
x
ie s
+ 3
'
42
7
8
9
2
.
10
3
x
x+
11
H H A
.
io
lg e
15
+
17
f u lly
s i tiv
b
ein g po
y
x an d
o r
+ 2a
b e i n g p o s it i
ser es ar e c o n
1
+
EX A MP L ES
Th e u se o f t h e t e r m g en e r a tin g fu n c tio n
e
r ie s
e x l ain e d in t h e c h ap t e r o n R e u r r in
S
p
g
24 1
s r ie s
b e in g t h a t f u n c t io n wh ic h wh e n d e e l o p e d b y
b r aic a l r u l e s will gi e t h e se r ie s in q u e s t io n
I ES
f the
2x
ro
o r
+
n
2
2
+1
16
H I GHE R A L G EB RA
24 2
12
14
2x +
1 5
:i
17
18
wt
co n
e rg e n
h w th
20
.
is
co n
21
t fo r
e rg e n
v lu
a
e r ge n
2"
+
n it e wh en
22
in
n i te
wt
fp
n ite
ex c ep
t wh en
en
+2
s e ries
ac c o r
di
as
L im {/n u is
1,
or
d uct
is in n it e
E E E
es o
3p
2n
2n
is
t h e pr o
s e rie s
t h e in
d iv
or
wt
all
+1
1 +
is
+1
+3
th e
+2
i ve frac t i o n
ar e
N/n
2)
term s
+1
1
x
wh o se g e n er al
p o s ti
s e r ie
+ l
19
7i
)
(
b ei n g
s e rie s
1)
Te s t t h e
Te s t t h e
(
) J
16
2
3
2n
'
2n
2
l
2n
'
2n
x =
1,
no
tive
n is n e a
g
(
h
in t h e e x pan s i n o f 1 + x ) n is
u
i
t
an d n u m e r ic al l
r
a
t
e
r
e
t
a
n
n
y g
y
t er m
H I GHE R AL G EB R A
24 4
(
E
u
th a t
i s,
v, + v
+ v3
e e
v s ri s
if t h e
e n c e,
v e ge t
r
d iv e rg e t
is
e e is
di
a l so
u s ri s
the
e h a e see n in A rt 2 8 7 th at a se r ie s is c o n e r gen t
300
th
term
o r d i e r g e n t a c o r d in g a s t h e l im it o f t h e r a t io o f t h e n
In t he
t o t h e p r ec edin g t e r m is l e ss t h an 1 , o r g r e a t e r t h an 1
h ap t e r w e sh al l n d it m o r e o n e n ie n t t o u se
r e m ain d e r o f t h e
th is t e st in t h e e q u i al en t fo r m
*
th e
ra
tio
l e ss
o r
1 3
t h an
Sim il ar ly
e n u n ia t e d :
p
v
e e
u s ri s
-
v id e d th t
ro
erg en t
t e rm
th at
is,
a co r
l l
- -
v er gen
Th e
us
Wh e
c as
ve
t h e gi
term
s ri s
e e is
>
co n
y e
e rge n t if
s r ie s
is
1,
is
o r
co n
on
w ill b e di
c o n v er g en t o r
<
di
a u x iliar
y
v e ge t
r
m l
.
+1
is, if
c v e ge
th a t
e e
is
a s ri s
with t h e
2n
r
r
>P +
2n
-
01
be
e e
s ri s
"
v s r ie s
m ay
v id d t h t
ter m is
s r ies
au x il ia r
th e
is, if
t ic l e
th at
ar
"
>
r al
n
e
e
g
ve
is
I!
vi
+1
t h e gi
ro
t h an
L im
e c e din g
ii
<
or
+ 1
d th e
an
Lim
s who se
o m pa r
w h o se g e n e r a l
f
1,
t h e l im it
as
1,
>
wh en t h e
ser ie
a c co r din g a s
L et
e e is d iv e rgen t
or
v s ri s
3 01
c di
L im
f the
ac
g
eedin g t e r m is
reat er
g
as
L im
Lim
*
cc
din g
on
>
u
su
c v e ge
L im
wh e n t h e
to the
th e o r e m
will b e
d iv e rge n t
or
the
Th e
is c o n
th
o f the n
c v
v e ge t
e e
s ri s
L im
>p
an
d in
th is
C O N V ERG EN C Y A N D D I V ERG EN C Y
S ER
or
I ES
245
c v
Bu t t h e au x iliar y se r ie s is o n e rg e n t if p is g r e at e r t h an 1
b y a n it e q u an t ity h o we e r sm al l ; h e n c e t h e r st p a r t o f t h e
ro
o sit io n is e st ab lish e d
p p
Wh e
in g
E x amp le
c v
H r
ri
th
is
erg en
on
e e
e se
Fi d wh eth er th e ser i e s
n
divergen t
or
u
Lim
7n +1
ive
is d
es
b e fo r e
as
23
g
t
r gen
If x = 1 , L im
th e
en c e i f x < 1
(
2
(
u
n
2n
2n
+i
1 ) 2n
302
v erg en
sa
u s co
se
is
n
Whe
as
2 ) 2n
(
(
6n
2n
n +1
co n
es
ergen
wh o se gen er a l ter m is
Lim
lo g
ii
mpa r e t h e giv e n
u
u
1,
is
1
or
en
g
+l
e e
s ri s
wit h t h e
se r i s
wh o se g e n e r a l
ve
t h e gi
se r ie s
is, if
c v
is
lo g
on
y
e r g e n t if
is
+1
u
n
n
u
s ri s
c ve
on
en
an
d in
rt
A
[
n
th at
e e
a u x il iar
the
>
or i
o n v er
ri i s
ser ies
o r di n
if x >
te rm
= 1 th e
The
t, a c
Le t
c as
n x
wh e
an
en ce
en
1
'
2 + 1)
(
( (
,,
3)
t,
Li
ca e
n + 1
o v rg
In th is
seri e s i s c
2n
an
l t h e au x iliar y s e r ie s is d i e rg e n t, an d b y p ro ee d
we m ay p r o e t h e s e o n d p art o f t h e p r o p o sit io n
l o g0,
> )
1
lo g
+ 1
t
s
u
u
+i
P
n
P
2n
t h is
H I G H ER
2 46
th at
if
is,
th e r st
r t o f th e
we
e stab li sh e d
m anne r 3 l n thi s c ase th e
.
xa
e.
is
is
r e p o sit io n
>
i
a si m il a r
r
ocee
d
p
u ili ry se ri e s is di ve rgen t
F i nd wheth r the erie
E mp l
W h en p
log
L im
He n ce
L G EBRA
an
H er e
n
,
+ 1)
n +1
il
-
1)
n +1
I:
"
1 +l
L im
Hen ce if x <
If
1
,
[ A rt
t
h
e seri e s is convergent
th en
if
2 20
t
h
e seri e s is di vergent
;
e
n
n
[
lo g
nn
lo g e
h en ce wh e n
32 2
%
u
77
l og
2n 2
271
3 03
I f L em
Uz
1,
71
an
l o
a s
l th e
L em
t e st s gi ve n i n A rt s 3 00 3 01 ar e no t appli cab l e
To di scove r a fu rth e r t e s t we s h all m ak e u se o f th e a ux ili a ry
1
s e r i e s w h o s e ge n e r a l t er m is
I n o r de r t o e st ab li sh
l
og
n
(
)
th e c o n ve r ge n cy o r di ve rge n cy o f thi s se r i e s we n ee d th e th eo r e m
v e d in th e n e x t a r ti c l e
r
o
p
.
HI G H ER A L G EBR A
248
if
1,
>
ser ies
Th e
3 05
an
wh o se g en er a l
d div er g en t
By th e p rece di ng a
di verg en t f o th e sam e
t erm is
1
fp
v er
3 06
as
Le t
t e rm
u s
as
l og a)
(
w ill
lo g a)
b e con ve
or
A
rt
[
is
c o n v er g en
l og
L im
as
wh o se g en er a l ter m is
ser ies
>
1,
or
o r
di
1
is
n
()
lo g n
No w w h en
1)
H en c e
very l a rge
th e con diti o n
u
1) b
"
7ll
n
is,
is,
d in
ec om e s
1
i l
"
1
n
u
"
an
wt 1
is co n v ergen t ,
A rt 2 9 9 , if
+ 1
is
l
og
{
t ha t
l
og
()
1
sa
th a t
co n ve rgen t o r
th e s e r i e s w h o se g ener al
be
co mm on t o every t er m 3 th ere
is
c o n v er g en t
a c c o r din g
gen
<
is
rgen t o r di ve rgen t f o r th e m e
1
th e se r i e s w h o se gener l t e rm s
H e ce th e
Th e
or
o r
re qui re d r e sult f o ll ow s
*
lo g
f ore th e g i ven s er i e s
v alu e s
ter m is
v alu e s o f
co n sta n t fa c t o r
Th e
r ti c l e th e ser i e s w ill
l og
"
1,
>
l
n
+
n
p
l o g0
'
lo g
e a r ly ;
thi s
CO
N V ERG EN C Y
D I V ER
A ND
o r
o r
>
G EN C Y
24 9
R I ES
SE
o r
lo g n
lo g n
>
E x amp le
Th e
3 01
.
the seri es
Is
22
2n +
an
He re
Z V
(
a n +1
I
L m
1,
an
dw
4n
11
n +l
From
L im
we p
ass
1,
F rom
s in ce L im
= 0 [A rt
L im
108 n
an
u"
l +
u"
4n
to th e ne t test
x
lo g
10
n
lo g
h ence th e g iven er i e
s
is
0,
d ive rge nt
We h a ve s h e wn in A r t 1 8 3 th at th e u se o f di ve ge n t
307
s e i e s in m a th e m ati c a l
e aso n i n g m ay l e ad t o erroneo u s e sult s
Bu t even w h en th e i nn it e s er i e s a re con vergen t it is n ece ssa ry t o
e x erc i se c a uti o n in u si ng th e m
*
Fo r
i n s tan ce th e se r i e s
,
w+
5
7
N
3
N/
4
conver g en t w h e n x 1 [ A rt
B u t if we m ulti p l y th e
s er i e s b
se lf th e coe fc i en t o f w i n th e
it
r
o
u
c
t
i
d
s
y
p
is
e"
H I GH ER
2 50
D en o t e
thi s b y
,"
L GEBR A
th e n sin ce
z/ t/
J
1
an
If
x =
>
2n
a )
n
th e r e f o r e
d is
in n it e
w h en
i nn it e
is
1 , t h e p r o du c t b ec o m e s
ooo
i c e th e t e rm s
an
n o
r ith m e ti cal
S n
2 ",
m e am n g
,"
n i t e th e
ar e I n
se rI e s
h as
a x
r
a a
;
b0
by A
an
If
we
th e f o r m
B r e sp ec ti ve l y
(
a l)
,
b3 x
b
c ,)
a
c
zu
62
re
x
"
2"
Su p p o se thi s se i e s t o b e
deno t e it b y 0 3 th e n we h a ve
0 m ay b e eg a de d as th e t
o
u
c
t
A
B
d
p
m
s
th e se se ri e s t oge th e r we ob t ai n
m ulti p l y
a l)
b
l
,
b
c ,)
inn ity an d l e t u s
e x am i ne u n de w h at con diti ons
a r ith m e ti c a l e qui v a l en t o f th e
co n
to
ru e
6
2 o
re sult
tin
u ed
to
F i rst su pp o se th at
th e t e r m s in A an d B ar e p o siti ve
L e t A B de n o t e th e se r i e s f or m e d b y t ak in g th e rst
2n
1 t er m s o f A B 0 r e sp ec ti v e l y
I f we m ulti p l y t o ge th e r th e t wo ser i e s A
th e c o e f c i en t
B
o f e ac h p owe r o f ac in th e i r p ro du c t is e qu a l t o th e c o e f c i e n t o f
th e lik e p owe r o f a: in C a s far as th e t e rm at 3 b u t in A E
th ere ar e t e r m s con t a i n i n g p ower s o f no hi g h e r th an
w hil st
is th e hi g h e st p owe r o f x in 0 3 h ence
x
al l
B ,
2" ,
'
? "
,"
2"
2"
2n
we f or m th e p ro du c t A a th e l as t t e rm is a l)
but
7
i nc lu de s all th e t e rm s i n th e p ro du c t an d so m e o th e r t e r m s
(
b e si de s 3 h en c e
If
73
>
A B
n
It
2 52
H I GH ER
*
L G EBRA
EXA MPLES
XX I
10
2
c onvergen t or di vergen t :
are
76 4
'
1+
3
x
4 4
5 56
19
Ii
I5
3
L
.
'
2
a
be
i ng
(
l
p rop e
r fracti on
(
2
a+ r
.
1+
Bx
y
3
a
10
22
12
lo g
lo g
"
An
" 1
Bn
(
lo g
" 2
wh ere
'
i n teger
A
h ew t h at t h e s e r i es u
is p o si t i ve an d d ivergen t if A
u3
Is
1 is
It is
p os
i ti v
c onvergen t
egati ve or z ero
if
XX II
C H A P TER
U N D ETERM I N ED C O EFF I CI EN TS
I n A rt
23 0
"
'
D en o t e
by
,,
l ,
th e fu nc ti o n
we h a ve
by
t
3
h en
i ce f
is di v i si b l e
s n
(( )(
f )
th e qu o ti en t b e i ng o f n
Si m il a r l y ,
sin c e
po
p ox
Pr o cee di n g
i i on s
v s
"
9
0
6
2
0
1 d i m e n si o n s
is di v i si b l e b y w
) P
di m en si on s 3
th e qu o ti en t b e in g
a2
fn
a
c
po
Po
a
v
w e ha v e
d
3
we sh a ll n all y o b t a i n
wa y ,
( ( )( (
w)
an
, ,
_2
( )(
i n thi s
Iv
ft e r
di
(
x
L e t th e fu nc ti o
b e de n o t e d b y f
wh e re
H I GH ER
2 54
v an i sh e s w h en so
a
a ; th en
u ppo se th at f
u ne qu a l v a lu e s a a
an
,,
L G EBRA
, ,
( ( ( (
3
f )
)
L e t c b e a n o th e r v alu e
a ve
s i n ce f c
0
we
h
)
0
6
a:
w hi c h
( )( )(
e qu al t o e ac h
is
a.
0
6
m ak e s
a
.
v an
i sh 3 th e n
)
an d th e r e f o r e
s in ce
b
si s
n on e o f
h
o
th
e
th
e
0
p
p
y
y
fa c t o rs is e qu al t o z e r o Hen c e f
r e du ce s t o
c
pO
th e
03
th e r
p1
n
,
5
1;
+p x
2
h y p o th e si s thi s e x p r e ssi o n v an i sh e s fo r
an d th e r e f o r e
0
p
By
o
f a,
'
a s
m an n e r we m ay
m
st b e e qu a l t o
u
p
i m il a r
3 ,
Thi s
re sult
l o
m ay
th an
v alu e s
In
more
a s
h ew th a t e ac h o f th e c o e fc i e n t s
ero
en u n c i at e d
be
as
f o ll o ws :
u
i
n
t
e
r
a
l
f
n
c
t
i
o
n
o
11
d
i
en
s
i
v
a
n
i
h
r
m
o
n
s
s
es
o
f
If
g
f
m o r e th an n v alu es of t h e v a r ia b le, it m u st v an ish fo r ev er y v a lu e
of the v a r iab le
r a tio n a l
CO R
o
x,
If
th e
eq u a tio n
He n ce
r o o ts
th e f un ctio n f
f
( (
a
b)
the t h r value s a
ee
f t wo
b, c 3
s o
11
dimen sio n s h as mo r e th an
()() (
)
) ( )
) (
v
.
h i s equ ti on i
v alu e s
v
.
b _
1
b
'
ti s ed
sa
by
th at th e t wo fu nc ti o n s
"
ge
pa
qo
ar e
e qu al f o r
qO)
mor e
"
la
p ,x
"
q,
th an
eac h
P rove th at
equ a tio n
it is an iden tity
E x amp le
l o if a n
a s
v an i sh e s f o r m o r e th an
h as m o r e th an n r oo t s
va
9 1)
"
"
'
p",
q
lu e s o f 90 3 th e n th e e x p r e ssi o n
(
p
9 2)
m
a
(
p
ar e
fo r
H IG H ER
2 56
He n ce
the s
=A
To n d A , p u t
L G EBRA
th e seri es th e n r e duces t o it s r st te rm
13
or
2 = A + 2,
an
He n ce
E x amp le 2
F i d th conditi on s th t
n
ssum e
Equ ti g th e c oe f c i e nt s
3
x
ax
+p x
d i vi s ib le b y
q x + r m ay b e
th e l ik e po we r s
k + a =p ,
F rom th e l st equ ti on
a
r
b
th t i s
a
wh i c h
r=
ar e
ak
+ a _ p , an d
(
p
th e c ondi ti on s re qui e d
r
an
ar
j
ar
h od
f U nde
n
ai
+b_q
=b
(
q
XXII
m et
b) ;
EXA MPLES
F i nd b y the
kb
we h ave
f x,
h en ce b y s ub stit tion w e ob t
k:
+ b = q,
M
.
5 +
term s
t erms
n t e rm s
9
3
F
i
nd
th
e
c
ond
iti
on
th
t
a
x
6
3p x + 2 q m ay b e d i vi s i b l e b y a
fac t or o f th e for m x + 2 ax a
2
3
F i n d th e conditi on s th at ax b x cx d m ay b e a perfe c t c ub e
7
2 4
2
a
Fi nd th e c ond i t i on s t h t a x + b x + cx + dx f m ay b e a
8
pe rfec t s q u are
Pi v e t h at a + 2 b xy + cy + 2 d + 2 ey f is a p e rfec t sq uar e
9
p
P
'
2=
ao , a
1f 6
o
=
= a
c
J, e
FF IC I EN TS
U ND ETERMI NED
If
10
11
If
12
d i v i si b l e
5qx + 4 r is
d i v i si b l e
+ b x + cx + d is
2
3
aa
CO E
by
2
,
a
rove
t
h
t
p
h ew th t
bc
ad =
5= r 4
q
th e i den ti tie s
Prove
b
)
)
(
(
)(
(
(
)
b
b
b
( )( ) ( )( )
d
b
)( )
(
)( )(
)
(
b
d
b
)( )
( )( )
b
b
)
(
)
)
)
(
(
(
b
2
0
ri
Iv
13
by
2 57
F i nd th e cond i ti on th at
ax
th e p rod u c t
m ay b e
by + 2g x 2fy + o
or s o f e fo m
2
+ 2hxy
two fac t
th
P + qy + n
x
If
14
u
t
a
s am e
q
i on s
t ru f ll v l ue f
c h nged wi t h y r es p ec t i vely h e w t h t
e
are
x,
l +
2
2 mn =
hew th at
the
15
.
u
n
titi
e
s
a
q
a, a
o r
su
is
r +
1)
y,
2
.
2 ln =
th e
0,
ar e
+ 2 lm = 0
rod
u
c
t
s
p
+2
1)
1)
%
( (
1i
t og e th e r
th e
a ,x
If th e in n it e ser ies a o
a x
z
t o z er o fo r ev er y n ite v a lu e of x fo r wh ich th e ser ies is
t h en ea c h co eicien t m u st b e eq u a l t o z er o iden tic a lly
3 13
th e
i nt e r
d if
( (
( )(
,
x,
m +
2
s o
an
wh e n 5
is eq u a l
c o n v e r en t,
g
L e t th e ser i e
fo r th e e x
2
a x
re
a ga
r:
th
en
ssi on a
a
an d th ere f ore ,
S
x
S
3
,
p
3
o
1
x S,
b y h y p o th e si s, a o
0 f o r a ll n it e v a lu e s o f :
13
Bu t Si nce S
is c onvergen t , S , c a nno t e x cee d s o m e n it e li m it 3 th ere f ore b y
t ak i ng a:sm all eno u g h s 1 m ay b e m ade a s s m a ll a s we p l e ase
I n thi s c a s e th e li m it o f S is a o ; b u t S is a lway s z e r o , th e r e f o r e
a m u s t b e e qu al t o z ero i den ti c a ll
y
o
s
deno t e d b y S,
an
let
S,
t nd
s a
R e m o v i ng
x 3 th a t is, a
1
Si m il a r l y ,
oe fc i e n t s
I]
a,,
th e t er m
a x
g
we
a
2,
a x
(
t
we
o
m ay
h a ve
S,
v an i sh e s
r
ove
i
n
p
13
O fo r al l n it e v a lu e s o f
f o all n it e v alu e s o f :11
u cce ssi o n th at e a c h o f th e
e qu l t o z ero I de n t i call y
a
17
2 58
H I GH ER
L G EBRA
th at th e t wo se r i e s
Su pp o se
a ,x
th e n th e e x p r e ssi on
(
t
o
AO
A ,)
v an i sh e s f o r al l v alu e s
b y th e l a st a r ti c l e
a
zo
Ao
E x amp l e 1
th e t
as
ing
erm nvol v
re ao
a2
Ag
A 3)
i gne d li m it s 3 th e r e f ore
a ss
O,
A g,
ser es
=
z
=
s
A3
O,
A 3,
in
scend ng p ow ers
fa
fx
as
far
ar e c
a0 + a x
1
a1
A 2)
,,
Exp and
L et
wh
0,
A zx
A
th a t I s
a = A
a
w hi c h p rove s th e p r o p o siti o n
,
a,
a ec
w ithi n th e
90 +
A zx
de n o t e d b y
ar e
a x
A ,x
AO
an
+ a2 x
to b e determ i ned ; th en
ar e
we
>2
c en
ve
an
art
d a l
a 0=
when ce
Al
t hu s
2,
ao
so
a
+
3
2
a4
an
+ a3
a 5+ a 4
2+x
1 +
= 2, a
l
a1
0,
a0 =
= 0,
a2 =
a3 =
o,
0,
a2 + a
l
-
2,
ao
a2 =
=l 3
5
.
when ce a3
7;
when ce a4 = 1 2 3
wh enc e a5
19 ;
:
2
~
l + x _ x,
2 x + 5x
7x
1 2x4
1 9 x5
26 0
H I GH ER
L G EBRA
EX A MPLES
XX II b
nd t h e fol l owi n g e p re i on i n c end i n g p ow e r
.
Ex p a
as .173 .
3
.
2) x
ay
3
_
1
x)
a,
d b
be
+1
e q uati o x + 1 00
re ult c rre c t 3
n
l + ax
ax
'
far
l +x
2 + x + x2
th e
h ew th t one v l u e
a
r
e
n s i on
a
p
i n th e
"
+ bx
(
1
e xp an s i on
'
9
4
y
a
3
1 2c
is
f x is
ro xi m at e s olut i on o f t h e
p l ac es o f de c i m als is t h e
app
an
h ow
TO
y
w
a
a7
009 9 9 9 9 9
f y is
w
e s
s
s h ew th at one v al u e
0,
as
y+
h ew that
3
6x
th at t h e c oef c i e n t
= x
If cx + ax
th at th e n term i n
so
c so
Hen ce
8x
th
se
.
as
b,
If y + 2y
"
a an
F i nd
Fin d
m ay b e 3 n
ss
1 + 2x
m any
1 + ax ) (
1 + x) (
th e e p an i on o f (
1 +a ) (
th e
1 +a )
10
n um b e r o f fac t ors b e i n g i n n it e a d a 1 h ew t h at t h e c oe f c i en t o f
.
In
2
x
( ( (
1
11
W h en
1,
(
l
12
I f n is
)
(
(
)
l
ri
"
+1
p os
n
nd t h e
ax
(
1
oef
( )
is
3
x
ci e n t
m
i
a
fx"
i n th e e
nsi on
a
p
Of
z
a x
(
l
a x
i ti ve i n teger h ew th t
,
to i
f
.
1)
(
n
L
th e seri es i n eac h case b ei ng ex tended t o
2 )n
n +
1;
(
3)
1)
<
(+P
th e eri e i n th e l t two c
4)
as
t erm s 3 a
as s
b ei ng
extend e d t o
+1
t e rm s
m
;
C H A P TER XX I I I
PA RTIA L FRA C TI O N S
e l e m e n t ary A l ge b ra a gro u p o f f ra c ti o n s c on n ec t e d
b y th e si gn s o f a dditi o n a n d s u b t ra c ti o n is r e du ce d t o a m o re
d
n t o o n e si ng l e f ra c ti on w h o s e
e
i
ng
co
ll
ec
t
e
i
si m p l e f o r m b
b
y
deno m i n a t o r is th e l owe st c o m m on de n o m i n at o r o f th e g i ven
f ra c ti o n s Bu t th e co n ver se p r oce ss o f s e pa rati n g a f rac ti on i n t o
a g ro u
si m l e r o r
o
f
ar tia l f r a c ti on s is o ft e n r e qui r e d
r
F
o
p
p
p
3 15
In
e x am p l e
If
we
rs o f
i h
W s
to
ex pan d
3
1
I II a
4x
er i e s
as
c en d
m i g ht u se th e m e th o d o f A rt 3 1 4 , Ex 1 , an d
as m a n
m
t
er
l
e
e
s as we
B
u t if we w i s h t o n d th e
a
s
y
p
ge n era l t e rm o f th e ser i e s thi s m e th o d is i n app li c ab l e , a n d it is
a l en t
si m l e r t o e x r e ss th e g i ve n
f
r
c
ti
o
i
n
th
e
e
qui
v
f
o
r
m
a
n
p
p
1
2
an d
Ea c h o f th e e x p r e ssi on s 1 x )
l 3x )
1
x
1
356
c an n o w b e e x p a n de d b y th e B i no m i a l Th eore m , a n d th e g e n er a l
t e rm o b t ain e d
in g p owe
so o b t a i n
x,
we
th e p r e sen t c h ap t e r we sh all g i ve so m e e x am p l e s
illu st rati n g th e deco m p o siti on o f a ra ti on a l f ra c ti o n i n t o par ti al
f ra c ti on s Fo r a full e r di sc u ssi on o f th e s u b j ec t th e r e a de r is
In
fa c t o r
two
a
p
rti al
tim e s th e r e
,
de n o m i n a t o r th e r e co rr e sp on d
B,
B2
h
ee
t
s
f ra c ti o n s,
an d
If
occ
u
r
r
x
b
2
x
b
x
b)
83
To
is a n a dditi o n al f ra c ti on
a n d so o n
cc
5V
H I GH ER
26 2
an
qu adra ti c fa c t or
Px
f rac ti on o f th e f o rm
t w i ce th e r e is
,
a s
m
,
L GEBRA
s on ds
th
ere
c
orre
p
q
Q
a
x
if
th
e
f
c
t
o
r
a
:
3
p
+px +
+
P 1 56
(
a;
Q,
q)
x
p
an
so
P, Q, P1 , Q,
A , , B , , B 2 , B3 ,
r ti a l
occ u rs
eco n d p a r ti a l f ra c ti on
th e qu a n titi e s
i n de p en den t o f x
We sh all m ak e u se
f o ll ow
+ 19 96
Here
on
are
al l
th e s e r e sults i n th e e x am p l e s th a t
E x amp le 1
te 2 x
S p ar a
11
5x
i
nto p rti
6
+x
2x + x
an
d ete rm i n e d
Cl e ar in g
2x
ar e
+2
w e ssum e
2) 2x
11
5x
w h er e
( (
6z
ction s
fra
al
wh o se values
h ve to
a
be
cti on
f fra
s,
ince th i equ ti on
f ; th u s
p ow r
S
e s o
i d e nt i c
is
3) + B
al ly
tr
ue we
m ay
ie
fl k
QA + B = 5,
w h e n ce
2x + x
+2
2x
al
'
ti on s
fr ac
11 ;
i
nto p rti
:b
mx
ssum e
( L
esolve
B:
11
E x amp le 2
3 A + 2B =
A = 3,
5x
1 1 = A 2x
5x
In
an
1) pu t
ar e
az
o,
or x
=a;
+ b _ 0,
or x _
b,
mx + n
w
(
ma + n
+h
mb
a
an
x,
then
p utt ng
+b
a+n
n ib
x
+ 1)
ease .
26 4
H I GH ER
E x a mp l e
9x
es olve
9
3
x
an
f x)
1,
th en
u stituti ng f
S b
un cti on
or
an
) (
( )f(
x
+1
x =
th
d eterm i ne th e
x
en
(
x
16
a:
?
2
pu t
+ 1 2z + 2 4
4
4
Z
24
12
+6
2
x
rem ain s to
1 6x + 1 6 ;
+ 16
12
24
4 8x
p ar
9x
w ho se v lue
3
x
f
To
tran sp o s ing
24 x2 + 4 8 s
x
+1
(
)
(
L et
2 4x + 4 8x
+ 1)
96
ssum e
(
wh ere A i s s om e con st nt
b d e t erm i n e d
A
24x 2 + 4 8x
( (
L G EBRA
E x amp le
By div
i s i on
6 x + 5x
esolve
3 x,
2x
7
1
nto p ar tI al fracti on s
6 x + 5x
3x
aD
2x
3x
6x3
2x
+ 5x
3 x2
We
2x + 3 +
8x
2x
3x
3x + 1
2x
2mi E
H
8x
h all n o w e pl ai n h o w re so luti o n i n t o pa r ti a l
f ra c ti on s m ay b e u se d t o fa c ilitat e th e e x pan si o n o f a r ati on al
f rac ti on in asce n di n g p ower s o f x
319
PA RTI A L F RA C TI O NS
F nd th e g en er l term
scend in g p ow ers f
4 A t 3 1 6 w e h ve
E x a mp le 1
s eri es
fa
By Ex
2x )
th e g en e ral te rm
2x )
( 2) (
E x p and
1
(
n s i on
:
6
po
w ers
x an
d n d
1 + x ) 1 + x 2)
l +x
3
7=A
C,
+x
{1
4
x
"
i n th e s cond seri es i s 4
?
f
i s 3 + 4 I)
in th e sec ond serie i s 3 (1 )
i
s
d
t
h
e
co
e
c
i
e
n
t
d
(
d th e r equi r e d c o e f c i e nt i s 3
,
wh ence
wh ence B
th e c oe f c i ent o f :
f
f
r
ev
n
t
h
e
c
oe
c
i
e
n
t
1
i
s
e
I
f
)
(
therefore in th e e pan si on th e coef ci e nt
To n d
3x )
3x )
l +x
3x
1+x
1
(
3 ;
th e n A
Bx + C
O: A + B ,
"
"
"
r +1
1)
EXA MPLES
Re so l ve
i n sce ndi n g
A
7 +x
( (
an
is
1 +x
s o
7 +x
If
()
( ()
x
2)
xpa
+ x)
2x )
7 +x
L e t 1 + x : 0,
e
th e e
th e g e ne ral term
A ss um e
XXIII
7x
2 55)
2"
nd e d i n
xp a
E x a mp le 2
w hen e
,1
He n ce
+x
3x
26 5
46
l 3x
3 v + 2x
.
26 6
H I GH ER
4
2
72
1 033 + 1 3
( (
.
'
1)
20856
+x
_1
)
26x
'
3
2x
(
x
L G EBRA
3x
3x + 10
Ire
2
21 2
3)
1 1x + 5
10
3 x3
8x
10
11
3
5x
6x
+ 5x
( (
1)
12
1
.
15
'
17
1 1 x + 2 8$
2x
( )(
1
19
()(
()(
23
1 +x
21
2x
16
2x )
4x )
18
2x + 1
_ 1 x2 + 1
)
ax
cx
( (
2 + 3x )
(
2
W h en
(
1
ax
th e serie
( )(
1
Su m
1 , n d
25
+x
'
2
z 2
a"
2x
3x + x
1)
24
2x
i 2x
(
l
4 + 7x
22
'
1+x
F i n d th e su m o f n t erm s
(
(
)
20
( ) (b ) (
( )(
7x
4 + 3 x + 2x
14
13
ax
th e
su
m
x
x3
th e i nn ite seri es
( )(
z
a
( )(
5
x
x7
( )(
1
l
x
th
1
1
x
(
1
+2
p
x
at th e su m o f th e h om o eneo u s
th
r
o
u
c
t
o
f
d
s
n dim e
g
p
o
Si on s w h i c h c an b e form ed o f th e l etter s a b c an d t h e i r
ower
s is
p
26
Prove
H I G H ER
2 68
L G EBRA
t e rm s ar e k n ow n
A s th e m e t h o d o f p r oce du re is th e sa m e
h oweve r m an y t e r ms th e s cal e o f r e l ati o n m ay c on si st o f th e
f o ll o w i ng illu st ra ti o n w ill b e sufc i en t
.
If
th e s c al e
is
f r e l a ti on
a
x
p
rx
o f th e s er i e s
a x
a so
we h a ve
a x
'
01
2
.
a
n
a:
+ rx
3
.
a
n
a
p _1
if a su f c i en t n u m b er o f th e t e rm s
g i ven th e s c a l e o f re l ati on m a y b e f o u n d
F ind th e scal e f rel ti on f th e recurri ng seri es
mp l
323
ies b e
.
er
Ex a
C onve r se l y ,
e.
d q
we
h ve
a
an
6x
5x
r e l ti on con i st
f 3 t e m s it i nvo l ve s
2 co n st a n t s, p an d q 3 a n d we m u s t h a ve 2 e qu a ti o n s t o de
t e m i ne p an d q To o b ta i n th e st o f th e se we m u st k now
o f th e s er i e s, a n d t o O b t a i n th e sec o n d we
at l e a st 3 t er m s
Thu s t o o b t a i n a s c al e o f
m u st h a ve o n e m o e t er m g i ve n
e l ati o n i nvo l v i n g t w o co n st an t s we m u st h a ve at l e ast 4 t e m s
3 24
If
th e s c al e
g i ven
th e s c al e o f re l ati on b e 1 p x qx r x t o n d th e
To o b t a i n th e r s t o f
3 con st a n t s we m u s t h a ve 3 e qu a ti on s
th e se we m u st k now at l e a st 4 t er m s o f th e ser i e s an d t o o b tai n
th e o th e r t wo we m u st h a ve t w o m ore t erm s g i ve n ; h ence t o d
a s c a l e o f r e l a ti o n i nvo l vi ng 3 con st an t s at l e a s t 6 t e r m s o f th e
s e r i e s m u s t b e g i ve n
G en e rall y t o n d a sc al e o f r e l ati on i n vo l v i ng m c o n st an t s
we m u st k n o w at l e ast 2 m con sec uti ve t e rm s
C o n ve r se l y if 2m co n sec uti v e t e rm s a r e g i ve n we m ay ass u m e
f o r t h e scal e o f r e l ati o n
g
If
pl
n
.
p,
p3
pm
a
c
REC U R RI N
r ms f a
c r
Th e m e th o d O f n di n g th e su m is th e
s c al e o f r e l a ti o n ; f o r s i m p li c it y we s h all
on l y t w o co n st an t s
To
3 25
.
d th e
su
te
269
SER I ES
o
re u
i g
r n
se
ri s
e
e w h at eve r b e th e
su
s e it t o con t a i n
o
pp
sa m
L e t th e seri e s b
e
2
+ a x
l)
an
so
l e t th e s u m b e S 3 le t th e sc al e o f re l a ti on b e
th a t f o r every v alu e o f n gre at e r th an 1 we h a ve
No w S
a ,x
a x
pa x
a a
an
a
g
ll
0
'
a x
a _x
q n 3
(
_
ag
a
:
Thu s th e
o m i n a t o r is
3 26
dec
re a e
s s
al
(
P
a
q
is
x
)
+ 1
"
+l
(
t
m
g
l
ll
+1
f ra c ti on w h o s e
is
a
g
'
r ec u r r i ng e r i e s
th e sc al e o f r e l ti on
su
qx
I f th e s econ d
i n den it e ly a s
a1
x
a
_
p u ,
a
x
a
a + a
S
P
p )
p
g )
fo r th e coe fc i en t o f every o th e r p owe r o f x
o f th e r e l a ti on
de
(
a
is
c all e d th e
3 27
n er a tin
e
g
g
(
a
p ao
x
) =
px
fu n c tio n
F r o m th e r e sult
a
p o
qx
o
f A rt
x
)
2
f th e
3 2 5,
+ a x + a2 x
er i e s
we o b t a i n
p a:
270
H I GH ER
f ro m w hi c h we
L G EBRA
th a t a lth o u g h th e gene ra ti n g fu nc ti on
se e
(M )
a
96
x
p
m ay b e u se d t o o b t a i n a s m an y t e r m s o f
it c an b e r e ga r de d a s th e t r u e e quiv al en t
a
+ a x + a x
th e ser i e s a s we pl ea se
o f th e i n n it e s er i e s
on l y if th e re m ai n der
x
"
x
p
+ 1
v a n i sh e s w h e n n is i n den it e l y i n c r e ase d ; i n o th er wo r ds o n l y
w h en th e ser i e s is convergen t
.
A
l
Th e n
th e ge n e ra l t er m
A
a
{
ax
bx
is
cx
'
r +
I n thi s c as e th e su m
t h e m e th o d o f A r t 3 2 5
t erm s
1)
m ay b e
"
.
f o u n d w ith o ut u si ng
L et
7x
th e sc ale o f relati on b e 1
wh en ce p
1 + 7p
1, q: 6 ;
an
d enote th e su m
4 3 x3
th en
px
qx ;
=
q 0,
th e sc ale o f relati on i s
1
L et S
6x
2
.
x8
2
(
1
6x
6x 8
6 x 2) S = 1
wh i ch
1
.
3
113
8x ,
8x
6x
4 3x
+ 7x +
4 2x
an
d th e
su m
27 2
H I GH ER
L G EBRA
EXA MPLES
XXIV
f
a
t
h
e
ener
t
i
n
u
nc
ti
on
g
g
F i nd
e ri es :
an d
th e general term
+ 5x
th e foll owin g
7x
5
.
i nd th e
t e rm
th
an
10
11
h ew t h t t h e
er i e s
+
21
+n
ar e
re c u rr i n g s er i es
c urr i n g eri e
.
an
Th e
c es
s al
1 + p x + qx
l term
g enera
th e
re
+1
term s
is
1 +
an
th e ser i es
53 +
th e re c u rri n g s er i es
b0
are
14
d n d
t o i n n i ty
F i nd t h e s m o f 2
th e s
13
th e i r s c al es o f relati on
Sh ew h ow t o ded u c e t h e s m o f t h e r s t n t erm s
12
fro m
rx
bl
b z x2
b 3 x3
+ sx
If a
th
CH A P TER X XV
C O N TI N
331
e x p r e ssi on
U ED F RA C TI O N S
th e f orm
a +
c all e d
is
C;
c
e
e d fract io n ; h e r e th e l e tt e rs a b 0
qu a n titi e s w h a t eve r b u t fo r th e pr e se n t we
c n t in u
th e Si m pl e r fo rm
1
a
i n t ege r s
Thi s
w ill
w h ere
he
in
th e
an
h all on l y con si de r
o
s
i
1v
t
e
p
a re
2 ,
mo r e
c o m pa c t f o rm
(
t
1
a, , a
u su ally w r itt e n
m ay deno t e
a,
W h e n th e n u m b e o f q u o tien ts a , , a 2 ,
is n it e th e
3 32
co n tin u e d f rac ti o n is sa i d t o b e ter m in a tin g ; if t h e n u m b e r o f
qu o ti e n t s is u n li m it e d th e f a c ti o n is c all e d an in n ite c o n tin u ed
.
'
t
n
c
i
o
f
ra
333
To
nl
c o n v er t
i
v en
g
fr a c tio n
in to
th e g i ve n f rac ti o n ; di v i de
n
qu o ti e n t an d p th e r e m ai n de r 3 thu s
Le t
be
m
n
= a +
,
co n tin u ed fr ac tio n
m by
1
-
let
be
th e
27 4
H I GH ER
di v i d e
b y p , le t
be
L G EBRA
th e qu o ti en t
n
an
th e re m a i n der 3 thu s
d q
17
e
di v i d e p b y q , l e t
Thu s
on
be
th e qu o ti e n t
an
th e re m ai n der ;
an
so
1
a
ao
I f m is
l e ss th n
a
(
t
1
a0
th e rs t qu o ti en t
m
l
is
ero
an
we
t
p
u
m
an
d p rocee d
as
e f o re
E x amp le
Red
2 51
uce T
t
o a c onti nue d fracti on
8 2
s ur e
m ea
f 2 51
an
d 8 02 b y
the u sual
2 51
8 02
49
1
an d
re
2 51
8 02
3 , 5, 8 , 6 ;
1
3+
1
5+
h e n ce
1
8+
'
Th e f r a c ti on s o b t a i ne d b y s t op p in g a t th e rs t , secon d,
3 34
thi d,
qu o ti en t s o f a con ti n u e d f ra c ti on a r e c all e d th e r st,
c o n v er g en t s, b ec a u se
s econ d, thi d,
a s w ill b e s h ew n
in
,
A r t 3 3 9 , e ac h s u cce ssi ve c o nve gen t is a ne a e app o x i m a ti o n
t o th e t u e v alu e o f th e co n ti n u e d f ra c ti o n th an an y o f th e
e ce din g co n ve ge n t s
p
.
r r
HI G H ER
27 6
Th e
1)
qu o t i e n t
v e r ge n t
th e
c on v e rgen t
th
a
a
+ 19
L G EBRA
di ffe r s
th e pl a ce
ln
n
a
a
n
'
l l
-
d 1
-
+ 19 11
by
q"
I f th e r e f o r e
p
?!
we
,
n
it
(
a
+1
on l y i n h a v in g
h en ce th e
th
1)
th
co n
u pp o siti on
1:
f r o m th e
ut
+1
= a
n
1 qn + 1
+1
rt
1a
we see th at th e n u m e rat o r an d de n o m i n at o r o f th e n 1 ) c o n
v e r ge n t f o ll o w th e l aw w hi c h wa s su pp o s e d t o h o l d in th e c a s e o f
th
Bu t th e l a w doe s h o l d in th e c a se o f th e thi rd c o n
th e n
ve rge n t h e n ce it h o l ds fo r th e f o u r th an d so o n 3 th e r e fo r e it
h o l ds u n i v e r sall y
th
3 37
It
w ill b e c on v e n i e n t t o c all
th e co mp lete qu o ti e n t
We
thi s stage
at
b e in g
a,
71
it
th e c o n ti n u e d f ra c ti o n
o n ly
an
an
it
+pn
13
b e de n o t e d b y
t ak i n g th e c om pl e t e qu o ti e n t
9
qu o ti e n t a 3 thu s
in
p a tia l
l
an
h all u su ally de n o t e th e c o m pl e t e qu o ti e n t
W e h av e see n th at
g
19"
th e
l et
a,
th
+1
an
s a
a t an
th e n
qu o ti e n t ;
+2
t ge
by h
diffe rs
i n st e ad o f th e
fro m
ar
ti al
3 38
If 2
b e th e
th
qn
p q
n
Let
k9
73
c o n v erg en t
n
th e c on ti n u e d f rac ti on
P
n
i qn
to a
co n tin u ed fr ac tio n
l)
b e de n o t e d b y
th en
CO N TI N
th en
f q
)
(
a 13 ] )
U ED F RA C TI O N S
1)
+p
(
(
9
71
it
p . q.
Bu t
27 7
(
an
11
it
r.
p e gi
h e n ce
p :g
W h e n th e c o n ti n u e d f rac ti o n
still h o l d if we su pp o se th a t a ,
is z e r o
is less th an
0, an d th at
Eac h c o n v e rge n t is in it s l o we st
C OR 1
h
ad a c o mm o n di v i s o r it w o ul d di v i de p
q
w hi c h is i m p o ssib l e
.
t e rm s 3 f o r if p an d
r
u
it
o
n
q
y 3
,
CO R 2
.
fra c ti o n
"
11
p q
n
9 git
n
XXV
it
2+
1+
2+
3+
2+
3+
11 +
1+
4+
1+
2+
'
1+
2+
2+
1
1+
6+
ss
1
.
9 g
EXA MPLES
Cal
c o n verge n t s is
1
9
'
4
8
253
'
179
-
37
'
5
'
832
1 59
'
1 1 39
1 1 89
'
10
3927
'
3 029
'
7 29
11
2 3 18
H I G H ER
27 8
L GEBRA
A m et re is 3 9 3 7 07 9 i nch es , sh ew b y t e th eory
ti on s th at 3 2 m et es is n ea ly eq ual t o 3 5 y ards
12
frac
c on ti nu ed
13
d ay s
'
t h e e cess i n
2 4 22 6 ,
14
A k
i l om etre i
very
23
18
e arly e q ual t o
i le
h ew th at
appr o m m at l o n s t o th e
62138 m
'
64
th e fracti on s 8 29 3 1 03 ar e su cc esswe
7
rati o o f a k ilometre t o a mil e
1 5 Two s c al es o f e q u al l en gth a e d i v i ded i n t o 1 6 2 an d 2 09 e q u al
b
s
e
r
t
re
ero
o
i
n
t
c
o
i
n
c
i
den
t
h
ew
th
t
th
e
s
a
sp ec ti vel y ; if t h e i r
a
s
p
p
3 1 di vi si o n o f one n e ar ly c o i n c i des wit h t h e 4 0 d i v i s i on o f th e o th er
.
th
"t
16
If
'
+n +n + 1
th at th e q u ot i ents ar e
c e ssiv e co n v erge n t s
Sh ew th at
17
c o v erted i n to
is
n
an
+1
c on ti u ed fr cti on h ew
ltern ately
an
th e
d n d
su c
gn
+1
gn
9n
pn
+ 2
qu
2
If
is
th e n c onvergen t to
9
c orresp ond i ngq u otient sh ew th at
18
th
+ l
c on ti n u e d fr c t i on
a
an
an
th e
Pn + 2 9 n
339
an
Let
Ea ch
th e p
a:
Pn
an +
1
is
c o n v er g en t
r ecedi
deno t e
co n v e
n ear e
rge
to th e
tin u ed fr ac tio n th a n
co n
ts
th e con ti n u e d f ra c ti on
an
1
d 3i ,
q
3
13
4 1
-
ll
+2
33
q"
an
+ l
+l
"
th
(a
(
p
9 " k9
+l
p q
n
a
(
'
l l
'
'
t l
kc[ n + 1
-
H I GH ER
2 80
th e r e fo r e
u
o
q
an
co n v er gen t wh ich
tien t is
L GEBRA
lar g e
a
.
i t f o ll ow s th at i n o r de r
th e e rr o r i s l e ss th a n
9
t o n d a c o n v e r ge n t w hi c h w ill di ffe r f ro m th e co n ti n u e d f ra c ti o n
1
we h a ve o n ly t o c al c ul at e th e
b y l e ss t h an a g i ve n qu an t i t y
A g a i n , sm c e
1.
w h er e g i gr e
u cce ssi ve c o n ve r ge n t s u p t o a
t e r th an
o f c o n ti n u e d f ra c ti o n s en ab l e u s t o n d
t w o sm all i n t ege r s w h o se r ati o c l o se ly app r o x im a t e s t o th at o f
t w o i n c o m m e n su rab l e qu an titi e s o r t o th a t o f t w o qu an titi e s
w h o se e x ac t rati o c an o n ly b e e x p r e sse d b y l a r ge i n t ege r s
E x amp le
Fi nd a ser i e s o f fracti on s ap pro i m ati ng to 3 1 4 1 59
In th e p roce s s o f nd i n g th e gr e at est c omm on m e as u re o f 1 4 159 an d
1 00000 th e succe ssi ve qu oti ent s ar e 7 1 5 1 2 5 1 7 4
Th u s
3 42
Th e p r o p e r ti e s
Th e
7 + 1 5+ 1 + 2 5+ 1 + 7 + 4
uccessi ve convergents a e
r
3
1
th i s
3 33
22
3 55
113
appr x
or
25 x
ss
0 00004
c o n ver g en
Le t
c o n v e rge n t s
If
n ea
th e con ti n u e d f rac ti on
be
T
E
,
be
;
n
qn _l
f rac ti o n w h o se denom i n at o r
I
ssi b l e
o
l
e
t
p
r e r t o ac th an
it f o ll ow s th a t
rt
A
[
e ar e r t o
3 3 9]
an
so
i ce
is
"
q
a
c
l e ss th an
th en :m u st
7
li e s b e t wee n
Z m u st
9
1
th an
s n
t wo co n sec uti v e
an
li e b e t ween a
!
g;
r
an
bc
CO
F RA CTI O N S
N TI N U ED
28 1
H ence
7
q:
t
th a t
"
is
s
r
th a t
Th e
is ,
r
c
i
a
t
f
on
a
t
r
e
e
r
g
m u st b e
or
f ra c ti on ; w hi c h
i m p o ssi b l e
is
tiv e
c o n secu
co n v er g en ts
to
co n
tin u ed
as
th e com pl e t e qu o ti en t cor r e sp on di n g t o th e
co n
32
th en
e ar e r t o th e c o n ti n u e d f ra c ti o n th a n
B b e two
If
i n t ege r l e ss th an
an
re fo r e
344
qP
is g
r ea ter
less th a n
or
a c co
r di
is
less th a n
Let
h be
vergen t i m m e di a t e l y
9 9
22
q,
su c c ee d1n
a;
p g)
krq
(
9
29
th en
I
9)
kp
kq
P
,
'
r q)
+
a
9Y
d
is p o siti v e si n ce p
qd
fa c t o r
Th e
2
2
h e n ce
th a t
is,
o r
cco rdi n g
2
,
pg
cc o r di ng
P
as
'
pg
as
pg
g,
i
s p o s iti ve
p g
o r
d h> l 3
nega ti ve 3
o r
ab
o ve i n ve sti g ati o n th a t th e e x
h
a ve th e s a m e
a:
c
c
p
q
q
g
EX A MPLES
1
a
p, q
an
p q, pp
'
f o ll ow s f ro m th e
It
r e i on
ss
i gn
hp q
'
99
CO R
p
XX V
me tr e , g i ven
th at a m etre is e qual t o
%
.
22
rd
ya
1 0 9 3 6 y ard s
s as
eq u i val en t t o
H I GH ER
28 2
F i nd
a n ap p
a
a
2)
In
9 19 2
9 29 3
9 394
1+
a il
al l
9n
2+
a il
1
an
an
1+
an
'
I f 2 is
3
1'
a3
1
2+
an
2 +
1
s
h ew
9
In
212.
2n +
q2n
+ b+
h ew th at
+ b +
+ l) +
'
_ ab + 2
+2
) p +p
1
a
O)
6+
p
b
h e w th t
t h e n c onvergen t t o th e c on ti n u ed frac ti on
1
an
th
66
co n vergen ts
th
1)
cti on
i 9 at
is
fr a
l)
(
(
) P
d i ffe rs fro m
c o n t l n u ed
as
(
I
qn
1 1 8 30
1)
h ew th at if a
it
0001
+ 6 a + 1 4 a + l 5a + 7
(P
'
c on ti n u ed frac ti on th t
(q
+ 6 a + 1 3 a + 10
5 Sh ew t at th e
is n u m eri ally eq ual t o
l 1
nd th e thi rd convergen t
.
t r ue val u e b y l ess th an
the
uan ti ty l ess th an
Ex p ress
h ew b y th e theory
1 4 1421 b y
L G EBRA
r o im ati on to
1 +
wh i c h d i ffers fro m
2n
C H A P TER
ND ETER M I N A TE
I n C h ap X
Q U A TI O N S
XXV I
O F THE
F I R ST
D EGR EE
we h a ve sh ewn h ow t o ob t ai n th e p o siti ve
i n t egra l so luti on s o f i n de t e rm i n at e e qu a ti on s w ith n u m e r i c al c o
e fc i e n t s ; we sh a ll now app l y th e p ro p e rti es o f co n ti n u e d f r a c ti o n s
t o Ob t ai n th e gene ral so luti o n o f an y i n de t e rm in at e e qu ati o n o f
th e r st degree
345
e
qu
a ti o n
o
f
th
e
r
t
d
eg
r
ee
i
nvo
l
v
i
ng
t
wo
s
un
y
* c W h ere
k n own s ac a n d y c an b e r e du ce d t o th e f or m a x i b y
a b c ar e
o
hi
s iti ve i n t ege r s
T
s e qu a ti on a dm it s o f a n u n li m it e d
p
n u m b e r o f so luti on s 3 b u t if th e con diti on s o f th e p ro b l e m re qui re
c
c an d y t o b e
o
siti ve i n t eger s th e n u m b e r o f s o luti o n s m a
b
e
p
y
li m it e d
I t is c l e a r th a t th e e qu ati o n ax
by
o
iti
ve
c h as n o
s
p
i n t eg ra l so luti o n 3 an d th a t th e e qu ati on ax by
c is e qui v al en t
t o by ace c 3 h ence it w ill b e su ffi c i en t t o co n si de r th e e qu ati on s
ax i b
y
3 46
an
d b
h a ve
fa c t o r
w hi c h
doe s n o t di v i de c, n e ith er o f
th e e qu a ti o n s acc t b y c c an b e sa ti se d b y i n t eg a l v alu e s o f ac
=
l=b
an d
a
i
f
o
x
s
d
i
v
i
s
i
l
e
w
h
e
e
a
s
i
s
n
o
t
b
b
m
0
3
,
y
y
y
If a
h a ve a c o mm on fa c t o r it c an b e r em o v e d b y di v i si o n ;
so th a t we s h all s u
s e a b c t o h av e n o
o
c o m m o n fa c t o r an d
pp
th a t a an d b ar e pr i m e t o e a c h o th e r
I f a, b ,
34 7
equ a tio n
.
Let
To
be
d th e g en e
co n v e r t e d i n t o
al
s o lu
tio n
ax
by
th e c o n v e rgen t j u s t p r ece di n g
in p o sitive in teg e
;5
3
th e
c on ti n u e d f ra c ti o n
th en
r f
ag
bp
an
d le t
rt
A
[
deno t e
I N D ETER M I N A TE
I
I f ag
bp
EQ
U A TI O N S
l th e g i ve n e qu ati on
ax
No w
i nce
di v i si b l e b y b 3
an
is,
bt
x =
cp
m u st b e
C9
0P
3/
th a t
285
w r it t e n
m ay b e
b t,
br ) ;
GR EE
DE
c o m m o n fa c t o r w c g
w h e r e t is a n i n t e g er
no
cg
b y
a:
(
(
= c
cg
h ave
d b
h e n ce
by
F I RST
O F TH E
+ cg ,
a t + cp
II
I f ag
bp
l,
dx
x
h e n ce
we h a ve
by
C9
bt
(
aq
Op
c g,
= at
t,
br ) 3
i n t ege r 3
an
cp
f ro m w hi c h p o siti ve i n t eg ra l so luti o n s m ay b e o b t ai ne d b y gi v i ng
t o t an y p o siti ve i n teg ral v alu e w hi c h e x cee ds th e g r e at e r o f th e
Cg
6p
m
i
m
t w o qu an titi e s
thu
th
e
n
u
b
e
r
o
f
s
o
luti
on
s
s
u
n
li
it
e
d
s
3
.
e ith e r
or
u n ity th e f ra c ti o n c an n o t b e c o n
a
b
ve r t e d i n t o a co n ti n u e d f ra c ti on w ith u n it n u m e rat o r s an d th e
i nve sti gati o n fail s I n th e se c ase s h o we v er th e so luti o n s m ay b e
w r itt e n do w n b y i n sp ec ti o n ; thu s if b = 1 th e e qu a ti on b eco m e s
b
d
ar
r
c 3 w h e n ce
x
an d th e s o luti o n s m a
b
e
f
o
u
n
a
c
y
y
y
y
c
a sc r i b i ng t o a:an
o
siti ve i n t egr a l v alu e g r e at e r th an
y p
III
If
b is
sh u
It
o l d b e ob serv d
wo arith rm t ical progr s on n w
re pec vely
O TE .
ti
d y form
ar e D an d a
o r a:an
es
H I GH ER
28 6
E x amp le
i th e g e n er
F nd
G EBR A
AL
al s
4 2y = 5
i
nto conti nue d fr cti on th e c onvergent ju st b e for e
3
we h ve th er e for e
converti
In
is
3
g
29
29
c om b i n in g th i
13
65
42
42
1;
92
4 5:
5;
i h th e give n equ ti on w e b t i n
wt
4
5
+
y
)3
29
+ 65
cv
H
y + 45
29
42
h ence th e g en er l s olution i s
i nteg e r 3
t , an
3 48
G iv en
by
ax
L et
to
h, h b e
a s
o luti on
f ax
by
= c
by
z ah
Le t
be
I f ag
co n ve r t e d i n t o
bp
u at o n
g
l we
,
cg
bg
bh
bh 3
k
t,
+ at
i n tege r ;
an
con ti n u e d f rac ti o n
th e n
= c
bp
ag
<
ag
=
1:
an
bp ) 3
b
x
so
ha v e
(
c
ax +
ah
d th e g en er a l
d
r
ece
i
g
p
th en
b t, y
ax
c o n v e rge n t j u st
I
th e ge n e ral s o luti o n
To
th e
3 49
equ a tio n
is
tio n
so lu
ax
w hi c h
45
in p o sitiv e in t eg er s
d th e g en er a l so lu tio n
one
n
6 5, y = 2 9 t
42t
tg
+ cp
a
b t, y
t,
= at
an
n t ege r 3
p 3
d let
f
3
be
th e
H I GH ER
28 8
I
Le t
bp
ag
AL
G EBRA
13
cg
b t, y
at
cp
rt
A
[
gi v in g to
by
an
n o
l e ss
of)
th an
(
i)
Su pp o
e th t
a
an
(
6
are n o
Let
w h ere m,
ar e
p o siti ve
m +j3
i n t ege rs
= n +
an
f ra c t i o n
um b er
cc o rdi n g
(
ii )
as
E
L Q +f
a
b
cco r di ng
o luti o n s
o
r
f
Su pp o se
an
as
r
o
e
r
f
r
c
ti
on
th
e
s
;
p p
a
th e gre at e st v alu e
ab
d m ay b e
is
great e r
g,
th i s i s a n i n t ege r
Now
0
ln
j; g
an
i n t ege r s
th e l e ast v alu e t c an h a ve is m + l
th e r e f o r e th e n u m b e r o f so luti on s is
ab
is
o r
ab
th e i n t ege r n e ar e st t o
a
7
th e g r e at e r
18
f ra c t i o n
l e ss th a n
is
wr i tt e n
is
Thu s
g r e at e r
o r
or
th e
l e ss
th at Eis an i n t ege r
b
ab
or
(
iii )
ab
Su pp o se
th a t
is
an
in t ege r
Z
ia
I N D ETER M I N A TE
EQ
U A TI O N S
F I R ST
O F THE
GR EE
DE
(
i v)
Su pp o se
g ;
th a t
an
are
c
o r
ab
ao
o th i n t eger s
28 9
thi s c a se f 0 an d g = 0 an d b o th a: a n d y h a ve a z e ro
v alu e I f we i nc lu de th e s e th e l e ast v a lu e t c a h a ve is m a d
th e g r e at e st is n 3 h e n ce th e n u m b e r o f s o luti on s is n m l o r
In
II
ab
ab
I f we
e x c lu de th e z ero v alu e s th e
I f ag
l th e gener a l s o luti o n
bp
bt
i m il a r re sults w ill
3 52
ti o n
be
c g,
cp
ax
o luti on s
is
a t,
o b t ai n e d
is
x =
an
u mb e r
Of
th e e qu a
t ra n sp o siti o n a x b y d 02 3 f ro m w hi c h b y g i v i ng t o z
b t a i n e qu a ti on s O f
we
o
ss
n th e v a lu e s 0 l
2 3
in s
u cc e i o
3 53
h a ve t wo si m ult a n eo u s e qu ati on s
I f we
ax +
by
+ cz =
'
d,
by
a cc
'
c z
'
e li m i n at in g o n e o f th e u n k n o w n s z say we Ob t a i n an e q u ati on
th e f o r m A x By 0 Su pp o se th a t x ] ; y g is a s o luti on
th en th e gene ral s o luti o n c an b e wr itt e n
by
of
w h ere
'
lBS)
A sa
i n t eger
Su b stituti ng th e se v a lu e s o f a: a n d y i n e ith e r o f th e g i ven
e qu ati o n s we o b t a i n an e qu ati o n o f th e f o rm Fs + G z = H O f
w hi c h th e genera l s o luti on is
s
is
an
s =
Su b stituti n g fo r
s,
G t,
e =
th e v alu e s
i n t e g ra l v alu e s
an
FI
a,
Ft
sa
we ob t a i n
y
'
are
Ah
o b t ai ne d
A Gt 3
b y g i v i ng
to
uit ab l
H I GH ER
290
3 54
I f on e
o luti on i n
by
ax +
c an
+ cz
AL
d,
h b
th e
By
u b t r a c ti on
a
o b t ai ne d
m ay b e
(
1
7
d,
bg
d,
r ti c ul r so luti on 3 th e
ch
(
(f )
'
c z
'
e qu a ti on s
f oll ow s
as
'
a
'
bg
f th e
'
L e t f; g
s iti ve i n t eger s
o
p
f o u n d th e ge n e ra l s o luti on
G EBRA
r
e
'
(
y
g)
h)
03
w h en c e
x
bc
w h ere
bc
'
t is
'
c, c a
'
i n t ege r
an
'
c a, a b
ca
'
ab
c a
In
F i nd th e g eneral s o luti o n
7 7 5x
Ic
o f th e de n o m i n at o r s
ra l soluti on is
XX VI
d h is th e H C F
Thu s th e gene
a b
(
bc
t
_
an
EXA MPLES
c row
7 1 1y = l
an
h ow m any way s c an
b)
4 55x
id i
1 1 9 3 6 d b e pa
.
4 3 6x
o r in s
an
h alf
ns
Fi nd th e n u mb e r o f s o luti on s
5
.
1 1 x + 1 5y
F i nd two frac t i on s h av i ng
s u c h th at t h e i r su m is 1
3, g
6
1 03 1
i n tege rs
in p ositi ve
an
d9
an
7
an
d 8
8
o
12
24
f y po
cert ai n
u nds x
con si st s o f 2: po u n d s
shilli n gs ; nd th e su m
su
So l ve in p o siti ve
hilli ngs
an
it is h alf
i n tegers :
10
12 v
.
1 1x
1 1y + 4 z = 2 2
4 x + 5y +
XX V II
C HA P TER
REC U RR I N G
CO
N TI N U ED F R A C TI O N S
We h a ve s ee n in C h ap X X V th a t a t er m in a tin g con
ra c ti o n w ith r ati o n a l qu o ti en t s c an b e r e du ce d t o a n
r
r f ra c ti on w ith i n t egra l n u m era t o r an d de n om i n at o r a n d
th ere f ore c a nno t b e e qu a l t o a s u r d 3 b u t we Sh all p rove th a t a
qu a drati c s u r d c an b e e x p re sse d a s an in n ite c on ti n u e d f ra c ti on
w h o se qu o ti e n t s r ec u r
We sh all rs t con si de r a n u m e r i c a l
e x am pl e
3 55
t in u e d f
o di n a y
cti on s
fr a
Exp r
ap p r o x im a
E x a mp le
c onti nu e d fr cti on
i t s v lu e
ess
t in
J 19
g to
as
an
d n d
a s
er e
i
s o
N 19 + 3
af
1 , 3 , 1 , 2, 8
r ecur ;
1
h en ce
1
1 + 3 + 1 + 21 8 +
as
as
R EC U RR I N G
F RA C TI O N S
293
I e c h f th e l i n es b ove w e p e r f r m th e s m e se r i es f
ti
[E pl
op e r ti on s F e m p l e c on s i d r th e ec ond l i n e we r s t d th e
H
N 4
2
m
t
h
i
s
t
h
e
r
i
nd e r i s
i
d
2 th t
r
t
e
s
t
i
n
t
e
e
r
i
n
;
g
g
g
Z
H 2
We
t
h
e
n multi ply num e r tor d d nom i n tor b y th e u d
i
Z
5
c onjug te to J 1 9 2 s o th t fter i nvertin g th e result /1 9 it 2 we b e gi n
N
n ew l i n e with r ti on l d enom i n tor ]
e pl i n e d i n A t 3 3 6
Th r st seve n c onv e rgent for med
an a
on
ea
xa
or
I N U ED
C O NT
an
Th e
as
4s
13
e rror i t k i ng th e l st
a
11
61
14
39
'
326
th e se is l es s th an
an
t r
l es th n
ss th n
d
f
1 02 4 00
seventh converg ent gives th e v lu e to t l e st four p l ce
le
01
an
3 56
o r io
fa
L e t x deno t e th e co ti n u e d f r c ti on
a
l
a +
(
1
J
'
d y
+ 0+
1
+
n +
h, m ,
b,
a,
s o
an
u pp o se th a t
w h ere
00001
ci
+ v +
v are
i s therefore
Thu s th e
f de mal
o ts o
are
1 421
170
s r
s
}
an
an
an
ro
of th e
r a tio n a l
one
th e p e r i o di c
rt
s iti ve i n t e er s
o
p
g
Le t
Let
qu o ti en t s
we h a ve
[3
re spec ti ve l y ; th en si nce
h, h
:
c
p y
9 y
be
th e co nverge n t s t o
be
w h ence
i
y s
(
x
I
corre sp on di ng t o th e
a:
th e c o m p l e t e qu o ti en t
th e c onve rgen t s t o
c o rr e p on di n g t o th e
'
qu o ti en t s u
re sp ec ti ve l y
th en
Su b stituti ng fo r y i n t e m s o f
qu ad a ti c o f w hi c h th e coe fc i en t s
r
.
i m plify i n g we o b t a i n
r ati on al
an
a re
H I GH ER
29 4
Th e e qu a ti on s y
a
a
n
d
a
s
oo
t
s
re
l
h
s
i
t
y,
2
AL
/ b
u b stitut e d i n
e s
th e v a lu e o f x
E x amp le
a:b e
L et
w h ence 2
Ex pr
2x
92
q
A
es
E
J
r e al
is
as
3+
a
:
c ontinue
cti on i s equ l to th e po s itive root
N/1 5 1
i s th er efor e equ l to 2
Th e
i n t ege r s
are
su r d
0
7
d fra
B, G
2+
3+
w h ere A
w hi c h
0,
i nce th e v alu e o f y
the value
o f th e f o rm
is
B b e i n g p o siti ve
a:=
i
ve
s th e v a lu e o f
g
s i gn s 3 if th e
o
s iti ve v lu e o f
p
o n r ati on a li si ng th e deno m i n a t o r
)y
o f o pp o sit e
0
/
r z
2
r
'
G EBRA
()
th i s equati on
an
EXA MPLES
XXVII
t h e foll owi n g su rd s
i th c onvergen t t o e ac h :
Ex p r
c onti n u ed fr c tion
as
ss
s,
an
th e
d n d
s x
J3
JI1
13
J3
19
14
J2
11
/i 4
J8
4 ~/l o
12
15
J33
J6
16
t h e error wh en 9
2
F i nd l im i ts o f th e error wh en
is
tak en
is
tak en for J 2 3
9 16
F in d th e rs t c o n v ergen t t o
a s
F i nd l i m it s
cim l
20
J5
10
J 21
18
f de
17
fo r
J 17
F i nd th e rst convergen t t o J 1 5 th at
o f de c im al s
Ex p res s as a c on t i n u ed fr ac ti on th e
foll owi n g e q u at i on s :
is
c orr e c t t o ve p l c e
a
21
22
24
25
.
26
Ex p ress
e ac h roo t
F i nd th e valu e
F i nd th e val u e
f3 +
of
o
s
iti
ve
roo
t
p
23
4x
5x
0 as
1+ 3 + 1+ 3+
of
7x
eac h
-
8x
th e
H I GH ER
29 6
\V e
r st
*
titi e s a
th a t th e
,,
t eg ers
let
A
N
J
rl
N
J
r,
econ d thi r d fo u r th
,
l as
co m pl e t e qu o ti en t s
Fr o m th e p r ece di n g a r ti c l e it app e a rs th at th e qu a n
r ,, b , , b , b
ar e
o
rove
siti ve i n t ege r s ; we s h a ll n o w
p
2
p
3
qu an titi e s a2 , a s, a4 ,
al s o
o
iti
ve
r , r ,
s
i
n
p
2
3
II
be
th e co n vergen t co rr e sp o n di n g t o th e
c om p l e t e qu o ti en t
N
J
thi s stage
at
Cl e a r i ng
r t s we h a ve
r"
2
J
}
3
is
r ti l qu o ti en t
a
"
h en ce
N
a
+
J
N
+
J
a,
I,
Th e
Let
13
3 58
G EBRA
h a ll c a ll th e ser i e s o f qu o ti en ts
N
J
t he
AL
"
13
f ra c ti on s
an
r ati o l
e qu ati ng
na
an
i r rati on al
w h ence
rq
r q)
rr
(2
W
.
99
an d 9
l
9
7
Bu t m
0
.
.
t
1
2
r
1
s
1
1
f
4
A
rt
3
4
h
ence
sam e S i gn
a an d
3
[
]
r q)
'
th e
7
1
997 ,
N
9
Nz
h a ve
o
sit i ve i n t eger s
p
a
1
V
+
J
Si n ce t w o con vergen t s p r ece de th e c o m p l e t e qu o ti e n t
.
r n ar e
thi s i n ve sti ga ti o n h o l ds f o r
*
3 59
all
To p r o v e th a t th e
v alu e s
c o mp lete
g r e at e r th an
fn
an
r2
d p ar tia l qu o tien ts
r ecu r
we h a ve p r ove d th a t r r ;
N af A l so r an d
s
r _
ar e
o
iti
ve
i
n
t
eger
s 3 h ence a m u st b e l e ss th a n
N
thu
s
p
j
c a nno t b e g r e a t e r th a n a an d th e r e fo r e it c an no t h a ve an y
a
v alu e s e x ce p t 1 2 3
3 th a t is th e n u mb er of di er en t v a lu es of
a c a n n o t ex ceed a
A g a in a 1 = r b
th a t is r b
a n d th ere f o r e
r b
c a nn o t b e g r e a t e r th an 2 a ; al s o b is a p o siti ve i n t eger ;
h ence r
c a nn o t b e g r e at e r th an 2 a
Thu s r c a nno t h a ve an y
i
s
a
u
v alu e s e x ce p t 1 2
a
r
n
t
v
l
e
s
th
t
e
t
h
e
u
m
r
o
d
n
b
e
3
f i
(
2f r can n o t ex ceed 2a
I n A rt 3 57
.
,,
"
"
"
R EC U RR I N G
CO
N TI N U ED F R A C TI O N S
297
N
+
J
Thu s
th e co m pl e t e qu o ti en t
T
2a
diffe r e n t v alu e s ; that is so m e
a,
c nno t h ve
a
mo
r e th n
a
th er e o r e a ll su
A l so
u o
q
ea
is
t ien ts
m u st
ch cy c l ca
e
360
b sequ en t
a lso
n n ot
r ec u
th a t
o ve
is
d th e
tha n
l
an
'
a ll
al
a
o
i ce
+ au
an
rn
o
s iti ve i n t ege r
p
r
o
o
iti
o
p p
s
an
a I:
h ence
r fp
o
a r tia l
th e p a t ial
u o
t ien ts
in
7
1
!t
>
1
s th e
rove
p
t ien t,
Bu t
mb e
o r
u
o
q
N
+
J
n u
+ a
N
J
w hi c h
re u
an
b e g r ea te r
We h a ve
S n
m u st
th e g r e a t e st i n t ege r i n
To p
o n e s,
co mp lete
one
a 1i
Tn
36 1
To sh ew th a t th e p er io d b eg in s with th e seco n d p ar t ia l
u o tien t a n d t e m in a tes with a
u o tien t do u b le of th e r s t
a
t
i
a
l
q
q
p
*
Si nce ,
l
a ce l e t
p
th e s
(
,
as
us
we h ave seen in
su
s e th a t th e
o
pp
th e n
a
at
TO
A rt
(
n
3 59 , a ec u rrence m u st t a k e
th
l ) co m pl e t e qu o ti en t re u r s at
.
r
I
we Sh a ll p rove th at
a0
A ga i n ,
a
n
+ a
n
b
-
r
n
l ,
b
u
H I GH ER
29 8
Bu t , b y A r t
a , _1
al
3 6 0,
al
" _l
H ence
<
m u st b e
b
a s
an
a,
h ence
ero
th a t
1 )
a,
'
is
l e ss
is
l o
an
G EBRA
_
a
a _
a
n
1
1)
<
a _
"
th e r e fo r e
an d th ere f ore
th a n u n ity
Thu s
AL
, _l
if th e n + 1 ) co m p l e t e qu o ti en t rec u rs th e n c o m
h
l
a l s o r ec u r ; th ere f ore th e
qu
o
ti
en
t
u
t
e
t
e
m
s
n
m
1
co
l
e
t
e
p
p
)
qu o ti en t m u st al s o r ec u r 3 an d so o n
Thi s p roo f h o l ds a s l ong a s n is n o t l e ss th a n 2 [A r t
h e n ce th e co m pl e t e qu o ti en t s rec u r b eg i nn i ng w ith th e secon d
N
a
+
J
qu o ti en t
I t f o ll ow s th ere fo r e th a t th e r ec u rr e n ce
b eg i n s w ith th e s econ d p a rti a l q u o ti en t b 3 we s h a ll n o w sh ew
th a t it t erm in at e s w ith a pa r ti al qu o ti e n t 2a
th
th
(
,
N
+
/
~
7
s
be
th e c om p l e t e qu o ti en t w hi c h j u st p rece de s th e
1t
N+
e c o n d c o m pl e te qu o ti en t
an
N
+
a
J
are
bu t N
a,
A ga i n
= r
,
al
a,
l so a
ro
o
s iti o n
p p
h ence
=
u
th at
r" ,
+ al = r
b 3
,
362
cu r
l3
h en c e
is
h en c e
a ,,
th at
0,
is
2a , ;
:
u
w hi c h e st ab li sh e s th e
To sh ew th a t in
dis ta n t fr o m th e b eg in n in g
i
en t b ein g exc lu ded
u
o
t
q
*
m
N
co n sec uti ve co m pl e t e qu o ti e n ts 3 th e r e f o r e
t wo
an = a
w h en i t rec u rs 3 th en
rl
h
e p ar tia l q u o tien ts eq u i
d
t
y
a n d en d a r e eq u a l, th e la st p a tia l
an
o
e
r
i
p
L e t th e l t co m pl e t e qu o ti en t
as
r"
1,
an = a
We sh a ll p rove th a t
Cb
'
7 0
b e deno t e d b y
, ,
"
2a
N
a
+
J
7
it
th en
H I GH ER
3 00
an
th ere f ore e qu al t o
d is
=
N
J
C l e a ri ng o f
a r t s, we o b t ai n
p
gai n
qu o t i en t
2
12
<
c an
q 2n
e qu a l t o
bl
c o nverge n t
in
th e
a
an
fn 3
al
r ti on l
a
d
q
by
n
p2 :
q2
tak i ng f o r th e
V9
pn
li
f ro m
9
9.
(
1) 3
n.
is
N9
i r ra ti on al
r
ove
th
t
if
p
r ec u rr i g p e ri o d
+ p cn
we m ay
11
an
an
Thu s
"
c e ssiv e l
en
07
u si n g th e s e e qu ati o n s we
d by
It
lp
b,
m a nne r
li k e
13
e qu a ti ng
19 2 "
In
Nq
9 2
o b tai n e d fr om
be
an
h en c e
a!
p n _l
9a
is
1V
L G EBRA
w hi c h
f ra c ti on s
a,
a1
th e p en ulti m at e
011.
m ay
en
o b tai n
pm ,
q 3n
p4
21.
gi
su c
h o u l d b e no ti ce d th a t e qu a ti o n
thu s
h o l ds
2e n
9 2m
fo r
all
m ulti p l e s
p en
I n A r t 3 56 , we h a ve seen th a t a p er i o di c con ti n u e d
f a c ti o n c an b e e x p e sse d as th e oo t o f a qu ad ati c e q u a ti o n
w ith a ti on al coe fc i en t s
*
365
.
R EC U RR I N G
N TI N U ED F RA C TI O N S
CO
3 01
C o n v e r s e ly , w e m i g ht p ro v e b y t h e m e th od o f A r t 3 57 th a t
A + B
e r e A , B, 0 a r e
w
h
o
siti
v
e
e x r e ssi o n o f t h e f or m
p
p
0
.
an
i n te g e r s a n d B n o t a p e r f e c t s q u a r e c a n b e c o n v e r t e d i n t o a
r e c u rr i n g c o n ti n u e d f ra c ti o n I n this c as e t h e pe r i od i c pa r t w ill
w ith t h e s e c o n d pa r ti a l q u o ti e n t n o r will
n o t u su a ll y b e g i n
t h e l a s t pa r ti a l q u o ti e n t b e do u b l e t h e r st
,
For fu r th e r i n f orm a ti o n o n t h e s u b je c t o f r e c u rr i n g c o n ti n u e d
f rac ti o n s we r e fe r t h e stu d e n t t o Se r r e t s Co m 3 d A lg b r e Su p e
a me a n d t o a p a m p hl e t o n Th e E p r essio n of a Qu a dr a t ic Su r cl
b y Th o m a s Mui r M A
a s a C o n t in u ed Fr a c t io
-
EX A MPLES
XXV II
followi g s u rd s
Ex p re ss t h e
fo u rt h o v rg t t
c
Ja
en
+l
o e ac
as c
h:
Pro ve
fth o v rg t
c
h w th
an
N/a
n s,
d n d
a
n
th at
d n d t h e
2a
an
o ti u e d fra ti o
en
2 a + 6 a + 2a + 6 a +
.
p + 1
+ p + 1+ p + 1+
h w th
10
29
9
If
a2
?
M
N
m d
b e e p r e e d as
3 +
If
+
1
3/
h w th
e
a c
ss
11
+p n
2 +
2Pn
+ l a
9n
1
a2 +
2 a l + 2 a a+ 2 a l + 2 622 +
_
3 a l + 3 a 2 + 3 a l + 3 a2 +
x@
on ti u ed frac ti o s h ew th at
(
x
the
H I GH ER
3 02
12
Pro v e
13
6+
6+
+ b+
b+
sh ew th at
If
6+ 6+
+ b+
+ b+ b+
2 b e th e
3
4
th
o v e rg t t o J a
en
0+
ot
j
If
6+
+ 1
9n
de n
P3 +P5+
.
th e
Pro v e
+ P2n
th at
'
th
q u al t o
18
n um b e r
P2
t h e di ffe
1
b+
+ 6+
1+be
M5
0+
s h ew t h at
re n c e
f th e
92
92
b+
1 + ab
If J N is c on v erted i n to a c o n ti n u e d frac ti o n
o f q u oti en ts in t h e p er i od s h ew that
2
%
p
g
i n n i te c o n ti n u e d f rac ti o n s
1
m
1 + ab
+ 0+
on v erg e t t o
9m
2n
I J N b e c o n er te d i n t o a
19
u lt i m at e c o n e r e n ts in t h e r st,
d en ote d b y n 1 ,
r e s p e c t i e ly ,
.
91 92
"
+ 2
s h ew t h at
+ 1,
1s e
'
Sh e w t h at
15
17
9n
16
x = a
14
If
G EBR A
th at
1
AL
v g
ah
JN _
JN
219n +
an
d if
is
th e
on tin u ed frac ti o a d if t h e p en
se c o d
re c u rri n g pe ri ods b e
sh e w th at
c
H I GH ER
3 04
AL
G EBR A
b , h a r e all p o siti v e ,
is li m it e d, b e c aus e f or
it is c l e a r th a t t h e n u m b e r o f
s o luti o n s
l a rge v al u e s o f a:an d y t h e si gn
o f t h e e x p r e ssi o n o n t h e l e ft d e p e n d s u p o n th a t o f a x + 2 h w
b
y
y
a n d th u s c a n n o t b e z e ro f or l a r e
o
siti
v
rt
e i n t e ra l
A
g p
g
[
v al u e s o f a:a n d y
If
a,
ti
v
e
g
s o luti o n s
a
n e
if
o ve i
S l
vi g
as a
Bu t 3 0
By t
51
ri
4 2:y
ar e
2y + l
nc
ss
whe
1;
c an n
ea e
ca
an
s o l u ti o n
the
a ti o n
u
q
b e m ad e
f or m
2h wy
by
t o d e pe n d u p on
x
Th e
an
ati o n
u
q
a are
a ti o n
u
q
n
s o luti o n
2g x
th e
2
ZVf
g
s o
Ny
= a
To sh ew th a t th e
36 9
so l v ed in p o sitiv e in teg er s
*
in p o siti
c
whe
5;
=
13,
y
v i t eg r s
e
O
an
u
ti
o
q
a
f the
=
k a
,
o
siti
v
e in te e rs
p
g
h as a
d b y t ri a l ; w e
2
o f t h e f orm x
f o un
t o e q u a ti o n s
m ay b e
Ny
or
=
7,
y
W e h a v e s ee n th a t
c an
29
J ao + 24g
dz
ax
w h e re
on
he
e
o
t
g
r
t
r
h
b
t
y
(e re io u(
de r the r di l b e om e
p
or 4 9 ; t hu th p o itive i tegr l v lu e f y
en
3 68
f the
2 y
2 31 : 1 02
2 4y
al we n d t at t h e
is
h ve
we
x,
(
31
p e r fe t squ r e wh
5 7 13
Whe y 5 = 2 1 or
c
2 0y
q u adrat i c in
x
Ex a mp le
So l
a b is n e a ti e , t h e c o e f c i e n t o f
h
i
n
1
g
g
)
m
a r r e as o n i n
w
an d b
at t h e n um b e r
si
il
th
e
s
e
e
y
g
is li m it e d
A ga i n ,
r e a l roo ts whilst t h e
li m it e d n u m b e r o f s o luti o n s whi c h
sh all th e r e f ore c o n n e o u r a tt e n ti o n
h as
N
y
:1:
eq u a tio n
n o
Ny
can
a lwa
s
y
be
L et
p
q
22
p
q
"
o n v e r t e d in t o a c o n ti n u e d f ra c ti o n an d l e t
an
e e c o n s e c uti v e c o n v e r e n ts ; su
at
th
r
o
s
th
e
y
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I N D ETER M I N A T E
V
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orre s p o d
7
/2
IVY
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to
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h
e
en
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p
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e in
lt n
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o n v e rg e t
n
f an y
r e u rr
c
g p
in
e rl o
'
If the
c
um b r of q u ot
o n v e r ge n t
p q
th u s
r
a t e r th a
e
g
q
a d th e r e f or e a
ts
3/
r od
1S e
ate r
an
r
th
e
g
pg
t h e pe
1 11
is th e r e f or e
an
ien
is a
of
lu t 1o n
so
en
IV
/
N
thl S
In
the
I S an
9
an d
ca e
a i
Ng
n x
ve
th e re f or e
u
t
o
q
'
Ny
1,
:
z
'
Si n c e
p
r i od
th e
is
the
u mb r
ulti m a t e
en
f s o luti o n s
o v e rge t O f
n
is u n li m it e d
r e u rr i n g
r i od is O dd t h e p e n u lti m a t
h
t
e r st p e r i od is a n
o dd c o n v e r e n t
b
c o n v e r e n t in
h
u
t
t
g
g
t
h
ulti
ate c on v e r e n t i
e s e c o d p e r i od is a n ev en c o v e r e n t
m
e
n
g
p
g
y
Th u s i t e g r a l s o l u ti o n s w il l b e o b t a i n e d b y p u tti n g a: p
IJ
t h e se c on d
f o u rth
w h e re L 1 S t h e pe u lt m a t e c o n v e rg e t
If t h e
u m b e r o f q u o tie ts i
an
t h e pe
'
1 11
si x th
r e c u rr i n g pe r i od s
o f s o luti o n s is u n li m it e d
e n c e al s
in
this
the
th e
ca e
um b r
e
37 0
To
1
Ny
A
2
:2
b t a in
a so lu
um b r
we
eq u a tio n
have
I
n
r ti c l e
N M
a
If t h e
in p o s itiv e in t eg e r s
in t h e p r e c e d i n g
t io n
rq
f q u o ti e n ts in t h e p e r i od
is
d d,
an
if
p
,
'
IS an
an
dd p e n u l t l m a t e
th e re f or e p
In
e
u
ti
o
q
a
wh e r e
r e c u rri
this
n
)3
q
n
is
V?
pq
p
t h e pe n
e r i od s
p
g
o v e rg e t
ca e
e
Nq
1
1 11 a n
re c u rrl n
g p
r d
1e
i n t e g ra l s o l u ti o n s o f
=
n
O b tai n e d b
utti
x
y
g
y p
p
1,
:2
w ill
a e c
an
en
the
o v e rg e n t
n
in t h e
r st thi rd
,
fifth
pp
u lti m t
ha
t t;
we
c an
Cl l S L U V b
c,
'
3 06
G EBRA
E I G HER A L
E x amp l e
So l
ve i
po s
We c a Shew that
i ti v e i
eger
4:
s a
s
H ere t h
um b e r o f quo t i e t
n
e n
verg e t i the r
n
18
p e ri o d i
st
h en c e
By A r t 3 6 4 ,
.
n c
e
r
i
p
64 9 ,
= 1 80
y
cc
ss
37 1
b een
W hen
fo un d
m e th od
Su pp o s e
we
dd ; t h e p
a so l
e ultim te
a
ut i o
n o
th e
t 1s
s co n
r e ur i g p e r i
r n
us
Pu t
a:
i 86
.
on s
h, g
(
li
e urri g
c
ons
+1
b y th
(
h
an
v lu s 1
a
h JN )
h JN )
(
(
"
N
pd
a:
2x
a;
N
yJ )
a:
Th e a l e s o f
a s c ri b i n
n the
t
o
g
c a n b e o b t ai n e d
s o l u ti o n It a n d It b e i n g p o siti v e
w h e r e n is a n y p o siti v e i n t eg e r
a
(
N
(
J
(
N
a/
(
f
is
10
N
yJ )
v u
d is
649
(
a;
an
co n
th a t
i n t e g e r s ; th e n
1,
on e
f o ll ow i n g
Th
d is
1 8 , y = 5 is
2
:
0
h as
1
i s a sol uti o o f
f rmi g th e u e ive p e ulti m t e o verge t s o f the
o f t h e qu at i
w c a o b tai a y um b e r o f ol u t i
By
o ds
e ri
the p en ul ti m at e c on v erge n t in
2
he e
in t h e p
(
h
"
o
siti
v
i
t
r
s
e
n
e
e
a
n d b
p
g
y
a s m an
s
o
l
u
ti
o
s
l
s
n
w
a
s
e
a
e
e
y
p
fou n d
SO
2,
ar e
Si m il a r l y
Ng
2 :
if
1,
an
x =
if
h,
n
x
b ec om e
olve
c e
es
Ny
v lu s of x d y a
is r t r i t d t o t h v l u s 1 3
3 7 2 By p u tti g a:
y/
Thu s t h e
y h is a s o l u ti o n o f
is a n y o dd p o s iti v e i n t e ge r
an
ax
a
n
1,
w hi c h
u
a ti o n
q
re
the
the
s am e
as a
l r e a dy fo u n d
but
we
the
h av e
eq
a
u ti o s w
a
N9
:1:
l re a dy sh e w n h ow
to
A L GE B R A
H I GHER
3 08
= a w hen a
N
o
siti
v
e i n t e g r a l s o luti o n o f t h e e q u a ti o n s 90
y
p
is n o t o n e o f t h e ab o v e m e n ti o n e d d e n o m i na t or s 3 thus we e asily
53 is s atis e d b y y
2 x
7y
9
d th a t t h e e q u a ti o n x
W h e n o n e s o luti o n in i n t e g e r s h a s b e e n f o u n d a n y n u m b e r o f
s o l u ti o n s m ay b e o b t a i n e d a s e x p l a i n e d in t h e n e x t a r ti c l e
2
Ny
Ny
37 6
Su pp o s e th a t x ]
h, y
a n d l e t a:
a
1 3 th e n
z
Ny
(
f
(
u tti
d a s c r i b i n g t o h , Is
w e m ay o b t a i n a n y n
an
Ng ) h
Ng h )
as ex
u
ti
o
q
a
a ti o n
u
q
h
g ,
v lu s f o u d
r f s o l u ti o s
e
N/c
f the
o f the
ain e d
l
p
in A r t
3 7 1,
s u p p o s e d th a t N is n o t a p e r fe c t !
if h ow e v e r N is a p e r f e c t s q u ar e t h e e q u a ti o n t ak e s t h e
a w hi c h m a
b
e r e a d il
s
o
l
v
e d a s f o ll ow s
n
y
y
y
37 7
"
h as b e en
it
s quare 3
f orm x
Su pp
H ith r t o
umb
e an
s o l u ti o n
s o luti o n
Ng k y t
th e i r
is
By p
;y
o s e th t
a
f w hi c h b
is
th e
w h ere b
r
e a t e r 3 th e n
g
b e,
an
( )(
a:
a:
t wo p
c ar e
y)
bc
o siti v e i n t e g e r
s,
h
a lu e s o f x a n d
if
t
e
v
f
o
u
d
n
3
y
y
y
f r om th e s e e q u ati o n s a r e i n t e g e r s w e h av e o b t a i n e d o n e s o luti o n
o f t h e e q u a ti o n 3 t h e r e m a i n i n g s o luti o n s m ay b e o b t a i n e d b
y
o
ssi
l
as c rib in
t
o b a n d c al l th e i r
b
e v a lu e s
p
g
Pu t
b,
E x amp l e
al t o 6 0
e qu
L et
Fi
d t wo p
o itiv e i t eger
n
i fe r e
th e d f
n ce
of wh o
x,
y b
the
t wo
i tege
n
rs ;
of a
the n
of th
6 0; t
73
t is
ir o f fact o rs
pa
1 , 6 0; 2 , 3 0; 3 , 2 0; 4 , 1 53 5, 1 2 ; 6 , 1 0;
d th e
v l u e r e q u i re d
a
ar e
ob t i e d f
a n
ro
m th e
+ y = 3 0,
(
ll
th e
quares is
No w 60 is t h e produ c t
an
se s
quat i on s
+ y = 1 0,
(
1)
e n
re
ac
n a
dy
( (
x
+ y)
=
0
6
)
y
I NDE T ER MI N A T E E QUA TI O NS
CO R
li k e
In
o f
i n tege r s
m an n e r we m a y
"
2hwy
a ss
if t h e l e ft h a n d
fa c t or s
m emb e r
by
b
c an
SE C O ND DEGRE E
O F TH E
o b tai
2fy
2g cs
s o l u ti o n
th e
in p o siti
h,
c =
r e s o l v e d i t o t wo r a ti o
3 09
n a
l li n e a r
I f in t h e g e n e r a l e q u a ti o n a , o r b , o r b o th , ar e
o f e m pl o y i n g t h e m e th od e x pl ai n e d in A r t 3 6 7
t o p ro c e e d a s in t h e f o ll ow i n g e x a m pl e
378
i n st e a d
S i m ple r
o ve i
S l
o itive i teger
s
2ry
4x
re i g y
in t
ss n
e rm o f
s
we
2x
order th at y
In
be
st
m ay b e
e c as s i
a ar e
5y
dt
an
3, y = 1 1 ;
herefore th
1+
J:
2x
i teger 2 5 m u t b
r A=3 or
l e arly b e r eje te d ; h
we
ob tai
th e
oluti
= 9 ; mz
y
i ib l e v l u e
adm s s
o n s
1, y
1;
n s ar e
3, y = 11 ;
th e
nc
3;
i i b l e o l u ti o
e adm ss
en ce
5:
cc e s s o n
2, y
i=
he e
33
i te g e r ;
e an
a: ar e
an
it is
h ve
11
a n
nc
e qu l t 1 or 2
Th
e 2 6my
f
o b t i e d from 2 5 1
whe e t h v lu e o f
3 2 4 1
T k i g the e v l u e s i
u
i
m
ro
E x a mp l e
Ex p
ze
=
9
y
i pl e s a l re a d y e x p l ai n e d e n a b l e u s t o d is c o v e r
fo r w h a t v a l u e s o f t h e v a r i ab l e s g i v e n li n e a r o r q u a dra ti c
f u n c ti o n s o f a: an d y b e c o m e p e r fe c t s q u a r e s Pro b l e m s o f this
k i n d a r e s o m e ti m e s c a ll e d D io p h a n tin e Pr o b lem s b e c a u s e th e y
w e re r st i n v e sti ga t e d b y t h e G r e e k m ath e m a ti c i an D i o p h an t u s
ab o u t t h e m i dd l e o f t h e f o u r th c e n tu r
y
*
37 9
Th e p r i n
F i d th ge er l e pre io for tw
u h t h t if t he ir produ t i t k e fr m th
d iffe r e e i
p e rfe t qu r e
D e o t the i t e g er b y x
d y ; the
E x amp l e 1
ar e
is
sa t s
mr =
wher e m a
ar e
po
a
cy
x (y )
2
2
s u pp O S e
po
su
e s
it i v e i t e g e r
n
(
r
e d b y t h up po itio
y)
n s
7 11
(y)
z
itive i t eger wh i h
f t he ir q u ar e t h
h i e q u ti o
an
n s
ss
s a
n c
H I GH E R
310
He e
m
From t he e e quati o
nc
2 ma
d s nc
l ti o n
ou
m= 7 ,
we
= 4,
2 r7m
t wo p
ar e an y
h ve
= 33,
37
ss
an
z =
mb
ei
11
ef
th e g
or
e er
n
al
2
.
gr e t e r ; t h u i f
g th e
su
fo
ss o n
by
+ y ; an
x, x
y,
hr ee p itive i teger i
f every t w i
p erfe t
o s
on
is
ti s e d b y the
whe re m
ar e
ro
He e w
nc
on s
e O
ef
th e
m ay t ak
n
or
n c
by
m + 71
2
a s
s c
(
m
( )
m2
o r
77 1.
wh i h
c
co n
ii
d t
on
is
u re o f
sat s
SW
2
u
8n
ed if m
8 11
he
3362
o f he e t k e i
r e p e t i ve l y
If m = 9 , n 2 1 , t
Th e s m s
t
6 2 42
s
62, 8 2 , 9 8
sq a
.
2
,
m2
2 mn
e s
m q + x) ,
4 mn
y
n
m lti p l i c at i o n
utio
al so
s c an
n s,
c r o ss
hree i t eger
b f u d
F r m th v l ue of it i l e r t h t m
dd ; l o t he i r v l u e m u t b
u h th t
d th e t
()
7
ge er
g
whe e
2 mn
o itive i teger
F m t he e e quat i w b tai
an
2 _
() (
=n
g
up p o i t i o
sa
2 q2 ,
2
2
h i e qu t i
d l et
= q 2 , 2x + y =
2x
2
13
an
mn
s,
or
9
11 ,
we m ay t ak
o itive i t eger
2x
he
en
mn
ge er l e pre i
d u h t h t th
th e
Fi d
ri t hm e t i pr gre io
qu r e
D o t e t h i t eg er
E x a mp l e 2
)y
m2 : 0
m l tipl i c ati o n
ss
ro
an
in
give e qu t io i s h om ge eou
th e
H er e
an
by
a n
G EBRA
m
nx
ob t i
we
ns
O,
nz
AL
an
e i ther b th eve or b t h
gr e t e r t h y t h t i
is
).
8 mn
ar e
an
s,
0;
er
2 8 8 0, an d th e n m b s ar e 4 8 2 , 33 6 2
y
,
n p a r s ar e 3 8 4 4
6 7 2 4 , 9 604 , w c ar e t h e
,
hi h
XX IX
C HA PTER
U MMA TI O N
R I ES
O F SE
u
v
f su m m ati o n O f c e r ta i n s e r i e s h a e o c c rr e d
in p r e i o s c h ap t e r s ; it w ill b e c o n e n i e n t h e r e t o g i e a
sy n o p sis o f t h e m e th od s o f su mm ati o n w hi c h h a e al r e ady b e e n
e x l ai n e d
p
i)
A r ith m e ti c a l Pro g r e ssi o n , C h a p I V
Ex am p l e s
3 80
v u
(
ii
o
t
r
i
l
ro
r
ssi
o
h
P
(
)
iii
r
i
s
w
hi
h
r
tl
r
ith
ti
l
)
(
t ri l
N
N
m
i
v
u
s
ow
r
s
t
u
r
l
u
)
(
ri s r s
to 7
v
u
ti
o
s
d
t
r
i
d
U
m
)
(
X
v
i
u
rr
i
r
i
s
h
C
R
()
.
Ge me
me
Se e
A rt 6 0
,
ca
Se
A t
A rt 3 1 2
.
f th e p
5
68
t in
f the
f the
ca
m e an
by
e e
an
d p a r tl y g e o
b e rs
an
lli e d
n e
C o e f c i e n ts ,
S
e
g
X IV
w p ro c e e d t o d is c uss m e th od s
t h e c o u r s e o f t h e p r e s e n t c h ap t e r it
f or e g o i n g m e th od s m a y still b e us e f
We
u
V
p
me
ec
ma
S m
ar e
ca
n o
f g r e at e r g e n e r a lity 3
w ill b e s e e n th a t s o m e
lly e m pl o y e d
te r m o f a s e r i e s c an b e e x p r e ss e d a s t h e d if
If the r
fe r e n c e o f t wo q u an titi e s o n e o f w hi c h is t h e s a m e f n c ti o n o f r
th a t t h e o th e r is o f r 1 , t h e su m o f t h e s e r i e s m ay b e r e ad ily
381
th
foun d
s e ri e s
Fo r l e t t h e
be
d en o te d
by
+ u
n
an
the
its
su
f orm
S
m by S
(
r
vl
v,
_l 3
th e n
su pp o s e th at
(
v
an
an
te rm
(l
v
_v
b e p u t in
c an
u
r
ii
U MM A TI O N
E x a mp le
Su m
to n
1
x
by
we
313
1
3
(
(
1 + 2x )
1 + 2x )
I f we d
( (
1 +x)
SER I E S
OF
h ve
a
+ 112 + u 3 +
1 +x
1 + 2x
1 + 3x
1
u
1 + 3x
1
n a;
by
a dd
i ti o
Sn
l +ux
1 +n +1
i 1
3 82
s u it ab l e t ra n sf or m ati o n m ay b e o b t a i n e d
i n t o p a r ti a l f ra c ti o n s b y t h e m e th od s e x pl a i n e d
So m e ti m e s
b y s e pa r a ti n g u
in C h ap X X I I I
"
E x a mp le
Fi
the
of
su m
( (
to
l + x ) 1 + ax )
Th e
th
t e rm
By
u
tt
g
i
1
p
n
"
(
1
He e
nc
e qu
1 + a" x
x,
2 2
te rm s
7:
rt
n
_
a x
al
+B 1
to
n s
B_
ax
n
'
ero i u e i
2
g
a x
cc ss o n
we
ob t i
a n
H I GH E R
314
AL
G EBRA
L et t h e
w h e re
s e r ie s
R ep la c i n g
by
den ote d
be
by
u 2
u 3
,,
h av e
1 , we
u 1
2 b) 3
.
a + n
R e pl a c i n g
th e r e f or e
by
by
1 we
s u b t ra c ti o n
Si m il a r l y ,
11
vn
v 71
t 1i a t
dd iti o
(
(
r
Sn
i s,
l) b
Sn
vn
UH
v,
vl
fo un d
h ave
By
()
b
(
r
sa
vi
v1
r +
w h e re C is a q u an tity i n d e pe n d e n t O f
asc rib in
n s om e
t
o
r
ti
ul
r
v
l
u
a
a
c
a
e
g
p
w hi c h
m ay b
by
Th e
ab
o v e r e sult g i v e s us
the
f o ll ow i n g c o n v e n i e n t r u le
by
en c e, a n
a dd a c o n s t a n
I t m ay b
h ow e v e r b e tt e r
i n d i c at e d
.
(
this r s u lt
o ti c e d th at
n o
t o q u o te
v ,l
1) b
but
(
to o t i
r
a n
1) b
Qt
as
it is
ab
ov e
H I GH E R
316
L G EB R A
3 86
To n d th e su m of n ter m s of a ser ies e a ch t er m of wh ich
is co mp o sed of th e r ecip r o c a l of th e p r o du c t of r fa c t o r s in a r ith
m e tica l p r o g r essio n , th e r s t fa c to r s of th e sev er a l ter ms b ein g in
the same ar ith me tic a l p r o g r essio n
.
L et t h e
w h e re
se rie s
d e n o te d
by
u l
u 3
a + n + r
R e p l ac i n g
(
(
a + n
by
th e re f or e
by
by
b)
su b t r ac ti o n
v n _1
Sn
vl
v2
vn
vl
Sn
th a t is
v3 ,
1 b
vm
'
dd iti o n
= v
n
1 b
sa
have
we
(
()
(
(
()
()
Si m il a r l y
b)
a + n
1) b
By
l,
a + n + r
R e p l ac i n g
1 b)
w h e r e 0 is a q u an tity i n d e pe n d e t o f
asc ri b in
a r ti c ul a r v a lu e
t
o n s om e
g
p
n
l) b
w hi c h
m ay b e
f ou n d
by
Thus
en ce
0
the
su
m m ay b e
Wr ite do wn th e
th
foun d
t er m ,
b y the
s tr ike o
f o ll o wi n g r ul e
facto r fr o m
an
th e b eg in n in g ,
d b y th e co mmo n
Th e
e ac
ca
v alu e o f 0
s e t o d e t rm i
e
ne
0 by
s r i b in g t o
a c
s om e
rti c ul a r v alu e
S U MM A T I O N
E x a mp le 1
Fi
the
su
e e
nc
e n
th
b y th e
Sn
Pu t
he
Fi
d th e
su
ac
ac
s n o
s o
an
as
we
at ,
to
+ 1)
+ 2)
1
2
t erm s o f the
ri e
se
s, are
re
one
n a
( 2)
+2
ss
(
n
(
n
( )( )(
u
+1
h of the e pre i m
to wh i h the rul e i ppl i b l e
Eac
+ 3)
+ 1 ) + 3n + 4
ss o n s
ex
ca
s a
Sn = C
1
=
u
t
n
p
b tai n
t d
e s
18
3
(
)
( (
H er e t h ul e i
t h e r t f tor
f th
the f tor o f y
follow :
p ro ee d
s
n c
g i de itely gre
E x a mp l e 2
+ 3)
+ 2) (
(+ 1 ) (
1
whe e C
O
By m ak
is
317
(
ru l e w h v e
t e i In
E R I ES
fn
OF S
ay
n o
+ 3)
w b e t ak
(
n
as
+3
+ 1
th e
th
t e rm o f a s e r i e s
1
n
+2
( )( )
n
+2
+3
the n
3
2
9
_
Sn
29
1
n
+3
3
2
( 1 ) ( 2) (+ 3 )
n
H I G HE R
31 8
G EBR A
AL
I n c a s e s wh e r e t h e m e th od s o f A r ts 3 8 3 , 3 8 6 a r e dir ec t ly
387
li
c a b l e , i n st e a d o f q o ti n g t h e r l e s w e m a y a l wa y s e ffe c t t h e
a
pp
s m m a ti o n in t h e f o ll ow i n g w a y , w hi c h is s o m e ti m e s c all e d t h e
Me th od o f S b t ra c ti o n
.
E x amp l e
Fi
su m o
d th e
fn t
e m of th e i e
e s r
14 +
ri thm et i
Th e
c al
pr
ogre io
ss
in t
hi
s c as
ei
2 , 5, 8 , 1 1 ,
e h er
ih ei
he
give e i e i tr du e
rog e i ; de t e t h i e i e
I n ac t m O f t h e
r
o f t h e ar t m t c al p
by S; t n
'
S
S
s r
s s r
n o
ss o n
as a n e w
by S
e t t e rm
d the give
e ri e
f t r th
ac o
an
e n
+ 3n
( ) term
n
ub tr t i
ac
o n
14+
5]
(
(
e rm ] (
3
s
(
3n
3n
3 n + 5)
9S = 3n
S=
1) t
n s
14 +
'
By
5 9,
.
t e r m o f a s e ri e s is a r a ti o n al i n t e g r a l
f u n c ti o n o f n it c an b e e x p r e ss e d in a f orm w hi c h w ill e n ab l e u s
r e ad il y t o appl y t h e m e t h od g i v e n in A r t 3 8 3
388
W hen
the
th
F o r s u pp o s e (
I
)
di n i e n Si o n s,
w h e re
ss u m e
C, D
A , B,
umb r
an
is
r a ti o n a l i n t e g r a l f u n c ti o n o f
u n d e te r m i n e d
are
o n sta n ts
fp
in
i d e n tity b e i n g t r u e f or a ll v a l u e s o f n w e m ay e q u a t e
t h e c o e f c i e n ts o f li k e p ow e r s o f n 3 w e th u s O b t a i n p + 1 si m p l e
1
c o n s t a n ts
e u a ti o n s to d e t e rm i n e t h e p
q
This
E x a mp l e
Fi
the
su
f
n
u e
erm
s o
2
521
the
eri e wh e ge er l t erm i
s
o s
A ss m
4
+ 6n + 5n
it
is
cc s s
at o n c
A + B n + Cn
e ob vi u th
u e iv e l y
we
ob t ai
+ 6n
at
1)
A
0:
+ 5n
0, B 2 0, E : 1 ;
6, D 2 O
T s
hu
22
an
( )()(
n
+1
+2
u i g
d b y p tt
+ 3)
6n
(
n
2,
n =
H I GHER
3 20
L GE B RA
r m a n d th e s u m of n t er m s of th e r
d
t
h
e
n
t
e
o r der of g u r a te n u m b e r s
th
th
t e rm o f t h e r st ord e r is 1 3 t h e n t e rm o f t h e
Th e n
th
s e c o n d ord e r is n 3 t h e n t e r m o f t h e thi rd ord e r is 2 n , th a t is
n + 1
n
)
th
t e rm o f t h e f o r th ord e r is 2
th a t i s
n
l ) 3 the n
n
1 2
392
To
th
th
(1 1
7 5 7 71
the
t e rm
th
th a t
an
Thus
it is
to
e a sy
th t
a
se e
fth ord e r is
f the
th e
SO o n
th
t e rm
f the
n + r
r
A g ain , t h e
su
w hi c h is
N O TE
an
Z GI O
the
In
order of
.
ap p l y n
g u r at e
t e rm s O f
fn
( (
t e rm
orde r is
2
1)
n +
th
th
n +
f the
the
2)
th
1)
o rd e r is
+ r
(
r
th
1)
orde r
g th rul e of A t 3 83 t d th m of
u mb er it will b fou d th t th o t
r
s,
e su
e c
n s an
er m o f
s
t is alway s
o f fig u r a te
u m b er s
ro
e
r
ti
e
s
a
re
hist
or
i
ll
n
c
a
p p
y
i t e r e sti g o n a c c o u n t o f t h e u se m a d e o f th e m b y Pas c a l in
his Tr ait da tr ia g le a ith mtiq u e p ub lish e d in 1 6 6 5
Th e f o ll ow i n g t ab l e e hib its t h e A r ith m e tica l Tr ia n g le in its
si m p l e st f orm
39 3
Th e
10
15
21
28
36
10
20
35
56
84
15
35
7 0 126
21
56 1 2 6
28
84
36
S U MM ATI O N
Pas c a l
r ul e
in g
o n st r u c t e d
the
u mb e r s
Ea ch n u mb e r is th e s u m
im media tely to th e left of it;
th a t
SE R I ES
OF
in t h e
321
t ri an g l e
im m edia t ely
f o ll o w
b y the
abo ve
it
an
d th a t
thus
od e o f c o n st r u c ti o n it f o ll o ws th a t t h e n u m b e r s in
t h e su c c e ssi v e h or i z o n t a l r ows o r v e r ti c a l c o lu m n s a r e t h e g u r at e
n u mb e r s o f t h e r st s e c o n d
thi rd
o rd e r s
A li n e dra w n s o a s t o c u t o ff an e q u al n u m b e r o f u n its f ro m
t h e t o p row a n d t h e l e ft h an d c o lu m n is c all e d a b a se an d t h e
b a s e s ar e n u m b e r e d b eg i n n i n g f r o m t h e t o p l e ft h a n d c orn e r
Thus t h e 6 t h b a s e is a li n e dr awn th ro u g h t h e n u m b e r s 1 5 1 0
1 0 5 l 3 an d it will b e o b s e r v e d th at th e r e a r e Six o f th e s e n u m
b e r s an d th at th e y a r e t h e c o ef c i e n ts o f t h e t e r m s in t h e e x
Fro m
the m
a n sio n
p
Th e p r o p e r ti e s o f th e s e n u m b e r s w e r e d is c uss e d b y Pa s c a l
w ith g r e a t s k ill : in pa r ti c u l a r h e us e d his A r ith m etica l Tr ia n g le
t o d e v e l o p t h e th e ory o f C o m b i n ati on s, a n d t o e st ab lish s o m e
i n t e r e sti n g p ro p o siti o n s in Pro b ab ility Th e su b je c t is f u ll y
t re a te d in To d hu n t e r s Histo r y of Pr o b a b ility , C h ap te r
.
II
i guity e x ists as t o t h e n u m b e r O f t e rm s
in a s e r i e s we h a v e us e d t h e s y m b o l 2 t o i n d i c a t e s u m m ati o n 3
b u t in s o m e c a s e s t h e f o ll ow i n g m od i e d n o t a ti o n w hi c h i n d i c at e s
t h e li m its b e t wee n w hi c h t h e su mm a ti o n is t o b e e ffe c t e d w ill b e
f ou n d m o r e c on v en i en t
39 4
W h ere
no
am b
xz
L et
o
be
4
)
an
fu n c ti o n
x,
d en o te s
th e n 2 4)
)
s e r i e s o f t e rm s o b t ai n e d f ro m (
f
i n te g r al v alu e s f ro m Zt o m i n c lusi v e
b y gi
f th e
ti v e
vi
( (
p
b y gi
vi
t
o
g
p
H H
.
al l
1) p
i n t e g r al
to
x al l
su
v alu e s f ro m
o
si
p
al l
()
-
su
For i n stan c e su pp o s e it is r e q ui r e d t o n d t h e
te r m s o f t h e s e r i e s o b t ai n e d f ro m t h e e x p r e ssi o n
the
t o p i n c lusi v e
21
the
H I GH E R
3 22
W r iti n g t h e fa c t or s o f
r e q ui r e d
the
su
AL
the
u m r t or
2)
(
p
1) r
2)
iv
( (
1) r
A
rt
[
t e rm s
to
term s
XX IX
r +
2)
5
.
Su m t h e
6
1
4
foll owi g s ri
e
es
7
1
9
1
10
'
11
is z e ro f or a ll v alu e s o f p f ro m
r e sult in t h e f orm
Su m t h e
.
EXA MPL ES
( (
1)
Si n c e t h e g i e n e x p r e ssi o n
i n c l si e , we m ay wr ite t h e
u v
r +
d i n g ord e r
29
( )(
(
(
)
(
r
a cen
1)
in
( (
P
G EBR A
'
an
d to
i n n ity
(
)
1
to
H I GH E R
3 24
Fro m this s e r i e s
t h e l aw
'
Fro m
G EBR A
we m ay p ro c e e d t o f or m t h e ser ies of th e
o r der s of dier en c es, t h e g e n e r a l t e r m s o f
r e sp e c ti e ly
fo u r th
th e s e s e r i e s b e i n g
thir d,
AL
f f or m a ti o n
of
s e r ie s
th e
Au l
Au
A gu
l ,
A su
2,
Au
A 2u
2,
Au
A 31 52 a
A u 5,
A gu 3 ,
A 2u
A su
4,
s2
it a pp e a r s th a t a n y t e rm in a n y se r i e s is e q u a l t o
i m m e d i at e l y p r e c e d i n g it a dd e d t o t h e t e r m b e l ow it o n
Thus
By
dd iti o n si
,
Au
u 1
u 2
l ,
Au 2
n ce u 2
an
u
u ,
d Au 2
A gu
th e
h av e
we
2A u
u 1
Au
te rm
l e ft
t he
A gu
an
e x ac
Au
By
dd iti o n S i n c e
,
Au
3A u l
u ,
A 3u
we
h av e
3 A ,,u 1
A 3u
SO far a s we h a e p ro c ee d e d , t h e n m e r i c a l c o e f c i e n ts f o ll ow
s am e law a s th o s e o f t h e Bi n o m i al th e or e m W e sh all n o w
e b y i n d u c ti n th a t this w ill a l w a s b e t h e c a s e
F
o r su p
y
.
r
ov
p
o
s
th
t
e
p
n
u
2 A 2u
Au1
u 3
u ,
the
n +1
th en b y
r st t o
A l bn + 1
/
By
"
usi n g
the
Aul
the
(
n
A 2u
0J
A 2u
A ,,u
s e c on d t o t h e n
s e r i e s we h a v e
2)
th
s e r ie s
in t h e p l a c e
f the
1)
dd iti o n S i n c e
u 1
l)
Aul
n +1
1)
A 37 6 1
1
Au
n +1
oo
o
m
g,
we
o b ta i
A n +1u
Ann
a]
S U MM A TI O N
SER I ES
OF
32 5
n
7
n +
l)
r +
1)
+l
'
if t h e law o f f or m ati o n h o l d s f or u 1 it a ls o h o l d s f or
u
b
u t it is t r u e in t h e c a s e O f u ,
th
r
or
it
h
o
l
d
s
n d
e
e
f
f
a
r
e
o
u
,
,
m
H en c e
t h e r e f ore u n i v e r s all y
en ce
n +
396
u ,
,,
1) A u
To n d t h e
o f n te rm s
u
d iffe r e n c e s o f
u
Su pp o s e t h e s e r i e s u
o f t h e series
in
t e rm s o f
the
, ,
th e n
a.
in t h e
e n ce
t h e la w
u ,
n u ,
0 0
r st o rd e r o f d iffe r en c e s
v 7.
u 2
is
t he
s am e
v.
u1
12.
v,
i d e n ti c ally
(
n
+ u
1)
,,
in t h e p r e c e d in g
as
(
u
s e r ie s
f the
0
s e r ie s
f f or m ati o n
A zu
is t h e
th at is
3 )
,,
su
1)
Au
( (
u
l)
r ti c l e ;
2)
A 271 1
A nlt l
IE
Th e f or m ul ae o f this a n d t h e p r e c e d i n g a r ti c l e m ay b e e x
r
e ss e d in a S li g htl y d iffe r e n t f or m a s f o ll ow s : if a is t h e r st
p
te rm o f a gi v e n s e ri e s d d d
t h e r st t e r m s o f t h e su c
t e r m o f t h e g i v e n s e r i e s is
fe r e n c e s t h e n
c e ssiv e ord e r s o f d i f
ob tai n e d f ro m t h e f orm ul a
l
2,
th
d3
H I G HER
3 26
an
d t he
n
a +
su
AL
t e r m s is
fn
( (
l)
2)
d2
3
:
'
E x amp le
Fi
d th e
ge er l t erm
a
an
Th e
G EBR A
nc
rs
s c c ss
( ( (
l)
2)
3)
'
d th e
su
of term
n
s o
he erie
ft
ar e
1 1 2 , 1 52 ,
28,
4 0,
22 ,
6,
6,
0,
H e n e th
c
e n
te rm
th
28
12
3
5n
1)
6n
er
of
fo u d b y writi g dow th v l u o f
he form ul of the pr e t rti l e d
m s m ay n o w b e
n t
Th e s u m
2
3
2 7 1 + 52 n + 6 2 7 a O r we m ay u se t
ob t i
28n
1 2a
a n
( 1)
n
2 2 71
.
( 1 ) ( 2)
n
es n
6n
( 1 ) ( 2) (3)
n
L
2
an
i2
()
1
-
12
+1
It
w ill
be
L et th e
u
s e r ie s
+ u
w h e re
an
An
Bn
"
w , 2 : d en ote t h e
fe re n c e s 3
o f dif
v
I :,
"
be
d let
rd e r s
th
t e rm
D,
f the
r st s e c on d thi rd
,
H I G HER
3 28
L G E B RA
"
rt
A
[
S l
Thus
w h e re
is a c o n st an t an d f
b e g i n n i n g an d p t e r m s a t t h e
th e
(
_
(
S 1
th a t is
th u s
st an d s f or
kx
A
rt
[
f t h e p rod u c t
)
s e r i e s w h o s e s c al e
r e c u rr i n g
at
m
m
u
_x
s e r i e s is
the
en
te rm s
the p
p+
r e l ati o n is
I f t h e g e n e r a l t e rm is n o t g i e n , t h e d i m e n si o n
r e adily f o u n d b y t h e m e th od e x p l a in e d in A r t 3 9 7
ar e
n
E x amp le
Fi
th e s
hu
cc e ss
9x
nc
2 3x4 + 3 3 x 5+
1 5x 3
n c
es of the oe f i e
c
of re i o
t s, we
h ve
a
er
2 , 4 , 6 , 8 , 1 0,
he s
eg
fu ti
.
2 , 2 , 2, 2 ,
order of di ffere e s
o f o f t w di m e i o
ec o n
on
We
n c
h ve
n s
ar e
n s
3x8
3x 3
x
"
itio
add
9x
1 5x
27x
1556
4
4 5x
27 x
6 9x
5a:
3 263
4x + 3 x
()
1
e qu
; an
S : 3 + 5x +
By
t h e t m s in t
n al
n t
n
r al
3
1
l at n is
x
)
ti o
ra
th e
5x +
F orm i g
e ri e
ge er t i g fu ti o of the s ri es
d th e
he e
d t he r e f r e t h
al ;
n c
an
is
sc al
S U MM A T I O N
SE R I ES
OE
3 29
XX I V th a t t h e g e n e rati n g
fu n c ti o n o f a r e c u rr i n g s e r i e s is a r ati o n a l f ra c ti o n w h o s e de n o m i
Su pp o s e th a t this d e n o m i n a t o r c a n
n at or is t h e s c al e o f r e l a ti o n
b x ) 1 cx )
b e r e s o l v e d i n t o t h e fa c t or s 1 ax ) 1
3 th e n t h e
a rti a l f r ac ti o n s o f t h e
n c ti o n c an b e s e a r a t e d i n t o
fu
n e ra tin
e
p
p
g
g
399
W e h a v e s ee n
in
C h ap
( ( (
f or m
'
ax
bx
cx
Ea ch o f th e s e f r ac ti o n s c a n b e e x p an d e d b y t h e Bi n o m i a l Th e or e m
in t h e f or m o f a g e o m e t r i c a l s e r i e s ; h e n c e in this c a s e t h e r e
c u rr i n
e r i e s c an
as t h e
su m
o f a n umb e r
s
x r e ss e d
b
e
o
f
e
g
p
e o m e t r i c al s e r i e s
g
.
h ow e v e r
m or e th an o n c e
If
s c al e o f r e l ati o n c o n t ai n s an y fac t or l ax
t
o
this
r
e p e a t e d fa c t or th e r e w ill b e
c orr e s o n d i n
p
g
the
,
A3
A2
al
ac ti o n s
m
w
hi
r
ti
f
r
f
or
ch
o
f
t
h
e
3
p
1
ax
1
ax
)
)
wh e n e x pa n d e d b y t h e Bi n o m i a l Th e or e m do n o t f or m g e o m e t r i c a l
s e r i e s ; h e n c e in this c as e t h e r e c u rr i n g s e r i e s c an n o t b e e x p r e ss e d
as t h e su m o f a n u m b e r o f
e om e t ri c a l s e ri e s
g
2 ,
4 00
.
Th e
ro
r
e
ssi
o
n
p g
are
su c c e ssi v e
(
r
a,
l)
ar ,
o rd e r s
ar
ar
d iffe r e n c e s o f
( (
( ()
a r
1) r,
a r
1)r
2
,
r,
4 01
Le t
us c o n si d e r
(
()
a
"
h
t
e
g
s am e
2
,
the
r i c al
w hi c h a r e th e m se l v e s g e o m et r i c al p ro g r e ssi o n s h a v i
c o m m o n r a t i o r a s t h e or i i a l s e r i e s
g
n
t h e ge m e t
s e ri e s
ar
"
'
in
w hi h
)
(
5
9
rati o n al i n t eg ra l f u n c ti o n o f n o f p d i m e n si o s
o
s e r i e s l e t us f orm t h e s u c c e ssi v e o rd e r s o f d i ffe r e n c e s
Ea c h t e r m in an y o f th e s e o rd e r s is t h e su m o f t wo p a r ts o n e
a r isi n
m
m
e
o
f
h
f
ro
t
r
s
t
e
f
or
m
o
th
r
f
ro
t
r
s
h
m
m
a
n
t
e
e
e
Of
d
g
t h e f orm
in t h e or i g i n a l s e r i e s
No w S i n c e g6 n ) is o f p
l
t
m
n
e
n
h
t
e p a r t a r isi n
di
si o s
f
ro
w
ill
1
m
z e r o in t h e
n
b
e
)
g
p
)
an d su cc e e d i
e
ord
rs o f d i ffe r e c e s an d th e r e for e th e s e s e ri e s
g
w ill b e g e o m e t r i c a l p ro g re ssi o n s w h o s e c o m m o n r ati o is r
A
rt
[
wh e r e q5 n ) is
an d f r m this
(
.
(
(
A L GE B RA
H I GHER
3 30
r st fe w t e r m s o f a s e r i e s a e g i v e n a d i f t h e
h o rd r
o f d iffe r e n c e s O f th e s e t e r m s f or m a g e o m e t r i c a l p r o
e
p
W
h
o
s
e c o m m o n r a ti o is r th e n w e m a y a ss u m e th a t t h e
r e ssio n
g
n
w
h
r
e
e f
is
a
e e r a l t e r m o f t h e g i v e n s e r i e s is ar
f
)
g
r ati o n a l i n t e g r a l fu n c ti o n o f n o f p 1 d i m e n si o n s
if
en c e
the
"
E x amp le
Fi
the n
th
e rm o f t h e r i e
e s
1 0, 2 3 , 6 0, 1 6 9 , 4 9 4 ,
Th e
c c ss
en ce s ar e
1 3 , 3 7 , 1 09 , 3 35,
21 6,
24 , 7 2 ,
hu
e o d order of differe e i ge om t i l pr gr i o
om mo r t i o i 3 ; he w m y u m e for th g er l t erm
T
th e
th e
n ce
e e rm i
he
whe
t
ne
th e
o ta
ns
ts
a,
b,
e r ca
s a
ass
To d t
n c
s c
"
c,
en
bn + c
m ak
e ss
in
wh i h
c
e e qu
71.
al
t o 1 , 2, 3
u e i ve l y ;
c c ss
9 a + 3 b + c = 6 03
a:
n ce
6, b z 1,
hus
f t h e e x am p l e s 0 1 1 r e c u rr i n g s e r i e s th a t we
h a e j st g i e n , o n f orm i n g t h e s c c e ssi e ord e r s o f d i ffe r e n c e s
w e h a e o b t a i n e d a s e r i e s t h e l a w o f whi c h is o b i o s o n in sp e c
ti o n , an d we h a e thus b e e n e n ab l e d t o n d a g e n e ra l e x p r e ssi o n
th
f or t h e n t e rm o f t h e or i gi n a l s e r i e s
4 02
In
u
v
e ac
v u
I f, h ow e e r, t h e r e c u rr i n g s e r i e s is e q u a l t o t h e s u m o f a
n
m b e r o f g e o m e t r i c a l p ro g r e ssi o n s w h o s e c o mm o n r a ti o s ar e
its g e n e ra l t e rm is o f t h e f orm
a , b , c,
th e r e for e t h e g e n e r a l t e r m in t h e s c c e ssi e ord e r s o f
an d
d i ffe r e n c e s is o f t h e s am e f orm ; th a t is , all t h e ord e r s o f d iffe r
I n this c a s e t o
e n c e s f o ll ow t h e s am e l a w a s t h e or i g i n a l s e r i e s
n d t h e g e n e r a l t e r m o f t h e s e r i e s w e m ust h a e r e c o u r s e t o t h e
Bu t w h e n t h e
m or e g e n e r a l m e th od e x p l a i n e d in C h ap XX V
is n o t f o u n d w ith o t
c o e f c i e n ts a r e l a r ge t h e s c a l e o f r e l a ti o n
l ab o r ; h e n c e it is g e n e rally wor th
c o n si d e r ab l e a r ith m e ti c a l
w hile t o wr it e dow n a fe w o f t h e ord e r s o f d i ffe re n c e s t o se e
w h e th e r we S h all a rr i e at a s e ri e s t h e law o f wh s e t e rm s is
v
.
v i de t
4 03
r
ece di
p
We
g
s om e
n c i le s
r
i
p
p
a dd
e x am p e
l s
in
f u r th e r illust ra ti o n o f
the
A L GE B RA
H I GHER
3 32
He
(
( )( )( ( )( )
( )( )
)( )( )
E x amp le 4
Fi
2
n
{
+ 2)
n ce
2n
+1
+2
+2
+3
d th e
su
+1
o f t e rm s
ri e
f th e
se
he e
s er i e s 2
u e +
divi di g out b y 2
(
n
an
th
)
A
{
A n + Bn +
72
n
th e
6 , 1 2 , 2 0, 3 0,
nc
A ss m
whe ce
n
an
A = 2, B :
= 2n 2
Su
(
2n
{2
5
.
d th e
te rm
an
d th e
su
8,
64,
2 00,
Fi
d th e
12
9x
3 x + 5x 2
2
20x
3
7x
fn
54 x 5
l 1x +
f the
i n n ite s e r i e s :
3
1
+u 3
1) + B
2
(
n
t e rm s
2
5
+
5
5
432 ,
5i aA
1)
ofn
XX IX
s Of t h e
3 5x 4
+ 9x
su
3 0, 1 4 4 , 4 2 0, 9 6 0, 1 8 9 0, 3 3 6 0,
10
11
2 , 1 2 , 3 6 , 8 0, 1 50, 2 52 ,
2x
+3
A +B 3
8 , 2 6 , 54 , 9 2 , 1 4 0, 1 9 8 ,
4 , 1 4 , 3 0, 52 , 8 0, 1 1 4 ,
F i d t h e g en er ati g fu c ti on
6
(
n
Fi
erm i s
2,
EX A MPLES
th
qu ati n g co ef c i e n t s o f l i k e p owers
2 2 A , 2 = 2 A + B , O= C
+2
32 +
In t h e
+2 3
se ri e s
f th e
s e ri e s :
C} 2
,
we
hv
a e
SU MM ATI O N
Fi d
n
13
14
te rm
t h e ge n e r al
an
d the
15
2 , 5, 1 2, 3 1 , 8 6 ,
16
1 , 0, 1 , 8 , 2 9 , 80, 1 9 3 ,
17
18
19
th e
22
23
24
26
28
29
'
33
v+
3x
6x
t e rm s of
f 7 L te m s
f the
e ri e
th e
e ri e
s :
*
550
'
32
fn
10
30
31
su m o
1
.
4 , 1 3 , 3 5, 9 4 , 2 6 2 , 7 55
21
1, 1 1, 3 9 , 8 9 , 1 6 7 ,
3,
Fi d
su
3 33
9 , 1 6 , 2 9 , 54 ,
S ER I ES
OF
2 +
17
23 +
1
5
1
32
s :
H I GH ER
3 34
s e r i e s t h e su m m a ti o n o f w hi c h c an b e
I n s o m e c a s e s a s k ilful m o di
b ro u g ht u n d e r n o g e n e r a l r ul e
in o th e r s it
c a ti o n o f t h e f or e g o i n g m e th od s m a y b e n e c e ss a r y
w ill b e f o u n d th a t t h e su m m ati on d ep e n d s o n t h e p ro pe rti e s o f
c e r t a i n k n o w n e x p an si o n s su c h a s th o s e o b t ai n e d b y t h e Bi n o m i al
L og a r ith m i c an d Ex p o n e n ti al Th e or e m s
4 04
Th e r e
G EBRA
AL
m an y
are
E x amp le 1
Fi
the
su m
12
e rm o f t h e r i e
g
3
n
_
n n
28
50
e qu
to
al
71,
cc
ss o n
the n
h ve
we
I:
d
so o n
Whe
nc
u e i
in
1 , 2, 3,
an
he e
2;
Pu t
1 + 4 11
is 3 n + n
2
78
()
3n
+ n
i t e s e ri e
2 , 1 2 , 2 8 , 50,
e s
o f th e i
nc
eS
= 3e + 4 e
E x amp le 2
If
C0
0 5
5
1
2 202
cu
as
n d th e
v lu e o f
a
03
u cn
e ily hew th
A s in A r t 3 9 8 we m ay
at
1 +x
(
1
Als
cn _ a:
1
on
c2x
o ef i e t o f
Th e
ly t
n +1
in
s c
()
1
a n n
n
1
2
+ )
()
1
su
( 1)
n
; t
+1
h at
a t
1
in t
hi e
()
1
(
n
o1 n
1) 2
ri e
is
+1
x 3
s i o n ari se fro m
()
n
se
xp an
( my
(>
2
he the give
i s,
()
1
+1
erm o t i i g
c om
r e u lt
(i
( p
1 Fx
+1
( my
( 1) 2
E
:
e qu
al
to
H I GH ER
33 6
4 05
n u m b er s
To
n d
th e
su
AL
th e
G EBRA
th
p o wer s
su
d en o t e d
m be
by S ;
"
'
'
ssu m e th a t
A 0n
n a tu r a
th e n
tk e r s t
L et t h e
'
Aln
w he re A A
d e te rm in e d
O,
A gu
'
A an
A2 , A3 ,
1 ,
"
u
r
+1
u
titi
s
w
h
o
s
v
lu
s
h
v
t
o
e
e
q
are
an
W r it e
1 in t h e p l a c e
fu
AO
7 2.
an
su b t r ac t ; th u s
Al
A3
A2
Ex p an d
c i e n ts o f
ef
we h av e
(
li k
(
(
ow r s
u ti
u
By
s o th a t
By
eq
th e
u ati n g
A0
o ef c i en ts
(
r +
"
1)
we
Ao
In
(
1)
wr it e
Eq u at e t h e
1
0
p
1 _
A2
A3
AI
0
1
p
,
an
1)
()
r
fu
'
fu
P P
an
h av e
H
=
fo r A O
A2
1) P
an
d A)
an
2)
s u b t ra c t ; thus
"
n.
(
u
sub stitut e f or
DO
( (
l)
th e p l a c e
o e f c i e n ts
9
in
(
r
T +
thus o b t ai n
'
o e f c i en ts o f
sub stitut e
m ulti p ly b o th si d e s o f t h e e q u ati o n b y
Eq u a t e t h e
we
u
ate t h e c o
q
c o ef
c i e n ts o f u
t
h
e
g
A 1 r ; wh e n c e A ,
an
}
}
'
A O, A ,
2)
thus
Fro m
M I SC ELLA N EO U S M ET H O D S
OF S
s u b t ra c ti o n
3)
1
2
an
A2
by
an
2
r
By a s c r i b i n g t p in su c c e ssi o n t h e a lu e s 2 , 4 ,
f ro m 6 ) th a t e ac h o f t h e c e f c i e n ts A A 5 ,
t o z e ro ; an d f ro m 5) w e o b tai n
Ae
'
lg
(
1
44
3 37
dd iti o n
(
()( )
U MM A T IO N
we
is
se e
u
al
q
( )(
r
(
6
By
the
a ti n
u
q
g
s o lut e t e r m s
ab
we
in
o b t ai
A ;
+
an
d b y p utti n g
1 in
u =
eq
u ati o n
we
A
r
4 06
ex
ed
r
ss
e
p
+ 1
r +
W h e re
B:
"
Bl
Ber
e:
et
+1
195
B3
1
I E:
+ 1 )
r ti c l e is
m o st
o n v en i e n tly
2
r<
7
1>
v
< )
"
Th e r e sult o f t h e p r e c e d i n g
b y t h e f or m ul a ,
h ave
+
thus
By
3
1
em
9
3 6
Th e q u a n titi e s B l Ba , B5 ,
a r e k n w n a s Bern o u lli s Nu m b er s ;
f or e x am p l e s o f th e i r app li c ati o n t o t h e s m m ati o n o f o th e r s e ri e s
E x amp le
Fi
W e h av e
v lu e
d th e
Sn
n
:
b
A
e i g ero
n
11
the c o n stan t
15
H H
E+
5u
12
n4
35
_B
3
11
72
4 6
12
22
H I G H ER
338
AL
G EBR A
EXA MPLES
XXIX
F i d th
n
27
e su
5
a
x7
E
Z)
1 + 3x
72
10
11
12
13
14
1 + 2 ) lo g, 2
1+
2x
x3
to
2n
2
71
71
2 3 305
2
72
12
te rm s
2
1+2
E
3
to
+1
te rm s
1 21x6
1)
10se 2 ) 3 +
E l
E
Wi th o u t assum i g t h e form u la n d t h
E
t o u te rm s
o
g
2
( 3+
l
1 + 7 w) 3
+5
2n
a;
( )(
u
72
6
.
(
2)
e su
ft h e
s e ri e s :
+
71 7
H I GH ER
3 40
24
If A , is t h e
AL
oef ci en t o f x
"
G EBRA
in t h e
s i on
e x p an
(
1+
ro
v
e
th
a
t
p
25
.
A,
If r
n
is
2 _ 1
r
m ultipl e
( (
u
l)
A
+
r
1
( (
l
2)
l)
(
n
IE
i s e qual t o z ero
4)
2)
3 15
d A4:
an
1 07 2
( ( ( (
u
l)
2)
3)
4)
IE
1
'
26
If u
is
P
is e q u al t o
r sh ew th at
,
2)
If
ege
(
n
Sh e w
o
siti
v
i
t
e
p
27
HI
(
n
+ 2)
H Q
(
t h at
9
LL
0
P1 Q1 + P2 Q2 + P3 Q3 +
28
1
+p
I f n is
m ul tipl e o f 3 ,
+ Pn _l Qn _ l
-
1 +P + q
sh ew th at
5)
(
TL
1 8 eq
ual t o or
29
7 2
If a
is
ac c
77
a
3
x
ordin g as u
i s o dd
or e ve
x5
x5
XXX
C HA PTER
TH EO R Y
4 07
v le t
a
in
OF
NU M B ER S
I n this c h ap t e r we S h al l u se t h e
m e an i n g t o p o sitiv e in teger
word
n u
m b er
as e
u
i
q
u m b e r w hi c h is n o t e x a c tly d i v isib l e b y an y n u m b e r
e x c e p t its e lf a n d u n it y is c all e d a p r im e n u m b er
o r a p r im e ; a
n u m b e r w hi c h is d i v isi b l e b
o
th
e r n u m b e r s b e si d e s its e lf a n d
y
u n ity is c all e d a c o mp o site n u m b er ; thus 53 is a p r i m e n u m b e r
w
n u m b e r s w hi c h h a v e n o
a n d 3 5 is a c o m o sit e n u m b e r
T
o
p
a re s a i d t o b e
c o m m o n f a c t or e x c e p t u n it
m
a c h o th e r ;
r
i
t
o
e
e
y
p
thu s 2 4 is p r i m e t o 7 7
A
W e S h all m ak e f re q u en t
f o ll ow i n g e l e m e n ta ry
ro
o
siti
o
n s s o m e o f w hi c h a r is e s o n a tu r a ll
u t o f t h e d e n iti o n
o
y
p p
a
a t th e
m
r
i
th
r
o f a
m
b
e
e a rd e d a s a x i o m s
e
y
g
p
y
4 08
u se o
f the
(
to r
i)
fac
u mb e r a d i v i d e s a p rod u c t
it m ust d i v i d e t h e o th e r fac t o r 0
If
b,
be
an
is
m
r
i
e to
p
On e
For S i n c e a d i v i d e s b e e v e ry fac t or o f a is f o u n d in b e ; b u t
si n c e a is p r i m e t o b n o fa c t o r o f a is f o u n d in b ; th e r e f or e all
t h e fa c t or s o f a a r e f o u n d in e ; th a t is a d i v i d e s 0
ii ) I f a p r im e n u m b e r a d i v i d e s a p rod u c t
it m u st
d i v i d e o n e o f t h e fa c t or s o f th at p r o d u c t ; an d th e r e f ore if a
m
n um b e r a d i vi de s b
an
e in te e r
r
i
w
h
r
is
o
siti
v
it
e
e
e
n
p
g
y p
m ust d i v i d e b
iii ) I f a is p r i m e t o e a c h o f t h e n u m b e r s b an d c it is p r i m e
t o t h e p r o du c t b e F o r n o fa c t or o f a c an d i v i d e b o r e th e re
f or e t h e p rod u c t b e is n o t d i v isi b l e b y an y fac t or o f a th a t is a
is p r i m e t o b e C o n v e r s e l y if a is p r i m e t o b e it is p r i m e t o e ac h
o f t h e n u mb e r s b an d 6
A ls o if a is p r i m e t o e a c h o f t h e n u m b e r s b 0 cl
it is
m
m
e t o an y
r
i
t
o
rod
u
t
o
if
is
r
i
e
h
a
c
n v e rse l
a
t
e
c
d
b
e
d
p
p
y
p
n u m b e r it is
a c t or o f th a t n u m b e r
r
i
t
o
f
m
e ve r
e
y
p
,
"
H I GH ER
342
(
iv)
AL
GEBRA
m
r
i
e
t
o
e a c h o th e r
v
r
o
siti
v
e
e
e
p
y p
i n t eg ral p o we r o f a is p ri m e t o e v e ry p o siti v e i n t e g r a l p o we r o f b
This f o ll ows at o n c e f r o m iii )
If
d b
an
ar e
)
(
v
If
l ow e st t e r m s
c
ar e an
m
r
i
e to
p
is
an
w
t
o
y
409
Th e
d m b e in g
an
a l f r a c ti o n s
u
q
d cl m ust b e
e an
b, the
n u
m
e
ui
ulti
l
s
p
q
mb e r
Ci
f rac ti o n s
an
fa
b
an
Is
I ts l ow
'"
cl
an
st t e rm s th e n
r e spe c ti v e ly
d b
th e i r
in
ls o if
In
ar e
o
siti
v
e
i
t
e
r
s
e
y p
g
an
i
e
s
i
s
m
fp
b
e the
at e st
r
r
i
u
r
th
e
m
n
m
b
n
h
e
e
t
e
e
p
g
p
;
i
n w hi c h e a c h fa c t or is a
rod
u
ct 2
3
5
r
i
m
7
e n um
p
p
an d th e r e f or e
b e r , is d i isi b l e b y e a c h o f t h e fac t or s 2 , 3 ,
t h e n u m b e r f or m e d b y a dd i n g u n ity t o th e i r p rod u c t is n o t
d i isi b l e b y an y o f th e s e fac t or s ; h en c e it is e ith e r a p r im e
m
m
s
o
r
i
u
r
r
t
r
th
n u m b e r its e lf o r is d i isi b l e b
e
e
n
m
b
a
a
e
e
n
e
p
y
g
n o t t h e g r ea test
i
n e ith e r c a s e
is
r
i
m
n
u
r
n d th e r e
e
m
b
e
a
:
,
p
p
p
f or e t h e n um b e r o f p r i m e s is n o t li m it e d
if
Fo r
n o
t , l et
4 10
n u m b er s
No
on
ly
r atio n a l
a lg eb r a ica l
fo r m u la
0x
bm
b m
th a t is
h
e
t
p
r ssi o n
ex p e
+ np
e
o r
t p r ime
ex p e
m= m t h e
r e p r e se n t
v alu e
b ec o m e s
+ up
m ulti p l e
r ssi on is d i v isib l e
thus t h e
n um b e r
dx
m
l
m
( ) (
alm
a
w h en
a:
r ep r esen
I f p o ssi b l e , l e t t h e f orm ul a a b x
r
i
m
e n u m b e r s o n l y , a n d su pp o s e th a t
p
t h e e x p r e ssi n is p , s o th a t
w hen
c an
by p,
+ np
m ultip l e
fp ,
fp ,
an
is th e re f or e
n o
m
e
r
i
p
411
way
b,
m b er
c an
be
r eso lv ed
in t o p r im e fa c to r s in
,
on
ly
on e
L et
a,
n u
6 , cl,
w h e re
d en o t e t h e n u m b e r su pp o s e N
are
r
i
m
u
o
s
a ls o th a t
e n um b e rs
S
e
pp
p
T
ar e o th e r p r im e n u m b e r s
h
en
8
y
.
)8,
wh e r e
a8 3
, y
H I GH ER
344
414
n u m b er
o th e r
ca n
G EBRA
a
i
n
h
w
s
w
i
c
h
a
c o mp o site
f
y
facto r s wh ich ar e p r ime to each
h
u m b er
d
t
e
n
b e r eso lv ed in to two
To
AL
O f t h e t wo fac t o r s
A s b e f or e , l et t h e n u m b e r N a b e
o n e m u st c o n t ai n a , fo r o th e r wis e th e r e w o ul d b e s o m e p owe r o f
a in o n e f a c t o r a n d s o m e p ow e r o f a in t h e o th e r fa c t or , a n d thu s
7
Si m il a r ly b
t h e t w o f a c t or s wo ul d n o t b e p r i m e t o e a c h o th e r
en c e t h e
m ust o c c u r in o n e o f t h e f a c t or s o n l y ; a n d so o n
r e q ui r e d n u m b e r is e qu al t o t h e n u m b e r o f w ay s in whi c h t h e
b
a c t o r s ; th a t is , t h e
r
o
d
u
t
f
e r e s o l v e d i n t o t wo
c an
c
p
p
'
umb e r
the
u mb e r
.
L et t h e
t e rm o f t h e
(
1
+ a + a
1) l
su
wh e r e
or
r s of a
by
mb er
n u
as
f or e
+ c + c
the
of
su
is
in
th e div iso
n u mb e r b e d e n o t e d
r
o
d
u
ct
p
d t he
d i v is or an d th e r e for e
rod
u
c t ; th at is
p
is
1) 1
fac to r s
f dier en t p r i m e
To
415
( (
w ay s is
th e
Th e n
e ac
d i v is o r s is
u
l
t
o
this
q
a
the
su
r e qui r e d
E x amp l e 1
1 b
_
a
_
_1
g+ l
b_1
+l
_1
n ce
o f th e div i or
t h e su m
( ( )()
1) 3
26
s
63
34
'
3
5
'
5,
72
1
1
4 0x 3 1
7 8 1 20
A l so 2 1 6 00 c an b e
or 4 way s
re olve d i to tw factor
o
pr m
to
e h other
ac
in
3
2 1
E x a mp le 2
I f n is
dd
S h w th t
a
72.
(
n
i v i si b l e b y
1 ) is d
24
=
We h ave
l
1) (
n
+
( ) n(
is dd
1 an d
umb e s ; he ce
Si n c e
+ 1 a e t wo c o s e c utive eve
e o f them i s di vi i b l e b y 2 a d th e o th er b
o
4
y
A gai
1
e o of t hem
+ 1 a e t h r e e c o sec uti v e n u m b ers ; he
s div ib l e b y 3 Thu t h e give e pr es i is divi sib le b y t h p r duct o f 2
n
is
3,
an
d 4, t
t is
n n
b y 24
nc
s on
ne
o
T H EO RY
Ex amp le 3
Fi
d th e
high
N U M B ER S
OF
3 45
t p ower o f 3 wh i c h
is
es
o tai e d i
n
(
u er o f
1 00
416
To
ta in e d in
.
co n
th e
nd
th e
a n
so
a
o n
at
ar e
l e a st
to
o t
n
r ss
1 11
wh ich is
d ,
am
a at
th e r e
on g t h e n u m b ers
l e a st o n c e
ar e
n am e
ly
w hi c h
m ulti p l e
f this c h ap t e r we sh a ll n d
o f n b y t h e s mb ol M
y
f r
"
(
n +
2 ,
r e spe c ti v e ly
L e t P st an d fo r t h e p rod u c t
l e a st o f w hi c h is n th e n
Si m il a r l y
Th e n
418
To p r o v e th a t th e p r o du c t
d ivis ib le b y 1
:
L
an
m b er
w hi c h c o n t ai n a at l e a st o n c e ;
hig h e st p o w e r o f a c o n t a i n e d in [n is
n c e , an
r e m ai n d e r
ex p e
ai n e
w hi c h c o t a i
the
en c e
In t h e
n u
I
41 7
v e n ie n t
2 a, 3 a , 4 a ,
a,
te ge r
th e r e
um b ers
o t i
an
d en o t ed b y I
1 , 2, 3 ,
me
r
i
p
L e t t h e g r e a te st
be
h ig h est p o wer
c o n sec u
co n
tiv e in teg er s
o n s ec uti v e i t eg e r s
2)
it
is
the
l ),
+,
)
n
+ l
P
u
"
x 7
'
tim e s
the p
rod u c t
fr
o n s e c u ti v e i t e g e r
n
H I GH ER
346
if
en ce
the p
1 , we
have
rod u c t
P
u
AL
G EBR A
o n s e c uti v e i n t eg e r s is d i v isi b l e
by
1)
+1
e r e f or e P
th
is
th
r
a m u lti l e o f r
e f or e
e
p
[
)
W e h a v e th u s p ro v e d th a t if
a ls o P
ar e m ulti p l e s o f
P
1 c o n s ec uti v e i n te g e r s is d i v isi b l e b y r
1
the
t h e p rod u c t o f r
|
n te e rs
rod
u
t
o
n s e c u ti v e
i
is
d
i
v
isi
b
l
e
b
f
r
t
h
e
u
c
o
c
b
t
;
g
y l:
p
c o n s e c uti v e i n t e e r s is d i v isi b l e
rod
u
t
v
r
t
wo
c
o
f
e
e
b
g
p
y
y [2 ;
th e r e f or e t h e p rod u c t o f e v e ry th r ee c o n s e c uti v e i n t e ge r s is d i v isi b le
by
a n d s o o n g e n e r a ll y
3
'
No w
r , an
3 ,
4,
This p ro p o siti o n m ay a ls o b e p ro v e d th u s :
By m e an s o f A r t 4 1 6 , w e c a n S h ow th a t e v e ry p r i m e
n
r a s o ft e n a t lea s t a s it is c o n t a i n e d in
c o n t a i n e d in
I
.
is
This w e
ex e
r c is e t o
stu d e n t
the
W ith t h e
e
a s an
If p is a p r im e n u mb er , th e
ex c ep t th e r s t
exp an sio n of a
41 9
th e
l ea v e
f c i e n t
e x c ep
f th e
ti o n
f the
f orm
r st
( 1) (
29
an
fa c t or
n
n t o
i
i
e
c
e
r
r
e
v
t
e
m in
e
f
y
a n d la s t, is div isib le b
y p
co
l a st
v ry t r m
e
h as
a co
(
r
l1
h a v e an y i n t e g r al v a l u e n o t e x c e e d i n g p 1 No w
this e x p r e ssi o n is an i n t e g e r ; a ls o S i n c e p is p r im e n o fac t or o f r
is a d i v is or o f it an d si n c e p is g re a te r th an r it c an n o t d i v i d e
p
p
p
r
ust
r ; th a t is
1
1
m
f
a c t or o f
+
an
b
e
)
y
)
I
d i v isib l e b y I H en c e e v e r y c o e f c i en t e x c e p t t h e r st an d
t h e l a st is d i v isi b l e b y p
w h e re
'
m ay
'
( (
4 20
.
If p is
W r it e ,8 f or b
m
i
e
p
+ c +
n u
mb er , t o p r o v e th a t
th e n
b y t h e p re c e din g
r ti c le
s u pp o s e ;
A ga i n
By p ro c ee d i n g in
this
way we m ay
sta b lish
th e
r e q ui r e d r e s u lt
348
I GH ER
G EBRA
AL
EXA MPLES
XXX
F i n d t h e least m ul ti pl i e r
s o
sp e c
Fi
mu
l e ast
d th e
um b r
e s
7 4 08 8
u ts p rf t q u r e
l ti p l i r s f t h
umb rs
m ak e t h e p ro d
1 83 7 5,
3 6 7 5, 4 3 7 4 ,
re
f the
ec
e n
re
sp e c
Is e
m ake t h e p rod u c ts p e rf
tively wh i c h will
if
an d
ub
is
es
en
h w th
e
Sh ew
en
I f 4x
b etwe en
an y n
umb e r
an
its
sq
u r
a e
i
s
y
m u lt i p l e
s h ew t h at 4 x
f 3,
+ 7 xy
2y
is di
vi ib l
s
Fi
d th e
umb r
di vis or s o f 8 06 4
way s
h o w m an y
In
f tors ?
t wo
di ffe r en c e
th e
5
by 9
th at
th e
c an
um b r
e
re s olv e d in t o
7 056 b e
ac
10
v th t 2 1 i divi i b l b y 15
Pro v th t (
m u ltip l
f6
+ 1) (
+ 5) i
Sh w th at v ry u m b r a d its u b e w he divi d
Pro
4n
11
12
13
I f n is
en
s a
sam e r emain de r
th e
e o
ed
by 6
le av e
s h e w th at
(
n
+ 2 o ) is
d i vi i b l e
w th at n (
n
1) (
3 n + 2 ) is d i v is i b l e
5
I f n is gr eate r th an 2 sh ew th at n
Sh e
b y 48
b y 24
di visib le
5n + 4 u is
by
1 20
14
16
240
15 I
m u l tip l e
.
Pro
18
19
is
is
+7
p im e
of 24
5
Sh e w th at n
i f n is
17
mb e
v th at 3
2n
m u ltipl e
f8
u m b r gr t r t h
ea e
an
3,
S h w th t
a
1 is
dd
is div is i b l e
b y 3 0 fo r
th at t h e di ffe ren c e o f
rs g reater than 6 is di v i s i b le b y
Sh ew th at
h w th
e
al l
v lu s
a
n , an
d by
Sh e w
no
e
square
v ry u b
e
th e
24
e n
s o
an y
two
m
e
r
i
p
um b r i
um b r i
e
sq u are s
form 3
f t h form 9
f th e
s o
n or
Qn
T H EO RY
Sh ew
20
is 0, 1
or
If
21
form 7 n
.
or
th at if
a n
umb r
7n + l
div
u m b r is d iv i de d
rem ai de r
b y 7 , the
Sh ew
24
m ay b e
.
o th s q u are
is b
no
tr i an g ul ar
an d c
ub s h w th t i t
e,
is
f the
I 2u + 1
23
i ded b y 2n + 1
.
ub
3 49
Sh ew th at
22
a c
N U M B ER S
OF
is
m
e
r
i
p
th at
a an
u m b er
be
c an
m b e r, sh e w
remai n ders
o f t h e form
th at
en
3n
wh en
2
,
lway s
a ar e a
wh ate v e r a
an
25 Pro
form 8 r + 1
.
v that e v ry ev
e
en
e r o f e v e ry
ow
p
dd
u mb r
is
f th e
26
or
13n + 1
27
or
th at
th e
th at
th e
29
If
30
an d 3 7
31
l
2p + 1
umb e r is
f th e f m l 3n
an y
umb r i s
f t h e form l 7 n
an
or
umb e r
n
gr eat er th an
u mb r gr ater th
e
S h w th t
5,
3,
an
e xc e
t
p
7,
1 is
s h ew th at
that
36
1 is
d i visib le
b y 3 3 7 4 4 if
is p i m e
to
2, 3 , 1 9
Wh e n
QP
x
Sh ow
is an y p i m e
i s ib le b y 1 6 8
iv
1 is d
owe r
o
w
e
r
o
f
p
I n is a p rim e
28
is i b l e b y 2 4 0
.
Pro ve
17n
di v
n
Prov e
m
12
is di
+ 1 an d 2p + 1
vis ipl
b o th p r i m e n m b e r s , h ew th at
i x is prim e t o 2 , p + 1 , an d
ar e
by
d iv
33
ro
v
e
p
is
I f is
32
"
isib le b y p
If m
that
m u ltipl e
r
i
m
e
p
is
pr
r
i
n um b e r
m
e
p
m
a
i
fm
an d x
m
a
b+
m
a
ime t o
an
a,
p,
sh ew th at
b t wo
6 +
nu
m
b
xp
mb ers
'
r _1
l e ss th an
1 is
m,
u mb e r th
o
th
r
u
r
N
n
e
m
b
e
m
a
y
y
y
b e e x p r e ss e d in t h e f or m N = a q + r w h e r e q is t h e i n t e r a l
g
e
n
u
o
ti
t w h e n N is d i v i d e d b y a a d r is a r e m a i d e r l e ss th an a
q
Th e n u m b e r a t o w hi c h t h e o th e r is r e fe rr e d is s o m e ti m e s c a ll e d
t h e m o du lu s ; an d t o a n
i
v
e n m od u l u s a th e r e a e a d i f
r
t
f
e
e
n
y g
4 23
If
is
an
en
an
,
H I GH ER
3 50
fo r ms
v alu e
AL
G EBR A
f a n m b e r N, e ac h f or m c orr e s p n d i n g t o a d iffe r en t
Th s t m od ulus 3 , w e h a e n u m b e r s o f t h e f or m
o f r
3q
i n c e 3 g + 2 is
3 9 , 3 q + l , 3 g + 2 ; o r , m or e s im p l y , 3 g, :
,
I
n li k e m an n e r t o m od ulus 5 a n
u
1
1
n
m
al t o 3
b
e
e
g
y
)
q
w ill b e o n e o f t h e v e f rm s 59 , 5g 4 1 , 5g =h 2
o
I f b , c a r e t w o i n t e g e r s , w hi c h wh e n d i i d e d b y a
l ea e t h e s am e r e m ai n d e r , th e y a r e s ai d t o b e c n gru en t w ith
r e s p e c t t o t h e m od lus a I n this c a s e b c is a m ultipl e o f a , a n d
f o ll ow in g t h e n o t ati o n o f G a uss we sh all s o m e ti m e s e x p r e ss this
4 24
as
f o ll ow s
b E
Eith e r
mo d
f or m ul ae is
f th e s e
or
ca
ll e d
0 mo d
a c o n gru en c e .
If b , c a r e co n gr u en t with r esp ec t to m o du lu
4 25
b
a n d p c a r e c o n g r u en t, p b ein g a n y in teger
p
.
a,
th en
Fo r , b y
th e r e for e p b
4 26
If
su pp o siti on
=
c
p
n a
ma
n a,
w hi c h p ro v e s
is p r ime to b ,
a,
ar e
an
is s o m e i n te ge r
ro
o
siti
o
n
p p
t he
d the q u an tities
2a, 3 a,
r em ain
wh e r e
der s
1)
difer en t
a r e al l
b
e
e
a
w
o
ssi
l
su
o
s
th
t
u
t
o o f the
an titi e s m a
p
pp
q
d i v i de d b y b l e a v e t h e s am e r em a i n d e r r s o th at
if
wh en
an
ma
b
g
(
divid s ( )
to
this is i
m
th e n
th e r e f o r e b
it is p r i m e
l e ss th an b
+ r,
m)
; but
(
q
'
b;
h e n c e it m ust d i v i de m
si n c e
m p o ssi b l e s i n c e m an d m are e ac h
r em a i n de r s a r e all d iffe r e n t an d si n c e n o n e
n titi e s is e x a c tl
a
u
q
y d i v isi b l e b y b t h e r e m a i n d e r s m ust
t e rms o f t h e se ri e s 1 2 3
b
1 b u t n o t n ec e ss a r ily
ord e r
Thu s t h e
f the
b e the
in this
o
C OR
o f th e
If
is p r i m e t o
b,
an
is
an
c,
+ a,
e +
2a,
(
b
u mb e r
1)
a,
th e b
t e rm s
H I GH ER
3 52
To
4 30
ea ch o th e r ,
.
sh ew
th e
th a t
AL
n u
G EBR A
m b er s
b,
a,
c,
ar e
p r im e t o
ad
5
s
C o n si d e r t h e p rod u c t a b ; th e n t h e r st a b n u m b e r s
wr itt e n in b li n e s , e ac h li n e c o n t a i n i n g a n u m b e r s thus
2,
1
a +
2a
l,
a +
2a
1,
2,
a +
2,
a)
h,
a + a,
2a
be
a,
(
b
k,
12,
2a
c an
us c o n si d e r t h e v e r ti c al c o lu m n w hi c h b egi n s with k if
k is p r i m e t o a al l t h e t e rm s o f this c o lu m n will b e p r im e t o a ;
b u t if k an d a h av e a c o mm o n d i v is o r n o n u m b e r in t h e c o lu m n
No w t h e r st r o w c o n ta i n s 95 a) n u m b e r s
will b e p r i m e t o a
a
e r ti c a l c o lu m n s in e a c h
r
i
t
o
v
m
a ; th e r e f or e th e r e a r e (
e
b
)
p
o f whi c h e v e r y t e r m is p r i m e t o a ; l e t us su pp o s e th a t t h e
v e rti c al c o lu m n w hi c h b eg i n s w ith h is o n e o f t h e s e This c o lum n
is an A P t h e t e r m s o f w hi c h wh en d i v i d e d b y b l e av e r em ai n d e r s
l [ A r t 4 2 6 C o r ] h e n c e t h e c o lu m n c o n t ain s
b
0 1 2 3
i
n t e e r s p r im e t o b
b
t
a )
g
Le t
(
,
(
o
(
M
(
o
o
l (
)
(
) M)
a
4(
) 1(
(
.
a
e
r
ti
a
l
lu
m
n
s
w
hi
h
r
c
c
i
n
Sim il ar l y , e a c h o f t h e <
;
c
e
e
1 )
y
t e rm is p r im e t o a c n t a i n 4) b ) i n t e g e r s p r i m e t o b h e n ce in t h e
t ab l e th e r e ar e ( a ) 4) b ) i n t e ge r s whi c h ar e p r i m e t o a an d
t b , an d th e r e f or e t ab th at is
a ls
.
o o
>
<
Th e re f or e
a5 =
95
a b cd
5
9
<
:
b ed
ed
>
<
l
d)
To n d th e n u m b er
n u m b er , an d
r im e t o it
p
43 1
i
g v en
in teg er s less th a n
o
s
i
t
i
v
e
p
L e t N d e n o t e t h e n u m b e r , an d su pp o s e th at N
w h e r e a , b , c,
a r e d iffe r e n t p r i m e n u m b e r s , an d
p , q,
"
h
o
siti
v
i
n te e rs
o
n si d e r t h e fa c t o r a
o
f
t
n
a
tu
r
a
l
e
C
e
p
g
b e rs 1 , 2, 3 ,
a
1 , a , t h e o n ly o n e s n o t p r i m e t o a ar e
a,
2 a, 3a,
(
a
'
1)
a,
()
p
a,
r
n u
T H EO RY
an
d the
umb e r
f th e s e
a
r
Now
al l
fac to r s
t he
is
s
h
1
co
en c e
"
'
a re
N
a )
h w th
E x a mp le
an d p m t o
"
t th e su m o f
n s s
i t i on
add
an
ri
to i t
d p me
an d
N
(
1
ar e
ss
is
al s
an
en
an
the i r su m
( erm
s;
l ast a rti c l e it fo ll o ws th a t t h e
l e ss th an N an d n o t p r i m e t o it is
the
ar e
N 1
en
t o es N ) t
Fro m
by S; t
rm s
evers e or der
um b r
e
H r
th e
N
(
i n t e g e r s w hi c h
th a t is
the i n tegers wh i c h
al l
r,
te
S:
N)
(
432
ri es c o i ti g of
Writi g t h e seri es i
by
'
se
'
"
th e
h o th e r ;
e ac
'
i t is N (
N)
I f x is a y i teger l e ss th an N
i teger l e s t h an N an d pri m e t o it
D en ote t h e i t egers b y 1 p q
ri e
to
me
"
th a t is
3 53
b
ri
(
(
f(
) I(
) p(
)
c)
N U M B ER S
OF
e e
t he
N
7)
t e rm
N
?
N
a
i
v
es
g
a,
w hi c h c o n t ai n
'
as a
ab
ac
be
th e
u mb e r o f
2a , 3 a,
f t or
ac
N
+
7 06
6
h
e
t
;
th e
i n te ge r s
N
.
t e rm
ab
i
v
es
g
the
um b e r o f
H I G H ER
3 54
i n t e ge r s
th e
an
so
on
2a b , 3 a b,
ab,
F u rth e r
ab
AL
G EBRA
a b,
whi c h
o t i
a b as a
a n
v e ry i t ege r is r e ko d o
c
ne
an
n c e,
fac t or
n ce
am o n
r
t
h
e
pp
g
a
0
b
t e r m s w hi c h ar e m ultip l e s o f a b 0 r e sp e c ti v e ly ; am o n g t h e
m
w
c h ar e m ulti l e s o f a b a c b e r e s e c ti v e l
t
r
s
hi
e
p
y;
A gai n ,
eac
m ulti p l e
will
abc
ea
ab
an
be
ae
c as e
m ay b e
4 33
d is c uss e d
ils
o
n s Th e o r e m
W
]
[
p
(
1) p
F e r m at s
(
p)
Th e r e f or e 1
p
l
m
r, 1
m
e
n
u
b
e
i
p
( (
1) p
P
(
si n c e p
1,
2)
ex
is
ve
t e rm s ;
r
e ssi o n s
p
thus
2
l t erms
Th e or e m e a c h o f t h e
is o f t h e f or m 1
have
d by
( (
( )( )( )(
l
-
an
n c
If p b e
By Ex 2, A r t 3 1 4 we
an
is div isib le b y p
m ulti pl e s o f a b c th t is S i c e 3
o g th e
3
l
1
abc
h m u ltip l e f a b o c c u r s o c e
d o e o ly
Si m il r l y o th r
am
e ac
th e o r em is o n ly t r u e w h en p is p r i m e Fo r su pp o s e p
h as a fa c t or q th en 9 is l e ss th an p an d m ust d i v i d e ip
l
hen ce
1 is n o t a m ulti p l e o f q an d th e r e f or e n o t a m ultip l e o f p
I
Ip
This
W ils o n s Th e or e m m ay
r e sult qu o t e d fro m
A r t 3 1 4,
.
ls o
as
in
ro
v
usi
e d w ith o ut
p
t h e f o ll ow i n g a r ti c l e
the
H I GH ER
3 56
AL
Man y th e or e m s r el ati n g
4 35
b e p ro e d b y i n d u c ti o n
to
c an
x 70
the p
rop e r ti e s
u mb e r s
E x amp l e 1
L et
G EBR A
e u e
de o te d b y f (
) ; th
If p
be
is a
pr
r, x1
+ 1)
l)
vi i b l e b y p
is di
oi
s o al s
2 ) = 2P
if p
m lti pl e o p ,
m l ti p l
+ 1)
i vi i b l e b y p
xp
r p
I f the refore f x )
is d
en
mb
is p
O fp
ri m e [ A
but
rt
2,
t her efor e f (
3 ) i di i i b l e
h i i multipl of p whe p i pri m e [A t
d
4 ) i s divi i b l b y p
b y p ther e fore f (
; t h u t h p rop o iti o i t ru e
u iver lly
other pr f o f Ferm t s t he orem for i f i pr im e t p
Th i fur i he
m ulti p l o f p
it follows th t
1 i
24
2 5 i d i vi i b l b y 57 6
Prove th t
E mp l 2
2 5 b d ot e d b y f (
24
L t
);
H
2 4 (1)
5
25
the
f(
an
dt
sa
sa
an
so o n
xa
l9
s a
en
+ 1)
2 n +2
2 4n
= 2 5 24n + 2 5)
49 ;
24 n
49
l o i f(
n) i divi ib l e b y 57 6
her efore i f f (
b
+
1 t he re for e it i t ru whe
h
he rem i t ru e whe
3
fore
rue whe
d
; th u i t i t u u iv er l ly
Th
follow
b ove r e ult m y l o b prov ed
T
see t at t h e t
it is t
e a
n n
n n =
an
25
25W
25 1
sa
rial w
2 t he r e
t by t
n n
s:
25
2 4n
25
2 4n
25
XXX
w t h at 1 0 + 3 4 + 5 i di visib le b y 9
5 is a m u l t i p l e o f 24
e w t h at 2
7 +3 5
w th at 4 6
w h e di v i de d b y 2 0 l eav r e m ai de r 9
e w t h at 8
i
f t h e form 24 (
2
57 6n + M 57 6 )
h
Sh
Sh
Sh
2 4n
EX A MPLES
S
as
n
-
a s
so
so o n
a s
2 4n
(
)
(
57 6 (
n
2 5f
27 "
o o
s an
v s
+2
s o
es
T H EO RY
If p
5
.
2"
h w th
w that
4b + l
is
th at
2n +
+ 1 6 0n
th e
of 1
(b
su
the e x pan si o n
o th e r th an 5 is div isi b l e
.
in
I n is
11
isib le b y 504
.
12
m lti pl e
13
(
l f
.
f 1
tip
e o
m l ti p l e
fp
b y 30
3 57
owe r
f 2
o tai
n
n e
d in
is
"
Pro ve
10
d iv
d i vi i b le
is
h i gh e s t
th e
3 + 1 is
Sh o w th at 3
r i m e s h e w t h at 2
Sh e w th at
Sh o
is p
N U M B ER S
OF
If
m ult i p l e
f 14
2 4 3 is di
56 n
f th e
vi i b l
s
b y 51 2
o ef c ie n t o f t h e dd p o we r o f x
w h e n n is a p r i m e n u m b e r
m
e n u m b e r g r e at e r t h an
r
i
p
7,
p ro v e t h at
S h w th at
e
is
is
is
o f 128
an
dd
um b r
e
4
2
n
n
3
+
+7
11
If p
is
ar e
ri me n u m b e r h ew th at t h e c o e f ie ts o f t h e t e r m s
alte rn at e ly g r e at e r an d l e ss b y u ity th an s o m e m u l
p
h
u m o f th e
a
t
e
s
1
is
r
i
S
h
th
t
e
w
e
o
a
m
e
ow
r
s
f
)
p
p
p
p
an
p
n u m b e rs in ar ith m e ti c al p ro gr e s s i o n wh e r e i n t h e c o m m o n di ffe r
y
an a m ulti p l e o f
b
1
e n ce is n o t di visi b l e b
i
l
e
ss
th
s
y
p
y p,
14
If
th
15
to
91
Sh e w th at
z
l
a
12
is
d ivisi b le b y
9 1,
if
a an d
ar e
b o th p ri me
2
r 2r
1
1
p
is
d
i
v
isi
l
p
w
a
b
b
m
e
e
e
r
i
sh
th
t
y
p
)
l
I f n l u + 1 ar e b o th p rime n u m b e r s gr eate r th an 5 sh ew
17
t h at ( 4 ) is di v is i b l e b y 1 2 0 a d n (+ 1 6 ) b y 7 20 A l s o S h e w
th at n must b e o f t h e form 3 0t o r 30t + 12
16
I f p is
18
Is eq
Sh ew
u lt
19
m b er
l oo
a
"
u r
If
c an
Fi
is
be
d th e
d i v i i b le b y p
wh i c h is c o tai n e d
n
9 8x
in
2
0
f th e
mo d
if
p i m e t o p , an d
a is d
s b le b
y p,
ivi i
r l ol u tio n
en e a
fn
ri m e n u m b e r a
fo u d s u c h th at
+r
l is
20
h i gh e st p owe r
n
II
th at
th e
o n gr u e
n ce
a sq
u r
a e
h e w th at
H I GH ER
3 58
21
AL
G EBRA
Sh e w th at t h e su m o f t h e s q u are s
m b e r N an d p r i m e t o it is
n
i
v
n
e
g
an
d th e
b ei n
di
gi v
g th
fp
I
22
isib l e b y
.
23
diffe
d g
( (
t) i
ren t p r m e fac t or s o f N
i
ar e
(
g
an
is
e w t h at
e i n teg e r s
o
siti
v
S
h
p
q
p
)
two
an y
d by
p an sio n
n
e
p
an
en
o f t h e c u b es is
su m
a,
(b ) (
1
of
2 ,
6x + x
b y t h e c ef
1
tagon al
an
th at
th e
s q u are
tri an gu lar
of
in t h e
u mb rs wh i h
e
o c ien t s o f t h e p ow e rs o f x
are
in t h e
e x pan
are
ex
ls o
si on o f
1
1
24
Sh e w
th at
th e
su
of
l ess th an N an d prim e t o it is
1 0x + x
ou r th p owe rs
th e f
N3
1_
b ei n
g th
f re t p rim f tors
di fe
(f
30
a,
ac
N)
l
f
x
26
I f d1
th e
umb e rs
'
0 mo d
b) 1
3
fN
d2 , d3 ,
w als o t hat
N
n
h
t
e
m
b
e
o
n
e
25 I <
is
r
i
t
r
s
h
i
h
)
f
w
c
e
)
1
p ri m e t o it , an d i x is p ri m e t o N, sh ew t at
.
o f all
( (
N
b
(
(
N)
o
ar e
l ess th an N
fa
nu
mb er
N th e n
,
(
I)
Sh e
an )
3
x
,
5
x
an d
H I GH ER A L G EB RA
3 60
Su pp o s e th a t t h e su c c e ssi v e c o n v e rg e n ts a r e f orm e d in
S im il ar way ; l e t t h e n u m e r at or s b e d en o te d b y p l , p 2 , p 3
an d t h e d e n o m i n a t or s b y
q, , 9 3 ,
ssu m e th at t h e l aw
v e rgen t ; th a t is supp o s e
A
f or m ati o n h o l d s f or
the
th
co n
(
b
Th e
n +
a
n
ri
th
l)
a
d i ffe r s f ro m
c o n v e r ge n t
J
11
fa ;
th
b q
iz
the
ii
'
o n ly
th
h a vi n g
in
h en c e
o n v e r ge t
n
b p
qn _1 +
b q
u
_2
1z
a
n
th e r e f or e
]
)
n
_l
+ l
_l
+1
+4) n
+l
_]
+ 1
we pu t
+l
+1
2L
If
+1
()
n
in t h e p l a c e
th e
t 1
-
1:
+l p
l ,
i l
-
t 1
-
1:
+l
(
n
th at t h e n u m e rat or an d d e n o m i n at or o f t h e n l ) c o n
v e rge n t f o ll ow t h e l aw w hi c h was s u pp o s e d t o h o l d in c a s e o f t h e
th
Bu t t h e l a w do e s h o l d in t h e c a s e o f t h e thi rd c o n v e r g e n t ;
n
h e n c e it h o l d s f o r t h e f o u r th ; an d s o o n ; th e r e f or e it h ol d s
u n i v e r s ally
we
se e
th
43 9
In t h e
ca e o
f th e
b1
a
a,
we m ay p ro v e
)
o n ti n u e d f r ac ti o
3
as
th a t
an
b p
m ay b e d e d u c e d
b y c h an g i n g t h e S i gn o f b
a
r e sult w hi c h
f ro m th a t
f t h e p re c e d in g
"
4 40
.
In th e
o n ti n u e d f r a c ti o n
b1
a, +
we
b2
a
63
a
h a v e s e e n th a t
p
a
n
bu p u
a
n
b u g
s
'
r ti c l e
G ENERA L T HEO RY
q
b
n
but
i IQ
is th e r e for e
+ l
t 1
+l
an
an
CO NTIN U ED F RA C TI O N S
OF
t 1
-
11
i n
fl
+l
l
+l
ro
r
f
r
a c ti o n
e
p p
hen ce
41 1
an
R
is o f o pp o sit e S i gn
is
l e ss th an
361
u m r i ll y
ca
+1
By r e a s o n i n g a s in A r t 3 3 5, w e m ay S h e w th a t e v e r y c o n
v e rgen t o f an odd ord e r is g re at e r th an t h e c o n ti n u e d f ra c ti o n ,
an d e ve r
c o n v e r e n t o f a n e v e n ord e r is l e ss th a n t h e c o n ti n u e d
y
g
f ra c ti o n h e n c e e v e ry c o n v e rgen t o f an o dd O rd e r is g re a t e r th an
.
v e r y c o v e rge t o f a
n
Thus
ls o
p2
92
11
ge
+1
v e o rd e r
n
pos t v
i i
is
d l e ss
th an
p2
+ l
PQ
q2
+l
92
II
an
q2
he n c e
2"
71
l e ss th an
q2
p it
92
71
q2
])2
e an
23 1 is p o siti v e
3
q2
ge
he n c e
n
th e
H I GH ER A L G EBRA
362
*
44 1
sh ew
To
th a t th e
tin u
co n
fr a ctio n
b2
a1
h as
d en i te
if
v a lu e
li m i t
th e
a
1
wh en
i;
a
n
b3
a
is
n i te
is
u +1
th a n
r ea ter
Th e
z er o
o ti ue d f r ti o w ill h v e
i n n it e if
ac
th e
d e n it e v alu e w h e n
p
p
an d
IS e qual t o
li m its o f
a
d iffe r e n c e o f
th e
NO W
+l
+l
w hen ce
+1
+l
1)
b
1
a
n
art
ll
H qn
b n +1 qn
ls o
n e
an
lim it
the
s am e
Fo r
64 9 2 63 9 1
94
ll
-
b q"
n
an an
be
c an
q1
q"
+1
n e
is l e ss th an
f t h e p rod u c t
an
be
n +l
an
L im
th e r e f or e
2
5
n n
b n +1
c
+1 gn
+1
the
lim it
2n
p
g
f ra c ti o n s
191
(
n +
27
ten d
1)
o n tin u e d f ra c ti on t e n d s t o
is
.
L im b 1 ) (: )
q"
+l
git
f p r pe r
an
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9!
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the
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b 9
ti v e ; h e n c e if
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ai l
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g
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ith e r o f th e s e t e rm s
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H I GHE R
3 64
th e
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th e om p o nen t s i s i n it e th e o
f
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d
it d e 3 a d i n thi s se th e o ti n e d f ti m s t
t e d t o a d e n it e lim it whi c h a o t e c ee d u n it y
If
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n
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en
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th
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ca
nh
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'
61375
L et
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r t
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t wo
30
c onve rg e n t s a e 5
r
6
1
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19
18
2
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6
12
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2x
12
18
6 3
"
i i r y if
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S
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5
1
5x +
2
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6 3
qn
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2 n +1
o ns t t
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d will o n l y s u ee d wh e
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f all v al es O f n
6
b
b
m e t o s o f th e
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a
a
a
s u c ess i ve o nve g e t s e th e o ef c i en t s o f th e p owe s o f as i
b
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e
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or
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ar
GENER A L T HE O RY
OF
C O N TI N U E D
F R A C TI O NS
365
444
Fo r
ra
an
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'
ca
rr
Fi
n d th e val u e
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or
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r t two c onve rg n t
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wh nc e b y m ul t ip l i c t ion we ob t i n
e
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3
d q n ; le t
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n
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e r
e l w f form t i on h ol ds f
eith e r f th em ; th en
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Th e
r en c
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e
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9
den o t e
A L GE B R A
H I GHER
366
If ev er y
44 5
.
r a c tio n
f
n
r
a
c
t
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o
f
with in tegr a l n u m er a to r
is in co m m en su r a b le
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is
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ro
r
e
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tin u
ed
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wh e e A d B a e p o s iti ve i t e ge s 3
m ens ab l e a d e q l t o
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ur
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t h en
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63
62
u a
an
wh e e j; d en o t es th e in n it e o ti n u e d f
r
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Ba1
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s u pp o se No w A B a b
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3 h e c e j;
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al
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l ess th n
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an
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,
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as
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op e r f r a c ti o n 3 Q I s l ess th an
64
63
l ess
13
D
3
IS
T hu s
o ve r es u lt s till h o ld s i f s om e o f th e c o mp o n en t s ar e
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r
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r
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r
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r
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th e s u c c ee di g c omp o en t s a e
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c ti o ns ; th s a s we h a ve
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o
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it
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t i u e d f ac ti o n b e g i n i n g with
i s i c omm en s ab l e 3 d e n ot e
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an
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ra
it
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ur
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Q
11"
i s 5
6
[6 9 11
Sh
In
2a +
a
2a +
2a +
2a
t h at
be
h ew th t
r o
rove th t t h
1
a
a +
59 n
+1
6+
r
p
odu c t
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11
13
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oots
t h e eq u ati o n
b= 0
d+
1
+
b+
a+
1 _
5_
2
2_
3
3_
4 _
+ 1)
4 _
3+
3
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3_
w
(
(
e
25
1+
15
13
14
t h e c o nti n u e d fra ti o ns
64
1_
12
2a
an
a/
c
c o m p o nen t s
i s eq u l t o 1
Sh e w th t
10
2a
l)
l)
h
.
i ng th e n u mb e
2a
in
2a
a +
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th e c o n ti n u e d f ac ti o n
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Sh eW
1
a
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am 1
ew th at
1
A L GE B RA
H IGHER
368
3+
(
2
e
1)
+1
(
n
+ 2)
n +
e
ac h su c c e ss v e fr ac t o n
a+b
3
a + 26
b e i n fo rm e d b y t aking t h e den o min at or a d t h e su m o f t h e n u m er at o r
a d
n o m in at o r o f th e
r
e
e
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ng
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c
t
i
o
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r
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p
1
n at o r r es pe cti v el y sh ew t h at
2
16
If
ul
uz
a+
u3
C O N V ERS I O N
17
ro ve th t t h
SER I ES I N T O C O N TI N U E D F R A C TI O NS 3 6 9
OF
e u
c o nv e r gen t t o
t l1
'
c o n ti n u e d frac ti o n
th e
IS
18
Fi n d th e v al u e
19
h ew th t th e
Z
th e (
1)
20
h e w th t t h
m
3u
g r eater th an u n ity
c o nver g e n t t o
c o nver gen t t o
th
a2
an d
ei ng p o itive
a1 , a2 ,
dl
is
eq u al t o
2+
o nve r gen t t o
1
2+
n
g
21
Sh e w t h at
4 47
It
CO N V ERS I O N
will
SER I E S
OF
be
Put
u
r
1
a:
+1
+1
H H
.
u
r
+1
2
r
7b
'
t l
1
2
"
1
u
oooooo
( (
x)
CO N TI N U ED FR A C TI O NS
1
r
Hen c e
e_
d QT?
an
I N TO
th en
3n + 1
on v en i en t h e r e t o wr it e th e se r i es i n th e f o r m
1
u
4+
3 +
2+
u
u
2
l
24
H I G HER
37 0
i il l y
Sm
ar
1
u
so
o n
u l
E x amp le 1
u l
Ex p
re s
as a
an
a a +1
n n
an
0+
Exp
r ss
e
yl
a1
a1
a oa a
l 2
(
a
al x
x
l o g 1 + x)
ao x
ao
a x
0
ao x
a a a
0 1 2
E x amp l e 2
x
0 +
a0
a a1
o
n n
yo
aO
a a +1
g e n er ally
a n +1
yn
ca/1 1 2
au x
yn
cal
an
Ga
00
+
n _l
+ u
an
H enc e
al
as a c
2
a2
an
au _ l x
al x
a ox
W e h av e
an
c ontin u e d fr ac t i on th e se r ie
v.
th e n
an
16
"
+ u
P11 13
ai
u
u
g n
all y
h
en
e
ene
g
3
an
L GE B R A
ss
th e
c on t in u e
H I G HER
A L G EBR A
EX A MPLES
XXXI
'
hew th t
u1
u 2
no
u 0+
x
ao
a o al
an
il l
260 +
uZ
ul
n
-
_1
a a a
o l 2
a a
a x
l
'
an
x
'
ao
r
T+
1 _
+1
4_
1_
to
4
1
+1
_
2
+
ab
abc
a b cd
10
a
1 +
a2 +
If
a
a
an
1+
2n + 1
n
'
1+
l +
1+
a2
a1
a2 +
Q bi
;
3+
0+
d+
6+
1 +
_
4
+
an
3x
_
3
+
a2
14
2x
x :
6
+ 1)
t ien
u
o
q
an
1 _
11
a2 + x
+x
+2
2n
u
+1
'
an _
1
0+
h e w th t
a
12
Sh e
w t h at
1
fr c t o n +
den o m n t o s f the
t in u ed
a]
91
9 192
9 2 93
9 39 4
whe e
+
+
w c o nve gen t s
r
a2
s u c c ess
eq u al t o th e c o n
is
g1
2,
93
ar e
th e
CHA P TER X XX II
PRO BA B
449
w ys
a
th
o r
D E F I N I T I ON
an d e a c
of
c h an c
I L I TY
e o f l t s li appe n i n
'
IS
a +
an
th at
it s faili n g i s
b
a+
i ns t an c e i f i a l o tt e y th e r e a e 7 p i es a d 2 5 b l a k s
7
th e c h a c e th t a p e r s o h o ldi g 1 ti c k e t will wi a p e s
Fo r
an
hi s c h an c e
no
on
r z
ri z
32
25
wi n n i n g i s
32
T e r eas
450
b ab il it y m ay b e m a
.
th e
fo r
h a c e o f h pp e i n g c h n e o f faili g h a 6)
No w th e even t i s c e t ai t o h p p e o r t o f ail 3 th e e f o e t h e s m
h a c es o f h pp eni n g d f ili n g m s t e p esen t t i ty
o f th e
I f th e e f o e we ag ee t o t k e c e t i t y as o r u it we h a ve
a
an
r a n
or
cer a n
th e c h an c e th at th e even t will
i s th e p ob
o b ab ility f it s n o t h
COR
th e
d
.
If p
n o
pp en i s
ilit y o f th e h app en i n g
en
i
n
i
s
1
pp
g
p
ab
1
a +
an
b
a
an
even t
H I G HER
374
4 51
In s
th e
t , o r b to
th e h
it i s s o m etim es s tat e d th at
s ayi n g th at th e c h a n c e
even t i s
an
t e ad
A L GE B R A
th e
th e ev en t
ain st
en
i
n
pp
g
dds
ar e a
to b
g
f
T h e d e n iti on o f p r ob ab ilit y in A r t 4 4 9 m ay b e g i ven
4 52
I f c i s th e
in a Sli g htl y di ffe r e n t f o rm whi c h i s s om e ti m es U se f u l
t ot al n u mb e r o f c a ses e ac h b e i n g e q u all y li k e l y t o o c c u r an d o f
th ese a ar e fa v ou rab l e t o th e even t th en t h e p r o b ab ilit y th at t h e
in
av o u r o
ev en
a a
ev e n t will h appen i s
h app en i s
an
th e
ob ab ilit y th at it
will
n o
Ex a mp le 1
an
di ar
.
rom
b ag
n s
5 4
03
63
42
E x amp le 3
n d the ch anc e
Fi
'
to 5
.
thr owing
at
e t
as
ac e
one
i gl e
in
a s n
th row w i th t wo d i c e
Th e p o s i b l e n u m b er o f c ases i s 6 X 6 o r 3 6
A n ac e o n o e d ie m ay b e as o c i at e d w i th a y o f th e 6 n um b e r
th e
o th er d ie a d th e rem aining 5 n um b e rs o n th e r t d ie m ay each b e as o
c iat d w i th th e ac e o n th e sec o n d d ie ; th u s th e n u m b e r
f favour ab l e c a e s
is 1 1
11
Th er efore th e re q u ired c h ance is
3B
.
s on
f o ll o w s
Th e r
5w y
wh i c h e c h d ie
b th rown
t t
g i ve
f t h t w di c e w i ll e c l ud e c e
Th t i th e c h nc e
; h enc e 2 5 th row
?
t th rowi ng
m or
c es is a
f th row i ng
th
t
th
e
c
h
nc
e
36
25
11
1
t le t
36
O r we m ay
s o
as
is
as
e a
one or
no
ac e a
e as o n
a s in
e ar e
ac e
or
c an
so
so
as n o
a
s.
s,
an
o ne
H I GHE R
37 6
th at
will h
n
e
pp
a +
W i ll h app e n
+ c +
so
an
a +
Sim il ar l y
IS
LGE BRA
is
on
th e h a e th at B
n c
ti o s
n
EXA MPLES
XXX II
ve
(
1)
In
2)
six
th o wing
F r om
ck
c ar ds
f 52
t wo
n d om ; n d th e
d aw n
ar e
at r a
th e othe a q u een
A b ag o n tai ns 5 wh i te 7 b l k
d b ll s : n d t h e
3
d 4
h an e that th ee b all s d aw at an d om e ll white
I f fo
4
oi s a t ossed n d th e c h an e that th e e s h oul d b
tw o h ead s a d t wo tai l s
5 O
o f tw o even ts m u st h appen : g i ven that th e ha c e f the
i s t w thi d s th at f th e o th e n d th e o dd s i fav ou f th e oth e
If fro m a p c k four c a d s a d r wn n d th e h a ce th at th e y
6
will b t h e fou h o n ou s Of the s am e s u it
Thi r t een p e s o ns t ak e th ei pl a es at a o n d tab l e s h e w th t
7
o
t
agai ns t tw o
ve t o
ti
c
u
l
e
s
o
ns
S
itti
ng
t
o
e
th
e
a
a
p
p
g
Th e e a th r e even t s A B 0 o ne f wh i c h m u s t
8
d o nly
8 t o 3 ag ai ns t A 5 t o 2 ag i ns t B : n d
h p pen ; t h e od d
t h e o d d s agai n t 0
C o m pa e th e c h ances f th o wi ng 4 with
9
e di e 8 w i th tw o
d e a d 1 2 w i th th r ee d i e
1 0 I s h fi g a p ac k f c a d s fo
cc i den tally d opp e d ; nd
a
the c h a e t hat t h e m i ssi ng a d s s h o l d b
from e c h s u i t
11
A h
3 s h es i n a l o tt e y c o n t i n i g 3 p i es a d 9 b l n k s ;
B h 2 s h r es i n a l otte y c o n tai n i ng 2 p i es a d 6 b lank s : c om p ar e
the c hances f s u ccess
12
Sh ew th at th e c h nces f th o wing i wi t h 4 3
2 d i ce
espe ti vely a
1 6
18
h an ce th at
o n e is a
ur c
an
ar
re
ac
re
o ne
r,
on e
o n e c an
re
as
ir
as
on
ur
ar
r z
r z
r e as
re a
e one
c r
an
nc
ic ,
s ar e
re
r o
is
ne
an
kn ave
S x
o r
P R O B A BILI T Y
37 7
th ee w or k s o ne c onsi sti ng of 3 v ol u m e o n e of 4
Th e e
13
Th e y
f 1 v ol m e
h el f t n do m ;
d th e oth e
pl c e d
m
m
k
ro
ve
th
t
th
e
c
h
n
e
t
h
t
o
l
es
f
t
h
e
s
e
w
o
s
l
t
o
e
th
e
l
p
g
.
are
an
a c
s,
ar e
a s
o n
ra
ar e a
is
1 40
14
an
B thr o w with
d i ce if A th ro ws
t wo
of th ow ing hi g h e n u mb e
1 5 Th l ett e r s fo m i ng t h e w o d
.
w:
wh at i
Cl ifto n
are
ra
h an d t wh i st wh at
ie d playe ?
9,
l
ce
d
t
n
do
i
n
a
m
p
th e h ance t h at th e tw o v o w el s c o m e t o gethe ?
In a
16
b y a s pec
h el d
a ro
n d B c h nc e
is
4 k
i ngs
ar e
er e a e 4 S h i ll i ngs an d 3 h al f c r ow ns pl ac e d at r an d om i n
17
a l i ne : s h e w t h at th e c h ance o f t h e e t r e m e c o i ns b e i ng b o t h h al f
c r o w ns is
G e n er ali e thi s r es u lt i n th e c ase o f m s hill i ngs an d
7
n h al f c r o w n
Th
W e h ve hith e t o o s id e e d o l y th o se o
e es
whi h i n th e l n g g e o f P ob b ilit y
ll e d Simp l even t s
m o e f th ese o u i
W h en t w
o nne ti o n with e h o th e
4 55
ua
o r
th e jo i n t o c
cc
en c e i s
ca
ll e d
cu r r
ar e
ca
ac
eve n t
Co mp o u n d
ccu rr n c
r,
t i i
whit
l
l
d wi
h
th
ll
d f
it u
i l
wi h t o ti t th h
d wi t
hit
th
l
ll
h u ld
d li
ith
u d
t
s u c h a c se th e es lt o f th e se c o n d d a wi n g m i g ht
I
I f th e b ll s
m i g ht
t be dp
d t o th e es lt o f th e s t
e pl a e d ft e b e i n g d a w n th e i f th e s t d wi g g i ves
e n ot
3 whit e b ll s th e ati o o f th e b l a k t o th e W hit e b ll s e m i n i n g
i s g e t e th i f th e s t d a wi n g h ad n o t g i ven th ee whit e ;
th s th e h n e o f d a wi n g 3 b l a k b ll s t th e se o n d t i l
i s ffe t e d b y th e esu lt o f th e s t B t i f th e b all s e
l
f
t
e
e
i
n
d
l
e
th
t
th
e
es
u
lt
b
a w n it i s
o f th e sec o d
ced
g
p
d wi n g i s t i a y way affe c t e d b y th e es lt o f th e s t
Fo r e x am p e , s u pp o se w e
a ve a b a
c on a n n
e
5
g
g
an d 8 b a c k b a l s , an d t w o
ra
n g s , e ac o f r ee b a s , a r e
m a e r om
s c c ess ve y I f we
s
es m a e e c a n c e
ra
n g r s 3 W e an d en 3 b ac k b a s , w e s o
of
be
e a n g w a c om p o n eve n
.
ar
n o
We
o r
ra
ar
ra
an
en
en
n o
r a
ar
re
th u s l e d t o th e f oll o wi n g d e iti o
e s id t o b e d e p e n d e n t o
i n de p e n d e n t
o di n g
Eve t s
th e o c cu en c e o f o e d o es o d o es o t ffe t th e o
ence f th e
ti g
t
o th e s D e pe d e t e v e n t s a s o m e ti m es said t o b
ar e
ar
ac c
rr
re
ccu rr
e co n
as
en
A L GE B R A
H I GHER
37 8
If th er e
4 56
b a b ilities of wh ic h
ar e
ar e
t wo
t h e se c on d even t m ay h app en i n a w ay s an d a il in b wa y s,
ac h o f th e a
al l th ese way s b e i n
e
u all y li k e l y
E
b
c ase s m a
g q
y
b e a ss o c i at e d with e a c h o f th e a
b c ases, t o o r m a b ) a
b )
c om o u n d c ases al l e u all y li k e l y t o o c c u r
p
q
'
( (
i n a b o f th em th e r s t h app en s an d th e se c o n d a il s, an d in
a il s a n d th e se c o n d h a
u s
ens
T
h
o f th e m th e r s t
pp
(f
z
w
b
( il
pp en ;
i s th e c h n e th t b oth eve t s f il
a
i s th e c h an c e th t b o th even t s h
f il
a +
i s th e C h c e th t th e s t h pp e s d th e se c o d
a
a
f il s 3
b
i s th e c h a n c e th t th e s t f il s a d th e se o d
a
a
b
b
( ) ( ) h a ens
pp
T h s i f th e esp e ti ve c h a es o f t w o i n d ep en d e t eve t s a e
a c e th at b o th
m
th
e
h
will
h
e
i
s
i
il
a d
S
a
p
p
p
p
p
p
f
u mb e
l
y
i
n
th
e
se
n
o
f
i
d
e
e
d
en
t
c
o
r e a s o i n g will
pp
y
p
eve t s He e it i s e s y t o see th t i f p p p
a e th e
m b e r o f i n d e p en d e t eve t s will
esp e ti ve c h a c es th t a
sepa t e l y h pp e th e c h a c e th at th e y will l l h ppe i s
a c e th at th e t wo s t will h a
r es t
th
e
h
en
th
e
c
a
d
pp
p p p
d s i m il a l y fo r a y o th e r p a
f il i s 2 p 1 p ) 1
n
an
an
ra
(
(
se
ca
an
3 ,
, ,
nu
t icu la r
,,
an
n c
n c
i s th e h a n c e th t a even t will h pp e n i
th e h n c e th t it will h app e i n a y a ss ig ne d su c
e t i l
o f r t i l s i s p 3 thi s f o ll o w s f om th e pr e e di g ar ti c l e
c ess i o
b y s u pp o s i n g
4 57
on
If p
r a
p2
p3
"
pl
r a
To n d th e c h an c e th a t s m e o n e at l e as t o th e even t s will
h app en we p r c ee d th u s : th e c h a n c e th a t all th e even t s a il
is 1 p,) 1 p ) 1 p 3 )
an d e x c e t i n thi s c a se s o m e o n e
p
o f th e even t s m s t h a
en
h
en
c e th e r e u i r e d c h a n c e i s
pp
3
q
( (u (
(
1
(
1
H I GH E R
3 80
even t s
c
on
h pp en t oge th e r i s
en e i s
c an
L GE B R A
aa
an
th e
o b b ility
a
th e i
da
c u rr
( (
a b) a b )
T h u s i f p i s th e p r o b ab ilit y o f th e r s t even t
c o n ti n en t
r ob ab ilit y th at th e se c o n d will f o ll o w th e
g
p
o f th e c o n c u r r en c e o f th e t w o eve n t s i s p p
'
d p
r ob ab
p
an
th e
ilit y
'
I n a h an d at wh i t n d th e ch anc e th at a sp e c i e d pl ay e r
h o ds o th the i ng a d q u ee n o f t ru m p s
D en o t e t h e p l ay er b y A ; th e n th e c h ance th at A h as th e k i ng i s cl earl y
; f r th i s p ar t i c u l ar c ard c a b e d e al t in 52 d i ffer e n t way s 1 3 o f w h i c h fall
3
to A
Th e c h anc e th at wh e n h e h as t h e k i ng h e c an al so h o l d th e q u ee n is
th e n E
f r th e q u ee n c a b e d eal t in 51 way s 1 2 o f wh i c h fall t o A
51
E xa mp l e 1
l
k
b
h e refore th e ch nc e
r q u re d
13
:
52
12
x
1,
7
51
i ht e s o n s f o ll o w s
Th n u m b e r f w y i n wh i ch th e k ing
d th e q u een
b de lt t A i
e q u l t th e n um b e r f p erm u t t ion f 1 3 th ing 2 t t im e 1 3 1 2
b
A d im il r l y th e t o t l n u m b e r f w y in wh i c h th e k i ng
d q ue n
O r we m g
e
an
a s
de l t i 52 51
Th e r for e th e c h nce
a
s o
a s
can
or
an
c an
13
12
52
51
17
e for e
as
dr ing e ch
d e from b g
t in ing 5 wh i t e
c
d b f
h
pl
d
i l
n d th e ch nc e th t th e rst dr wi g wi ll give 3 wh i t e d
th e e c on d 3 b l c k b ll
A t th r t t r i l 3 b ll m y b dr wn in 0 w y
d 3 wh i t e b ll m y b dr wn i n 0 w y ;
5 4
13 12 11
5
th e r e for e th e ch nc e f 3 wh i t e t r t t r i l
143
W h e n 3 wh i t e b ll h ve b een d wn
d r em ove d th e b g c o n t in
2 wh i t e
d 8 b l ck b l l
th e r efor e t the s e c on d t r i l 3 b ll s m y b dr wn i n 0 w y
d 3 b l ck b l l s m y b d wn i n 0 w y s ;
th e refor the ch nc e f 3 b l ck t th e ec on d t r i l
Ex amp le 2
Two
s,
aw
a
o f 3 b all s, ar e m a
an d 8 b l a k b al l s, t h e b a ll s n o t b e in g
s ec o n
tr
an
an
e o re
a s
'
ra
an
ra
a s
10
7
.
15
th e r e for e th e ch anc e
Th e
15
4 29
t ud en t sh oul d c om p ar e th i s sol u t i on wi th th at
an
a ce
co n
a s
13
an
re
f Ex 1 , A r t 4 57
.
PR O BA B
4 59
w hi c h
th e
su
ev en
ar e
o
38 1
h ap p e n in two 0 7 m o r e d if r en t wa y s
m t u a ll y e x c l s i ve , th e c h a n c e th a t it will h ap p en is
th e c h a n c es of its h app en in g in t h ese d zle r en t way s
an
I L I TY
ca n
'
'
T hi s i s s o m e ti m es r e g d e d
se l f e vi d en t p r o p o s iti o n a r i s i n g
i m m e di at e l y o u t o f th e d e n iti o n o f pr ob ab ility I t m ay h o w
ar
as a
d s f o ll o w s
h pp e i n t wo w y s whi c h c nn o t
Su pp o se th e eve t c
a
b
c es o f th e h
th
e
h
n
en
i
n
th
e
e
f
on
l
e
t
d
;
pp
g
1)
b
even t i n th ese t w o w ys es p e ti ve l y T h en o u t f
c ses
th e e e l) i n whi h th e even t m y h pp e i n th e s t w y
d a b w y s i n whi c h th e eve t m y h p p en i n th e se o n d
n d the
T h e e f o e i ll o t o f 6 6
ses
wa y c
o t co
th e e a a b + a 6 ases f v o ab l e t o th e even t ; h en e th e
c h n e th t th e even t will h pp en i o e o o th e o f th e tw o
w ys is
eve r
b e p r o ve
an
an
cu r
ar
an
re
n cu r
an n
ca
u r
se
l
)
l
2
b
g ,
b2
bl
6 1 62
i il
e s o i n g will pp l y wh at eve b e th e m b e f
w y s i whi h th e even t a h pp en
even t a h pp e i n w ay s whi h e m u t ll y
Hen e i f
e th e p o b b iliti es th t th e
e l s i ve a d i f p p p
p
eve t will h pp e i n th ese di ffe e t w y s es p e ti v e l y th e p o
b ab ilit y th t it will h pp en i s o m e o e o f th ese w y s i s
Sm
c l u siv e
ar
xc u
an
,,
2 ,
wi th t w di c e
o
c an
+p2 +
de
b e ma
c an
de
b e ma
de
N w th ch nc e
ep r t e ch nce ;
12
a a
in d the ch nc e
a
up
de
c an
i n 4 w ys
up
up
an
i n 3 w ys
u p in
b e ma
u a
p3
ex
ar
ar
+pn
th rowi ng
at
e t in
as
ingle th row
a s
1 0 can b e m a
11
Pl
1
3 ,
E x amp le
nu
wy
an
a s , an
in 1 way ,
an d
th u s th e ch anc e o f th rowi ng
thu s th e c h ance
th u th e ch anc e
s
f t h r o wm g 1 1
9 is t h e
th e re q u r e d c h anc e _
i
36
1 0 is
f t h r o wm g 1 2
th rowi ng a n um b e r n o t l e s th an
3
36
2
is
1
IS
su m o
36
th e e
s
H I G HE R
38 2
LGEBR A
On e p
s an
a n s
an
e e ac
an
e o
an
or
s on
a s
ra
e o
IS
e o
rs
as
ar
so
an
or
or
th e r eq u r e d ch anc e = 1
i
di
th
as
ar
so
a e
ra
a s
s,
one
ou
s e
se
s , an
an
ra
ti l
ti
th t th
ilit
t
o
id d
th
th
o iliti
t
t
it i
i
t t t
ti th t th
ilit
th
i
t i th
th
o iliti
th
t
t
th t i wh
th
i i
ti l with th
th th
E mp l From 20 t i ck e t m rk e d wi th th e r t 20 n um e r l s
i
dr wn t r n dom : n d the ch nc e th t i t i m ul t ipl e f 3 f 7
e p r e c e n g a r c e w e a ve seen
e pr o
a
In
y o f an even m ay s m e m es b e c o ns e r e a s e su m o f
h ab
e p r b ab
es o f t w o o r m or e sepa r a e even s ; b u t
s ve r y
a
m por an
o n o ce
e p r o b ab y o f o n e o r o e r o f
s e su m o f e p r b ab
es o f e separ a e
a se r es o f eve n s
even s o n ly wh en the ev en ts a r e m u tu a lly ex c lu siv e, a s ,
en
e o c c u r r e n c e o f o n e s n c om pa b e
e o c c u r r e n c e o f an y
e o er s
o f
460
xa
Th e
s a
ch an c e th at th e n u mb e r i s a m ul t ipl e o f 3 i E
20
an
i t i s m ul t ipl e
r eq u re d ch nce
a
f 7 is
3
20
d t h ese
an
ev en ts a r e
6
is
mu tu a l ly
one
th e c h anc e th at
ex c l u siv e ,
h enc e th e
2
or
20
or o
mb
i
i f th e q u e ti o n h d b een : d t h h
th t th
foll ow
f3
f 5 i t wou l d h ve b ee n inc orr e c t t r e on
6
d th e
Be c u s e th e c h nce th t th e n um b r i
m ul t i p l e f 3 i
g6
4
c h nc e th t th e n um b e r i m ul tipl e f 5 i s 2 0 th e r e for e th e c h nc e th t
4
k et
F
n
u
th
e
t
i
c
i t i m l t ipl f 3 5 i s
th
mb er
20
mi ght b
m ul tip l e b t h f 3
d f 5
th t th e t w eve n t c o n i d r e d
t m ut
ll y e cl u ive
Bu t
mu l tip le
or o
s a
e o
e a
ar e n o
461
s i m pl e
h ld
I t s ou
an d c o m o
p
an
ua
or
so
s :
as
as
an
or
er
n u
or
s a
s a
an c e
on
d th t th e di s ti nc ti o n b e twee
u n d eve t s i s i n m n y ses p u e l y ti c i l
be
b se r ve
ca
ar
H I GHER
384
7
F ou r
r s ons
dr a
LGEBR A
c ar d fro m a or di n ary p ac k : n d
2 ) t h at n o tw o c ar d s are o f
o f e ac h s u i t (
w e ch
t h e c h ance (
1 ) t h at a c ar d is
eq u al val u e
F i n d th e c h ance o f th r o wi ng six with a s i ng l e d i e at l eas t o n c e
8
i n ve t rial s
Th e o dd s t h at a b oo k will b e fav o u r ab l y r evi e w e d b y thr e e
9
i n dep en d en t c rit i cs ar e 5 t o 2 4 t o 3 an d 3 t o 4 r es pec ti vely ; what is
th e p rob ab i lity that o f the thr ee r evi ew s a m ajority will b e fav our ab l e ?
.
pe
o ti
A b ag c n a n s 5
n o u t an d n o t r ep ac e ;
ffer en c
urs ?
10
dr aw
f di
an
an
re
nc
uc
re
rn
t ol o
ance
r o wi n g
i
di
ce
n
d
th
e
c
h
th
f
f
I th ee th o w s with
11
p
d ou b let s at l e t o nce
n dom
m lti p li e d t o ge th e
I f 4 wh o l e n u m b e r s t k e n t
12
h ew th t th e c h a e that th e l s t di g i t i n the p o du c t i l 3 7 9
as
a r o
ra
ar e
nc
o
r
,
16
1S
6 25
In
u
r
p
tw o c o ins
t o ssed 5 tim es wh at i th e h nce th at the e
w i ll
h d s a d 5 tails ?
tossed wh t i th e h an e th at o ne d o nly
1 5 I f 8 o i ns
will t
h
e
d
a
?
p
A B C i n o d e c u t p c k o f c r d s ep lac ing th e m ft e eac h
16
c ut
c o n d it i o n th at th e s t wh o c u t s a p ad e s h all wi p i e : n d
th ei espec ti ve c h an es
A
d B d aw f o m a p u se c o n t i n i ng 3 s o verei gns
17
d
4 s h i lli gs : n d th e i
esp ec ti ve c h an es f s t d wing
ove eign
th e c oi s whe d awn t b ei ng epla e d
A p a ty f p e s o ns it t a ou n d t b l e n d t h e o dd s g ai ns t
18
tw o spec ied i n di v id u l s s i t t in g ne t t o e h othe
A is
e
f 6 h o ses en t e e d f
19
ce d i t o b idden b y
o f t w jo ck ey s B a d 0 I t i s 2 t o 1 th t B i des A i n w h i c h
c se ll th e h or ses a e q u ll y l i k e ly t o wi ; if 0 i des A h i c h a ce
i t eb l e d wh t a
th e od d s agai ns t h i wi nn i n g ?
ave
ge 1 vessel i n eve ry 1 0 i s w ec ked n d th e c h nce
20 I f
th t t of 5 ve sel s e pe ted 4 at l e s t w i ll a ri ve s fely
If
14
b e 5 ea
ar e
ar e
on
an
an
on
one
ou
ac
o r a ra
an
e r
re
a s
ra
re
o n an
r z
an
no
n a
r r
u rn u
one
ra
P R O B A B ILIT Y
385
46 2
Th e p r o b a bility of th e h app en in g of a n ev en t in o n e
tr ia l b ein g k n o wn , r eq u ired th e p r o b a b ility of its h app en in g o n ce,
ex a c tl
11 t r ia ls
i
n
twic e, t h r ee t im es ,
y
.
Let
th e
a b ilit y O f th e h a
b
o
e
O
f
th
e
even
t
i
n
n in
p
pp
g
an d l e t
r o b a b ilit y th a t th e
l
th
en
th
e
a s i n g l e t r i al
q
p
p
1
even t will h app e n e x a c tl y r ti m es i n n t r i al s i s th e r l ) t e r m
i n th e e x pa ns i o n O f g
Fo r i f we se l e c t a n y p a r ti c u l a r se t O f r t r i a l s o u t O f th e t o t a l
n u m b e r n th e c h a n c e th at th e even t will h app en in eve r y o n e O f
A
rt
t h ese r t r i a l s an d fa il i n a ll th e r es t i s
an d a s
[
a se t O f r t r i a l s c an b e se l e c t e d in
0 w ay s a l l O f whi c h a r e
e q u all y a ppli c ab l e t o th e c a se in p o i n t th e r e q u i r e d c h an c e i s
b
e
p
"
op q
r
we e
If
nd
()
"
th e Bi n o m i l T h e o e m
by
"
Cap
h ave
we
x ac
r a
If
th e
"
0p
9
'
Of
th e s t
r
r +
In four th rows wi th
throwing doub l e t s t wi ce at l e a t ?
Ex amp le 1
"
te
ir
pa
ms
r a
su
p
o r
Of
p g
th e e
d i c e wh t
a
is
ns i o n O f
the ch an
ce Of
a s
ar e
su
H H A
.
bl
(
g
z
1 +4
is
or
s, o r
5+ 6
an
s o
h u th e ch anc e
ee
s,
e Of
52 )
si
19
1 44
'
25
H I GHER
38 6
LG E BRA
con t i
c ert in n u e r
o e wh i c h a
wh i t
r n
r e c e d no th e r th n d wn
r epl c e d ;
i f i s th e ch nc e r wing wh i t e
ing e t ri al d
n u e wh i t
s th t i s o t i y h ve ee n wn i n tr i al
a d we h ave t
Th e c h a ce f dr awing e ac t l y whi t e b all i
n d fo what val ue o f r th i s e pre s ion i s gr eat e t
mb
o f
o f b al l s s m
a
an s a
A b ag
Ex amp le 2
nd
i
s
r
a
a
l
e
a
a
an d
e ; a b all is d a w
,
p
l
b
al l in a s
Of d a
a
a
an d so o n :
p
dra
m s l k el t o a b
a
mb r o f
e b al l
th e
x
NOW
l
ong
p q
so
re
'
_1 P
ii
r
(
-
as
( I) P (
P
n
I f n is s uc h th at p n i s
su cce s e s a d q n fail ur e s
n
r q uir d v l u e
h enc e the
Bu t p + q = 1 ;
an
th e g reat e t i nte g e r
is
int eg r th e mo t l i k ely c e
e
th at
is
as
in
f pn
th at th e e a e n ti c k e t s i n a l o tt e y fo a p i e
Of
th e s i c e e c h ti k e t i s e q all y li k e l y t o wi th e p i e d
all th e ti c k e t s m
w
w
a
h
i
m
e
o
ssesse
d
th
e
o
e
y
v
l
e
rso
o
t
a
u
O
f
p
p
e c h ti k e t i s
i n o th e r w o d s thi s w ou ld b e a f i r u m t
w
f
a
c
h
e
h
ti
k
e
t
h
e
e
e
s
o
ssesse
d
r
ti
k
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t
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i
ht
o
r
c
c
r
o
m
o
a
;
p y
p
p
g
b
e as o ab l y e p e c t
i
e
t
o
id
hi
s
ti
k
e
t
s
a s th e
b
e
f
p
p
y
wi s h e d t o b u y th e m ; th t i s h e wo ld esti m at e
an y One wh
a
th e w o r th O f hi s c h a c e I t i s c on ven i en t th e n t o i
t o du c e th e f o ll o wi g d e iti o
Su pp o se
u s
an
r z
r z
r c
t o a p e s o we m
li
t
o
th
i
n
s
e
d
pp
g
r
cc
th at e p e ta ti i s u se d
o ve i e tl y u se th e ph se p
way
in
on
ra
ro
ef er en c e
b a b le
s.
s an
s ar e
an
'
e c
es
ar e
s o
ea
e
ce an
a e
an
e se
e s
as
th e s am e
In
465
or
se
as n o
H I GHE R
388
W e s h ll
46 6
an d n e r es
.
i t
ti n g es lt s
u
w g
n o
i ve
LG E BR A
t wo p
B wan t r e p e c t ivel y m a d p o in t s o f
wi nn ing a set o f g am e ; th ei r ch anc e f wi nn ing a singl e g a me a p a d q
r e p e c t ively wh e r e th e s m f p a d q is u n i ty ; t h e st ak e is t o b el ong t o
th e p l ay e r wh o r t m ak e s u p h is s e t : d e t e rm ine the p rob ab il i t ies i n favour
o f e ac h pl ay e r
S uppo se th at A wi n s i n e a t ly m + g am e s ; t o do thi s h e m u t wi n th e
1 g am e s
Th c h anc e o f
l a t g am e a d m 1 o t o f th e p r e c e ding m + r
m
m
m
m
+
0m _ P
0m _ p q
th i s is
g p o
1 g am e s a d A m ay
No w th e s e t w ill n e c e s ar il y b e d e c i d e d i n m +
m + 1 g am e
wi n h is m gam es i n e t ly m g am e
o
m + n 1 g am e s ;
th e r e for e w e sh all O b t ai n th e ch anc e th at A wi ns th e t b y g iving t o th e
m
m
+
1
1
s
val ues 0 2
in th e e p re i on
0m _ p
Th u A s c h anc e i s
E x amp le 1
yer
Two p l a
an
s O
re
+r
r 1
x ac
s, o r
s,
se
T hi s
r 1
2
9
"Iv
ts
d h
r ob l e m o f P o i n
es
ti
o
n i s k n o w n as th e
P
a
n
as
q
e n gage d th e att e n ti o n o f m a n y O f th e m o s t e m i ne n t m ath em ati c i an s
s i n c e th e ti m e O f Pa s c al I t was o r ig i n all y p r op o se d t o Pas c al b y
th e C h ev ali e r d e M er e i n 1 6 54 an d was di s cu sse d b y Pa s c a l an d
F e rm at b u t th e y c on n e d th em se l ves t o th e c ase i n whi c h th e
l
th
e
i
r r es u lt s w e r e a l s o
ay e r s w e r e s u pp o se d t o b e o f e q u a l s k ill
p
e x hib it e d i n a di ffe r en t f o rm T h e f o r m u l ae w e h a ve g i ve n ar e
a ss i n e d t o M o n t m o r t a s th e y a pp e a r fo r th e r s t ti m e in a w o r k
g
O f hi s p u b li s h e d in 1 7 1 4 T h e s am e r es u lt was a f t e r war d s Ob
t ain e d in di ffe r en t w ay s b y L ag r a n g e a n d L ap l a c e a n d b y th e
l att e r th e pr ob l em was t r e at e d v e r y fu ll y u n d e r v ar i ou s m o di
c at io n s
E x amp le 2
h e r e a e n d i c e wi th f fac e s m ark e d
r an dom wh at is th e ch anc e th at th e
T
from
i f th
n um b rs
1 to f ;
su m o f th e
th rown at
e hib i te d sh all b e e q ual t o p ?
S inc e a y o e o f t h e f fac e s m ay b e e p o se d n a y o e Of t h e
th e n um b e r f way s i n wh i ch th e d ic e m ay fall is f
Al so th e n um b e r o f way s i n whi c h th e n u m b e r th rown wi ll h av e
th ei r s m is e q u al t o th e ei cien t o f i th e e p n si on o f
ar e
ese
e
dic
e,
fo r
co
th i s c o e f c ien t
1 , 2 , 3,
9
1
x
be
ri e
t k en
a
th e d iffe r en t way s i n wh i ch
as t o for m p b y ad di t i o n
s s o ut o
so
p fo r
Of
th e i n d i ce s
PR O BA B H JTY
No w th
e b ove e p re ion
a
ss
h ve th e r e for e t
We
1
(
No w
an
Mul t ip ly
+1
+ 1)
IP
P
I
in
n io
xpa
2)
Of
th e c o e f c ie n t
(
n
wh e r e th e se rie
th e e
xp
1)
2f
1)
t o c on t in u e l ong a
n e gat ive fac tor s app e ar
req u ire d p rob ab il ity i s ob tain e d b y d ivi ding th i s serie s b y f
s
is
th e
in
"
1)
o ut
(
n
n
)
th e e e r ie s t o g e th e r an d p ick
p rodu c t ; w e th u s o b t ai n
n
( ) (
( )(
()
()
n
xf
1 + x + 55
xi
nx
th e c o e f c ien t
n d
"
389
s n o
so
Th e
T hi s
ob l em i s d
ue
to
De
M oivre
an
d was pu b li s h e d b y h im
it ill s t t es m e th o d O f f e q e t tilit y
La p l a e af t e w d s Ob t i ne d th e s m e f o m ul b t i a m c h
m o e l ab o i o s m
e ; h e ppli e d it i
a tt e m t t o d e m o n
p
m
s t at e th e e i s t e e o f
i
iti
ve
a se w hi c h h s m d e th e
c
p
b
l
ne
t
s
t
o
m
o
ve
it
s
l
o
se
t
o
th
e
e
li
ti
c
th
e
s
e
i
i
m
d
p
p
di e c ti o as th e e th o u n d th e s u n O thi s p o i n t th e e d e
m ay c o s lt T o dh u n t e r s Hi t y f P b bility A t 9 8 7
in
1 7 30
ra
an n
o r
a,
EX A MPLES
an
ro
XXXII
s or
an
n c
ar
ar
ce r t ai n g am e A kill i t o B s as 3 t o 2 : n d t h e c h anc e
f A wi nn i ng 3 g am es at l e as t ou t O f 5
A c o i n wh o se faces ar e m ar k e d 2 3 i s th r o w n 5 ti m es : wh at
2
is th e c h ance Of O b t ai n i ng a t o t al O f 1 2
I n e ac h O f a se t Of g am es it is 2 t o l i n fav ou r O f t h e wi nne r
3
O f th e p r ev i ou s g am e : wh at i s t h e c h ance t h at t h e p lay e r w h o w i ns
th e rst g am e s h all w i n t h r ee at least O f t h e n e t four
Th e r e are 9 c o i n i n a b ag 5 O f wh i c h a e s o ve r e i gns an d
4
th e rest a e u n k n o w n c o i ns O f e q u al val u e ; n d wh at t h e y m u t b e i f
th e p r o b ab l e val u e O f a d r aw is 1 2 s h i ll i ngs
1
In
s s
H I G HER
3 90
L GE B RA
5
.
e c t at io n
r s o ns th o w f s t ke whi c h i s t o b w b y the
wh o s t th o w s h e d w i th p nn y if th ey th o w i n s u c essi o n n d
th e c h n e f th e fou th pe s o n
d
w
l
ce
d
i
n
b
i
s
ith
C o n te s m r k e d 1 2 3
8
g
p
Th o p r t i o n b e i ng ep e te d th r e t i m es wh t
d w
d e pl ce d
e o f Ob t i n i ng t ot l f 6 ?
i th e h
m ke d 3
A c o i n wh o se f ces
d 5 i t o s e d 4 ti m e s wh t
9
t h e Od d s g i ns t th e m f th e n u m b e s th ro w n b ei ng l ess th n 1 5?
th o w with
1 0 Fi n d th e c h nce f th o wi ng 1 0 e c tl y i n
7
Six p e
an
ra
a a
ar e
di ce
an
one
ar
an
xa
ar e
su
ar e
e a
one
on
an c
or a
one
e q u al s k i ll A an d B are pl ayi ng a s t O f
th y l
lay i ng w h en A w ant 3 po i n t s an d B wan ts 2
f th e t i
w t s h ar e ou g h t eac h t o take ?
l y
Two p a er s o f
11
g am es ; e eave O ff p
I
s ak e s 1 6 , h a
.
In
ex
as
u ar
a r
on e O
ra
an
su
on
one
ra
a r
an
an
r o
one
'
re
on
ou
3n
6
6
(
)(
n
2)
ar e
su
H I G HE R
392
ti m es H ence th e
5
s t p se i s
u r
sec on d
11
LG E BRA
ob ab ilit y th a t th e s o ve r e ig n
e f r o m th e
th e pr ob ab ilit y th a t it c am e fr o m th e
an
c am
'
is
11
i s i m p o rt a n t th t th e s t u d en t s att en ti o s h o ld b
di e t e d t o th e t u e O f th e a ss m pti o th t h s b een m ad e i
th e p e e di n g ti l e T h s t o t k e
ti
l
i
ns
t
n
e
u
r
c
p
lth o g h i 6 0 th o w s with p e f e c tl y s y m m et i l di e it m y
th at a e i s th o w n e a tl y 1 0 ti m es y e t it will
o t h pp e
d ou b tl ess b e t o e dm itt e d th t i f th e n u m b e r O f th ows i s
c o n ti n all y i c e ase d th e ti o O f th e
m b e o f a es t o th e
n m b e r O f th o w s will t e d m o e a d m o e e l y t o th e li m it
1
T h e e i s n o e s o n wh y o e f c e s h o ld pp e o f t ene th
6
n o th e h ence i n th e l o n g
th e n m b e O f ti m es th t e h O f
th e six f es will h ve app e e d will b e app o im t e l y e q al
*
469
It
n a
The
ar
ar
ac
an
ar
ru n
ac
n u
ar
ra
r ca
n c
ar
o ve i ns ta n c e i s a p ar ti c u l a r c a se o f a g en e r a l th e o r em
whi c h i s du e t o J am es B e r n o u lli a n d was r s t g i ven in th e A r s
C o n jecta n di p u b li s h e d i n 1 7 1 3 e i g ht y e a r s a ft e r th e a u th o r s
If p is th e p r o b a b ility th a t a n ev en t h ap p en s in a sin g le tr ia l ,
t h e n u m b er of tr ia ls is in de n itely in cr ea sed, it b eco m s a
th en
c er t a in ty th a t th e l im it qf th e r a t io of th e n u m b er of su c c esses to t h e
th e n u m b er of
n u m b er of tr ia ls is eq u a l t o p ; in o th er wo r ds,
tr ia ls is N, th e n u mb er of su c cesses ma y b e taken to b e p N
e
A p r oo
Se e T o dh u n t e r s Histo r y of Pr o b a b ility , C h ap t e r V I I
A n o b ser v ed ev en t h as h app en ed th r o u g h so me On e of a
47 0
n u m b er of m u tu a l l
r eq u ir ed t o fin d th e
r
o
y ex c lu siv e c a u ses
p
b a b ility of a n y assig n ed c a u se b ein g th e tru e o n e
*
L e t th e r e
be
r o b ab
p
th at th e
c au
se s
an
d b efo r e th e
ev en
t to o k p la ce
'
su
o
pp
a
r
th
, ,
2 ,
c au
3 ,
t ru
one
cu r r
P R O BA BILI T Y
393
ve r y g e a t n u m b e r N O f t ri a l s th en th e s t c a u e
e x i s t s i n P N O f th ese a n d o u t O f thi s n u mb e r th e even t f o ll o w s
i n p l N s i m il a r l y th e r e a re p P N t r i al s i n whi c h th e even t
f o ll o w s f r o m th e se c o n d c a u se ; an d s o o n fo r e a c h O f th e o th e r
c au ses
H e n c e th e n u m b e r o f t r i al s i n whi c h th e even t f o ll o w s i s
C o ns
id e
r a
P
p, ,
th e
+ p 2 P2 +
P
p
n
N
)
mb e r
nu
as
ru
er
th t i s th e
a
c au
se i s
N 2 p P) ;
o b b ility th t th e even t
a
du e
'
P
N
p
P
p );
t o th e
c u se i s
b ilit y t h t th e
c u se
as
nc
N2
o r
i n whi c h th e even t w
e ft th e even t th e p o b
p P N he
w
th e t e o e i s
d
an
2 PP)
was p
ro d u ce d
by
th e
'
i s ne ess y to di s ti g u i s h l e a l y b e tw een th e p
h b ili t y O f th e e i s t e c e O f th e seve l a ses es ti m t e d b f
th e even t d th e p ob b ilit y afte th
t h
h pp
d Of a y
a se b e i
e
d
th
e
t
e
One
T
h
e
f
o
e
s
u
ll
y
ll
e
d
a ss i
m
e
g
g
i p o b b iliti es
d
e
e p esen t e d b y P P P
a p i
P
;
th e l tt e a e ll e d a p t i i p ob ab iliti es
d i f w e d en o t e
w
th e m b y Q
e h ve
o
ve
d
th
t
Q
p
*
47 1
It
ar
ra
an
ca
ru
or
an
1 ,
e o re
en e
2 ,
ca
3 ,
an
" ,
r ar
o s er o r
,,
as
ro
e ev en
ar
th
c au
an
ne
ar
o n
n o
re
47 2
A n o b ser v ed ev en t ha s h app en ed th r o u g h
n u m b er of m u tu a ll
e
x c lu siv e ca u ses
u
i
r
d
t
o
r
e
e
y
q
b a b ility of a n y a ssign ed c a u se b ein g th e tr u e o n e
*
m e o n e qf a
i
n d th e p r o
f
so
L e t th e r e b e n c au ses an d b efo r e th e ev en t t o o k p la ce s u pp o se th a t
th e p r ob ab ility O f th e e x i s t en c e O f th ese c a u ses wa s esti m a t e d a t
P P
L e t p d en o t e th e p r o b ab ilit y th at wh en th e
P
,
'
2,
3 ,
c au
b ilit y
H IGH E R
394
L G EB RA
se
w
a s th e
p
th
t ru e o ne ; th en th e p r ob ab ilit y th at th e r c au se wa s th e t r u e o n e
is p r o p o ti o n a l t o th e p r ob ab ilit y th a t i f in ex i s t en c e thi s c au se
w ou ld p r o d u c e th e even t
L e t Q b e th e
o ster io r
i p r b ab i l it y
th t th e
a
th
c au
Q
_ L
P
2 PP)
P
P .
(>
Q"
it
2 PP
r s th a t i n th e
a ss O f
r ob l e m s th e
e
esen
t
l
a
r
c
pp
p
p
will
h
rodu ct P
a ve t o b e c o rr e c tl y es ti m a t e d a s a r s t s t e p ;
p
p
ar e
i n m an y c a ses h o w eve r it will b e f ou n d th at P P P
a l l e u al a n d th e w o r k i s th e r e b y m u c h s i m li e d
q
p
H en c e
,,
3,
2 ,
Pl
If
P2
b ag
ba
rs
ec
:
P
P1 1
35
W h en
Of A
__
:
;
25
43
25
ne o
r t group i
f th e
'
O b se r v e d we ar e ab l e b y
rt
th e
47 2 t
ti t e th e p r ob ab ility O f an y
a r ti c u l ar
at e
c a u se
w
m
e
i
n
th
e
t
e
th
e
es
ti
b
ru
n
m
a
n
o
e
e
p
g
;
y
th e p r ob ab ilit y O f th e even t h app e n i n g i n a se c on d t ri al o r
we m ay n d th e p r ob ab ilit y O f th e o c c u rr en c e O f s om e o th e r
e v en t
Fo r e x am p l e p i s th e c h an c e th at th e e v en t will h app e n
"h
th
fr om th e r c au se i f in e x i st en c e an d th e c h an c e th at th e r
c a u se i s th e t r u e o ne i s Q
h en c e o n a se c on d t ri al th e c h an ce
h
th at th e even t will h app e n f r om th e r c au se is p Q T h e r ef ore
th e c h a n c e th at th e even t will h appe n f r o m s om e o n e o f t h e
c au ses o n a se c o n d t r i a l i s 2
p Q)
*
47 3
m e th o d
.
eve n t
b la k
15
35
=
P
P2 2
an
h a s b ee n
o es m a
,.
396
H I GHE R
L GE B R A
W e s h ll w s h e w h w th e th e o y O f p o b b ilit y m y
m
m
li
e
d
t
o
es
ti
t
e
th
e
t
u
th
O
f
s
t
t
e
en
t
s
tt
es
t
e
d
W
it
b
b
pp
y
esses wh o se e dib ilit y i s ss m e d t o b k o w n W e s h ll
*
47 4
n o
e a
cr
su
c l a ss o f p r ob l em s w e s h all di s c u ss fu rn i s h es a u se fu l
i n t e ll e c t u al e x e r c i se an d alth ou g h th e r es u lt s c a nn o t b e r ega r d e d
as O f an
r a c ti c a l i m p o r t a n c e it will b e f ou n d th a t th e y c o n r m
y p
th e v e r di c t O f c o m m o n sense
Th e
Wh en it i s sse t e d th t th e p ob b ility th t p e s o
s p e k s th e t th i s p it i s m e n t th t l g e n u m b e O f s t te
*
47 5
ru
ar
re
n u
ru
an
i s th e
ra
ti o
i n d ep e d en t wit nesses A d B wh o se p ob
i g th e t th e p a d p esp e c ti ve l y g ee i n
t i n s t t em en t : wh t i s th e p ob b ilit y th t th e
Two
47 6
b ilit ie s O s p e ak
m ak n g a c e r a
*
xa
d th t
t s m d e b y h im h s b een e m i ne d
O f th o se whi h a t e t th e wh ol e m b e
m en
an
ar
ru
s t at em en t i s t ru e ?
He r e th e ob se r ve d even t i s th e fac t th at A a n d B m ak e th e
s am e s t at em en t Bef or e th e even t th e r e a r e f o u r h yp o th eses ; fo r
A an d B m ay b o th s p ea k t r u l y o r A m ay s p e a k t r u l y B fa l se l y ;
B t r u l y ; o r A an d B m ay b o th sp e a k
o r A m ay s p e a k f al se l y
fal se l y T h e p r ob ab iliti es O f th ese f o u r h yp oth eses ar e
.
( )(
1
P
f t th e Ob se ve d even t
es
e
c ti ve l y
p
)
r
hi h A an d B m k e th e
s m e s t t em en t th e p ob ab ility th at th e s t t em en t i s t e i s t o
th e p ob b ilit y th t it i s fal se s pp t o (
th
1
at
1
p)
i s th e p ob b ility th t th e jo i n t s t te m en t i s t e i s
H en c e
er
in w
'
ru
ru
PP
rp
(P) (P >
i il l y i f a thi d p e s o wh o se p ob b ility O f s p e k i n g th e
t r u th i s p m k es th e s m e s tat em en t th e p o b b ility th t th e
s t at em en t i s t e i s
Sm
ar
ru
"
PPP
an
so on
fo r
an
()( )(
n u mb er
f p e r s o ns
P R OB A B ILIT Y
397
th e p e e di n g ti l e it h b een s pp o se d th t we
h a ve n o k n o wl e d g e o f th e e en t e ep t th e s t t e m en t m d e b y A
es a s t o th e
d B ; i f w h a ve i f o m ati o n f o m o th e s o
b
al s it y O f th e s t t e m e t thi s m s t b e
o
b
ilit
y
O
f
th
e
t
th
f
o
p
t k en i n t o c c o n t i es ti m ti n g th e p ob ab ilit y O f th e v a i o s
h yp o th eses
F
i ns t e i f A d B ag ee i s t ati n g f t O f whi c h
th e a p i i p o b b ilit y i s P th en we s h ou ld es ti m t e th e p
h b ilit y o f th e t u th
d f al s it y f th e s t te m en t b y
Pp p
d (
l
P) (
l
es
e
ti
ve
l
y
l
p ) (p )
p
*
47 7
In
ar
ru
u rc
xc
an
as
an c
o r
r or
an
ac
an
ro
an
h e r e is a r af e wi th 1 2 t i ck e t s a d t wo p r i e Of 9 a d 3
r
e
e
c
t
i
v
e
y
s
l
A B 0 wh o se p rob ab i l i t ie Of p e ak i ng th e t ru th a
g g
p
r ep ort th e r e ul t t o D wh h old o t i ck e t A a d B a e r t th at h e h
wo n th e 9 p r i e a d C a ser t s th at h e h as wo n th e 3 p ri e ; wh at is D s
e pec t at i on ?
Th r ee c ase s a e p o s i b le ; D m ay h ave wo n 9 3 o r n o t h i g fo r A B
0 m ay all h ave sp ok e n fal e l y
N w w i th th e n o t at i o n o f A t 4 7 2 we h ave th e a p ri ri p ro b ab i l i t ie
E x amp l e
re l
ne
ss
as
P1 =
al S o
101
5 5
1
_
12
P3 2
g_ i
10
1?
P3
30
_
_
iX
2
1
2
_
_x
3
5
2
30
1
4
h ence
e pe ct t on
a i
4
:
57
2O
3
3
27
f 3
1 3s 4 d
.
W ith esp e t t o th e es lt s p o ve d i n A t 4 7 6 it
h ld
ti e d th t it w
ss u m e d th t th e s t t e m e t
b
d
w y s o l y s o th t i f ll th e wit nesses t e l l f l se h oo d s
th e y g ee i n t e ll i g th e m f l se h oo d
I f thi s i s n o t th e
se l e t
s pp o se th t i s th e h n e
*
47 8
s ou b e n o
m a e in t wo
as a
a
sa
ca
c an
us
'
ru
u an
ra
n cr
r o
ru
o n
ac
AL G E B RA
H I GH E R
398
e t ru th 3 t im e t f 4 d B 7 tim e t f 1 0; th ey
e rt th t wh i t e b ll h b ee n dr wn from b g c on t i ing 6 b ll
b o th
n d th e p rob b ili ty Of th e t ruth f th e er t ion
ll f diffe r e n t c ol our
i) th ei r o inc i d n t t t im o y i t ru (
ii) i t i
Th e r e
t w h yp o th e e ; (
fle
Ex amp l e
as s
sp ak s
s ou
an
ar e
as
a s
sou
a n
es
ass
s s
e,
=
P1
7
X
10
=
p2
25
3
X
10
e t i t in g p we m u t t k in t o coun t th e ch nc e th t A d B will
t b ee n dr wn ; th i c h nc e i
o th s e c t th e wh i t e b ll wh en i t h
fo r in s m a
el
b
th e
th e r e fore as
an
l
X
as n o
l
No w
ac
a e
OI
- -
25
'
w
b
f
t
ro
i
i
t
i
th
e
h yp o th e
b
l
Pp t Pp
p
3 5 t 1 ; th u s th e p rob b il i t y th t th e t t e m n t i t r e i
a
es
ar e as
s a
an
ses we h a ve c o ns id e r e d r el a t e t o th e pr ob ab ility
O f th e t ru th O f c o n cu r r en t t es ti m on y ; th e f o ll o wi n g i s a c a se O f
tr a ditio n a r y t es tim o n y
I f A s tat es th a t a c e r ta i n even t t oo k p l a c e h a v i n g r e c e i ve d a n
wh at i s th e
a c c o u n t O f it s o c c u r r en c e o r n o n o c c u r r en c e f r o m B
r o b ab ilit y th a t th e even t did t a k e p l ac e ?
p
T h e even t h ap p e n e d 1 ) i f th e y b o th sp o k e th e t r u th 2 ) i f
th ey b o th sp o k e fal se l y ; an d th e even t did n o t h app en i f o n l y
o n e O f th e m s o k e th e t r u th
p
*
47 9
Th e
ses
ca
b
b
A
d
e
o
t
e
th
e
o
iliti
es
th
t
d
s
e
k
th
e
B
p
p p
p
t t h th e th e p ob b ilit y th t th e even t did t ak e pl ce i s
Let
ru
21
th e
an
9 9
an
( (
P) 1
(P )
1
P
()
+P
l ti
f th e p e e di n g ti l e i s th t whi h h a
ll
i
i t t o o k s b t it is op e t o se ri o s Ob je c
ti o
th
ti th t th e g i ven ev en t h pp ene d i f b oth A
o fl l i
o e t e ep t o th e s pp o s iti o th at
th t t
t
d e o n l y i t wo w ay s M o e o ve
lth g h it i s e pr ess l y t t e d th t A r e c e i ves hi s ac c ou n t f om
f
B thi s a n o t g e e ll y b e t k e
g n te d a s it es t s O
A s t es ti m o n y
h
T e s o u on O
4 80
n ex b
u s u a y b ee n g ve n
ns , fo r e a sse r on a
a n d B s p k e a se y s n o t c
e s a e m e n c an b e m a
*
ar
ra
rr
xc
s a
ou
r,
or
ra
H I G HER
4 00
AL G E B RA
sp eak s t h e tr u th 2 o u t Of 3 ti m es an d B 4 ti m es o u t O f 5;
th y agr ee i n th e assert i o n th at fr om a b ag c o n t ai n i ng 6 b all s o f d i ffe ren t
c o l ou r s a re d b all h as b e en d r aw n : n d t h e p r o b ab i l i ty t h at th e s tat e
m en t i s tr u e
11
c k o f 52 c ar d s h as b e e n l o s t ; from th e r em ai n der
Of th e c tw o c ard s ar e drawn a d a e fou n d to b e spades ; n d th e
c h an c e th at th e m i ss i g c ar d i s a s p ad e
12
On e
pa k
pa
ti t
tw o i Of
ti t
i i for d
er t t
t
r e d i i lity Of i d ot d
wi
ti ly
ol d
t
i w il
t ti o i f t
i
lu
Th er e s a r af e
th 10
ck e s an d
va e 5
13
p r z es
an d 1 r e s p ec ve
s o n e c k e an d s n m e b y B h a
A h
h e h as wo n h e 5 pr z e, h e 0 as s t s h a h e h as wo n h e 1 p iz e :
h a s A s ex pec a n,
he c b
B s en e b y g, an d
ha O 0 b y i ?
.
w ti
t t f
t t
A p
be
r i
ac
ar e r
ar e
ar e
ra
Of
w it
to
th t th
t t r e or e
i tw iht
tti
to
to
e ti y
t
h i
it i
ow t t t
o d
it
ho
i t whi h th tti
t o d th
e p e tati on
will
i to
hQ 8
1 5 P m ak es a b e t
a
r ee r aces
be
1 20
wo n b y h e h e h s s A , B, 0, ag a ns
h c h e b e ng s 3
2,
4
l , an d 2
1 r es p c vel
Th e r s r ace av ng b een wo n b y A ,
an d
b e ng k n
n h a h e se c n race was wo n e h er b y B, o r b y
a
r se D ag a ns
c
e b e ng was 2
e va e P S
1, n
.
l u of
o nt ini ng b ll s ll e ith e wh i t e b l ck ll
n u e r s f e c h i e q u lly l i k el y b ll i d r w n wh i c h t ur ns t
t o b w h ite ; t h i s i r e pl c e d d n o the b l l i s dr w n w h i c h ls o
t u ns t t o b w h ite I f t h i s b l l i s epl ce d p o ve th t t h e c h nce
2 +
O f the e t dr w g ivi ng b l c k b ll i s g( 1 ) (
16
mb
F rom
b ag c
b e ng
ou
o u
or
an
I f mn
ex
18
ar e
t wo
rr
ac
re
e r
ar
c rr c
witnesses e c h f wh om m ak es b t
f l se s tat em en t i
i
g r e e i n asse t i ng t h t c e rt i n even t t ook p l ce ; s he w t h t th e
odd s
ve t o
t temen t eve
i fav ou Of th e t th f t h e i
1
alth ou g h t h e a
i
i
ro
l
i
t
y
Of
th
e
even
t
i
s
s
ll
a
m
b
b
i
p
p
19
Te n
s x, a
ar e
one
r or
one
ru
as
s a
as
L O C A L PR O B A BILI T Y
METHO D s
G E O ME T R I C A L
t o q es ti o ns O f P
h b ility e q i es i g e e l th
th e I n t eg l C l c l u s ;
b s o l ve d b y
th e e e h o w eve m n y e y q u es ti o ns w hi h
El e m e t y G e o m e t y
*
481
Th e
ar
pp li ti o n
ca
ar
r,
ra
f G e om e r y
e a id O f
ro
ra
as
c an
rom e ch f t w e q u l l in e f l eng th l p or t i on i c u t
d r e m ove d
wh t i th e ch nc e th t th e m f th e
ff t r n do m
r m ind e r i le th n l
n o th e r d u pp o e th t ft e r c u tt ing
Pl c e th e l i n e p r l le l t
th e r i ght h n d p or t i on
r em ove d Th en th e q u e t i on i e q u iv le n t t o
k i ng wh t i th e c h nc e th t th e
m f th e r i ght h n d p or t i o n i g r e t e r
th n th e m Of th e left h n d p or t i on It i c l e r th t th e r t m i
e q u ll y l ik ely t b gr e te r l e th n the s c on d ; th u s th r q u i r d
p ro b b i l i t y i g
E c h f t w l i n e i k n o wn t b
C
f l eng th
t e c ee d i n g l th e
1
c h nc e th t th ei r m i t gr e t r th n l i 2
E mp l 2
I f th r ee l in e
c h o e n t r n dom p rove th t th ey
l ik e ly
f p o i b l e t ri ngl e
t t d e n o t e th e i d e
ju t
equ l t
gr e te r th n e c h Of th e o th e r
O f th r ee l i n e
m
b
tw ; d e n o t e it l e ng th b y l
Th e n ll w e k n ow Of th e o th e r t w l i n e i th t
th e l eng th Of e c h lie b e twee n 0 d I B t i f e ch f t w l in e i k n own t
b
f r n do m l e ng th b e twee n 0
v n c h nc e th t th e i m
d I it i
i g r e t e r th n l
E
1 C
[
]
Th u s th e r e q u i e d r e ul t fo ll ow
E mp l 3
Th r ee t ng en t
dr wn t r n dom t g ive n c i rcl e
3 t 1 g i n t th e c i r cl e b i ng i
ib d i t h t r i ngl e
h ew th t th e odd
for m e d b y them
E x amp le
a a
OB
su
su
or
xa
su
su
ss
as n o
u st
s o
x.
xa
s ar e
ss
s an
r su
ar e
a a
n sc r
as
th e
are
or
an
o r
an
e o
s ar e
n o
e o
a e
s no
s one
as
an
su
one
s ar e
as
ss
an
e s x
H H
.
a a
sa
c i rc l e
s.
26
an
H I G HER
4 02
h en
T
b
e cri e d
d i re c t i ons
s
48 2
v e n ie n t l
y
.
s o l ve d
in
th e
by
Qu es ti o ns
t ri ng e s so form e d i t i s evi d en t th t th e c i r cl e wi ll b
in cr i e d i n 2 ; a d as th i s i s t ru e wh at eve r b e th e or ig inal
th e r eq u i re d r e sul t foll ows
th e
l
8
f
a
s
b
t o 6 an d
o f P, Q, R,
o
L G E B RA
s o m e ti m es
o r di n at e G e o m e t r y
Pr o b ab ilit y
Of
a id
co
m ay
co n
Of eng th + b + l eng th b
m e ur d t
f th e m e u e d l i n e s wi l l
r n dom n d th e p ro i it y th t
p o in t
c o inc i de
d up p o e A P =
d PQ
th e li n e
l o l t
L t AB b
b
;
mu t b le
m e ur e d from P t ow d B
th
t
th
n
b+
A g in l t
m
P
P
b
s
u
o
e
P
m
e
ur
e
d
fro
t ow rd s B th en y m u t
AP
d
Q
Q
pp
y
b l e s th n
N w i n f vour b l e c
s we m u t h ve A F A Q e l A F > A Q
>
e
nc
b
+
+y
y
h A g in f ll th e c es o i b l e we m u t h ve
p
E x amp le
On
d
l
b ab l
ro
s a,
c,
ar e
as r
no
as
ar
as
an
an
so
ase
or a
as
ss
e qu
al
>
or
se
> 0, an d < b + c
an
a xe
d <a+c
an
d m ak
0X
eq u
al
to b + c ,
an
d OY
es
x,
se
b y TML
i n th e gur e ;
an
th e l i n e
r w th e l in e y = + r ep r ented
y r ep re n t e d b y K R
D
b
to
pa
>
i r Of r ec t ng ul r
x, o r x
y > 0,
ss
as
Tak
a s
= a
an
'
'
483
W e s h ll l o se thi s h pt e
a
Ex amp l es
with
s om e Mis c ell an e ou s
en
A b o x is
ea
ai
s,
s , an
so o n
= 72
co
H I G HER
4 04
I n th e p ar t i c ul ar c a e wh e n
1
th e r e q u i r e d ch anc e
+1
L GE B R A
k = 2,
(
(
2n + 1l
+1
+ 1)
2 2n + 1 )
If
is
m t e O f
an
Q,
_
_
'
( (
( (
Ii
k)
It
(
1
()
r
lc + 2)
k +1
1)
c h nc e th at th e n e
k)
xt
k
k+l
k)
rt
394
:
r=
( (
k+ 1
g ve wh t e b al l
W i ll
( 1)
k + 2)
dr awm g
(1)
(
lc + 2 )
k + 2)
(
H )
(
(
Th e
r=
is in
k+ 2
Pr
th e l im i t wh e n
to
k
is
al
k+ 1
k+2
a
ZPT
nH
I f th e b all s a e n o t r ep l ac ed
ii)
an
n
'
thu s th e ch anc e
0 l
(
n
+ 1)
k+ 2
k + 1)
k+1
k+2
wh i ch i i n d ep en d e n t
s
E x amp le 3
A pe
in
th e n um b e r Of
b al l s
i n th e b
ag at
r t
s
an
s 71.
ss s n
ette r
pl c e d
eve ry l e tt er g o es w ong ?
d en o t th e n um b e r f w y in whi ch ll th e l e tt e r g w ong d
L t
rep re en t th t rr ng em en t in wh i c h ll th e l e tt e rs i n th ei r
l t b d
w e nvel op e
N w if i n y o th e r rr ng e m e n t o cc up ie th e p l c e f
ign e d l ett e r b th i s l e tt r m u t ei th e r o ccupy pl c e om e o th e r
l
m
i
u
o
s
o
c
u
ie
c
e
T
h
e
n
th
e
n
u
b
e
r
f
w
y
i
w
h
i
c
h
b
S
p
p
)
pp
(
2 l e tt e r
b
di p l c e d i
d th e r e for e th e
ll th e r e m i n i ng
n u m b e r f w y i whi c h m y b d i pl c e d b y in t e r ch ng e wi th om e
l l d i pl c e d i (
1 l e tt e r s
d th r e t b
n 1)
f th e o th e
l
s ar e
,,
a c
s.
s o
a s
r n
an
or s
s c an
s an
an
a s
an
an
e a
a s
s a s
ar e
an
ass
_
2
o ne
I L IT Y
PR O A B
4 05
l
b
T
d
u
o
e
o
cc
u
i
s
b
c
e
do
e
o
cc
u
y
h
e
n
i
n
t
p
p
p
(
rr ng e en ts s t i fyi ng th e q u i r d c on di t i on inc e i e d in b p l c e
b do n e i
th e l e tt e r b d m u t b ll d i pl c e d wh i c h
wy ;
th e r e for e th e n um b e r f w y i wh i c h o cc u p ie th e p l c e f n o th e r l e tt e r
t b y i n t e r c h ng e w i th th t l e tt e r i ( 1 )
b t
;
ii )
S pp
m
c,
re
e a
from wh ich
Al o
s
by
0,
ce
p la
is
11
a s
_
n
1
nun _
1
1
1
e t o t l n um b e r f w y i wh i ch th e
; th r for e th e r e q u i r e d c h nce i
a
a s
e e
n it
c an
th e m e th od o fA t 4 4 4 w e d a
= 1 ; th u s we n all y Ob t ai n
1
No w th
( (
a s.
s, s
s no
un
an
no
th i ngs
b e p u t in
c an
it
r e i n v o l ve d i s O f c o ns id e r a b l e i n t e r es t an d in
o
l
e
h
e
b
m
p
s o m e O f it s m a n y m o di c a ti o ns h as m a i n t a i ne d a p e rm an e n t p l ac e
I t wa s r s t di s c u sse d
in w o r k s o n th e T h e o r y Of P r ob ab ilit y
b y M o n t m o r t a n d it was g e n e r ali se d b y D e M o i v r e Eu l e r an d
L apl a c e
Th e
t f
ilit i
i th t it i
f th
i i l
f o l
ill
d i W hitw o th
u i t d with th
ti l
l t
t
o dh t
48 4
T e s u b je c O P r o b ab
y s s o e x e n s ve
s
a
m p o ss b e
e r e o g ve m o r e an a s k e c O
e p r n c pa
n a m r ab e c o e c
a
e
b
ra c a m e
o
s
A
n O
r b em s,
s
u
p
g
b e ou n
n
s
t r a t in g eve y a g e b r a c a p r o c ess ,
r
e r e a e r wh o s ac q a n e
e
Ch o ic e a n d Ch a n ce ; an d
P r o ess r Cr o o n s a r c e Pr o b a
I n e g r a C a c u u s m ay c o n s u
e En cy c lo p eedia Br itan n ic a A c o m p e e a c c o u n O f
b ility in
e o r g n an d eve op m en O
e s u b je c s g ve n in T u n e r s
Histo r y of th e Th eo r y of Pr o b a b ility fr o m th e t im e of Pa sca l t o
th a t of L ap la ce
*
i l h
t i
i l th d
r l
i l
d i
th
th
i i
th
l
will
d
th
lt
l l
t h
ll ti o
f
i
f o
ft
t f th
ti
ti c l ppli ti o ns Of th e th e o y O f
o m m e i l t a s ti o ns ar e b ey o n d th e s o p e O f
t e ti se ; fo th ese w m y e fe t o th e ti l es
I s r a c i n th e E y l p di B it a
i
The
ac
r
p
rc a
ac
ca
nc
c o
ce
ar
ca
nn
an
An
to
e l e m en t a r y
n u
it ies
an
XXX II e
EX A MPLES
Pr b ab ilit y
t a th e Od d s i n f v ou f th o w i ng at le t 7 i n s i ng le
t h ro w with tw o dice ?
I
ur
se
th
e
r
e
s
o
ve
r
e
i
gn
4
h
i
ll
i
ngs
I
t
h
e
y
f
a
5
d
2
p
t o ne b y
w h t i t h e c h nc e th t th e y c o m e t o v e ei gns
dr wn
n tely b e g i nn g w i t h o ve ei gn
a d s h ll ng alt
1
Wh
o n e,
r O
er
as
s an
re
o u
re
in
a s
o u
ar e
H I GHER
4 06
G E B RA
s h i ps o u t o f 1 0 r etu r n s afe t o po rt Wh at
i s th e c h an c e th at o t Of 5 s h i p s e pec ted at l e as t 3 will arr i ve ?
In a l o tt er y all th e t i c k e ts ar e b l an k s b t o n e ; e ac h p er s o n
4
draw s a t i c k e t an d r etai ns it : s h e w th at eac h p er s o n h as an e q u al
c h an c e o f dr aw i n g th e pr i z e
5 On e b ag c o n tai ns 5 whit e a d 3 r e d b all s a d a se c o n d b ag
c o n tai ns 4 white a d 5 r ed b all Fr o m o n e Of t h em c h o sen at r an d om
t wo b all s ar e d raw n : n d th e c h ance th at th ey ar e O f di ffer en t c o l our s
Fi ve p ers o n s A B 0 D E thr o w a di e in th e ord er n am ed
6
u n til o n e of th e m t h r o w s an ace : n d th e ir r el ati ve c h an c es o f wi n n i n g
s u pp o s i n g th e th r o w s t o c o n ti n u e t i ll an ac e app e ar s
T hr ee s q u ares o f a c hess b o ard b eing c h o en at r an d o m wh at
7
i s th e c h an c e th at t wo are o f o n e c ol o u r an d o n e o f an other ?
A p er s o n th r o w s tw o di ce o n e th e c o m m o n c u b e an d th e o th er
8
a r eg u l ar t et r ah e dr o n t h e n u m b e r o n th e l o w es t face b e i ng tak e n i n
the c ase o f th e t etrah e dron ; n d th e average val u e O f t h e thr o w an d
c o mpar e the c h an c es o f t h r o wi n g 5 6 7
3:
A s skill is t o B s as 1 :3 ; t o 0 s as 3 :2 ; an d t O D s as 4
9
d th e c h ance t h at A i n thr ee t ri al o n e with e ac h pe r s o n will s u c c ee d
twic e at l east
1 0 A c er tai n st ak e i s t o b e w o n b y th e r s t p e r s o n wh o th r o w s
the
an ac e with an o c tah e dr al d i e : i f th e r e ar e 4 p e r s o ns wh at i
c hance o f th e l as t ?
Two p l ay ers A B Of eq u al sk i ll ar e p l ayi ng a se t o f g am es ; A
11
wants 2 gam es t o c om pl et e t h e se t an d B wan ts 3 gam es : c om pare
their c han ces o f wi nn in g
1 2 A p u r se c o n tai ns 3 s o ve r ei gns an d tw o s hilli ngs : a p ers o n
dr aw s o n e c o i n i n eac h h an d an d l oo k s at o e Of th e m wh i c h p r o ves
t o b e a s o ver ei gn ; s h e w t h at th e ot h er i s e q u all y l i k el y t o b e a s o ver eign
o r a s hilli n
g
A an d B p l ay fo r a p r i e ; A i s t o thr o w a di e r s t an d i s t o
13
win i f h e th ro w s 6
If h e fai l s B i s t o th r o w an d t o wi i f h e t h ro w s
I f h e fai l s A is t o th r o w ag ai n a d t o win w i t h 6 o r 5 o r 4
6 or 5
an d s o o n : n d t h e c h ance o f eac h p l ay er
Seven p er s o ns d raw l o t s fo r th e o cc up an c y O f t h e s i seat s i n
14
a r s t c l ass r ai lway c o m p ar tm en t : n d t h e c h ance 1 ) th at tw o s ec i e d
(
p
b
a
2
a
e
r
s
o
ns
O
t
i
n
o
o
s
it
e
se
t
s
p
(
) that th ey O b tai n adjac ent seat s o n
pp
t he s ame s ide
1 5 A n u m b er c o ns i st s O f 7 d i git s wh o se su m i s 59 ; p r o ve th at th e
c h an ce f its b ei ng d iv i s i b le b y 1 1 is
3
If
AL
on
an
verage
s,
16
Fi n d th e c h an ce
H I GHER
4 08
L G E B RA
tw o p ur es o ne c o n t i n i ng t h ee s o ver eigns a d o
i i ng
e o t er c o nt i n i ng t h r e e s h il li ng d o ver e gn A m
i s t e n fro
i(
t i s n o t k n o w n w h i c h ) d dropp e d nt o th e o the r ;
en dr w i ng a c o i n from e c h p ur se th ey
fou n d t b tw o
i ing
th e Odd s g i ns t t h i h ap pen ng g n f tw o m o e
d wn
f om eac h p u e ?
i i g t h ee p o i n t s t k en t r n do m
I f t r i ngl e i s fo m e d b y
27
3 t o 1 g ai ns t
i n t h c i r c u m fe rence Of c i r cl e p ro ve t h t t h e Odd
it b ei ng c u t e ng l e d
t k en t n dom
t h e c i r c u m fe r e nce f a
Th r ee p o i n t s
28
w
t
c i r cl e : w h t i t h e c h nce t h t t h
Of th e c s o
m Of
y
d etermi ne d i s g e te th n the th i rd ?
n do m i nt o th ee p t s w h at i s th e c h nce
A l i ne i di vi d ed t
29
t h t t h e y for m t h e s i des f p o ss i b l e t r i ngl e ?
or i gi n lly c on t i ne d 2 5 s o ve rei gn d th e
3 0 O f t w p u es
oth e 1 0 ove r eigns d 1 5 s h illi ngs O p ur i t k en b y c h ance
l l s o v e r e i gns : w h t i s th e
t w h i c h p ro ve t o b
d 4 c o i ns dr w n
c h nce th t th i s p ur e c o nt i ns o n ly o ve r ei gn
d w h t i s th e p ro b
b l e v l u e f t h e ne t d r w fro m i t ?
st r i g h t l i ne Of l e ng th t w o p o i n t s
t k en t n dom ;
O
31
f n d t h c h ance t h t t h d i t nce b e t w e e n th e m i s g e at e t h an b
i di v i d d i n t o t h r ee pa t s b y tw o
A s t i g h t l i ne O f l e n gt h
32
o
i
n
t
t
e
n
n
do
t
h
c
h
nce
th
t
n
o
t
i
s
g
r
e
t
e
t
h
n
k
t
m
d
b
a
;
p
p
If on
t r i gh t l i n Of l ength + b tw o lengt h
b
33
m e ur e d t
n dom t h c h ance t h t th e c o mm o n p t Of th e se l ength s
h ll n ot cee d i s
b ; al o t h e c h ance
w
he e
l
ess
th n
b
he e
T r ar e
26
th
h
n
a
d
s h ll
,
m one
ak
a
an d th
on
s
s h ll
W h at ar e
.
ra
one
O n n
r a
ou
as
ar e
r
ra
s , an
s a
ra
se
n e
ra
s , an
e a
n a
ar
ar s
an
an
an
su
one
rs
on
ra
ra
s ar e
ar e
rs
a ai
a re
a a
co
an
a s
s an
ar e
ar
are
a,
ra
ar
9
d
ex
c is
a or
If
on
a s
(
c
b)
o
ssenge r
en ti r e st ng e r s t o e c h o the
t ve li ng i n
i lw y t r i n w i c c on t i ns
c l ss
t i rd c l ss c o
t en s
gentl e en w o se
c nc e s t r v e ll i ng r s t sec o n d
t i rd c l ss
r e re ente d e c i n nce
l d i es wh o se
s i il r
c nces
e c h r e r e nte d
ro ve
t t for
v l u es Of
e ce t i n t e r i c u l c se w en
(
or e l i ely t o
ou n d ot i n t e
co
ny t e
e l d y th n e c w i h i e en t o n e
3 5 F u r pa
s , A , B, 0, D ,
ra
a
r , ar e
l
ra
a ra
a
a
h h
a
l rs t
a
, m sec o n d el ass,
an d n
a
m p ar m t
h
h
A an d B ar e
m
re
sp ec t iv e a
r io r i
of
a
ha
h
r
o
ar e
a
p
,
,
in a h
sta
b y A, p , v ; 0 an d D ar e a
p s
m a a p r io r i h a
ar e
a
e
s
b y l , m, n
P
p
all
a
ha ,
x
h p a t ar a
h
A, p , 1!
p
A p
v = l
m n ) , A an d B ar e m
k
h
be f
b h
m pa
of h
s am
a
t a d ff r
a
a h
.
C HA P TER X XX I I I
D E T ER MI N A N T S
t h ap t e i s d ev o t e d t o a b i e f di s u ss i o O f
d et i t
th i m o e e l e m e t y p o p e ti es T h e s lig ht
i n t o d c t o y s k e t h h e e g i ve will en b l e a s t d en t t o a va il
hi m se l f o f th e d va t g es o f de te m i t o t ati o n i A l y ti l
M th e m ti s ;
d i s o m e o th e
G e om et y
p t s o f Hig h e
f ll e r i f o m ti o o thi s b c h O f A n al y s i s m y b e Ob tai ne d
f rom D S l m o s L so n s I tr o d ct y to th Al d r High
A lg eb a
d M u i s Th eo r y of D eter m in a t
48 5
TH E p r ese n
e rm n an s an d e
an
486
or
m dy
x +
e n
ar
0;
t 1,
su
T hi s r es u lt i s s o m e ti m es
by bl
e,
x,
ra c
er
e q u a ti o ns
lti pl y i n g th e s t e q u ti o n b y h th e sec o n d
t ti n g a d di v idi n g b y we b t i n
mu
b gy
h om og ene u s li ne
a x
ca
t wo
n a
r an
id e th e
ar
C on s
n an
es
an
ar
w itt en
r
a
a
bl
62
0,
th e e p ess i o n
th e l e ft i s c ll e d d e t er mi n an t I t c o ns i s t s
o w s d t w o l m ns d i n it s e p n d e d f o m e h
o f tw o
t e m i s th e p o d t O f tw o q u n titi es ; it i s th e e f o e s id t o b
o f th e s o d o d
an
an
ec n
rm
in nt
a
an
er
,,
an
a
r
u c
T h e l e tt e r s
d et e
o n
ac
b,,
2,
th e t e r m s
b2
a
a re
b
g,
l
ll e d th e co tit t O f th e
ll e d th e lem t
e
b
ns
ca
a
ar
ca
u en
en
s.
H I GHE R
410
48 7
n c
it fo ll o w s th t
bl
b2
ws in to
ro
A ga
a
a
= a
b
2
l
b
,
g
b2
b1
d
e
t
er m in a n t is n o t a l t er ed b y
qf
c o lu m n s, a n d th e co lu m n s in t o r o ws
th e
4 88
LG EBRA
i e
in g th e
th e
v a lu e
m in a n
i n it i s e s il y seen th t
a
b1
b1
al
b2
b2
an
al
b1
b2
b,
t
r
a
w
t
w
o
l
u
m
n
s
w
e
i
n
e
c
h
n
e
t
o
r
o
w
s
o
r
c
o
,
g
t, we o b tain a d eter m in a n t which difer s fr o m it
4 89
Let
u s n o
a x
,
b ,y
c ,z
O,
a x
b gy
c z
z
O,
a x
b sy
c z
e li m i n ati n g
o r
x,
b,
be
61
T hi s e li m i n a n t i s u s u all y
in
as
(
c a
b1
O b t ai n
we
63 02 )
62 6 3
t
e
r
d
e
f
o n ly in sign
th e
o ns id e r th e h o m o ge n e o u s li ne ar e qu ati o n s
By
th t i s
a
ch a n
Ex 2, A r t l 6 ,
d)
+ 0
a
a
a s
a b
b2
Z
)
3
0
.
w itt en
r
al
b1
cl
62
63
0,
th e e p ess i o n
th e l e ft b e i n g d e t e m i n n t whi h o s i st s
O f th ee o w s d th ee o l u m ns i s ll e d a d e t e m i a t o f th e
an
o n
an
t h ir d
ca
o r der
e a r r a n g em en t o f t e r m s th e e x pan d e d f o r m
th e ab o ve d e t e r m i n a n t m ay b e wr itt en
4 90
By
63 02 )
o r
b i o s)
b2
b3
b3
bl
bl
(
6 1 02
b2
.
H I G HER
412
T h e de t e r m i n a n t
4 92
bl
b1
al
61
L G E B RA
(
(
6 a
2
01
c ae
b
a s
b
a s)
a1
bl
cl
bl
a1
cl
62
d2
62
b3
b3
5
3 9)
,
b sa sz) 3
b z a3
02
a 6
2
63 02 )
h ence
Thu s
it
e
a r s th a t
pp
two a d
c o lu
a c en
m n s, o r r o ws,
t h e deter m in a n t
is
I f fo r
th e s k e
a
f b r ev i t y w e
th en th e es lt
r
a1
5.
0.
b2
63
by
d e o t e th e d e t e
(
a
b
c
i s s)
a c
i
b
s s)
m ay b e
w itt en
r
'
b
s sl
a n
s h e w th at
C a
i
h ve j s t o b t i e d
we
m i n an t
b i a 2 03 )
Si m il ar l y w e m ay
493
If t wo r o ws o r t wo co lu m n s
iden tic a l th e deter m in a n t v a n ishes
b
c
2 a)
l
'
t he
deter m in a n t
ar e
th e v l u e O f th e d e t e m i n t th e b y i n t e
ch i
w s o t wo o l m ns we Ob t i n a d e te m i n n t
wh o se v l e i s D ; b t th e d e t e m i n n t i s n lt e e d ; h e e
I)
D th t i s D
T h u s w e h ve th e f o ll o wi n g e q u ti o ns
0
l et
D be
w
an
o
ro
n
t
g g
Fo r
a u
A
l
l
b,A l
e
A
l
l
A
2
2
b, A 2
A
2
,
A
3
3
n c
D2
b3A 3
O,
A
3
3
an
49 4
If e a ch c o n s titu en t in a n y r o w, o r in a n y c olu m n , is
m u ltip lied b y th e sam e fa c to r , th en th e d e ter m in a n t is m u ltip lied
b y th a t fa c to r
.
E T E R MI N A N T S
mal
Al
77 2. a
whi h
o ves th e
o po s iti o
A
I
l
413
m a2
A2
A
2
2
m a3
A3
A
3
3) ;
h o ns titu en t o f O
c o l u m n i s th e s
ow
th c o esp o n di n g o s tit en t o f n o th e o w
m lti p l e
c ol u m th e d e t e m i a t v i s h es
CO R
I f eac
e
Of
n e r
rr
an
o r
am
o r
4 9 5 If ea ch c o n stitu en t in a n y
ter m s, th en th e deter m in an t c an b e
o th er deter m in an ts
.
w,
ro
ex
o r c o lu
r essed
mn
th e
as
f
of
c o n s is ts o
su
two
t wo
Thu s
a,
fo r
th e e
h a ve
we
b,
C,
a,
b1
01
b2
62
b3
ess i o n
_
th e l e ft
on
(
(
a
a
whi h
o ves th e
+ 1
A
l
l
A1
(
a2
a2 A 2
o p o s iti o n
A
3
3)
A2
(
a
A
l
l
01
(
1
2
c,
b,
(
as
13
(
1 11
2
2
li k e
b1
m an ne r i e ac h c o ns tit u e n t in a n y o n e ro w, o r c o l u m n ,
c o n s i s t s o f m t e r m s , th e d e t e r m i n a n t c an b e e x p r esse d a s th e
su m o f m o th e r d e t e r m i n a n t s
In
i il l y
Sm
ar
l) ,
8,
5,
8
, 2
b3
8
, 3
a,
a
a
a
s h e w th a t
w e m ay
H I GHER
4 14
L G E B RA
esu lt s m y e a s il y b e g ene r a li se d ; th u s i f th e c o n
r m s r es e c
t
e
st it u e t s o f th e th ee c o l u m ns c o ns i s t O f m
p
p
t i e ly t h e d e t e m i n a n t c an b e e x p r esse d a s th e su m o f m u p
d e te r m i n a n t s
T h ese
E x amp le 1
Th e
Sh ew th at
+b
3ab c
b3
g iv e n d e t e r m i n n t
a
th e e four d e t e rm in n t th e r t th r ee v n i h A t 4 9 3 ; t s th e ex
p
p r e i o n r e du c e s t th e l a t o f th e four d e t e r m i n an t ; h e nc e it s vi
Of
= 3a b c
E x amp le 2
(
c
ab
b3
in d th e v l u e
a
ao
ue
b cl l
67
19
21
39
13
14
81
24
26
ha e
67
19
21
19
21
10
39
13
14
13
14
81
24
26
24
26
496
We
10
19
21
10
13
14
24
26
10
13
24
+9
19
21
57
19
21
13
14
39
13
14
24
26
72
24
26
19
10
19
13
13
24
24
19
20
63
43
13
o ns id e th e d e t e m i n n t
r
a
a
as
ss
i n th e l s t
a
a1
ar
ti l e w
61
cl
+ p b2
+p
e c an
bs
961
61
Cl
b2
q c3
b3
s h e w th at it i s e qu a l t o
6
p 1
bl
C1
qcl
61
cl
41 6
EH
G HER A L
GEBRA
f o u r d e te r m i n a n ts i n t o whi c h this
th e r e is o n e w hi c h do e s n o t v an ish n am e ly
an
f the
re so l ve d
m ay b e
6
p 1
E x a mp l e 1
Fi
b
p 3
g i ve de t e m i
Th e
26
31
54
12
x
-
ra
ra
29
26
22
25
31
27
63
54
46
n an
26
c
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v lu e o f
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12
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54
132
26
t
In t h e st st p
st n ew c l m n d m
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nt
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or
e c
ac
n s
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as
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e s c
es
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ou
n s
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0
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2 1)
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n an
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1
b
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en
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ro
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n s
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Th e
e s c
ac
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ns
e c
n s
n s
e s c
2b
RMI N A N TS
D ETE
4 17
he r t w determ i t the r t w i th m o f
o ti t u e t o f
th
rows o f the ori gi l determi t th e d
th
I t h t h i d o f th
w de ter m i
d th ird row b e i g u lter e d
t th
r em i s u lter e d wh il e the e o d d th ird o lum
r t ol u m
ob t i ed b y ub tr t i g th
ti t u e t o f the r t olu m from t h o e o f
the se o d d th i rd r p t ive ly Th re m i i g tr form ti o
f
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th e
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xp lan a t io n
[
ns
e c
ac
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s c
e co n s
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) 181
1
01
0
63 3 1
n s ar e
an s
n s ar e su
7
7
a a
a a
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71
:
s
b i lg e
62 32
63 3 2
72
a a
72
a a
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a
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62 18 3
633 3
t wo
a a
e s co n
Be f or e sh e w i n g h ow t o e x p r e ss t h e p rod u c t
4 97
t e rm in an t s a s a d e t e rm i n an t , w e sh all i n e stiga t e t h e
l l
aga l
a a
e su
n an
a n n
ne
an
n an
e s ec
an
ro
n a
na
a n
r ee
na
an
n an
ne
de
73
73
,
(
33 3
Fro m A r t 4 9 5 we k n ow th at t h e ab ov e d e t e rm i n an t c a n
o f w hi c h it w ill
e x p r e ss e d as t h e su m o f 2 7 d e t e r m i n a n ts
su fc i e n t t o g i v e t h e f o ll ow i n g s p e c i m e n s
be
be
a a
l
a a
2
a a
3
th e s e
a a a
l
a a
a a
2
a a
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are
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a
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r st
th e
ou
a a
a a
(
6
1
62 32
633 2
l l
d a
b l 35,
a a
r e s pe c ti v e ly
f the
r e m ai n
a e;
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l l
a a
l
a a
l
y3
73
o
6
yz
b ut? 3
72
62 33
u
l
t
o
q
a
Y
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(
1
1337 2
b1
I7 2
63
62
b3
w hi c h v an ish e s ; si m il a r l y it w ill b e f ou n d th a t 2 1
Th e six d e t e r m i n an ts th a t
2 7 d e t e r m i n an ts v a n ish
.
ar e e
al t o
u
q
a
a
3
/
s
s
.7 3
th at
b1
18 ,
,8
33
/
73
h e n c e t h e g i v e n d e t e r m i n an t
t wo o th e r d e te r m i n an ts
c an
53
be
b1
52
0
e
b3
r ss e d
ex p e
as
the p
rod u t
c
498
Th e p r o du ct
C o n si d e r t h e
two deter m in
t wo li n e a r
an
t s is
dete r m in a n
u
ti
o
s
q
a
X
1
1
X
3
1
O)
of
(
1 l
H I GH ER
4 18
Xl
w he re
a x
l
X2
S b stit
u ti
f or
X,
(
g
l
(
a a
l
ord e r th a t
v lu e s
a
f xl
an
a
s,
62 6 1 )
x
x
B
+
I I
B2 2
I
(
( 8)
( 3)
s (
si
u
lt
)
ro
ust h v
w ill
3)
the
ca e e
62
m
m ay
we m
,
ze
an e
l g
w ill h o l d if
a
a
bl
62
o u sl y h o l d
fo r
62 3 ,
(
ith r if
u
ti
o
s
q
me
a a
l l
ag a l
61
a a
u
a ti o n
q
o th e r th an
e
h ave
l ) , we
a a
(
1
n
a a
Bu t
G EBRA
d X 2 in
x
al a
In
an
AL
eq
u ati o s
(
1)
h old
an
this
0 an d
X
or if
w hi c h l a st c o n d iti o n r e q ui r e s th at
2 2
8
, 1
if e q u ati on s 5) an d 6 ) h o l d e q u a ti o n 4 ) m ust a ls o
h o l d ; an d th e r e f or e t h e d e t e r m i n an t in 4 ) m ust c o n t a i n a s
fa c t or s t h e d e t e r m i n an ts in 5) an d
an d a c o n si d e ra ti o n
of
t h e d i m e n si o n s o f t h e d e t e r m i n an ts sh e w s th a t t h e r e m a i n i n g
fa c t or o f 4 ) m ust b e n u m e r i c al 3 h e n c e
en ce
(
a
'8 1
6 13 1
a a
a a
b 1 '8 2
l l
a
a g ar
b
a
a a
b
8
B
l
W
t h e n u m e r i c a l fa c t or b y c o m p a r i n g t h e c o e f c i e n ts o f
o n t h e t wo si d e s o f t h e e u a ti o n s b e i n
s
t
o
u
e
e
n
b
n it
e
q
g
y
l
COR
Th e
ab
w h ate v e r
ove
bl
b2
m e th od
b e the
ord e r
2
1
a a
l g
b,
a a
b l bs
s
2
b ,b2
b ,,
f p roo f is p e r fe c tly ge n e r a l ,
o f t h e d e t e r m in an ts
o
an
h old s
v u
Si n c e t h e
a l e o f a d e t e rm i n an t is n o t al t e r e d wh e n
we
wr it e t h e row s a s c o lu m n s, an d t h e c o l m n s as row s, t h e p rod u c t
o f t wo d e t e r m i n an ts m a
b
e
e x r e ss e d
d
t
r
i
t
a
s
a
m
e
n
e
a
n
in
y
p
s e e ra l w ay s ; b u t th e s e will all g i e t h e s ame r e s lt o n e x
an s1 o n
H I GH ER
4 20
12
x y
So l
Pro
15
17
()
6
20
.
16
14
13
3/
b)
)( )(
(
y
+b
+o
2b
+c
2c
a
(
a
as a
2abc
(
a
b2
Ex p r e ss
()
2
0
'
17
a+
3x
+a
31
ex
b+a
c
'
2a
( )( (
b
yz
10
11
3
c
( )( )(
c
+y
q
b
2x
15
2
0
2
x
19
18
a +
+1 20 + e
w mg i de n ti ti es
(
2)
r
+
q
11
c+a
ns
e t h at
ro
v
p
b +a
x
z
3/
eq
z
+
y
16
v the f ll
e
u ati o
x
th e
1)
14
G EBRA
Wi th o u t e x pan din g t h e de te rm in an ts
13
AL
b)
de te m i n an t
Fin d
th e
a r
2
may b e
+ b 2 3/
ti s e d b y
sa
2,
2,
l, m,
g,
0 2
2
O,
a x
3
+ b sy +
DE
22
+ ck
bc
ve th t
a
1,
c + id
C + id
ib
ro
du ct
'
t wo
ms
su
A + iB
ad
ca
bd
bc
25
.
c a
cd
b c + ca
exp r essed a s
be
o u r s u a r es c a n
th e
b d
2 2
ca
ab
bc
d
(
()
()( )( (
b
(y )
b yV
(
(y )
()
C
F in d
p res si o n
in t h e form
tb a
m ay b e t h e p rod u c t
12
ab
of
W
22
r si g t h e r e
n
su l
a a
a br
a ca:
d et e rm i n an t
the
on di ti o that
n
2
o
f th e
r st d egr e e
b y m e an s
72
Z
b a
'
v
u
in
ol v e t h e e q u ation
u
d)
()( )(
()
3
(
?
()
) (b ) @
o f two fac t or s
z
d) b
b c + ca
ab
b)
ab
ca
3 b
e xp e s
ul r :
to
du e
iD
ff
2 2
0
be
ab
28
ex
'
form
iB
ea ch o
l3
id
27
o u r s u ar es.
Pro v e t h e
26
iB
fo ll owin g th e orem
b e wr itte n in t h e
Th e
su m o
f
+ ib
c an
th e
ak
h en ce d ed u c e
bA
b e + a) \
wh e re i =
ca
ck
+ b 7\
ca
Pro
ab
{r
ab
24
421
Fi n d t h e v al u e o f
23
T E R MI N A N T S
'
b ox
o
fd
'
a cne
b ox
20
e t e rm i
n an
ts
0,
a,
B,
'
y)
t he
H I GHER
4 22
49 9
l
o
ed
p y
in
L et t h e
eq
u ti o s
a
by
o e
d1
O,
m
z
bgy
c z
d2
0,
re sp e c ti v e ly
A2, A3
m ulti p ly th e m b y A l ,
A , , A 2 , A 3 b e I n g m i n or s o f a , ,
Th e c o e f c i e n ts o f y
in A r t 4 9 3 , a n d we
A
l
1
an
cl
62
b3
A
3
3)
63 B3 ) 37
(
(
0
2
2
0
l
1
No w
a,A
0
3
3)
A
2
2
A
s
3
th e
s o l u ti o n
m ay b e
dl Bl
d1
b1
d2
b2
d3
b3
d1
d2
da
d2 B2
3
(
Z
3
0,
d2 02
d3 03 )
b g l? 2
b l Bl
b a133 )
'
1
wr itt e n
z
1
bl
b2
b3
dl
d2
b1
b2
b3
m or e sy m m e t r i c a ll y
as
b1
d1
b2
02
d2
b3
d3
500
eq
(
(
(
d2 A 2
d, C l
2:
'
o r
62 E}?
r e sults
dl A
a
s
ad
vi r t u e o f t h r e l ti o s p ro v e d
in
an
sh e w th at
d the
de t e r m l n a n t
an
the
ln
bl
Si m il a r ly we m ay
b l Bl
2,
v ish
o b ta i n
A
2
2
a1
em
be
h en c e
us e f u lly
a x
an
Th e p ro p e rti e s o f d e t e r m in an ts m ay b e
s o l i n g sim ultan e o us li n e a r e q u a ti o n s
L G E B RA
u ati o n s
Su pp o s e we
d1
d2
d3
have
th e
bl
dl
b2
d2
b3
d3
sy st e m
f fou r
ll
61
b2
b3
h o m og e n e o us li n e a r
H I G HER
4 24
L G EB R A
l e ft h an d m em b e r o f this e qu ati o n is a d e t e r m in an t w hi c h
c o n sists o f n r o w s an d n c o lu m n s an d is c a ll e d a d e te r m i n an t o f
Th e
the
o rd e r
th
d is c ussi on o f this m or e g en e r a l f or m o f d e t e rm i n an t is
b e y o n d t h e s c o p e o f t h e p r e s e n t w ork it w ill b e su f c i e n t h e r e
t o r e m ark th a t t h e p ro p e r ti e s w hi c h h a v e b ee n e st ab lish e d in t h e
c a s e o f d e t e r m i n an ts o f t h e s e c o n d a n d thi rd ord e r s ar e q uit e
an d a r e c a ab l e o f b e i n g e x t e n d e d t o d e t e rm i n an ts o f
e n e r al
p
g
er
ord
an
y
th
o rd e r is
Fo r e x am p l e t h e ab o v e d e t e r m in an t o f t h e n
e q u al t o
Th e
A
l
l
a
a
or
A
l
l
b l B,
a
A
2
2
(
ZI D l
0
l
1
+ 0
+ a
A
3
3
A
4
4
ord i g a s we d e v e l op it f ro m t h e r st r o w or t h e r st c o lu m n
H e re t h e c ap ital l e tt e r s stan d f or t h e m i n o r s o f t h e c o n stitu en ts
d e n o te d b y t h e c orr e sp o n d i n g s m all l e tt e r s an d ar e th e m s e l v e s
h
d e t e rm in an ts o f t h e n 1 ) ord e r Ea c h o f th e s e m ay b e ex
h
a s t h e su m o f a n u m b e r o f d e t e r m i n an ts o f t h e
2
r
e
ss
e
d
n
p
)
ord e r ; an d s o o n ; an d thus t h e ex p an d e d f orm o f t h e d e te r
m i n an t m ay b e o b t a i n e d
ac c
lth o u g h we m ay al w ay s d e v e l op a d e t e rm i n an t b y m e an s o f
t h e p ro c e ss d e s c r i b e d ab o v e it is n o t a l w ay s t h e S i m p l e st m e th o d
e sp e c i all
en
o u r o b e c t is n o t s o m u c h t o n d t h e v alu e o f
w
h
y
j
t h e wh o l e d e t e r m i n a n t
as
t o n d t h e sign s o f its s e v e ral
e l e m e n ts
A
502
Th e
e x p an
de d f orm
a
a
a
b
c
, , 3
.
b
c
l s 2
d e t e r m i n an t
f th e
bl
62
63
b
el
z g
c
b
l 3
b
c
a l 2
an
3 ,
DE
T ER MI N A N T S
d e d u c e d f r o m t h e l e ad i n g e l e m e n t b y an
fi e s f or i n st a n c e
e v e n o r o d d n u m b e r o f p e r m ut a ti o n s o f t wo su f
t h e e l e m e n t a b c is o b t ai n e d b y i n t e r c h an g i n g t h e su f x e s l a n d
3 th e r e f or e its S i gn is n e g ati v e ; t h e e l e m e n t a b l eg is o b t a i n e d
b y r st i n t e r c h an g i n g t h e su ix e s l an d 3 a n d th e n t h e su f x e s
1 an d 2 h e n c e its S i g n is p o siti v e
c
ord i n g
as
it
be
c an
503
m ay
Th e d e t e r m i n an t w h o s e l e ad i n g
b e e x p r e ss e d b y t h e n o t ati o n
thus
Zi
c d
b
1 2 3
4
e em en
t is
l
ts w hi c h c an b e o b t ai n e d f r o m it
i n te r c h an ge s o f suf x e s an d adju st m e n t o f si gn s
f
b
c d
l
, g
4
2 i p l a c e d b e f or e t h e l e a d i n g e l e m en t i n d i c ati n g t h e agg r eg a t e
the
o
all
e em en
t he
by
suit ab l e
So m e tim e s t h e d e t e r m in an t is still m o r e si m p l y e x p r e ss e d b y
e l e m e n t withi n b r a c k e ts ; thus
t
h
e l e ad i n
a b c d
e n c l o si n
g
g
1 2 3
4
o
k a b 0 d
1 5 us e d a s an ab b r e vi a t i o n o f 2 =
4
l 2 3
he et rm i
E x amp l e
In t
d
t h e el m en t a4 b 3 c l d5e2 ?
n an
(
a
d
b
c
e
l 2 3 4 5)
wh at Sig i s t o
n
be p
r e e d to
x
a4 203
1 5
e s
an
x es
a e
c an
a n
ns
e s
x es
an
a4
3 l
e r
a an
a4 3 c 2
na
2 5
e e e
a4 3 c l 5e2
an
n
s
s
e
n ce
I f in A rt 501 , e ac h o f t h e c o n stitu e n ts b , , c l ,
h , is
in o th e r word s
t h e d e t e r m i n an t r e d c e s t o a l A l
e q u al t o z e r
th
it is e q al t o t h e p rod c t o f a l an d a d e te r m i n an t o f t h e n 1 )
rd e r, an d we e asily in fe r t h e f o ll owi n g ge n e ra l th e or em
504
If ea ch of th e c o n s titu en ts of th e r st r o w o r c o lu mn of a
d eter m in a n t is z er o ex c ep t th e r s t, a n d
th is c o n s titu en t is equ a l
t o m , th e deter min a n t is eq u a l t o I n t im es th a t det er m in a n t of lo wer
o r der which is o b ta in e d b y o m it tin g th e r s t c o lu m n a n d r st
ro
ls o si n c e b y suit ab l e i n t e r c h an ge o f row s an d c o l u m n s an y
c o n stitu e n t c a n b e b ro u ht i n t o t h e r st
l
a c e it f o ll ow s th a t if
p
g
an
r o w o r c o l u m n h a s all its c o n stitu e n ts e x c e t o n e e u a l t o
y
p
q
z e ro
t h e d e t e r m i n an t c an i m m e d i at e l y b e e x p r e ss e d a s a d e t e r
m i n an t o f l o we r o rd e r
A
is s o m e ti m e s us e f u l
o f d e t e rm i n an ts
Th is
in t h e
r e d u c ti o n
an
si m p li c a ti o n
E x amp le
Fi
v lue
d th e
11
2O
38
11
36
19
17
22
i i h ea h
titu e t o f
d
l um
t i tu e t i t h e e
t hr ee ti m e s t h e c o rr e p o di
ob t ai n
D mi n
th e
n , an d
s co n
co n s
co n s
co
we
15
e the e
29
15
36
17
s n c
s co n
505 Th e
c a sio n al l
s
f
e
y
.
E x amp le 1
ro
w h as t
ac
itue
36
16
17
19
17
ns
19
17
l s sh e w
olum
w hi c h
a rt i c e s
e x am p e
an
ts t h i s det erm in an t
r ve t h at
se c
ar e
oc
by
t in t h e
20
f o ll ow i n g
ul
e h
um
2O
co l
11
rt
c o n st
an
30
by
A L GE B R A
H I GHE R
426
b +c
d)
d)
g t ogether ll th r w w th t + b
d i
f tor of t h
t ; b y ddi g t oge t her t h r t d th ird row
d u b tr ti g
d et erm i
m
th t
fr m t h re ult th
f th
e o d d f urt h r w w
b+
l o
f t r ; S im il rly it
hew t h t b + d d
d i
b
m
f t rs ; th rem i i g f tor i m e ri l d from
d
+b
o f t h t erm i volvi g
e h i de i e ily see t b u ity ;
p i
he e w h ve th e qui e d re ul t
E mp l 2
P ov e t h t
By
add n
n an
s a s
are
xa
e r
2
0
d
d
an
s c
ac
ac
on
s nu
ca
an
se e
an
as
ac
ac
s an
e s
s a
an
c an
a n n
a
ac o
ac o
su
e se e
ar so n
nc
a co
( ()( ()( (
a
b)
d) b
d)
d)
n s ar e
co
r s
on
.
ac
n s a
ss
as
an
c,
s x
a co
n
ns
so n
nc
an
n an
ac o
c, a
n an
r ca
= a,
s a
e n
an s
n c
n an
ac
ca
ac
n an
a n n
a n
ac
n s,
e
s a
ec
H I GHER
4 28
So l
12
th e
eq
x
ax
14
y+
+ by +
13
1,
z =
y+
v th t
a
b +c
c
+a
a+b
bc
ca
ab
Pro v e
th at
()
()
(b)
b
2
0
2
0
hew th
3
a x
+b y +
u =
1,
cz = lc,
3 =
c z
lc3
lc,
(d)
b
d
bd
()
b (d)
d
b
d
b
d
b
()( )( )( )( )(
bc
ca
be
ca
ab
17
+ by +
+ du
02
ad
16
ax
by
ax +
Pro
c,
cz = /
LG EB RA
uati o n s :
15
()( )(
b
b)
wh er e
I f a d e t e r m i n an t
o f I t s r s t s e c o n d t h i rd
t h e rs t S ec on d t h i rd
18
is
+ 2 ae
f th e
th
2bd
orde r
an
if
rows a e t h e r t n
orde r s sh ew th at it s v u
r
u ts
t h e c n stit
g u r at e n m b e
al e is u n ity
en
rs
C HA PTER
XXX IV
H EO R EMS
MI S C E L L A N E O U S
E X A M P L ES
A ND
I n t h e e x p o siti o n o f al g e b ra i c a l p r i n c i p l e s w e p ro c e e d
507
at t h e o uts e t we d o n o t l ay do wn n e w n am e s a n d
al t ic all
:
y
y
i d e as , b u t we b e gi n f r o m o u r k n o wl e dge o f ab st r a c t
n ew
A r ith me ti c w e p r ov e c e r t a i n l aws o f o pe r ati o n whi c h ar e c ap ab l e
o f v e r i c ati o n in e v e r y p a r ti c ul a r c a s e , an d t h e gen e r a l th e ory o f
th e s e Op e r ati o n s c on stitut e s t h e s c i e n c e o f A l ge b ra
.
o t o p o siti v e i t g r l v lu e s
508
Co n n in g o u r a tt e n ti n
t h e sy m b o ls , t h e f o ll ow i n g l a w s a r e
a r ith m e ti c a l d e n iti o n s
.
ea
sily e st ab lish e d f ro m
f
r io r i
p
o
H I G HER
4 30
I
on w hi h
Th e L aw o f Co mmu t at i
(
i)
A dditio n s
us
Th
(
ii )
an
a +
c = a
x c
c +
bs
x c x a
= a x c x
a n d su
Th
an
c + a
b;
b
Th e L aw o f D ist rib u t io n ,
n c a e as
an
w hi c h
an
we
so
(
en
on
an
o r der
u n c ia t e
as
o ve
(
( )()
bm
f o ll ow s :
a dditio n s
= ac
ad
+ c m,
bc
bd
r ts
S
ee El em en tar y A lg eb r a , A
[
Th e L aws
III
o r der
us
A n d si n c e
b u t iv e law fo r
f o ll ow s :
ab + c = a
II
u i t
en
an
a x
a x
we
b tr ac tio n s m ay b e m ade in
su
us
Th
L G E B RA
o f I n dic es
(
i)
x a
"
"
2
(y
a
wr
3 3,
t h e dist r i
m t:
S
e e El em en ta r
A
l
eb r a , A r t
y
g
[
23 3
to
la id do wn a s f n d am e n t al t o o u r su b je c t, h a i n
g
b e e n p ro e d o n t h e s p p o siti o n th a t t h e sy m b o ls e mp l oy e d
a n d i n t e r al , a n d th a t th e
a r e r e st r i c t e d in su c h a wa
e
o
siti
p
g
y
y
t h a t t h e o p e r a ti o n s a b o e i n d i c a t e d a r e a r ith m e ti c a ll i n t e lli i b l e
y
g
I f th e s e c o n d iti o n s do n o t h o l d , b y t h e p r i n c i p l e s o f S m b o li c a l
y
A l g e b ra w e a ss m e t h e l a w s o f A r ith m e ti c al A l g e b r a t o b e t r e
in e e ry c a s e an d a c c e p t t h e i n t e rp r e tati o n t o w hi c h this a ssu m
p
ti o n l e ad s us By this c o u r s e we a r e a ssu r e d th at t h e l a w s o f
A l g e b rai c a l o p e r a ti o n a r e s e lf c o n sist en t , a n d th at th e i n c lu d e in
y
th e i r g e n e r a lity t h e pa r ti c la r c as e s o f rd in a ry A r ith me ti c
Th e s e
l a w s ar e
509
From t h e l aw o f c o mm utati o n we d e d u c e t h e r l e s
f or t h e re m o al an d i n s e rti o n o f b r ac k e ts [Elem en tar y A lg eb r a ,
A r ts 2 1 , 2 2] an d b y t h e a id o f th e s e r l e s w e e st a b lish t h e law
.
H I G H ER
432
L GE B RA
n ce
v e ry r ti o al fu ti o
i n vo l v e s n o o pe r a ti o n s b u t
th o s e a b o v e m e n ti o n e d it f o ll ow s th at a r a ti o n a l fu n c ti o n o f a
c o m p l e x n u m b e r is in g e n e r al a c o m p l e x n u m b e r
A ls
o si
n c
w
f or m a
l o g x + iy ) c an n o t b e f u lly
Ex p r e ssi o n s o f t h e
,
Th e
f or m
r ssi o n e is o f c o u r s e i nc l u d e d in t h e m or e g e n e r a l
b u t an o th e r m od e o f t r e ati n g it is worth y o f a tt e n ti o n
x
ex p e
W e h a v e s e e n in A r t
2 2 0 th a t
w h en
b ein g
90
d e n e d
an
by
m
"
c
m
f
a
u
an tit
m
b
e
e
q
y
y
r
u
an tit
eal
t
h
e
y
q
y;
m e an s o f t h e e q u ati o n
.
is i n n it e
S im il rly
a
7:
wh en
L im
is i n n it e
r
u
a n titi e s
e al
y
q
Th e d e v e l o p m e n t o f t h e th e or y o f c o m p l e x n u m b e r s w ill b e
x an
d y b ein g
an
'
51 3
W e sh a ll n o w g i e s o m e th e or e m s a n d e x am p l e s illus
t r at in g me th od s w hi c h w ill o ft e n b e f o u n d us e ful in
ro
i
n
p
g
i d e n titi e s , an d in t h e Th e or y o f Eq u a ti n s
.
51 4
; let
d en o te
an
n o
to
in v ol v e
; pu t
f
w
r
r
f
a
t
i
o
l
n
a
i
n
t
e
a
l
u n c tio n
y
g
ati o n a l i n t e r a l f u n c ti o n o f x
r
d
i
v
i
d
e
y
g
;
x
a u n til a r e m a i n d e r is o b t ai n e d w hi c h do e s n o t i n v o l v e
Q b e t h e q u o ti e n t an d E t h e r em ain d e r ; th e n
Sin c e R do e s
v alu e we gi v e
no
an
Le t
by
f
x
To n d th e r em ain der wh en
is div ided b y x
a
.
Q is
it w ill r e m ai n u n al t e r e d w h at e v e r
a th e n
(
)
Qx 0 E
n it e f or it e v al u e s
n
f x,
hen ce
M I S C E LL ANE O U S
f
x
H EO R EMS
E X A M P L ES
A ND
is e x a c tly d i v isi b l e b y x a,
I ff
C OR
h
a r a tio n a l in teg r a l fu n c tio n
en c e
a
0
)
a
a, it is div isib l b y x
433
th e n R 0 th a t is
o
x
a
n
i
v
h
n
s
h
w
e
e
s
f
,
o
v
Th e p r p o siti o n c o n ta i n e d in t h e p r e c e d i n g a r ti c l e is s o
us e ful th a t w e gi e an o th e r p ro f o f it w hi c h h a s t h e a d a n t ag e
o f e x hi b it in g t h e f or m o f t h e q u ti e n t
51 5
.
Su pp o s e
d e n oted b y
th at
po
th e n
the q
o
o
pl
u o ti e t w ill
be
go
ql
p3
p2
o
93
fn
an
ql
92
qa
'
a9
0
z
aq
"
92
01
Q3
or
n ,
+ 12
by
o e f c i e n t s
= a
2
'
be
01
'
it
"
01
aa
d le t
q ,x
th e
13
an
'
p2
l
z
-
qo x
u a ti n g
aq
13
eq
"
+p
d i m e n si o n s d e n o t e it
( )(
ou
d i m en si o n s
Multip ly in g
we h a v e
f u n c ti o n is o f
th e
"
q sz
+ 10
+ 19
f li k e p ow e r s
x,
P3 3
P0
21
9
91
go
aq n
po
"
P2
9
(
aq
+ 17 2 a
(
W
"
93
Q
+
2
s am e
.,
92
I f t h e di i s or is x + a t h e
this c a s e t h e m ulti p li e r is a
P3
+p
m e th od
c an
be
us e d o n ly
,
H H A
.
28
in
H I GH E R
4 34
Ex a
mp l e
Fi
is d
hu
3x
3l x
x6
2 1x
2,
T
s th e
m ain der is 1 1
ivi ded b y + 2
H ere th e mul ti pl i er is
.
L GE B RA
quoti en t
d we
an
1
6
O
14
14
h ve
a
31
28
is
7x
0
6
12
12
l 4x
5
6
21
24
11
3x
6 33 + l 2 x
3,
an
d th e
re
I n t h e p r e c e d in g e x a m p l e t h e work h a s b e e n a b ri d ge d
b y wr iti n g dow n o n ly t h e c o e f c i e n ts o f t h e s e e r a l t e r m s , z e r
c o e i c ie n t s b e i n g us e d t o r e p r e s e n t t e r m s c orr e s p o n d i n g t o p ow e r s
This m e th od o f D eta ch ed Co eicien ts m ay
o f x w hi c h a re ab s e n t
fr e qu e n tly b e us e d t o s a e l ab o u r in e l e m e n t ary a lg e b ra i c a l
ro
c e ss e s , p a r ti c l a r l y w h e n t h e fu n c ti o n s w e a r e d e a li n g with
p
Th e f o ll o wi n g is an o th e r illust r ati n
a r e r ati o n al an d in t e g r al
51 6
Ex amp le
D ivi de 3
8x
5x
2
6
x
2
26 b y
33 x
2x 2
4x
2+
2
24
7+ 2
4
33
3
6
3+
24
e n
t t e
ex c e
su
on
ac
rs t
as
t a
an
n c
an
t on a
a n
ac
na
c c ss
s u s to r e
s a
ac e
o cess
w hi c h is k n ow n as H o rn e r s Meth o d of Sy n th etic
a rr an g e m e n t
51 7
Th e
D iv isio n
1
2
4
8
6
12
4
+
24
8
6
0
16
12
5+
24
2
o u o f gure o
ef of
vri
i e
i e of
ivi or
S i g o f e h f er
r ei g
hori o
i e o i
u i i g
of
uo i e
We he
er
he e o
o f he ver i
i e h i gi v e
wh i h
of
uo i e
Wi h
o e i e hu o i
Th e c l m n
s t
th e l t
th e
e t c al l n
c o n si sts
th e c fc n t s
th e d
s
th e
n
ac
a t
t h e st b n
,
c an
d ; th e s c n d
z n t al l n
is b t a n ed b y m l t p ly n
2, 4,
8
by 3, t
r st t m
th e q
t nt
t
n add t h e t m s in t
s c nd
e
c o l mn t
i
t
t t
t c al l n ; t s
s
2,
c
is t h e c o e f
nt
c
th e
t
nt
t
t
t
ec n d t er m
t
t
h
e
c
f
c
n
s b ta n ed
q
[ E xp lan at io n
oe
h ge
eo
he
r
u
o he r gh
i e of he S o
of
H I G HER
43 6
Pu t
p
an sio n
th en
0,
()
y
3, b e in g t h e
Thus
o ef ie t
d we g e t
an
n th e
i
y
6)
B ; w h en c e
{in
3xy
3g
3y z
32
3z x
6xy z
a
ar e a
ex
Pu t
B
L G E B RA
(
b
lt e rn atin g fu n c ti o n s
+ c
its
in
te r
b)
is e v i d e n t th a t th e r e c an b e n o li n e a r a lt e r n ati n g fu n c ti o n
i n v o l v i n g m or e th an t wo v ar i ab l e s an d als o th at t h e p rod u c t o f
a s mm e t r i c al fu n c ti o n an d an a lt e r n ati n g fu n c ti o n m ust b e a n
y
a lt e r n ati n
fu
n c ti o n
g
It
52 1
Sy mme t r i c a l an d alt e r n ati n g fu n c ti o n s m ay b e c o n
d
en o te d b
w
r
iti
n
do
r e x in
c isel
w
n
n e o f t h e t e r m s an d
o
y
p
g
y
g
t h e s y m b l 2 ; thus 2 a st an d s f or t h e su m o f al l t h e t e r m s o f w hi c h
a is t h e t p e , 2 ab st an d s f or t h e s u m o f al l t h e t e r m s o f w hi c h
y
a b is t h e t
a
n
h
s
o
i
st
if
f
ti
o
i
l
s
e
d
n
n
t
e
n
c
n
n
n
o
F
o
r
a
c
e
e
,
yp ;
f o u r l e tt e r s a, b , c, d,
.
an
so o n
Sim il a r ly
fun c ti o n i n v o l v e s th r ee l e tt e r s
th e
if
()
Ea b
2
= a
Ea b c
g
an
so
on
bc
ca
o a
b,
c,
b ;
b;
Ea b
g
sy m b o l 2
r e ga rd t o
a,
() ( ) ( )
I t sh o ul d b e n ti c e d
2
2 a b do e s n o t c o n sist o f
Th e
vo v
t wo
or
a o
0 a
ls o b e us e d t o i m p ly su m m ati o n with
m or e s e ts o f l e tt e r s ; thus
Ey z b
th at wh e n th e r e ar e th r e e l e tt e r s i n vo l v e d
th r ee t e rm s b u t o f six : thus
m ay
b)
MI S C E LL A NE O U S T HE O RE M S
v e o t ati o
52 2 Th e ab o
rm t h e p rod u c ts
.
fo
(
b
(
b
(
a
Ea
d)
Ea
Ea
2a
Ba
Ex amp le 1
Sa
e n ab
32a b
Ga b e ;
32a b
GEab c ;
4 Ea b
62a b
Ea b
rove th at
(
a
+ b)
5=
1 22 a bc ;
437
l e s us t o e x p r e ss in a n ab r i d ge d
e r s o f s mm e t r i c a l e x r e ssi o n s : thus
ow
p
y
p
an
E X A M P L ES
A ND
( (
5a b
b)
+ ab + b
n s
on
n s
n s
n s,
P tt i n
u
t
i
g
t
p
whe
n ce
in depe
a=
2, b
5=
+b
a an
db
re
at
f tors o f
n ce
follow
ac
() ( )()
b
+a
()
r ion b y
here fore c o
r
c a d
D en t e t h e exp e s s
n a = b , an d t
n ta n s t h e ac to s b
a e
d th e
b +c
a e
an
Fi
c o
()
ab
of
den t
A = 5,
h v I 5= 2A + B ;
1 w h v 1 5= 5A
2B ;
d th u s t h r q u i d r s ul t
1 , b = 1 , we
whe
i
co
factor
a=
E x amp le 2
are
ac o
n n
nc
an d
sn c
(+ b )
where A
ac
nc
az
E;
( ( (
.
o i
r egr ee
for
A l s s n ce E is
st d
; an d s
m M a+ 6
th e
of
th e
n ce
a n n
[ A rt
r ui
hu
r u
h w th
a=
to
o, b
b,
a,
z
1,
c,
c an
v lue t h t
s
2 , we n d
a=
we n d m o st c o n
1 , an d we
a e th e
hv
at
5
x
+ x)
e e t h e pr s io
t h l e ft b y E ; t he
here for e y + i f tor o f E ; i m il rly
D not
d t
a,
E x amp le 3
an
u i g
nc
() ( ) ( )
b
giv
To b ta n M we m ay
s b y p tt n
v en ien t ; t
eq
r e d es l t
E:
ca
ac
es
th erefore E c o n tain s
n on
( ) ( ) (y )
s a
z
+
y
ac
+x
as a
an s
+ x an d
f tor
ac
v i he whe
o si
Al s
f t ;
i o f th
+ y ar e
n ce
ac o r s
H I G HER
43 8
fth
de
sy mmet
main in
th e
r ee
re
rical i
n x,
2,
g f tor
AL
of
is
ac
G EB RA
th e
of t h f
it must b e
sec n
o rm
d de
gr
ee , an
d,
s nc
e it i s
Pu t
1 0= A + B ;
=
1
,
y
pu t
hu
hu
3 5= 5A + 2B ;
A = B = 5,
en c e
hv
we
an d
a e
th e
We
()
( ) () ( ) ( )
)( )( )
() ( )( )( )
b
(
( )() )
.
2 be b
Thi s
a
+ c
be
i d e n tity m ay
a
b e gi
3a bc =
+ e
(
(
ve
a +
in
an
+ c
+ o
()
Eb e b
2c
"
2e
z 2
2a b
c + a
a +
ab e =
EXA MPLES
XXX IV
by
+5
Fi d
n
th e
m ay b e di visib le b y
main de r wh en 3 x 5+ 1 1 x 4 + 9 0x 2
b)
2 ab c = b
ab
2 ab c = b
+ e
ca
( (
)()()
()
(
)( )
(
)
(
b
{
a +
o th e r f o rm
1 9x
53
i s divided
A L GEB R A
H I G HER
4 40
25
.
26
b+e
If x =
27
Pro
s u b s t i t u te
+y + z
v th t
b,
a, s
28
v ly
e
we
()( )(
b
z
c
2
a
( ( ()
b)
b
b)
( (
a
33
b)
is u n alte re d i f
wh e r e
e o
( ( )(
30
31
29
v lu
d th e
(b
3 abc
3
c
f a +b +
a, b , 0 e s p ec ti
o
33
Fi
fo r
w t h at
3 a b e)
v lu
th e
e, Sh e
3 a bc)
b)
If x
b ed
d xy z
s, an
'
32
>
< >< >
a
()(
( (
b
'
2
,
( >< ) <
ca
>
sh ew th at
3
11
23
'
}?
MI SCE L LAN E OU S
I D EN T I T I E S
Ex amp le
h w th
(W
M
he
Th e
e pr i o
e ss
E,
7
x
th e l e
on
it m u st con tai n y (
x + y)
Putt i g x wy we h ave
,
n ce
n c
t ai n s
a ns x
as a
+v
an s
ac
es
en
0, y = 0,
+ y = 0;
he e E o t i
ft v i h wh
f tor
as a
()
=
7 mtl
e
7
co y as
f tor ; th
ac
f tor ;
at
ac
1} y
is ,
we)
5
6
d sim il a ly we m ay
E is d s b l b y
( (
x
w7
an
ivi i
01
my + y 2
Shew t h t it
a
co n
MI S C E LL A N E O U S I DEN TITI ES
th e
F urther
E be
g o f s ve
H )
(
z/
utti g
x=
p utti g
96
1,
ls o
b
b
b e pu t
Th e p
bc
x7
we
h w th
1 1 0,
c an
be
+b +c
3 ab c
A 3 +3
(b
+ wb + w c )
th e
th e p
th a t
be
ca
wb
we ) ;
t t h e pro duct o f
+ co y
C3
+y + z
3x y z
(
(w y
we )
+ wz )
(
(
in t h e p a r s
an
3A B O
wz ) ;
an
(w
(wy
x
+ wb
we)
(
x
);
wy
wh ere
hu
r e s o l v e d in t o th r e e li n ea r fac t o r s ;
A + w B + w0,
A + B + 0,
ra th at
A l ge b
2
93
.
in t o th e form
+a
a +
o b tai
+ c
ro du t
( ) ww w
7 xy
3/
ea
By
7 =
3, A r t
3a bc
3
a
c an
+ y)
E x amp l e
+ e
n s,
A = 7, B= 7 ;
in Ex
ab
n s
a e
th u s
) + B xy ;
e io
h a v e s ee n
we
h en ce
thus
a e
k n o w f rom e l e m e n t a ry
We
52 5
+y
ve d m
(
x
(
x
of
h v 2 1 2A + B ;
w h v 2 1 5A 2 B ;
1 , y = 1 , we
= 2,
m e)
(
7 =x
y
y
(
for
d xy x + y )
m A
th e
an
whe c e
rem ai in g fa tor m u t b o f
,
441
rodu t
c
(
A
+3
C) A
wB
wC)
3 A BC
I n o rd e r t o n d t h e v alu e s o f e x p r e ssi o n s
52 6
b , e wh e n th e s e q u an titi e s ar e c o n n e c t e d b y t h e
0, w e m i ght e mp l o y t h e su b stituti o n
b c
in v o l vi n g
e u a ti o n
q
a,
a =
h,
= wh + w
k,
c =
w h + wk
h ow e v e r t h e e x p r e ssi o n s i n v o l v e a b c sy mm e t r i c a lly
m e th o d e x hi b it e d in t h e f o ll ow i n g e x am pl e is p re fe rab l e
If
t he
A L GE B RA
H I GHE R
44 2
E x amp l e
If
(
5
+b
hew t h
O,
(
3
a
b3
+e
(
2
+b +
( ( (
b x ) 1 + ax)
1 + ax ) 1
= 1 + p x + q x 2 + rx 3 ,
where
He
u i g th o ditio give
n
e c n
s n
n ce,
( (
l)
(
a
n
c
g l og r i t h m
b
o e fcie t of
n
By p
"
"
utti g
n
ob tai
+b +
whe e
= 2.
+b +e
nc
an
we
6
If
re
+b +c
a=
h ve i
a
z
b
,
y
B 7
den t c all y
for
all
+ b +c
val u e of
s
a,
te ge r
2
(b
If
is
an
(
be
y)
(
ex
o ditio i s
he
sat s e d ;
l3 )
n ce
CL
l3) }
( l (B)
3
c ,
+ b +e
XXX IV
2n + l
a2
va
) ;
en
is
2n + l
c
(
2b
y is di vi s i b l e
a m ulti l e o f 3
p
(
y
a
sh ew th at
th at
ql ;
w th at
x
os i ti v e in tege r n o t
Sh ew th at
c n
en
Sh e
o dd
p
+b +
B) }
Sh ew
B7
3
0
EXA MPLES
giv
3 th
(
3
rx
"s
rx
3 , A r t 522
= a
B
(
= 5{
x.
omp are E
a e
(
g
qx
"
'
t a is,
a,
'
an s
" 2
rx
{B
qx
d th e
qx
3
+ rx
= 2, 3 , 5 we
in
3
x
r
+ qx
e qu t i g the oef i e ts of
w h v
1 q
o f i e t of i th e p i o o f l g (
)
d
an
= ab c
l + ax ) 1 + b x )
Takin
by
xy
2e
<
2
5
0 +x
o
s
i
ti
v
e
p
b)
y
if
bx )3
3 ab c be
y)
(
ex
az
(
y
a
bx )
H I GH E R
44 4
If a +
s
5
+c +
5
b
a +
23
24
wt
a
(
a
L G E B RA
+b +
c3
+d
25
.
3
c
da b
9 b ed + cda
3 2
26
d 20
c an
b)
3
x
6x
( ()(
Sh w t h t (
y
y
2
+b +c +d
2
3x
2
0 ,
3 3
ad
(
ca
b d)
(
ab
(
2
s
6W
27
28
wt
Re s ol
t2
(
a_
(
a_
b)
>
s 3
3a y
+30
a
ed
ro
v
e th at
p
5a b cs
ab c
9 be
I f 23
5
s
as
+9 3
3
.
d)
v i t o f tors
e
ac
2 2
2a b 0
2
(
a
abc
3 3
EL I MIN AT I O N
III
3 3
c a
3b 3
v
o
we h a e s ee n th a t t h e e li m i n an t o f
I n C h apt e r X XX
n c e b e w r itt e n d wn in t h e
o f li n e a r e q u ati o n s m ay a t
G e n e r al m e th od s o f e li m i n ati n ap
a d e t e rm i n an t
t e qu ati o n s o f an y d e g r e e wi ll b e f o u n d dis c uss e d in
t r e atis e s o n t h e Th e ory o f Eq u ati n s in par ti c ul a r we may r e fe r
52 7
a s st e m
y
f orm o f
li
c ab l e
p
.
Th e s e m e th od s, th o u g h th e or e ti c all y c o m p l e t e , a r e n o t a l way s
W e sh all th e r e f or e o n ly gi v e a
t h e m o st c o n v e n i e n t in p r ac ti c e
b r i e f e x p l an ati on o f t h e g en e ral th e o ry , an d sh all th e n illust rat e
b y e x am p l e s so m e m e th o d s o f e li m i n ati o n th at a r e m o r e p r ac t i
.
ca
us r st c o n si d e r t h e e lim i n ati o n o f o n e u n k n o wn
u
an tit
b
e t w ee n t wo e u ati o n s
q
y
q
D e n o t e t h e e q u a ti on s b y f x ) = 0 an d 95
o
s
an d su
e
pp
th at if n e c e ss a ry t h e e q u ati o n s h av e b e en r e d u c e d t o a f orm in
an d <
e
n
whi c h f
e
e
)
r
r
s
t r ati on al i n t e g ral fu n c ti on s o f x
1
p
Si n c e th e se t wo fu n c ti o n s v an ish si m ult an e o usl y th e r e m ust b e
s om e v alu e o f x whi c h s atis e s b o th t h e gi v e n e q u ati o n s ; h en c e
52 8
L et
(
.
E LIMI NA TI O N
445
the
Su pp o s e
th e n
be
th at
l e ast
o n e at
eq
u al t o
ze
x = a, x
(4
a re
f t h e q u an titi e s 95 a ) ,
h e n c e t h e e lim i n an t is
o
ro
5
9
)4
r oo ts
ff
(
r)
the
0
(
)
m ust
x
Th e e x p r e ssi o n o n t h e l e ft is a s y mm e t r i c a l fu n c ti o n o f t h e
r oo ts o f t h e e q u ati on f
0, a n d its v alu e c an b e f o u n d b y t h e
m e th od s e x p l ai n e d in t r eatis e s o n t h e Th eo r y of Equ a tio n s
.
a i n th r e e
l
e n e r a l m e th o d s o f e li m i n a
p
g
ti o n : it w ill b e su f c i e n t f or o u r p u rp o s e t o t ak e a si m p l e
b u t it will b e s e e n th at in e a c h c a s e t h e p r o c e ss is
e x am p l e
a
li
c ab l e t o e u ati o n s o f a n
d
r
e
e
e
pp
q
y
g
52 9
W e sh all
n o
ex
Th e p r i n c i p l e
Eul e r
illust rat e d
El i min at e
3
dx
L et
,
e x amp e
is
du e
to
Ex amp le
ti o n s
f o ll ow i n g
in t h e
etw
2
b
x
+
uppos that
qu ati on s
+ d = o,
ex
ac
th e
een
f t or or
+ k b e th e
an d s
r e sp
o di g
+ gx + h = 0
t o th e
oot c omm o n
to b
oth equa
an d
e i g u k ow qu titi s
F rom th s qu ti o w h v i de ti
k , l , m,
e e e
Eq
an
n s,
a e
a n
an
cn
km
da
on s
x,
+ ag
b n + ah
kl + ym
F rom the e li e r qu t i
w ob t i t h det rm i
t
e
c al ly
e s
g l +fm
u ti g o ef i e ts o f li k pow r o f
fl
by
el
we ob tai n
bf= 0,
=
f 0,
df= 0,
i m i ati
n
g th
n an
ag
ah
lo
f
g
bf
f
df
un k n own q uan t i t i e s
l , m,
H I G HE R
44 6
L GE B RA
0, (
1)
c
a
n
0
a
h
e
e
f
t
n
o
li
t
u
ti
o
i
n
a
m
Th e e
53 0
f )
q
i a l ti c
D
e
e
b
S
a
n
n
m
e
a
e
v
r
sil
r
ss
d
d
t
r
i
t
l
v
st
r
s
a
s
e
e
e
x
y
b e e y ea y
y y
p
a
m
e
a
s
x
e
m
a
e
h
e
sh
ll
t
k
s
l
a
e
t
a
e
W
p
h l eth o d of Elimin a tio n
b e f or e
n s
El im i n at e
E x amp le
wee
b et
th e
quati on s
+ gx + h = 0
i
n
b
t
a
n
d
i
r
t
e
q
u
i
o
h
s
e
c
o
e
q
u
i
d
t
e
b
a
t
a
y
M l t ply t h e s
y
h
4
m
l
m
a
t
e
t
e
a
w
c
c
u
e
i
h
u
h
v
e
e
u
t
i
o
b
e
t
w
ee
w
h
i
h
s
a
5
a
t
s
w
e
s
q
;
q u a ti t i e
regarde d as di ti t vari ab l e s Th e e quat i o s a e
s x
n c
ax
bx
0x
fx
f
H e e the el im i
nc
cx
+ d = 0,
dx
0,
2
x
g
3
3
x
hx
gx
e i
2
b
x
+
+
3
ax
c c ss o n
n
on
x,
x an
O,
0,
hx
2
t is
n an
0 f
Th e p ri n c i pl e o f t h e f o ll ow i n g m e th od is du e t o Be z o u t
it h as t h e a d an t a g e o f e x p r e ssin g t h e r e s lt a s a d e t e r m i n an t o f
l ow e r ord e r th an e ith e r o f t h e d e t e r m i n an ts o b t ai n e d b y t h e p r e
c e d in
m
all c h oo s e t h e s am e e x a m l e a s b e f or e ,
th
od
s
h
e
W
e
g
p
an d
h
i
u
h
s
od
e o f c o n d u c ti n
t
e li m i n a ti o n
m
e
a
c
e
C
g
g
y
53 1
E x amp le
i i ate
El m
ax
F o m t h e q u ti o
r
es
ew
b t
th e
ee n
+ b x + ex + d = 0,
n s,
we
he e
an
nc
d
Co m b
a ir
i i
n n
fx
+g
hx
bf)
2
h= O
g x + hx
c m+ d
(h
a
f)
0,
bh
g t he e t w e qu t i
s
+ gx
+b
f) m +
fx
ax
g
(
qu ati on s
h ve
f
on s
wi t h
df= 0,
H I GHER
44 8
E x amp l e 2
We h ave
u i
b y m l t p ly
El min at
g
o
a,
in g t
x,
gether th
Z
he e
2+
nc
i i
El m
x
y b et
n ate x ,
px
n ce ,
b y th e t
r t e quat i o
s
hi d qu ti o
r
hu
+ b +c
th e
amt/
_ ab e
4=
ab c
quati o n s
o
b
t
ai n
e
w
y
,
o u r) ;
22
s eco n d b y
d th e
x , an
we e
by
=
p
S mil a
4 xy = q x + 19 9 . m2 + e2 =
ar,
s
a
he
we ob tain ,
(
a
ons
E x amp le 3
three e quat i on s
ese
e qu t i
th e
2+
etwee
L G E B RA
+ 3xy
2
3
=
q 3x y + y
ly
lm
y) ;
3
(
P
E x amp le 4
Elimin at
g_3
z
y,
x,
th e
quati on s
x y
a,
we e
b et
x(
i
( ) (
()()()
f
We h ave
) +9
0
6
2
95
2
95
+2
31
xyz
h g the Sig of
i g o f e m i u l t er e d ;
h e
b
If
we
an
a r
en c
a ns
i i r
th e
x,
na
S m l a ly ,
an d
I;
ig
n s
of
an
H ) (a)
()(
y
06
xy z
x yz
-
c ar e c
xy z
y)
EL I MI
N A TI O N
449
a
2
9 2
26
2c
2a b
EX A MPLES
fro m
Eli m i n at e m
th e
Eli m i n at e m,
m
3
mx
from t h
e eq
2 2 2
+a b
m
(
2
fro m
my + x = 0
mn
eq
eq
2 amu ,
El im i n at e
ax
from
2a
from
Eli m i n at e m
m
x
+
y
Eli m i n ate
x,
x,
+x
3 ax
fro m
the
eq
xy
th e
x,
Elim i n ate
Eli m in at e
x,
from
= a
,
+y
x,
from
= a
,
,
z, u
the
x
Eli m i n ate
x,
y,
eq
+y
u atio s
n
= 4
u ti o s
a
u ati o
2=
th e
th e
= c2
,
2=
eq
fro m
fro m
m)
29
x 9
th e
x
Eli m i n ate
u ti o s
eq
2
,
eq
12
11
0,
10
fro m
u atio s
q u ati o n s
1 + m) ,
my m=
zx =
Eli m i n at e p , q
4
+1
th e
= a
2
=
z
a ,
y
eq
u ti o s
th e
m2
+1= 0
uati on s
my
th e
r = 0,
+
q
nx
u ati o s
b e tw e e n t h e
it
Eli m i n at e p , q ,
2
x
Eli mi n ate m,
uati o n s
my + a = 0,
eq
XXX I V
g 2
3= 3
c
ns
x4
4=
t
c
+y
u ti o
a
= ee
ns
+ du + a x ,
uati o n s
4150
E
13
7
li m i n a e x ,
i on s
u
t
a
e
e
h
t
m
fro
q
y,
_
3
+
+
14
El i mi n ate
x,
fro
m th e
Me w )
16
(
y
17
x,
(
x
+y
y,
x,
19
x,
th e
eq
+y
+ by
eq
2 = ax
bz x ,
= e
3 3
b e
+ a)
u ati o s
n
x2
3 a3
0
3b 3 =
z =
by
b e,
x,
y,
=
ca,
x
z
+
2
c
5as
os
Em pl oy
Be z o u t
2
bx y
exy
xy
xy z = a b e
= ab,
from
(
3
ax
) y
4 0 xy
of
El i m in ate
u ati o n s
c
'
23
(y )
x
2x + y
e
h
t
m
ro
f
y
2
Sh ew t h at
ax
w th at
is t h e e lim i n an t
22
2
4 52270,
= a
,
ax
21
q uati on s
from t h e e quati on s
from
et
ab c
z
+
y
x,
Elim i n ate
20
+x
(
)(
N
e) (
(
x
Elimin at e
18
<
x
3
0
()
2 z
4a y ,
li
i
t
e
a
n
m
E
y,
from t h e
u ati o s
+ x)
Eli mi n at e
eq
m e t h o d t o e li mi n at e
dy
0,
'
ax
?
x
x,
from
c xy
dy
H I GH E R
_
J
53 8
D e n o te t h e g i
ve
=
Th e
ati o n f
u
q
d en o te d
by
h
t
e
of
eq u a tio n
Ev er y
po
a ti o n
u
q
byf
+ p 2x
r o o ts
an d n o
mo re
w h e re
0,
"
n
h
t
e
,;
degr ee h as n
th
"
0 h as
L G E B RA
,,
)
is a r ati on al i n t e g r al f u n c ti o n o f n 1 d i m e n si on s
wh e r e gt
h a s a roo t r e a l o r i m ag i n a r y ; l e t
A g a i n t h e e q u ati o n
this b e d e n o t e d b y a ; th e n
is d i v isib l e b y x a s o th at
a
wh e r e qb,
is
2 ,
r ati o n al in t egr a l fu n c ti on
(( )(
Thus
f )
this way
Pro c e e d i n g in
o b t ai n
we
)a
as
fn
(
w)
th e
en c e
w h en
h as
an
A ls o t h e
an
th e
ati o n f
u
q
o
0 h as
v alu e s
f th e
, ,
_a
n
v ish s
an
2 ,
s,
3 09 ,
roo ts si n c e f
d i m e n si on s
in A r t
x
u
ati o n c an n o t h a v e m or e th an n r oo ts ; f or if x h as
q
v alu e d iffe r e n t f ro m an y o f t h e q u an titi e s a a a
all
fact or s o n t h e r ig ht ar e d iffe r en t f r o m z e ro an d th e r e f or e
c a n n o t v an ish f o r th a t v a lu e o f x
e
,,
2,
s,
o v e i n v e stigati o n s om e o f t h e q u an titi e s a a a
m ay b e e q u al ; in this c as e h o we v e r w e S h all su pp o s e th a t
e u ati o n h as still n r o o ts a lth o u h th e s e a r e n o t al l d iffe r e n t
q
g
In the
ab
1,
2 ,
r ela t io n s
r o o ts
b etween th e
a
,,
the
To in v estig a te th e
53 9
co
cien ts in a n y equ a tio n
i
e
s,
an d
th e
us d e n o t e
L et
an
d the
n
.
{L
roo ts
+ 19 2
1
"
u
a ti o n
q
p zx
by
a,
b,
+ 29 2)
n
.
th e
'
'
x
_
p" l
rc
the
it
o t ti o
+ P2 x
Sl x
"
h a v e i d e n ti c ally
( )( ()
0,
+ p _x
n
1
'
h e n c e w ith
we
th e n
c,
2
by
o
2
f A rt
q2 x
1 6 3 , we
+
11
b)
h av e
m
_
n
l
"
(
x
h) ;
T H E ORY
Eq u a ti n g
su m o
f li k e p o w e r s
p1
p2
o ef c i e ts
= Su m
E Q U A TI O N S
OF
this i d e n tity
f x in
r oo ts ;
t h e p r o d u c ts
4 53
f the
f
roo ts t ak e n
f the
t wo
at a
ro o ts t ak e n th re e
at a
ti m e ;
p3
33
su
f t h e p rod u c ts
f the
ti m e
l)
rod
u
ct
p
"
I f t h e c o e ic ie n t o f m
t h e e q u ati o n b ec o m e s
is
0,
"
"
I3
d, with t h e
Ea =
S l
F rom the
e qu t i o
u b i q u ti o
c e
en c
for
we
If a
E x amp le 2
m t h e e q at
t is
c ar e
e r
Bu t
h en ce
20
a,
b,
= 0;
th e
roots of th e e qu atio
s ar e a
3
n x
or
m
01
i f we r epl ac e
2
x
0
6
4
+ 29 24 + 19 3 )
b y y , we
2
+
1
P2
2
p1
+ p 2x
p3
( l
229 2
+1
+p 1
34
P2
ob tai
P1
)y
(w e
3
96
(
2
19 2
+s
2P1 P3 )
a)
= 0.
0;
33
31
P3
2:
es
of
wh i h
c
3
0
0
= ab c
v lu
th e
ar e
( )( )(
( ) (b )
x
3
a
c
yt
an
h av e
p3
th at
t2
Po
(
y
y
)(
) O
y b )(
=
b
i
f
)
(
(
)
y
(
b
)
( ()(
a
co
b,
u i o wh o s oot
r e q u i r e d e q u ti o i s
.
by
"
=
y
or
h te rm
see
Th e
Po
p0
t3
o ve t h e e quati on
E x amp le 1
eac
2 ab c =
20
th e
po,
d i v i din g
on
s ati sfy
th e n
f A r t 52 1 , we
E , Ea b = p
se
Po
o tati o
Po
an
r oo ts
f the
= 0,
.x + p
+p _
3
H I G HER
4 54
L GE B R A
c
e
e
e
A
o f the
n titi e s
a
h
f
e
o
t
1
a
n
n
s
f
or
su
o
s
li
i
t
u
n
a
e
m
w
e
e
e
ca e
q
y
pp
n
n
h
m
a
e
m
n
t
e
e
e
e
n
a
a
n
e
n
s
o
o
t
i
u
ti
o
t
o
d
t
r
i
r
i
i
b
a
n
d
a
7e
a b c
g
q
i
n
a
mm
e
c
e
n
a
r
e
e
s
th
si
th
s
u
a
n
titi
i
v
o
l
v
d
s
t
r
i
ll
e
e
n
c
e
n
e
on e;
y
y
q
a
n
b
a
n
a
a
w
a
e
a
h
u
ti
o
s
it
is
l
a
r
th
t
sh
ll
l
w
s
o
t
i
c
e
n
a
e
h
t
e
a
o
f
e c
y
q
e u ati o n h a v i n g t h e s am e c o e f c i e n ts ; this e q u a ti o n is th e r e f or e
q
su b
t h e o r i g i n a l e q u ati o n w ith som e o n e o f t h e r oo ts a b c
stitut e d fo r x
Th e
54 0
us tak e f o r
L et
e x am p e
x
an
d le t
a,
b,
the
b e the
g
-
pl
ati o n
u
q
roo ts ; th e n
a +
+ e =
be =
a b + ac +
p2 ,
abc
Multi pl y th e s e
u
a ti o n s
q
by
th at i s
whi c h
is
or igi n a l
the
ve
Th e ab o
a
a
li
l
t
o
c
b
e
pp
p,
p3
2
,
p1
p2
ro
c e ss
p
e u ati o n s
q
P2
u
ti
o
w
ith
q
a
a,
a
r e sp e c ti v e ly
add ;
thu s
P3 ;
0,
p3
of
in t h e p l a c e
an
f e li m i n ati o n
o f an y d e g r e e
is
r l
uit
e
q
ne a
e
g
an
is
oo
54 1
If t wo o r m r e o f t h e r t s o f an e q u ati o n a r e c o n
5
3
9
n e ct ed b
a n a ssi n e d r e l a ti o n , t h e
ro
r
ti
s
ro
e d in A r t
e
e
p
y
g
p p
will s me tim e s e n ab l e us t
b t ai n t h e c o m p l e t e s luti o n
.
oo
e qu t io
v
o
4
a
Solve th e
th
roo a i arithm et i al progressi o
D e o t e t h e roots b y
b a
+ b ; t he t h e su m o f
su m o f th e p ro du ts o f t h
root s t wo at a t i m e i 3
of t h oot s i s ( b ) ; h e e we h ave th e e quat io
E x amp le 1
at t h e
ts
re
3a
23
re
'
4
a:
en
th e
2
b ;
root s i s 3
an
d th e p
; th e
roduct
ns
nc
h vi g g iv
rst e quatio we d
s i ce thes e valu es sati s fy th e th ir d
l2 9
Th u the r o t s a
th e
3a _ 6,
from
e r
2,
(
a
from the e o
thr e qu ti o
an d
th e
s c n
ee
ns
d b
ar e
:h
an
o i te t
ns s
H I GHER
4 56
From th
ese e
AL
GEB R A
%(
quati on s we h ave
2
Za b
3r
Ea b
3r ;
pq
EXA MPL ES
XXX V
Form t h e e q u ati on
.
2, 2,
So l
2x
re
0, O,
a+
2 , O, 5
.
2, 2,
b,
b,
3,
a+
b,
u ati o n s :
3
x
roots b ein g 1 an d 7
9x
3 6 = 0 t h e su m o f two o f t h e roo ts b e i n g z e ro
2 3x + 6
0 two o f t h e roo ts b e i n g e q u al
52 x
24
O t h e roo ts b e i n g in ge o m e tr i c al pr o
+ 86x
1 6x
2 0x
1 7 6x
0, t wo
1 05
two
2 2x
roots
f th e
rati o
b ei n g in t h e
2 4 x3
+ 4 6x + 9 x
roo t
one
b e in
g doub l
an
oth e r o f
the
11
8x
o
sit
e in Si gn
pp
12
54 x
s
i
s
on
re
g
13
14
15
.
b ei n g
eq
ual
bu t
3 9x
2 6x + 1 6
4 8 x 2 + 2 2x
2 9 x3
4 0x 2
x4
2 x3
7x
2 1 x 2 + 22 x
O, t h e
roots
b e in
ri c al
pr o
o
r
p
of
roots
in ge m e t
O, t h e
roots
b e in g in
12
0, t h e p
rodu c t o f
t wo
th e
2 7 x4
O, t h e
1 9 5x 3
4 9 4x
52 0x + 1 9 2
roo ts
b ei n
in
rithme tic al
O, t h e
roots
b ein
in
g eo
one
oth er two
40
roo ts
rogression
16
f th e
6x
g2
3
3 2x
I
r
S
S
On
e
g
t wo
2x 3
10
b ei n
roots a
3x3
roots
16
4x 3
2,
eq
8
gr essio n
4
th e
4
x
J3
wh o s e
b ed )
a ed
a b cl
ab c
2 61
pq
roo t
b ein
g h lf
a
th e
su
o f th e
T HE ORY
18
th e
If a
al u e o
b,
c ar e
OF
roo ts o f
th e
E QU A TI O NS
th e
eq
u ati o n
)
(
(
) b
19
If a
((
b,
c ar e
roo ts o f
th e
I)
b)
px
2
5 d
n d th e
2 2
a
valu
21
with
eq u a tio n
I n an
543
o c cu r in p air s
.
e o
2)
Fi d t h e su m o f t h e s q u ar e s an d o f t h e c u b e s
20
O, n d
r=
+ qx
2 2
4 57
r ea
fth e
roo ts
c
t
l
i
en
s
m
a
i
n
a
r
i
g
y
co e
ro o
ts
o n with r ea l o ef i e ts
o o t a ib ; we S h ll sh e w
Su pp s e th a t f
0 is an e q u a ti
r
an d su p o s e th a t it h a s an i m a i n a r
p
g
y
th at a ib is als o a ro t
f ac t o r
Th e
ff
L et f
an d t h e
In
thi s i d e n tity
()
x
be
rem a
0;
to
Eq u a ti n g
t
p
u
o rr e sp o d i
n
ib )
by
ze
ro
a +
ib ) ,
d b by
an
b ;
n o
ze
He n c e f
is
e x ac
is
ib
is als o
root
t h e qu
o ti e n t
by
th e n
0 by
h yp o th e sis
ls o
d i m ag i n a r y par ts ,
0
'
an
()
)(
by
ib
2
,
th a t is
by
I n t h e p r e c e d i n g a r ti c l e we h a v e s e e n th a t if t h e e q a
2
2
b
h
a
a
m
a
i
r
i
a
i
r
roo
ts
th
0
s
a
o
f
n
a
a
ib
e
x
n
f
,
)
p
g
y
fac t or o f t h e e x pr e ssio n f
544
t io n
tly d i v isi b l e
x
h en c e
ro
d en ote
R ;
(
r e al
ib , th en
+ ib )
the
h y p o th e si s is
()
or
Rb
an
t o th e s e t wo r oo ts is
b
R
x
y
y
an
h en c e
(
di vi d d
)
(
i d r if
(
x
H IGHE R
4 58
AL
G E B RA
=
1
a r e t h e im a i n a r
id e
r
oo
a
0
t
s
u
o
s
th
t
a
i
b
e
S pp
g
y
t
h
is
e
rod
u
ct o f the
0 a n d th a t (
)
o f t h e e q u a ti o n f
1
p
u
a dr ati c fac to r s c o rr e sp o n d in g t o th e s e i m ag in a ry ro o ts ; th e n
q
:
(
)
4
No w e ac h
h en c e (
I)
o
e qu ti o
o ve t h e
S l
t o n e r oot i s 2
sp o n
a ti o n with
u
q
is, if a ~/b is
6x
1 3x
3 5x
h vi g g iv
0,
root we k n ow th at
is al o a root
4
g t o t h i p ai o f oots we h av e th e qu ad ati factor
din
Al s
6x
en
1 3x
d
1
an
orre
3 5x 2
th e
en ce
3
i
s
J
hus th oots
ar e
e r
i n ce
v alu e
E x amp l e 1
A s in A r t 54 3 we m ay S h e w th at in an
ai r s ; th a t
c o e ic ie n t s, su rd roo ts e n t e r in
p
th e n a ,Jb is a ls a roo t
roo t
th e s e fa c t or s is p o siti v e fo r e v e ry r e al
is al way s p o siti v e f o r r e al v alu e s o f x
54 5
r a tio n a l
a
s, o n e
e r
us
an
hu
r es
th e
as o n e
ar
r e quired equat i o
a e
2 J 2x
s,
an d
a r
c n
n al
as an
rs
ra
r e
a e
es
ac
5,
ac
5
.
is
(
x
or
2
x
+ 5)
8x2 = 0,
or
Ex amp le 3
h w th
no
e se
h as
t th e e quati on
0
b
k:
v lu s f
a
o r x an
roo
u r
r re u fro
be a
t ; t en p iq is al s
b t act th e st
s lt m t h e
whi h is i mpo i b le u
c
ss
n l e ss
0;
H I G HE R
4 60
AL
G EB RA
th at in t h e p rod u c t
i ) an am b ig uity r epl ac e s e ac h c o n ti n u ati o n
o rigin al p oly n om ial ;
ii) t h e S ign s b e fo r e an d aft e r an am b iguity
b igu it ie s a r e u n li k e ;
en c e
we
see
(
(
S i gn
set
or
in t h e
am
h an ge o f S ign is in t r o d u c e d at t h e e n d
L et u s t ak e t h e m o st u n fa v o u r ab l e c as e an d su pp o s e th a t all
t h e amb i g uiti e s a r e r e p l a c e d b y c on ti n u a ti o n s ; f ro m ii ) w e see
th a t t h e n u m b e r o f c h an ge s o f S ig n will b e t h e s am e wh e th e r we
t ak e t h e u pp e r o r t h e l ow e r sig n s ; l et us t ak e t h e u pp e r ; thus
th e n u m b e r o f c h an ge s o f S i gn c an n o t b e l e ss th an in
a c
this s e ri e s o f sign s is t h e s am e as in
with an a dd iti o n al c h an ge o f S ign at t h e
an
or igi n al p o ly n om i al
the
en
'
o
o
o
v
A gai n , t h e ro ts o f t h e e q u ati o n f
x = 0 a r e e u al t
th
s
e
)
q
o ff
0 b u t pp o sit e t th e m in S i g n ; th e r e f or e t h e n e g ati e
roo ts o f f x ) = 0 ar e t h e p o siti e roo ts Of f x ) = 0; b u t t h e
n u m b e r o f th e s e
p o siti e roo ts c an n o t e x c e e d t h e n u m b e r o f
c h an e s o f si n in f
x
a
h
t
e n u mb e r
th
t
is
f n egati e roo ts
;
,
g
g
)
o f f x = 0 c an n t e x c e e d t h e n u m b e r
o f c h an ge s o f ig n in
)
96
Ex amp le
o s i er
th e
qu i o
at
n x9
5x8
7x
v
S
9
x
re
EX A MPLES
XXX V
o ve t h e e q u ati o s
S l
1
2
4
x
4
6x
x
1 0x 3
1 3x
3
+ 4x
+ 4x
3 5x 2
2
+ 5x + 2 x
one
root b ei g
n
root b i n g 2
o n e roo t b e i n g
one
s,
T HE O R Y
4
4a
6x
5 So l e t h e
J 3 an d an oth e r 1
.
q u ati o n
1
Form t h e e q u ati o n
n e o f w h o s e roo ts Is
6
J3 +
:2
4x
E QU A TI O N S
OF
0,
x5
8x
9x
Form t h e
Form
12
13
the
u ati o n wh o s e roo ts
eq
u ti o
a
one o
f th e
ar e
J 2
1
::
Sh e w
th at
i m agi n ary root s
.
g
,
th e
eq
+ 1 2 x + 5x
uati o n
2x
co
i g ht h _ de g re e with r at i o n al
3 x4
14
J3
wh o s e root is J 2 + J 3 + J 1
F i d t h e n atu re o f t h e roots o f t h e q u ati o
ts
b ei n
11
eq
root
o ne
0,
l ow e s t d im e n si o n s with rati o n al c o e f c ie n ts
e f c ie n
l5
10
.
:1
4
x
7
2
roo t b e i g
o ne
46 1
+ 4x
h as
l e as t fo u r
at
W h at m ay
15
.
be
i n fe rr e d resp e c t i n g t h e roo ts
x
16
eq
u atio n
17
Fi d
x
4x + x
o
ssi
b
l
e
p
l east
the
1 0
f th e
q u at i o n
2x
um b r
= 0 ma
o n diti o n t h at
h
x
av
x
y
q
p
1
t
w
o roo t e q u al b u t o f o
o
sit
i
g
e
n
(
)
;
pp
2)
t h e roo ts in g e om e tri c al p ro gr e ss i o
(
Fi d
n
th e
f the
4
3
2
=
t
h
I
f
roo
ts
u
ti
o
e
o
f
t
h
e
a
n
x
x
x
r
x
s
18
0 ar e in
eq
+q
+
+p
3
arit h m e ti c al p ro gr e ssi o n
s h e w t h at
an d i f th ey are
p
in g e o m etri c al p ro gr e ssi o n S h e w t h at p gs = r 2
.
19
If
th e
roots
f th e
v lu
a
e o
b,
e ar e
20
Ea b
22
If a
.
q u ati o n
roo ts
b,
21
Ea c
are
the roo t
s o fa +
.
0 ar e 1 ,
a,
B,
h e w th at
y)
'
the e q uati o n
3
x
2
ax
r=
0, n d t h e
b
)( )
(
+a
2a b
+a
23
c,
2 2
24
the
( )(
1
If a
3
x
25
.
rx
0, n d
the v al u e
H I G HE R
462
AL
f
f
To n d th e
54 8
in teg r a l fu n c tio n of x
v a lu e o
G EBRA
h)
wh en f
)
(
is
r at o n a
L et
h)
po
po
+ p lx
h)
+ p 2x
(
n
+p2 x
pl
th e n
+pn
.
Ex pan d i n g e a c h t e rm
o
r
s
w
o f h, we h av e
e
p
w
po
"
{ po
lb
[2
1
p2
n _l
This
_2
an
1 ) p 1x
1) r o w
"
_2
rr an gi n g
(
n
2) p z x
2 e w
w r itt e n in t h e
h
2
I!
(
e
n
d t h e fu n c ti o n s f x ),
der iv ed fu n c tio n s
sec o n d, th ir d,
an
in
'
a c en
din g
3
-
r
3
Il l
(
s
E:
r (
)
n
ar e
+pn
f or m
A
-
'
< >
< >
n
r e sult
th e
ca
ll e d
the
r st
ff
a r ti c ul a r c a s e o f Tay lo r s Th eo r em ; t h e f u n c ti o n s f x
p
)
w
n at o n c e b
a
th
r
f
or
e b e w r itt e n
d
o
h
ord
i
r
m
e
e
t
e
n
a
y
y
f
y
fr o m f
r ul e s f or d i ffe r e n ti ati o n : thus t o o b t ai n
w e m ulti p ly
b y t h e i n d e x o f x in th at t e r m an d th e n
e a c h t e rm in f
d i m in ish t h e i n d e x b y u n ity
Th e
(
,
Si m il a r l y
by
su c c e ssi v e
di ffe r e n ti ati o n s
o b ta i n
we
il l
By wr iti n g
to
h in t h e p l ac e
Th e fu n c ti o n f
x an d h ; h e n c e
(
x +
h)
is
f h , we
have
vi de tly sy m m e t ri l w ith re sp e t
n
ca
f( ) f (
) f (
) ;f (
)
I
f (
)
"
H I GH E R
464
Ex amp l e
Fi
c c ss
1
6
5
39
15
2x + 5x
2
3
x
3 in t h e
e pr e i o
ss
ore b ri e y thu
s:
Or m
1
1 32
_1
2
=
91
11
17
23
97
H e e th e result is 2 23 9 7 1 8 2 1 3 1 C ompar e A rt
3
x
_1
13
1 82 = q3
L GE B RA
548
nu
mer ica l
o rk .
550
fu n ctio n
.
L et
If th e v ar ia b le
x
l
c h an e
w
i
l
g
)
(
d
c an
e + 11.
be
W e h av e
re
an
v alu e s
w
t
o
y
x<
>
c
ha n g es co n tin u o u sly fr o m
c o n tin u o u sly fr o m f a) to f
x
f x l y i n g b e t we e n
to b t h e
a an
d b
d by
(
(
an
is i mp or tan t t o n o ti c e th at we h a v e n o t p r ov e d th at
n c r e a s e s f ro m f a
a s e s f ro m f a
i
r
d
e
c
r
e
t
o
b
o
f
f )
)
)
th at it p ass e s f ro m o n e v alu e t o t h e o th e r with o ut
to
an
e n c h an e ; s o m e ti m e s it m a
su
dd
i
r
si
an d at o th e r
n
n
b
e
c
e
a
y
g
g
y
t i m e s it m ay b e d ec r e asi n g
It
551
a l wa s
y
b
u
t
b
,
f )
( (
stu d e n t wh o h as a k n o w l e d ge o f t h e e l e m e n ts o f C u r v e
t r ac in g will in an y pa r ti c ul a r e x am pl e n d it e a sy t o f o ll o w t h e
=
ad u a l c h an e s o f v a lu e o f f
r
dr
w
i
u
r
v
a
n
t
h
e
e
b
c
g
g
y f
y
g
Th e
( (
(
h
s r d u ll f ro
f ro f (
t
o
) f(
)
If f a)
eq u a tio n f x
)
552
th e
s x c
ad u a ll
r
g
y
an
ge
an
d f b)
ar e o
co n
0 m u st lie b etween
m
y
b , an d
to
tr a y
a an
sig n s
d b
th en
o n e ro ot
Qf
c h an g e s
b , t h e fu n c t io n f
th e r e for e m ust p a ss th ro u g h all
T H EORY
E Q UA TI O NS
OF
465
= 0 h as o n l
o
n
I t d e s n o t f o ll o w th a t
y
a n d b ; n e ith e r d e s it f o ll ow th a t if f a ) an d
a s n o roo t b e t w e e n a a n d b
h
si n f
0
g
roo t
hav
b e t ween a
e t h e sa m e
553
Ev er y equ atio n of a n o dd deg r ee h as
r o o t who se sig n is Opp o site to th a t of its last ter m
at
f u n c ti o n f
su c c e ssi v e l y th e n
su b stitut e f or
In t h e
l ea s t
v lu s
the
o n e r ea l
0,
co
co
If p
is
an
an
oo
(
ti v
en f x = 0
e
o
siti
v
th
p
)
if
is
"
n e
h a s a roo t
= 0 h as a
OO
ly in g b e t w e e n 0 a n d
roo t ly i n g b e t w e e n 0
00
554
la st ter m
n eg a tiv e
.
Ev er y
n eg a tiv e
ha s
at
wh ich is
eq u a tio n
lea st two
an
d eg r ee a n d h a s its
on e
p o sitiv e a n d o n e
ev en
r ea l r o o ts
Fo r in
this
ca e
f
b u t p a is
00
an d
(
o)
= 0 h a s a roo t l i n
ti v e ; h en c e f
y g
a roo t l i n
b
t
w
n 0 an d
e
ee
w
y g
b et we en 0
n e
g
an d
(
(
( (
Su pp o s e
r epre sen t
al l
L et
be
(
)
()
x
is g r e at e r th an b a n d th at a B
t h e r o o ts o f f x ) = 0 w hi c h l ie b e t we e n a a n d b
t h e q u o ti e n t w h e n f
is d i v i d e d b y t h e p rod u c t
x
x
K
th
n
e
);
y)
th at
en c e
No w d)
r oo t
lie b e t w e e n
)
(
u ti o
f t he
an
an
d b
SC
7)
y)
r)
(
() (
)
(
Q
C
qS
f t h e s am e si g n , f o r
a n d th e r e f or e o f f
ust
d (
m
b
b
e
N)
(
w
)( (
f(
) ( ) (B) (
3
5
3
f(
) ([ H
)
A
rt
[
o th e r wis e a
= 0 wo u l d
w hi c h is c o n t r a ry t o t h e h y po
,
HI
466
G HER
(
)
()
th e sis H e n c e if f
r
e ss i o n s
p
.
L GEBRA
(
() ( )
() ()
an
_a
ha v e
b)
ci
2
)
o n t r a ry sig n s
K
the
ex
556
I f a, b ,
f ) p <
H e r e t h e q u an titi e s a
I f r o f th e m ar e e q u al t o a
=
r oo ts
the
ar e
c,
a
o
e,
to
b, t
ar e
to
no
n ec e
f )
x
en
ss a r il y u n e q u al
th e n
c,
k)
a
c
( ( ( (
,
( 0 th
f t h e e q u ati o n
(2 ( )
>
a
c
b,
f )
l
I n this c as e it is c o n v e n i e n t still t o s p e ak o f t h e e q u ati o n
x
a
O
s
a
n
a c h o f t h e e u a l r oo ts b e i n
h
v
i
it
ro
o
ts
o
si
d
r
d
e
c
n
e
e
f )
g
q
g
a d isti n c t roo t
96
= 9
2
96
'
57
90
90
557
If th e equ a tio n f x ) = 0 h a s r r o o ts eq u a l to
equ atio n f x
ll
0
w
i
h
ve r
a
l
r
t
a
o
o
s
e
u
a
l
o
t
)
q
.
L et
th en f
W r it e
(
(
b e t h e q u o ti e n t wh e n
is d i v i d e d
th e
by
(
x
h in t h e p l ac e
fx;
thus
h) ;
this i d e n tity
by
eq
u atin g
( (
,
f )
Thus f
c o n t ai n s t h e f a c t o r
i s t h e e u ati o n
x
0
a
h
s
r
q
f )
x
th en
In
a,
the
c o e i c ie n
ts
f h , we
h ave
96
r ep eat e d
roo ts
u
al t o
q
tim e s ; th at
H I GHER
468
u l to
is
)
f (
eq
th e
a,
L GEB RA
n of f
f
u
ti
o
n
c
t h e r st d r i v d
x
n
a
e
e
S
i
l
r
l
h
u
ti
o
t
a
i
m
a
q
a
y
e
ust
h
v
roo
ts
u
l
t
o
2
;
a e r
q
m
0
j
e
e
T
n
o
d
n
a; a
a
ust
h
v
roo
ts
u
l
t
o
s
o
h
s
e
3
r
e
a
q
0m
e q u al
e
h
t
e
c
l
us
t
o
d
is
o
v
r
n ab e
e
e
m
e
m
w
ill
s
o
ti
s
c o n si d e r ati o n s
5
9
5
r
t
f
A
o
e
m
e
h
t
w
ith
l
ss
t
ro
u
l
th
n
th
od
a
e
b
e
O
roo ts o f f
If
56 1
r
o v e th a t
p
a,
b,
ar e
c,
th e
h)
h)
r o o ts o
( (
x
th e
)
(
equ a t o n
(
x
0, t
h)
Bu t
h en c e f
m emb e r
'
is
E x amp le
e qu
an
S, d
no
4,
86
an
d8
su m
+px
of
qx
No w l
x
an
t h e la
h p owers o f
t : 0,
_a
n s
o ld
fo r
( f () f (
)
f(
)
f x)
x
(
1)
r ti c l e en ab l e s us v e ry e asi
o f t h e roo ts o f an e q u a ti o n
en
ai
L et
t
r i g ht b an
f t h e p r ec e d i n g
o
w
er
a ssi n e d
g
p
v lu o f S
ati o n
n d th e
f h in
1 6 3,
e te t h
If
in A r t
r e s u lt
as
Th e
56 2
n d t h e su m
to
(
h
b
)
(
)
(
)
(
(
)
)
(
f(
)
)
) f(
f(
) f(
f
k
c o e f c i e n t
the
th e r e f or e
1)
th at is
u
l
t
o
q
th e
:
1; _ e
th e
oot s of
th e
T HE O RY
He e by
i ti o
add
nc
4
5x
3
4
+ px
By
2 q x = 5x4 + 8 1 + 5p )
quati n g c o e f c i e n t s
E QUA TI O NS
OF
x3
+ 8 2 + p Sl )
wh e
Sl
n ce
When ce
3 2 2 192 ;
nc
" 1
x +p x
re ul t
s
s,
we ob tain
Pu t h : 5;
wh e ce
in
k 3
+ gee
v l ue
a
b,
s a,
c,
d,
e an
add n
t S, _5= 0
th e
5
p q
5t
S4 + p S3 + q SI + t S
3 g2
6p 3 q
=
To n d S_
u
k
4 , 3 , 2 , 1 in
t
_
4, p
S 2 + PSI + q S
+ ts
wh e e
nc
he
= O wh
whe
n ce
en ce
n ce
W h e n t h e c o eic ie n t s
56 3
c ee d as i n t h e f o ll ow in
x am l e
e
g
p
ar e
Fi
d th e
su m
(
)
0
0
S _3 = 0;
S _4 =
29
t
u m e r i c al
41)
t
we m ay
2x2 + x
2 x2 + x
4x + 1
1
i x)
l
l
s_2
f(
)
f (
) 3
'
S _1 = 0;
H er e
i on ; then
O,
6p t
c ce ss
A 1
roceed as follow
th u s
86
th u s
nc
E x a mp le
p + 4p q
th e
q Sk _3
S5
whe e
we p
3g ;
successi o n
Pu t k = 6 ;
3 _
* 5
"
_
~
nc
u ituti g for
+ 19 3 3
P;
wh e e S
whe e S
T d t h e val ue o f S for o th er val u es o f k
Multiplyin g th e gi ve equ ati o b y
S b st
52 )
S2 + Psl = 0,
+ PS2
: 4
SI + 5
P
P,
46 9
1,
ls o
ro
H I GHE R
47 0
AL
G E B RA
f(
)
he e S i qu l to th o f i e t of g
q u ot i t o f f (
)
wh i h i v ry o v i tly ob t i d b y th m th o d of sy th t d v o
th e
'
nc
f llow
s e
e c e
en
by
e ic
ane
en en
c n
i si
as
H
N
H e c e th e q
n
uo
ti e n t
18
1
3
4
4
6
3
2
4
2
2
10
thus
S4 : 1 0
EXA MPLES
XXX V
1
2
3
If f
ween
.
ween
b et
b etwe en
9
3 , an d
1 3x
= x4
16x
Sh e w
0 an d
th t
a
eq
7 6x
6 5, n d t h e
1 7x
9x +
l 0x
19,
6 4x
7 2x
ex
+ d, n
u ti o
a
Sh ew th at t h e e quati on
2 an d 3 an d o n e b etwe e n
Sh ew
3
an
(
ff (
7 d h v lu
d h v lu
ff (
d h v lu o f f(
d h v lu
ff ( h) f ( h )
3 9x
1 29,
3
0x
e o
val u
1 7x +
that
3
5x
0 h as
x5
5x
2 0x
1 9x
4 an d
5
0 h as
roo t b e twe en
12
5
x
13
11
15
ii
x
16
17
x
x
1 3 x4 + 6 7 x3
3
x
+ 4x
14
2 x5
3
1
2
x
+
4
4x
6 x + 1 2x 2
1 7 1x2 + 2 16x
3 x 5+ 6 x 3
roo t
roo t
root b etwe en
So l v e t h e fo ll owi n g e q u ati on s whi c h h av e e u al roo ts
q
x
roo t
h as
+ 3 x + 3 5x
2 an d
3
q u ati on x4 l 2x 2 + 1 2x
an d an o t h e r b e twe en 2 an d 3
th e
w th at
10
0 h as
+ 6
ff
e o
e o
e o
Sh e
th e
8
=
x
ax + b x 5
b et
3
2
1 x
(
If f(
)
If f x)
I f f x)
4
=
2x
If
5
6
l 0x
= x4
= x4
8 x4 + 4 x 3
1 8x 2 + 1 1 x
3x 2
(
a
2
3x
b)
(
a
+ b) x
b= 0
an d
H I G H ER
47 2
I f t h e p ro p
po
th e n it is
"
h e
"
+ p 2x
a
L GEB RA
a ti o n is
u
q
v i d e t th t
P1 9
ose d
"
"
r e q ui r e d
the
eq
0,
u ati o n w ill
be
We
0.
w hi c h is ob t ai n e d f ro m t h e r i g i n a l e q u ati n b y c ha n g in g
sig n of ev er y a lter n ate ter m b eg in n in g with th e seco n d
th e
r o o ts a r e
i
v
n
e
g
L et
i
v
en
g
e
0 b e t h e p r opo s e d e q u ati o n a n d l et
f
g
= x
an tit
P
at x
u
s
o
th
ut
th
n
e
y
y
q
q
u
ati o n is f
q
the
r e q ui r e d
the
d en o t e
an
u
ati o n
q
Examp le
Rem
ove fractio
n al c
3
2x
Pu t
x :
3
4
an d
multip ly
2y
u i g
By p t t
we b t a n
all
3
2
eac
16
;
1
29
h t erm b y 9
th e
term s
3
3y
16
b ec m e
th u s
3
e t/ +
i n tegr al
iv i
d id
an d o n
b y 2,
56 7
To tr a n sfo r m a n equ a tio n in to an o th er wh o se
r eci r o ca ls o
p
f th e r o o ts of th e p r o p o sed equ a tio n
.
th e
r o o ts ar e
L et
1
)I
!
f
th e n
0 b
the
the p
r e q u i re d
rop o s e d
u
a ti o n is
q
u
a ti o n
q
; p t y
u
so
th at
On e
TR A N SFO R M A TI O N
E x amp l e 1
If a,
c ar e
n d th e
v al u e o
Wr ite
fo r
su l t in g e q
2
x
c
+ q:
ul t i p ly
b y 31
oo ts
ab
%
If
a,
b,
val
ue o
r i tin g
fo r
+ 2x
th e t
g iv
en e xp re
when ce we ob t ain
is
ca
ll e d
If
t h e gi
"
as
th e
83 :
v en
pl
a ti o n
u
q
eq
ne
dby
th e
f S3 in t
e o
h i e q u t i on
s
2 SI
u n alt e r e d
by
h a n gi n g
cc
m to
1t
+ 19 n _2 x
wr iti n g
u
ti
o
n
s
q
p
v lu
71
+ 19 30
a;
I f th e s e t wo
u a ti on is
"
9
1
18
l equ a tio n
"
o b t ai
2p r
2y
42
u
at i on
q
a r eci r o ca
p
S3 + 33 2
0,
ss i o n i e q u l t
an d
an
re
If
th e
3x
SI :
s i gn s ; t he
r n s for m e d qu t i on i s
H e re
56 8
th e
roo t s
y + 3y
th e
al l
7(2
+b
an d
h ng e
th e
c ar e
x
n d th e
1
1
ce
E x amp le 2
u t i on
+p y
eq
47 3
= 0,
an
f th e
s o
NS
u t i on
h as fo r I t s
hn
roo t
at,
th e
O F EQU A TIO
_2 x
s am e
f r om t h e l a st r e sult we h a v e
c l a ss e s o f r e c i r o c a l e u ati o n s
p
q
.
= =
h
n
0,
c ea
r i n g o f f ra c t i o n s
+ p lx +
we m u st
p2
an
+ 19 2 c
the
""
are
f o r ac
an
pl
ha v e
1,
thus
we
h av e
t wo
H I GH ER
47 4
If P
1.
th at
is, t h e
an d e n d a r e
(
ii )
If p
p2
u al
t erm s
p3
eq
t a
ui dist an t f r o m
t h e b eg i n n i n g
1,
"
pi
o ef c i e ts
eq
th e n
1,
L G EB RA
th e n
P3
1 9
_s ,
h e n c e if t h e e q u ati on is o f 2 m di m e n si on s p m
o
r
0
pm
pm
I n this c a s e t h e c o e f c i en ts o f t e r m s e q ui dist an t f r o m t h e b e gi n
a n d e n d a r e e u a l in m a n i tu de an d o p o sit e in si n a n d
n in
g
p
g
q
g
if t h e e qu ati on is o f an e v en deg r e e t h e m i ddl e t e r m is wan tin g
z
56 9
Su pp o s e
O is
th at f
r e c i p r o c al
u
ati o n
q
is o f t h e r st c l ass an d o f an o dd deg r e e it h as a
is di v isi b l e b y so 1 I f (
h
)
is
t
r oo
s o th at f
e
I
u
o
ti
O
is
a r e c i r o c a l e u ati o n o f t h e r st c l ass
e n t th e n 95
q
p
q
If f
t
1;
an
f an
(
)
r oo t
If f
h as
b ef
an
degr ee
e v en
0 is o f t h e s e c o n d c l ass an d o f an o dd de g r e e ,
is di v isi b l e b y x 1 , an d
+ 1 ; in this c a s e J
O is a r ec i p r o c al e q u ati o n o f t h e r st c l a ss an d
"
o r e (I
e v e n de r e e
g
)
it
as
is
0
o f t h e s e c o n d c l ass an d o f a n e v e n deg r ee , it
)
h as a r oo t
1 an d a r oo t
1 3 i n this c a s e f
is di v isi b l e b y
2
90
1 , an d as b e f o r e (
a
a
a
c
n
m
is
r
i
r
o
l
u
ti
o
r
st
ec
e
o
f
t
h
O
e
b )
q
p
c l ass an d o f an e v en de r e e
g
If f
He n c e
r ec ip r o ca l
an
is
th e
y
its la st t er m p o sitiv e, o r can
th e r e f r e b e c n si de r e d as
o
e u ati o s
q
n
57 0
du ced to
.
an
ev en
r ecip r o ca
equ a tio n
an
L et t h e
ax
deg r ee with
b e r edu ced to this fo r m ; whi c h m ay
t h e st a n da r d f o rm o f r e c i p r o c a l
eq u a tio n
2m
di v i di n g b y
u
ati o n
q
2 m"
bw
x
"
an
s ta n da r
d fo r m
c an
be
be
+ cx
eq u a tio n
2m
r e arr an gi n g
the
te rm s
we
h av e
H
re
H I GHE R
47 6
E x amp le
eq
Fin d
4x +
b y 2 th e
xc
7 6 2: 2 1
e qu t i on wh os roo t e ee d
th e
u t i on
L G E B RA
e c a cu a
an
f th e
a:
r eq u i r d e q u t i on wil l b ob t in d b y ub st itut i g
m p l oy
p rop os e d e q u t i o n ; hen e i H om e r s p ro e s s w
d th
l l t i on i s p e rform ed foll ows :
Th e
root s
e e
76
21
2 fo r a: in t h e
+ 2 as
,
d ivi sor
as
32
83
24
35
16
13
hu s th t r n s form d e q u t i on i s
9 0 or
3
root s f t hi qu t i on
Th
p ro p os e d q u t i o n
T
th e
57 3
a
Th e
hi e f
ve
po
th e n if y
a
c
eq
+p
l
at
h , we
"
ce
root
th e
s o
th e
n ew e
<
y
u
ati o n
q
de s c e n di n g p o w e r s
7
2
0
the
sec on d
t e rm t o
r e m ov e d is
5 if t h e
0;
k
ec
hen
1;
(
th a t
be
Ob ta i n
SO
f the
+ p 2x
w hi c h w h en a rran g e d in
If th e
+ 1,
1)
u a ti on
+ z9
su b stituti o n in t h e p r e c e di n g
a ssi n e d te r m f r o m a n e u a ti o n
g
q
u se
r ti c l e is t o r em ov e s om e
L et t h e gi
ar e
ar e
s e
9)
t e rm t o
be
f y , b ec om e s
1 ) p ,h
+p
w e pu t
np
r e m ov e d is
h
o
0
.
0,
thi rd
w e pu t
we m ay
r e m ov e
the
7
0
0
an
an
s o O b tain a q u a dr a ti c t o
o th e r a ssig n e d t e rm
.
(
n
1 ) l 9ik
n d h ;
an
+ P2
S i m ila r l y
T RA NS F O RM A TI O N
fo
S m e ti m e s it w ill b e m
ll w in g e x am p l e
E QU A TI O NS
OF
47 7
o r e o n v e n ie t t o p r o c ee d
c
in
as
the
E x amp le
R m
ec
=
t
t
t
roo
s
so
h
Then if w in re s e
+
+
B 7
7
e h f th roots b y 3 in th tr ns form ed qu ti on th m f th roo t s
$
t h t i s th
wil l b qu l t
o f i nt f th s ond t rm wi ll
b
ro
H en th r qu ir d tr ns form ti on will b t d b y s ub s t itu ti g 3
P
f
i th g iv e n q u ti o n
57 4
F r om t h q u ti o f (
w
m
m
0
f
o
r
u
ti
o
)
y
q
L et
ac
a,
b e th e
e ze
ce
c e
e su
c e
ec
or x
w h o s e r oo ts
a re
ec e
e e
e e
n n ec e
th o s e
d with
an
f t h e gi v e n
u
ati o n
q
by
s om e assign e d r e l ati o n
L e t y b e a r oo t o f t h e r e q ui r e d e q u ati o n an d l e t x y )
0
de n o t e t h e a ssi gn e d r e l ati o n ; th en t h e t r an sf o r m e d e q u ati o n c an
b e O b t ain e d e ith e r b y e x p r e ssi n g x as a fu n c ti o n O f y b y m e an s
n d su b stitu t in
)
o f t h e e u a ti o n 4
x
0
a
this
v alu e o f x in
y)
g
q
= 0
w
x
b
l
m
n
a
n
b
h
n
i
i
ti
t
u
ti
o
s
O
o
r
e
x
e
e
e
n
t
e
e
a
x
;
f )
f )
y
g
q
an d 4
x
0
)
y)
(
:
E x amp le 1
If
f m th e e q at i n
a,
b,
c ar e
u o wh s root s
or
en x
in
th e g
be
an d
or
eref
th e
5b
d r es
bj
eq
a,
u t i on
a
b,
are
r ns form d
a
ab E
'
x
r
or
F orm
r o ot s
x_
-
b e th e
roots
f th e
() (
b
s ub s t i tu t i o n
1 +r
ar e
th e
s qu r e s
a
f th e
ub i
)
th e
u t i on ;
u i on wh os roo t
u i
t h e e q at
o f th e c b c
eq
3
x
L et
x3
thus th e requ ir ed e q u at i o n i s
.
in t h e t
_x+
y
Ex amp le 2
i ffe en c o f th e
u at ion
ab
ca
1
a
eq
iven eq u ati on
but
f th e
ar e
ro o t s
th e
2
,
; t
hen th r ts
()
a
2
.
oo
of
th e
r qu i d
e
re
H I GH E R
47 8
L G EBR A
NO W
2 b0
2r
l so wh en
e q u t i on ;
a
in
th e
g iv e n
l im in
at e a
s
eq
u t i on
a
()
=
b
y
th e t
in
r n sform d
a
hu
an
we
hv
to
a e
ween th e e qu at i o n s
b et
2r = 0
By
r ac t
su
(y )
mn
o
q+
u s u ga
S b t i t t in
r edu ing
c
y
CO R
If a , b , c
2 7 r2
4q3
at
Henc e in
r l
ea
27 r
9g y
,
:
1:
o
z
Or
4 93
() () (
b
b)
ar e all
p os i t iv
here for
ord th t th qu t i on
mu s t b n g t iv t h t i
a
er
2 7 r 2 + 4 93
we b tain
re l
ar e
i s n e g ive
e e
e a
e,
3
x
hv
m ay
+ qx + r = 0
a e al l
it s
u s t b n g ti v
e a
ro t s
o
r n s or d q u t i on h
oot ro t h r for
or i g in l u i on
u l roo t s
n g t iv root
If 2 7 + 4 q i s p s i t iv
th
t r n s for m d e q u t i n h
f
h
A
t
m
he
r
e
or
or
i
g
in
l
u
i
o
n
u
s
h
v
i
g i ry roo t s
t
t
t
m
t
w
t
q
[
s in e it i s o ly su h p ir f roots wh i h
n eg t ive root i
p rodu e
t h t r n s for m d e q u t i on
I f 2 7 r + 4 q 3 = 0 th e t a f m e
h as t wo e q a
th e
a e q at
2
e,
as o n e r
ze
e e
a e
c an
e a
as a
n a
EXA MPL ES
XXX V
4x
ran sfo rm t h e e q u at i o n
0 in t o an o t h e r w i t h
g
integral c oef c i en t s an d u ni ty fo r t h e c oef c i e n t o f t h e rs t te rm
2
3
Tran sform t h e e q u at i o n 3 x
5x + x
x + 1 = 0 in t o an o t he r
2
t h e c oef c i en t o f w h o s e r s t t e rm is u ni t y
3
x
ol v
th e
eq
u at i on s :
5
.
2x + x 3
x
3
1 0x
4
5x
x5
4x
+ 2 6x
9 x3
24 x + 57
~
2
2
9 x + 5x
4
x
73
3
x
2
5
+ 7x
2 4x + 4
H I G HER
48 0
L GE B R A
C U B I C EQUAT I O N S
Th e g e n e r a l
57 5
.
ty p e
x
as e x
l
p
in e d i n
L et
s ol ve
TO
x =
+ z
x
an
d t h e gi v e n
;
=
eq
Pin
+
.
the
+ z
u a ti o n
3
u
at i o n i s
q
R = O,
x +
c an
x
q
()
3 px y
be
r du
e
ce
to
the
O,
sta n da r d f o rm O f
ati o n
u
q
ub ic
Q
this e q u a ti o n
th e n
3
a c
0
0
9
the
as
f
g
A r t 57 3
S i m pl e r f o rm
w hi c h w e sh a ll t ak e
57 6
+ z
a c
u
a ti o n
q
ub i c
+ z
3 pm ,
b ec m e s
+ z
an titi e s su b j e c t t o t h e c o n
u
q
diti o n th a t th e i r su m is e q u al t o o n e o f t h e r oo ts o f t h e g i v e n
t
h
e u a ti o n 3 if w e fu r th e r s u pp o s e th a t th e y s a tisf
e
e u a ti o n
q
y
q
a r e c om l e te l
n at e
e
d
e
e
m
th
t
r
i
thus
o
t
i
Sy z
0
b
a
W
e
n
q
p
y
y
A t p re s e n t
ar e
an
w
t
o
y
hence
s
,
ar e
the
r oo ts
y
o
27
f t h e q u a dr a ti c
3
t +
So l v i n g
this
a ti o n ,
u
q
an
dp
rt
9
27
ob t i
a n
the
v lu
a
e o
u ttin g
we
f r om
the
5
;
r e l ati on
thus
CU
1 505
fo u n d
.
at
EQp A TI O Ns
B IC
48 1
t h e e n d O f B u r n si de an d Pa n t o n s Th eo r y of Eq u a tio n s
n
By A r t 1 1 0, e ac h O f t h e q u an titi e s o n t h e r i g ht
1 ) a n d 2 ) o f t h e p r e c e di n g a r ti c l e h a s
e q u a ti o n s
oo ts , h e n c e it w o ul d appe a r th a t x h as n in e v alu e s
57 7
si de o f
c ub e r
h o w e v e r is
F o r si n c e y z
a i r s s o th a t t h e
d
ct
r
o
u
p
p
s
t the
n o
ca e
the
u b e r oo ts
are
i
r
is
r
a ti o n a l
p
t h e v a lu e s o f an y p a i r o f c u b e r oo ts w hi c h
t h e o n l y o th e r a dm issi b l e pai r s wi l l b e
an d (
ar e t h e i ma in ar
w
h
e
w
e
e re w (
0
c u b e r oo ts O f
g
g
y
He n c e t h e r oo ts o f t h e e q u a ti on a r e
tak e n in
He n c e if y z de n o t e
ful l this c o n diti o n
to b
g
,
h an d
th r ee
this
eac
0
my , (
u n ity
/
:
E x amp le
Pu t
y+
o lv
fo r
x,
th e
(
0
3/
z,
eq
u at i on
3
z
+
hn
l so
h n ey
t
By z
15: 0,
= 1 26
3
z
+
y
,
ar e
th e
roots
f th e
t
1 5x : 1 2 6
1 5)
3z 3 =
eq
(
02
(
0
/
3
wz,
+ 3y z
pu t
12 6 ;
1 25
u ti on
a
1 2 6 t + 1 2 5= 0 ;
3z
1 2 5,
hu s
wy + w z _
1+
5+
1
2
Z 5,
J
3 +2
an d
th e
ro o
6,
t s are
3+2
3,
on
To e x p l a i n t h e r e a s
57 8
v alu e s fo r x i n A r t
57 6 , we b
.
the
eq
wh y we
o s e rv e th t y
f r om
u ati o n s 3f
0, y z
r n tly O b ta i n
a e
p
an
are
but
in
to
be
the p
in e
fou n d
n
r o c e ss
s o luti o n
the
s ec o n d
th e s e
wa s
h an g e d i n t o
"
gi
w hi c h
H I GHER
482
lu e s O f
57 9
e
96
( 2
If
an
9
27
y +z
r oo ts
9
27
is
b ec m e
3f
en
ze
wz,
an
f th e
o th r e al 3 l t
r oo ts th e n t h e r oo ts
3
ar e
w y + wz
su b stituti n g f o r
d by
r o th e n
an
9
the
d (
2
+ z
is
n e
w
p
ti v e th e n
,
f the
f
c u b i c b ec m e
o
_
J 3,
f o r m a + ib
th e s e q u an titi e s ar e
o
an
w
p
( g 5
If
r
e s si o n s
p
r oo ts
the
i n this
;
e
w ),
or
ca e
2y ,
= z
,
an
iii )
six
the
f u ll y
m o re
wy
+ z,
oo ts
o n si d r
,
r st O f th e s e is r e al
o th e r t w o b e c om e
( 3
ub i c s
o
siti
v
th
e
p
is
If
o th r
the
Th e
he nce
ar e
th e
r ep r e s e n t th e i r a r ith m e ti c al c ub e
ii)
e
y
(
D
9
f the
W e p r o c ee d t o
3
u
ati o n
q
o r
s o l u ti o n s
x a re
i)
e
y
(
0
w o u l d a l s o h o l d if
va
L GE B R A
an
iu
in ,
(
m
g
,
in ) w,
ar e
i m ag i n a ry
o s e th at
or
in )
an
ib
Su pp
an d m
in ;
in
th en
ub e
r oo ts o f
the
the
ex
2m ;
or
o r
3
J 3
+n
3
J ;
s oluti on
be
ib ) 3
3
s o l u ti on
s o luti on
m ay
be I
H I GH ER
484
by
lim i n a ti n g
a an
f r om th e s e
d b
(
( )
216
7
2
06
2k
o r
qk
AL
2 pr
u ti o s
a
eq
+ 19
ob ta i
we
lc + p
GEBRA
qs
d the
an
v al u s
e
m
an
to
a: a r e
z
a n
be
ob t i e d f r o m
be
l w ay s
dx +
+px +
or
;
b)
t wo q u a dr a ti c s
th e
0,
d
E x amp l e
o ve th e equ ati o
S l
2ab m
A dd
x
th en
by
2 x3
to
(
2
a
2x
e ac
5)
quati n g c oef ci en ts
2=
5x + 1 0x
2
h si d o f th
e e
+2
we
hv
2k + 6 ,
ab
+ 5)
qu ati o n
+b
3=
an
(
x
ssum e
a e
ab
2k
(
b 2 = k2 + 3 ;
5,
+ 6)
3
2 k + 5k
By
tri al
Bu t
th at
we n d
from th
th t
is,
wh e
n ce
th e
58 3
s ar e
Th e
ssu m e
k)
a:
a an
4, b
(
ax
d b , we
4,
ab
:I:
b)
hv
a e
t h e t wo
quati o n s
2x
x
+x
J5
f o ll ow i n g s o luti o n
th a t
2=
an
root
Su pp o s e
u ituti g th v lues of k
en c
4k
e as
S b st
k:
t h e b iqu a
dr a ti c
wa s g i
e
ve
b y D e s c a rt e s in 1 6 3 7
u
a ti o n is r e d u ce d t o
q
the
fo rm
th e n
by
u
ti
q
a
l+ m
Fro m
the
IQ U A D RA TI C
o e f c i e n ts
r st
h e n c e su b stit u ti n g
(
k
o r
lm
a ti o n s
u
q
o b ta i
7
2l = k +
u
ti
o
q
(
(
29 10
we
'
k
q
thi rd
in t h e
3
485
l)
o f th e s e
t wo
2m
U A TI O N S
h a ve
we
EQ
k
q
'
'
7C
4 k
43 ) k
0
.
This is a c u b i c in k w hi c h al w ay s h as o n e r e a l p o siti v e s o lu
2
ti o n [ A r t
thus w h e n k is k n ow n t h e v al u e s o f l an d m
a r e d e t e r m i n e d , a n d t h e s o luti o n o f t h e b i q u a dr a ti c is o b t a i n e d
b y s o l v i n g t h e t w o q u a dr ati c s
2
an
o ve t h e equ atio
E xamp le
S l
4
23
A ss me
th e n
by
4
x
+8
2x + 8 x
qu ati n g c o ef c i en ts
we
2=
k
(
we o b t ai n
n ce
l +m
whe
or
d w
k m
2,
8) k
2k
6
h ve
l) = 8 ,
Zm =
8)
1 2 762 ,
2k
4k + 16k
3;
h i e qu tio i s e s i e whe k
or k
It wi ll b
su i e t to o i de r
of th v u o f k putti g k = 2 w h ve
m+ l = 2
m l 4 ; th t i s l = 1
Th u
2 +8
1) (
h
d
+2
d th r for the roots
1 JQ 1
J 2
T
f c
c ns
cl
ar l y
at
one
en ce
an
e e
:
v
an
ar e
s d
al es
5:
Th e g e n e r al al g eb r a i c a l s o luti o n o f e q u ati o n s o f a
d egr ee hi gh e r th an t h e f o u r th h as n o t b ee n ob tai n e d , an d A b e l s
d e m o n st r a ti on o f t h e i m p o ssi b ility o f su c h a s o luti o n is g e n e rally
an
n
a c c ep t e d b
M
a th e m a ti c i an s
h
ow
v
r
h
c
o
e
f
c
i
ts
o
f
t
e
e
I
f
e
e
,
,
y
e fo u n d
al r o o t m a
b
r
e u a ti o n a r e n u m e r i c al , t h e v alu e o f a n
e
y
q
y
t o a n y r e q ui r e d d e g r e e o f a c c u r a c y b y
or n e r s Me th od o f a p
x i m ati o n , a full a c c o u n t o f w hi c h w ill b e f o u n d in t r e a tis e s o n
ro
p
t h e Th eo ry of Eq u atio n s
584
H I GH ER
4 86
W e sh all
58 5
.
n eo u s e
a ti o n s
u
q
E x amp le 1
o n c lu d e w ith
GEBRA
d is c ussi o n
th e
f s o m e m isce ll a
o ve the e quat i o
S l
AL
a x
b y
b y
a x
Mu l t i p ly the se
(
29
0,
%
%%
by
ax
ns
0,
a=
sp ec
ve
A ss
ar e
c e
c,
th e
ar e
by
e x
is
fo u
d)
an d
d,
en
es
7c
v lu of y
th e
be
c an
z, u
writt e
own
I f th e e qu ati on s are
+ by
ax
ro ceedi g as b efor e
n
%%
a x
6 y
3
a x
b 3y
g
d u
(
1
hu
own
by
th e
sy
v al
mm
u e of
etry
b)
ab
rs
an
( )( )
b) k
valu o f y
d th e
ove equat i o
es
b)
h as b e
ns
c an
e f il it ted b y
ac
real
From th e give e quatio
ar e all
d,
be
2
'
(
x
b)
(
x
L e t p , g b e th e
writte
th e
hew t h
( ) ( ()
x
ou i
Ex amp le 2
i s fou
Th e s l t o n o f t h e
Un de te min ed Mu l tip lie
h ve
we
( ( )(
a
Co s
by p
re
an s
( ) ( d)
b)
( ( )(
b)
s n
= k,
h refor
Th u t h v l u
y mm etry
dt
roots o f th e e qu ation
Hen c e
an
wh i l t b
an
ar e
'
nn
n s,
b)
()
a
v
we
h ve
a
f }
{9
root o f t h qu dr t i
s
( ()
x
b)
bl + h
0,
()
x
2fg h }
u se
of
H I GH ER
488
hi
s e
qu ati o n when
AL
G EBRA
e red o f fr ti o i of th
v lu e s
6=
a= b
cl a
ac
ns
i ed b y t h e t h
a
e quat i on s ; h en ce it m u st b e an i de ti ty
To d t h e val ue o f
m ul t i p l y p b y
is
sat s
r ee
hu
th at is
etry
we
h ve
a
in
v r
an d
en
0,
egr e i 0
i tu e f th giv
d
e sec o n d
an
a
d t
V
he
pu t
( ()
a
sy mm
By
a+
( )()
b
(b)
[A rt
a:
s
,
x,
b)
b
al
(
3
( )( )
()
b
(
)
)
(
b
an
EX A MPLES
XXX V
So l
1
3
is
12
13
f/4
4
x
uatio n s :
2
35
.
x3
6 3x
4
x
4
x
7 2x
1 7 2 0= O
3
x
1 5x
ea
th e
q u ti o
a
1 2x
12
3
8x
4 2x
+ 9x
2
2
+ 2x
7x
3x
6x
4 O=
6x
9x
17
3
x
1 2x
the
th e
+ 1 7x + 6x
8 0x
ti on
el a
0 m ay b e
s ol v e
10
14
4
x
2= O
2 0x
Fi d
=
x
+
4
x
1 0x
2 0x
I G= O
8x
en c e
r l root o f
th e
16
th at
3x
5
x
4x
+q
th e f
18
3
15
17
Prove
So l
11
1 8x =
2 ,2/2
eq
2 8x3
oll owi n g
th e f
+a
192
2 x3
1= O
i c h h as eq ual roots
an d 7 in orde r t h a t t h e e q u ati o n
O, wh
b e tween 9
h
u
t
i
n
t
o
t
e
f
or
m
p
'
q u ati on
8 x3
3 6x + 2 7 = 0
IQ U A D R A TI C
19
h av e
If
a c
3 gx + 7
an
'
a e
If
h w th
e
as a
22
the
e ac
u r ti i f
a
th em
th e
=
2
8
q u al
is e
q u ati o
to
4
n x
bc
h as t wo
ad
q u al roo ts
( 6)
d c
+p
3
x
9x
xx
0 m ay b e
olv e d
o lve t h e e q u ati o n
23
x
one o
o mm o n fac tors sh ew t h at
= o
2
9
m
e q u at i o n ax3 + 3 b
+ 3 cx + d = 0
t wo
h w th
S
a
d
q
21
2p m
(
P q) (
a P )
2
2
0
489
hyh v
20
If t
U A TI O N S
EQ
1 8x + 1 6 x + 2 8x
wh o s e roots is J6
.
If a B y
,
n d th e
roots
q u ati o n wh o s e roo ts
3 2x + 8
0,
the
ar e
f th e
quatio n
1
ar e
&c
ve
x
I n t h e e q at i on x
rx + s = 0, p ro
th
t
if
t
h
e su m
a
24
+
p
g
3
w
o
roo
ts
i
s
e
q
l
t
o
t
h
e
u
m
o
h
e
o
t
e
r
t
wo
4
8
r = 0;
a
s
ft
o ft
o fthe
+
p
pq
t h e p ro d c t o f t wo o f t h e roo ts is e q al t o t h e p ro d c t o f
an d th at i
.
o th e r two
th e
26
27
Th e
5
x
2 09 x + 56
b,
0 h as
two roo ts wh o s e p ro du c t
is
F in d t h e t wo roots o f
If a
q uatio
u n ity : d et ermin e th em
25
3
x
ar e
th e
5
x
4 09 x + 2 8 5= 0
roo ts
wh o s e su m is 5
of
+p n _l x
sh e w th at
28
Th e
su
f two
x
is 4
le d
roots
8x
f the
2
2
1
x
+
eq
u atio
P3 +P5
20x + 5= 0
.
l i wh y o n attem p ti n g t o s ol v e
o f this fac t t h e m e th o d fai l s
exp a n
P2 +P4
the
eq
u at i o fro m
n
th
kn w
EX A MPLES
MISCELLA NEOUS
I f 3 1 3 2 3 3 ar e t h e s u m s o f 9i
arit h m e ti c al p ro gr e ssi on s h e w th at
1
3 72
an
(( ( ( (
)
(
y(
l)
+ 2)
+ 3)
4)
In
rst p t erm s
o f whic h
A P,
an
0,
sh e w th at
r st term i f t h e
ne t
t
r
m
s
e
9
is t h e
su m o f t h e
th e
(
2x
[R
So l
th e
q u ati on s
b
b
b
+
+
(
) ( )( )( ) (
2
3
(
)
(
{ (
1
dx
d x
i
x
(
a+
12
f th e
p
.
(
r
g) e
su
bx )
W OOLWIC H ]
.
I
N
D
I
A
C
I
V
I
L
[
RV I CE ]
i u ity
SE
F in d
an
a,
I f 2x
10
.
F in d
the
2
1
an
valu
B+ B,
d 2y
e o
+ B,
+a
+ lg
val u
n d t h e
e o
HS?
(wa
a
vs ?
R
[
11
If a
an d ,8 ar e
t h e i magi n a y
a
+3
c
l
u b root
s o
WO O L W I C H ]
u i ty s h
n
w th a t
H I GH ER
49 2
AL
GEBRA
F in d t h e su m o f t h e p rod u c ts o f t h e in te g er s 1 2 3
tak en
two at a tim e a d sh e w th at it is e q u al t o h al f t h e e c e ss o f t h e su m o f
t h e c u b e s o f t h e gi v en i n t ege r s o ve r t h e su m Of th ei r s q u ar e s
23
24
A m an
an
25
.
su
ff
( ()
) W
(
1)
+b
(
c
+c
(
a
b) = 0
[ M A T IL
27
an d
If V
+ Vb
if
x=
0,
TRI Po s ]
.
sh ew th at
sh ew th at
29
So l
th e
eq
u ti o s :
a
2 x + y = 2z , 9 2
7 x = 6y ,
[R
W OO L W I C H ]
.
31
In
o s i stin g
.
gv
oin s
F in d a an d b s o th at x 3 + axa + I l a
an d
hav e a c o mm on fac t or o f t h e form x +p x + g
.
+ b x + 14x + 8
O
L
[
In
do it in Six
t h e t i me ?
33
60 c
32
m ay
N D ON U N I ER S I T
V
M I SCEL L A N EO U S
34
I f t h e e q u tio s
a
ro
v
e t h at
p
35
.
i on
1,
an
1,
2
ex
dy
x =
T
M
A
T
R
I
P
S
E
[
]
O
a
,
2x + 2x
If o n e
3
roo ts O f x
f th e
l)
9 3p
o lv e
th e
If a
b,
an
o t he r
f the
P
E
M
E
[
C O LL CAM E ]
.
q u ati o n
4
5x
ax
6x
E
E
U
N
Q
[
fra ti o
th e
+ 19x
it
to
e
-
a=
b=
c,
an d
x =
S C O LL
Cx
its l owe st te rm s
z a r al q u a titi s
re
Red u ce
c, x ,
sh ew th at
sq u ar e
+p x + g = 0 is t h e
F i n d th e v al u e o f a fo r whi c h
its o f r e d u c ti o n
3
x
39
h ave o n ly o n e s o l utio n
3
x
adm
38
+ by
49 3
sh ew th at p
37
dx
E
,
36
f 1
Ex A MPL ES
an
0, y = 0,
R I PO S ]
)
l
[ IA TH T
z =
[ C HR I S T S C O LL CAM E ]
40
th e
Wh at is t h e greate st te rm
in t h e
ex p an
si on
value o f is g?
E
[ MM
wh e n
C O L L CAM E ]
.
o f th e ir s q u ar e s is 3 52
[ C HR I S T S C O LL C A M E ]
41
1+b +
2
in it s
43
si mpl e st form
in
te rm s
f a, b ,
2
3c
I D N EY C LL
[S
CAM E ]
ol ve t h e e q u ati o n s :
)
(
(
) 3y
1
44
If x
y,
za
re
lo g
+z
in
= x2 + 2
y
h arm o n i c al p ro g re ssi o n
(
x
lo g
[ C O R P U S C O LL
h e w t h at
(
a:
Cx
HI GH ER A L GEBR A
4 94
Sh e
45
.
w t h at
5
6
E
MM
[
46
th e n
3 x + 2y
3a
2b
If
wi ll
3y + 2 z
3 2 + 2x
3b
2c
3c
3 a) :
2a
C O L L CAM E ]
.
1 32 )
9 x + 8y
(
a
+ b + a)
C
HR
I
S
T
S
C
O
LL
CAM
E
]
[
on s o a ts an d 5 v owe ls h o w m a y word o f fo u r
form e d h av in g 2 diffe r e t v owel s in t h e m i ddl e a d 1
l e tt e r s c a b
rep e at ed or di fferen t ) at e ac h en d ?
c on so a t (
47
W ith
n
A q
a
s n
e
p
as
h ow m a y h g ed t h i r m i ds ? [ ST J O H N S C O L L CAM E ]
8 t 7
48
as
17
an
as
as
ce
as c a
ene
an
Sh e w
on
a n
49
as
th at
(
l g
(
1
5x
5
x
1 3x
E]
C
HR
I
S
T
S
C
O LL
CAM
[
A b
51
Sol
th e
eq
u ati o s :
n
(
()
b
(
) (
( (
t/ a
"
1)
52
:
c
Pro
2=
"
th
2
.
v th t
e
J4
3
IDN
S
[
53
5x + 6 )
olv e 3 6 (
6x
f/5 (
EY
C O LL CAM E ]
.
E
U
N
S
C
L
L
C
A
M
EE
O
Q
]
[
H I GH ER
49 6
I f t h e roo ts
65
.
f th e
AL
G EBRA
q u ati o n
1
3
9+ 2
are
e qu
66
l sh ew th at p
If a + b
2=
2
13 + 0
4q
+9 9
1H E
[R
l g
(
If n
is
r o ic
we en
d i 7i h a m
n
d I er e n c e b e t
68
(
1
ac
m e an s
r d
P4 = 57
1 6 , n d
ro
r
in s e t e b e t e e n a an d
an d l ast m e an is e q al t
or I
r
So l v e t h e
70
S C O LL
eq
7t
wo u d
r
u ati o n
(
93
}{
c,
If
by
li min atin g x
x
=
b
0
+
+ ax
th e e q u ati o n
b e twe en
an
na
n x,
3
1
x
+ ) + }
3
(
4
x
Gi v e n lo g
ar e
an
(
)
th
73
e i r fo
.
an
d b = m,
V5
+ vb
su
0x
b +m=
A
th e
Of
al
th e
W OO L W I C H ]
eq
u ati on s :
?g
.
is
L
O
[
th o s e
as
or
s ol ve
F in d two n um b e r s su c h t h at th ei r
u rth p owers 24 1 7
C O LL
s am e
th e
d lo g
2)
3 +l
[ M RT N
R
[
72
x/
en e
t G o v e rn m e n t
r e c e i ve d 4; p er c en t
oan i ss u ed ?
c en
l )3
dr ti i y is for m d w h o s roo ts
u
q
or gi l q u adr ti i
th
ith r = 2 l
th e
x
A
DH
A
M
C
L
L
O
W
0
[
]
71
0x
sh ew t h at
o ac (
c)
a
A p e s n i n e s ts a c e tai n su m in a 6 p e r
l an : 1 f t h e p i c e h ad b een 3 l ess h e
l ha e
m e n te e st o n h is m n ey ; at h at p i c e was t h e l
EEN
ar e
r st
the
If
roo t o f t h e e q u ati on
x
WO O L W I C H ]
+ lo g b )
U
Q
[
.
(b
67
S h w th t
7 ab ,
z=
an d
9,
the
su
N D N U N I VER S I T
O
%
Y
A se t o u t t
al k i n g 2 2 h
Pro v e
75
.
fac tor
th at
th e
i n t ege r
n ex
ab
ov e (
J3 +
on tai n s
as
M I SC EL L A N EO U S EX A M PL ES
49 7
76
s er i e s
Th e
5, 6 , 7 , 8 , 9 ;
n
f n at
group i ( 1 ) +
Sh w t h t t h
77
an
so
e su
:
E
7 l 3.
on
u r l u m b e rs i di vid d i t o g rou p 1
th t t h
u mb e r
: p ro v
m f th
3
e su
te r m s
u l to
a
5 7
2n
In
R
[
78
h w th
the
o ef c ien t o f x
13
a cc
ord in g as n is
79
So l
f th e
th e
eq
(
1)
form
(
r l v lu f
82
i n teg
e o
%%
5
0
or
xy z
Is
2
_
1
x +x
+ i/ + z
C O LL C X ]
ac c ordi n g as t h e s e ri e s a x y z
v alu e s o f a an d b ass u m i n g t h em
X ]
C
M
R
T
N
C
O LL
E
O
[
v
U
N
I
[
is gr eate r th an
2x
+y + z
If
is arithm eti c o r h ar o
t o b e p o siti v e i n te g e r s
b
is 7
3
m n ic : n d t h e
e x p an sI o n o
3 m, 3 m + 1 , 3 m + 2
v lu o f
a
WO O L W I C H ]
Th e
the
1)
u ati o s :
(
)
3
80
Is e
q
e n
2, 3 , 4 ;
in t h e
s e r i es
f th e
5
5x
l ess th an
an d
7x
3 , n d t h e
I f P is t h e n u mb e r Of i n t eg e r s w h o s e l o garit h m s h av e t h e
o f wh ose
c h ar ac t e r isti c
n d Q t h e n u mb e r o f in t e g e r s t h e l o garI t t
a
p
r ec i pro c als h av e t h e c h arac ter isti c q S h ew th at
83
l o gIOP
84
t I at
way s
In h o w m an y
no
pe
rs on
m ay
lo gi o Q= P
m ay 20 shillin
rec ei v e l e ss t h an
wishi g
1
+
9
gs
b e gi
S hilli g s
ug
en
to
5 pe
rs on
SO
or o
da hte s t o e c e i e e q al p t i n s
w e n t e y c am e o f age b e q u e ath e d t o t h e e lde t h e ac c u m u l at edm t eres t
i
st
t
h
e ti m e o f h i s de ath I n 4 p e r
o f a c e tai n su m o f m n e
t
n
e
e
a
y
c n t st c k at 8 8 ; an d t o t h e
n e
h
e b e q ti e at h e d t h e ac c m l ate d
y
i n te e st Of a su m l ess t an t
m e b y 3 500 i n e s te d at t h e s am e
ti m e in t h e 3 p e r c en ts at 6 3 S p p s i n t e i a e s at t h a t i m e o f
at was t h e su m In es t d
t e i at e s deat t h a e b ee n 1 7 an d 1 4 ,
in eac h c as e , an d h at was e ac da
t s t ne
h
e
85
.
A m an
r
o
H A
.
h o v
.
ou g r
he for r
h rf h r
H
h is t wo
u o
g h r g
wh
u gh e r for u
u u
v
32
H I GH ER
498
86
AL
G EBRA
u m b r f th di gits i
l 7 wh
i g i ts r v r s d i ord r : d t h u mb r
A
d
h as it s
r ee
sca e
e n
r ss ed i s c ale 9
en e x p e
J O H N S C O L L C AM E ]
I f t h e s u m o f m te rm s o f an ar i thm etic al p ro gr e ssi on is e q u al
an d al s o t o t h e su m o f t h e n e x t p
s u m o f t h e n e x t 72 t e
.
T
S
[
87
to t h e
p ro v e t h at
te rm s
88
Pro
m+n)
(
m
J O H N S C O L L CAM E ]
S
T
[
v th t
ex
1,
WO O LW I C H ]
s h ew th at
E
M
[ M
C O LL CAM E ]
If m
is
ne
g ti v
a
o
i
t
i
v
e
a
p
e, o r
gr e t r t h
a e
m
m
m
5
1 +3 +
+
R
[
89
an
+ 2n
h ve
a
a c
a
p
2_
6
'
om m on roo t prov e th at
,
01
i r o f t h e t h re e e q u ati on s
I f e ac h
90
2
+ 29 2
0
+2
3
(9
4 91
+ 9 3 = 02
9 3)
P3
J O H N S C O LL CA M E ]
A an d B t r av e ll e d o n t h e s am e ro ad an d at t h e sa m e rate fro m
91
Hu n ti n gdon t o L on don A t t h e 50 m i leston e fro m L on don A ov e r
too k a dro v e o f g e e s e wh i c h we re pro c ee di n g at t he rate o f 3 mile s in 2
h o u rs a n d t wo h o u rs afterwards m e t a waggon w h i c h was m o vin g at
t h e r at e o f 9 m i l e s in 4 h o u r s
B o v e rt ook t h e s am e drov e o f g ees e at
h
t h e 4 5 m i l e st on e an d m e t t h e wagg o n e x a c tly 4 0 m i n u t e s b e fore h e
c am e t o t h e 3 1
W h er e was B w h en A r e ac he d L on don ?
m il e st on e
[ ST J O H N S C O L L CAM E ]
If
92
p ro v e t h at
S
T
[
th
"t
R
[
93
t e rm s
A n A P,
G P,
an
in
h w th
a c en
in t h e
ex
g p ow r
p an si
on
the
Of x
(
of
h ve
2"
2
7
is
is
5
3
d b fo r
G P if
in
in t h e
1
a
an
"
WO O LW IC H ]
th e i r rs t t wo
.
[ MATE
n
"
a an
'
oef c i e t o f
1
(
an
th
ba b
94
S h w th t th ir (
+ 2 ) t rm w i ll b
e x p an
dt
si on
Of
R I P OS ]
x
( )(
x
t the c o
e f c ie n t
E
M
M
[
b)
Of x
2"
C O LL CAM E ]
.
H I GH ER
500
Sh e w
105
.
th at
th e
si on
e x p an
AL
G EBRA
18
1 06
If a
is
%
wh e re
an
)3 ar e
roo ts o f t h e e q u at i on s
i n t e g e r sh e w th at
en
F i d t h e differ en c e
on tin u ed frac ti on s
1 07
"
b
06 +
2d + 2a + 2a +
C O LL CAM E ]
sq u ares o f t h e i n n ite
th e
an
F
E
M
E
[
roo ts
b e tween
B
n
+1
Bar e
0+
20+ 20+ 20 +
C
HR
I
S
T
S
C
O
LL
CAM
E
[
]
A su m O f m o n e y is d ist r i b u te d am o n gst a c e r tai n n u m b e r o f
1 08
an t h e r st t h e t h ir d 2 3
r
s
o
s
o
or
th
ns
n d re c ei ve s 1 3
m
e
e
T
h
e
ec
p
m ore t h an t h e s e c o n d t h e fo ur t h 3 3 m ore th an t h e thi r d an d s o o n
I f t h e r st p ers on ge ts 1 3 an d t h e l ast p er s on 3
wh at is t h e
n d t h e su m dist ri b ute d ?
n u mb e r Of
r
s
o
s
n
a
e
p
o l ve t h e
(
1)
eq
uati o n s
2 + 31 1
a
b +c
3
3
1+
b
+x _
c+ a
+ 3/ _
my
my
1 10
If a
an d
ar e
+y
xy
+
2
"
72
b
(
( )
a
b)
T
S
[
valu s o f
e
Ex p res s
x an d
3 f
o
s
i
ti
v
n d un e q u al p ro v e t h at
e
a
p
n
1 11
109
CA T H C O L L CAM E ]
.
763
o
tin u e d frac ti o ; h en ce n d
396
whic h s at i s fy t h e e q u ati on 3 9 6 x 7 6 3g 1 2
-
as a c n
th e
l east
k
t a e 77 ti m e s as m an y day s as A an d 0 to e t r ; 0 al on e wo l d tak e
i
m
e
a
s
m an y day s as A an d B t o t e r s ew t at t h e n um b e r s o f
t
s
p
day s in wh i c h e ac h wo l d do i t al on e ar e as 7 n + 1 n
l
1
+
p
.
g g h
g he
ge h
h h
Pro ve
a] s o
m
m+ 1
+1
1
+
2
,
R
[
W O OLW I CE ]
M ISCEL L A N EO U S EX A M PL ES
501
,
p y
y
50 b o arde r s , an d 1 0 1 3 3 4 d w h en th e r e are 6 0 : w at is t h e p ro t o n
eac h b o arde r wh en th e r e ar e 80?
1 13
1 14
If x y
2
2x
an
is
gr
no
t r th an
sh ew th at
1,
ea e
10
5
P
E
E
T
[
If
1 15
.
ar e
n eq
=
a
al ,
an
If
_ x2
(
(
()
)
(
(
)
a
1 16
an
2 2=
b 0
ro
v
th
a
t
e
p
or
0,
sh ew th at wh e n
2
0
2:
So l
th e
(
) (
)
(
1
+ kl x + k2x +
3r =
3r _
3r
x
x
cl
1,
+
2
7
I
L
.
R
[
q u ati o n s :
2y z
a a
l 2
h en c e p ro ve th at t h e
p rod u c ts two t o geth e r
q u an titi e s
.
119
If
Fin d t h e
x6
su
(
)
1
are
F nd
i
th e
gr
d if t h e
b e fo u n d , p ro
sq u are roo ts O f t h e
is l ess th an t h e arith m eti c m e an o f t he gi v e n
A
M
W
L
W
I
C
H
R
O
O
]
[
2 3
2
?
2
2
a
e
1
a 6
an d a
x
ro
v
th
t
b
p
y
4 6
4
4 2
2
E
I
N
D
I
A
C
I
V
I
L
S
R
V
I
C
a y
b
a y )
E]
[
r ith m e ti c
m e an
f th e
f th e
t st
r st 72 te rm s o f t h e s e ri es wh o s e
((
2r + 1
ea e
2)
+ ? b)
[ ST
1 21
W O O L W I CE ]
o ooo oo +a ) i
b
1 20
an
71,
a a
I f th er e ar e 77 p o siti v e q u an titi e s d l
sq u are roo ts Of all th e i r p rod u c ts tak en t wo to geth e r
th at
1 18
a an d c
1 17
= c2
,
RH O U S E C A M E ]
val u
e o
x
2
+2
2x +
t erm s
J O H N S C O L L CAM E ]
H I GH ER
502
1 22
So l
th e
(
(
) 3
eq
uati on s
22
= xz
AL
G EBRA
1)
x /
I d l , a2 , a 3 ,
1 23
e x p an de d b i n m i al, p
.
4
e
ro v th at
3
x
+ a4
+ 7x
en e a
_ 4x _ 4
In th e
U
EE
N
C
LL
S
O
A
M
E
C
Q
[
.
is
e x p an
de d in
as c e n
d i g p ower s
n
s c al e
rec u rr i n g s e ri e s
an
1 25
th e
2 + ai3
3x
r l t e rm w h en
2d 2
a3
al 2
+
1
fo u r c o n s ec uti ve c o e f c i en ts
ar e an y
a1
n d t h e
23 x + 3 x
6p
126
If x
2a
th en wi ll
1 27
th e
(
) ()
(
l
I
ax Og
1 28
6
+
y
(
)
(
2x
2
,
(>
by/
103 b
l
b o g it
s o
[MATH
R I PO S]
a lo g y
2
.
wh en
wo u
wh en
d 2a
an
an
1)
(y )
u ti o s
/
xx
if
Fi d t h e li m iti g v al u e
3x
eq
an
(w)
y
(
)
y
3y
2a
Sol
u n eq u al
z ar e
te rm i n e t h e un k n own
o f r e l at i o n
an d g i v e t h e
R
A
M
WO O LW I C H ]
[
; de
x = oc
x= a
r w o
hr o
rod
[ LON D ON
U N I V ER S I T Y ]
uo
n mb e s
h s e p u c t is 1 9 2 , an d t h e q ti en t
Th e e ar e t
129
t h e a ith m e t i c al b y t h e a m n i c al m e an o f t
i
e at e s t c m m n
m e as e an d l e ast c m m n m ltiple is
n d t h e n mb e s
E
L
I
C
R
A
O
O
W
W
]
[
of
ur
he r gr
u
M
.
H I GH ER
504
1 39
G EBRA
) (
(
f
h
h
sq
u
r
s
o
f
t
h
t
r
m
s
T
)
(
i
T
h
t
r
m
s
h
s
r
i
s
d
d
f
t
(
)
1
th at
2n
e O
If
1 40
te rm s :
Su m t o
AL
a,
B,
a e
e
roo ts o f
the
are
s e ri e s
R I N C O L L CAME ]
T
[
th e
1 , 3 , 6 , 10,
q u ti o
a
3
x
+ gx + r = 0 p
ro v e
[ ST J O H N S C O L L C AM E ]
141
ol ve t h e e q u ati on s
(
) (
y
1
(
)
2
3
x
x
+y
3=
495
z =
15
+ z
+y +
2
x3
/
1 05
R I N C O L L C AME ]
form t h
T
[
Su m t h e
(
)
(
)
)
(
2x
l 6x
28 x 4
an
be
eq
h w th t i f
a
u lt
a
1 45
.
al l
El i m i n ate
u qu
ne
x,
from
2 are al l
x,
th e
+x
6 7 6 x 5+
to
1 44
s e ri e s :
1 43
th
f th e
em
i n n ity ;
[ O X F O RD
M OD S ]
quati on s
n ite an d n u m e ri cally
[R
roo ts
to
t er m s
Th e
al : n d
q u ati o n
R
[
u n eq
u al
c an n
ot
WO O L W I C H ]
ar e n o t
WO OL W I C H ]
g g v
1 47
F in d t h e value o f
1
3+ 2+
1
1+ 3+ 2+
M I SCEL LA NEO U S EX A M PL ES
505
148
So l
th e
u atio
eq
2
+ 3 ax + 3
(
a
I f n is a p ri m e
1 49
n
z
b
a + b , p ro e t at a
m lti p l o f n
.
If
e q u at l o n
3
b
c
+
+
a,
is
b,
th
c ar e
th e
ar e
<
y+
Pro v e
R V I C E]
ithe r a b n o r
2
e x c e e ds b y
1 a
+db
S
T J O H N S C O LL CA M E
[
]
ne
d th e
(
an
ax
m to
t er m s
f the
s eri e s w h o s e
s Of
e
2
2
2
0 +a
c
+b
M D S]
[ O X F O RD
th e q u ati o n
roo t
b +
su
2
n d t h e
T
[
152
SE
w h ose roots
I
N
D
I
A
C
I
V
I
L
[
.
c
4 3
te rm
a bx
3abc = 0
u mb r whi h wi l l di id e
th e
b c)
1 50 F i d
S u m t o i n n it
y
1 51
R I N C O LL CAM E ]
.
that
yz
zx
y>
2
CLA
R
E
C
O
LL
CAM
E
[
]
.
1 53
olve t h e e q u ati on s :
(
(
)
1)
5
x
3 0x
133
0, b y
4
4x
3
0x
2
x
+ 40
a,
C ardan s
m e th o d
0,
36
9x
l b, c
:
_
If
1 55
.
an
d e n o t e t h e su m t o n t e r m s o f t h e
th at t o
ri e
h ew th at
156
se
t e r m s o f t h e s e ri e s
[ MA C E C O LL
0x
o ve t h e e q u ati o s :
S l
((
)
(
1)
l 2x
3
( ( )(
1) 6x
1 ) 4x
>
6)
H o e
(
13
S
T
[
7)
92
8)
58 5
'
J O H N S C O L L CAM E ]
H I GH ER
506
G EBR A
g i i g f y r w worth 250 b t it
u d th t b y di l p i d ti o t t h d f h y r i t l ost t p
e t f t h v l u i t h d t t h b g i i g f h y r ft r wh t
u m b r f y r s wo u ld t h v l u e f t h o tt g b r du d b l ow 2 5?
47 7 1213
G iv
l g 3
R
M
A
L
W
I
C
H
W
[
]
1 57
was fo
c
1 58
10
nn n
ea
e en
ns a
e ac
nn n
ea
en
ea
ce
e ac
a e
e C
as
er
'
w th at t h e i
Sh e
ea
en
th e b e
at
ottage
AL
OO
i te s e ri e s
ar e e
q u al
1 59
H O U S E CAM E ]
P
E
T
ER
[
Pro
t h e de n t
(
x
i ty
( ) (B)
x x
3
x
(
1 3
(
x
xx
By
6 )
RI N C OL L CA ME ]
T
[
1 60
If n
is
is
572
56 7i
of 1 20
m ultip l e
sh ew th at
1,
[ WA DH AM C O L L
u mb r f p rs o s w r
g g d t do pi
wh i h wo u l d h v o u p i d t he m 2 4 h ou
i f th y h d omm
1 61
a e
cc
e e
en
a e
rs
ece
OX]
work
c e d at
en
s am e ti m e ; b u t i n ste ad o f do i n g so the y c om m e n c e d at e q u al
i n t er val s an d t he n c o n ti n u e d t o work ti ll t h e wh ol e was n i s h ed t h e
ne b
t
h
e rs t c o m e r
t
e
i
g
ro
or
t
i
o
l
t
he
work
o
h
a
m
e
n
b
n
d
e
a
c
:
n
a
t
o
p y
y
p p
re c e i ve d el e ven ti m e s as m u c h as t h e last ; n d t h e ti m e o c c up ied
the
162
So l
th e
+ 3/
q u ati on s :
z(
+y )
x
2
0
F
E
M
E
[
C O LL C AM E ]
.
H I G HER
508
17 1
i n t e ge r
She w t h
17 2
So l
the
les s than
no
at
3
4
1
n
+
7n
AL
GEBRA
divi ib l e
8 n is
b y 8 4 0,
if
If 3
u ti o s :
a
eq
b e th e
su
o f 77 p o sit i v e u n eq u al q u a tities
3
3
an
[ M AT E
17 3
is
71
RI POS]
th en
b,
a,
M
A
T
T
R
I
P
S
E
]
[
O
o o
gd
17 4
o w
rogr
o o
g o
o
.
g o
d
g o or
od
d
f
g o or o
wo u
v o
o o
g o
g o
wo d v o
dd
u
r v
1 7 5 Pro v e th at
o
rv
of o o
u r
gg o r
or
or
d d
o
or
b +o
( )(
b
ow
( ( )( ( )
b)
b)
[ J ES U S C O LL CAM E ]
.
17 6
e
If a , B y
th e
ar e
quati o n wh o s e roo ts
roo ts
B+ y
are
f th e
y
,
q u ati o
n d t h e
R
[
W OO LW I C H ]
an
G iven
t e rm s
17 8
th at
f a, b ,
So l
(
l
a
0, c
2
,
+b
)
e, ,
fg
th e
eq
x
12
+g
LO
an
d g in
N D N U N IV ER S I T Y ]
,
u ti o s
+y
2=
6 1,
M A W LWI CH ]
wh i h th r
fo u
r
h
w
t
h
t
t
h
;
p p
[R
3
x
A m an
o es in fo r an Exam i n ati on in
c
it
e
s
a
a m ax i m m o f m m ar k s fo r e ac h
r
W
a e
p p
n m b e r o f way s o f e tt i n
2 m m ark s o n t h e w h o l e is
17 9
n d p
(
(
:
1
3
1)
2 m2
4m
OO
e e ar e
T
M
A
T
R
I
P
S
E
]
[
O
M I SCEL L A N EO U S EX A M PL ES
509
If
1 80
Of x
+ qx + 1
roots
B ar e t h e
a,
0;
S h w th at (y ) (
B y )(
e
roo
ts
d y , 8 ar e t h e
2
2
=
a + 6
) B+ O) g p
R
A
W O OL W I CE ]
[
an
181
w th at if am b e
th e n wh atev e r n b e
Sh e
th e
o i t
ef
c en
m
x
in t h e
e x p an
si o n
ao
al
a"
am
N
[ EW C O L 0x ]
.
1 82
su m o f
.
ce
1 83
Form an e q at i o n wh o s e
t wo O f t h e roo ts o f t h e e q at i o n x 3
.
So l
v o m pl t e l y
e c
th e
u atio
eq
Prov e
n
th at if in is
"
e
e
o
siti
v
i
n
t
ge r
p
an d
185
ro ve
186
n +
So l
th e
1)
If
2
=
th at NF 20
(
n
if
4)
<
W OO LWI C H]
m
,
fra t i o l
F b e th e
na
rt
pa
C O LL CAM E ]
E
M
M
[
u at i o s :
n
v ry
1)
2)
R
[
.
1 2x
184
<
y
<
x
C
HR
I
S
T
S
C
L
L
C
A
M
O
E]
[
w h o le n um b e r o f Li b e ral s retu rn ed
was 1 5 m ore th an t h e n u m b e r o f En gl ish C on s e r v ati v e t h e w h ol
u m b e r o f C o se rvati ve s was 5 m ore th an twi c e t h e n u mb e r o f E gl i s h
Th e n u m b e r o f Sc o tc h C o n s e rv ati ve s was t h e s am e as t h e
L ib e ral s
n u m b e r o f W e l sh L i b e r als an d t h e Sc o t c h L i b e r al m aj or ity was e q u al
t o twi c e t h e n u m b er o f W e lsh C o n s erv ati ves an d was t o t h e I ris h
Li b e ral m ajori ty as 2 3
Th e E gl i sh C o n s e r v ati v e m ajority was 10
Th e wh o le u m b e r o f
m ore t h an t h e wh ol e n um b e r o f I ris h m e mb e rs
m e m b e rs was 6 52 Of wh o m 6 0 w er e r e t u r ed b y Sc o tc h c o n sti t u e n c ie s
F i d t h e u m b e rs o f e ac h p ar ty r eturn ed b y E gla d Sc otla d Ir e
At
r l ele c ti on
en e a
th e
s,
188
Sh o w th at
(b )
() ()
b
( )( )( (
5
0
EG
abc
H I GH ER
51 0
1 89
Pro
v th t
a
If
190
191
n ,
ss
2d
(
)
1
O, p
2
4x
ALL
B
[
ro ve th at a
b,
C O LL
0x
h arm on i c al
C O LL CA M E ]
0 ar e I n
RIN
T
[
n s :
h v i g gi v e
1 3 x + 1 5x +
3
x
oth er roo t b y
c e e ds an
2)
7)
2a
G EBRA
3a
2a
b=
a E
u le
p ro gr e s i o
3x
AL
8 33 + 3 5
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207
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209
G erm an s an d Itali an s t h e Pol e s ar e o n e l e ss than o n e thi rd o f t h e
n u m b e r o f G e rm an s an d th r ee l e ss th an h alf t h e n u m b e r o f Itali an s
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223
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Pro v e th at i f e ac h o f m p o i n ts in o n e strai g ht l i n e b e j o i n e d
224
to e ac h o f a in an oth e r b y str ai ght l i n e s t erm i n ate d b y t h e p oi n ts th en
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225
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f 9 : d th
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227
226
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229
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240
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[ FEM E C O L C M E ]
241
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243
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fo u rth ex c ee ds t h at f t h e s e c o d b y 8 ; t h e su m o f t h e sq u ar e s o f t h e
rst a d s e c o d e c ee ds t h e s m o f t h e sq u are s o f t h e th i rd an d fo urth
b y 3 6 ; t h e su m o f t h e p ro d u ts o f t h e rst a d s ec o d an d o f t h e
t h i rd a d fo u rt h is 4 2 ; t h e c u b e O f t he r st is e q ual t o t h e su m o f t h e
ub es o f t h e s ec o n d th i rd a d fo u rth
244
245
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,
246
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= a c
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ar e
in p
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36
M I SC EL LA N EO U S EX A M PL ES
51 7
g fu
h
he
h
h h
i t a tar e t o r ti m e s in 5 s h o ts ; B t r e ti m e s in 4
A c an
Th e y r e a o ll ey : w a t is t h e p ro
s o ts ; an d 0 tw i c e in 3 s o t s
h ab i l i ty t at t wo s o ts at l e ast h it ? A n d i t wo i t w at is t h e p r o
b ilit y t at i t is 0 wh o h as m i s s e d ?
[ ST CA T C O LL CAM E ]
248
249
Su m
e ac
foll owi g s e r i e
f the
to
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it
1)
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)
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x
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[
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253
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J O H N S C O LL CAM E ]
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255
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H I GH ER
51 8
256
o lv e
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257
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45
far
as
ro imat i o
x
1,
in
h ew th at
d ec i m al plac e t h o w m an y
ge eral b e c orre c t ? [ M A T E TR I P O S]
as
th e
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2 lb s
f t e a b y 53
259
mb ers
.
n d t h e p
r i c e o f e ac h
I f re p r esen t t h e s u m o f t h e p rod u c ts
tak e n two at a ti m e t h e n
f the
rst 77
tu ral
na
11
+
n
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24
CA
I
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S
C
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CAM
O
E
[
]
.
260
If
P
a
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v
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t
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a
t
P
p
p;
t h e e q u al i t i e s
,
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M
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[
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261
sh ew th at
I
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A
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CAM
E]
[
.
26 2
If
a,
[3, y , 6 b e t h e
x
n d in
roots o f t h e
eq
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a
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[
N D N UN I V RS I T Y]
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H I GH ER
520
r e al roo ts
Fin d t h e
27 0
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AL
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2
22
c ,
GEBR A
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as
M
A
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[
R I PO S]
It is a ru l e in G aeli c th at n o c on s on an t or gro u p o f c on s o n an ts
c a n s tan d i m m e d i ate l y b e tw ee n a st ro n g an d a we ak v owe l ; t h e stro n g
v owel s b e i n g a o a ; an d t he w e ak v owels e an d i She w th at t h e
wh ol e n um b e r o f G ae lic word s o f n 3 le tt e rs e ac h whi c h c an b e form e d
27 1
of
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27 2
he w th
2x = r
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l,
27 3
an
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t if
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CAM
E
O
]
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%
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a
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2
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S
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CA
M
E
O
[
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t o in f
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1 + 1 + 3 + 5+ 7 +
[ C HR I S T S C O LL CAM E ]
27 4
s e ri e s :
Su m t h e
o ve
S l
3J
(
1)
tO
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2
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27 5
2x 3
the
2xy z + 3
q u ati on s :
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2)
27 6
is
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3
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C
R
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27 7
If
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fa
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1
+ 19
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3
3
b
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+
s he w t h
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+ Pn = 0 ;
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an
52 1
e q u ti on
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"
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c,
M P L ES
EX A
pn
S
T J O H N s C O L L Om an
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27 8
By t h e
n s i on
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p
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1
3 22
3n
3n
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2)
3n
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o r
4)
3n
/
( ( ( (
3n
3) 3n
4 ) Sn
5) 3 n
6)
Sm
whe n 7 b i
in t e g e r
rs t t e rm t h t v ni he
[ M A T E T OS ]
Tw s p ort s m n A
d B w nt
t s h oo t in g
d b ro ug h t
27 9
h o m 1 0 b i rds Th m f t h s q u r s f t h n u mb e r f s h o t s w
2 880
d t h p r od u t f t h n u m b r s f s h o t s r d b y e h w
48
tim s t h p rod u t f t h n u m b rs f b i rds ki lle d b y
h If A h d
d o ft n B d B o ft e n
A t h n B w o u l d h v k i ll d 5
A : nd t h
m b r f b i rds kill d b y
h
mor b ir ds t h
s an
s ri e s
at
d th e
an
s
p
s o
the
at
RIP
e su
an
as
re
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280
Pr
an
ov th
e
(b
a
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( ( )(
b e ) I)
at2
2
0
ca
E
E
M
F
[
28 1
h w th
th e
Wh
is t h e l i m i t
282
If
ft
is t h e
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1
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e
nt
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h i s wh
9n
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2o 2
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ab
C O LL
C A MB
to
in ni te ?
on v r g n t t
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as
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as
an
a e
as
an
ou
the
K
I
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[
o ti u
n
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S C O LL
frac t i
CA ME ]
on
+ b+
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XXXIII
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2ab
o urt h rows
an d
6; f m t
b t ac t t w c
th e t
ac
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8
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XXX IV
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d)
1 +x +
35
43
here k = 1 th t k = 1 ( or w
= 3k y
8 fourp en y p i eces ;
1 9 s h ill in g s
Eith e r 3 3 h l f c rown
6 h i ll i n g s 1 7 fourp e nny p i ces
3 7 h l f c rown s
40 m i nute s
33
6 b=7
38
ab c +
6 , 1 0, 1 4, 1 8
25
= 4 k , z = 5k ; W
or
32
(
(
b
c d
L G EBRA
78
[ Th e
(
n
l)
2
b
+
+b
th e A P
.
term i s
72
73
79
(
1)
7, 2
lo g 3
:
h
::
lo g 6
81
[ P ut :
c
S m
86
503
i n sc l e sev n
a
th e fortune
ie
25 m l
2 51 1 0
18
82
from
7 1
J
su
l _ x _ 2 $2
m_
x :
84
e ch w
a
as
L ondon
1 26
1 400
96
29
l + 4x
unct on
g f
u an d
91
29
Gener ti
te rm
1 00
h ou r s
:1:
lo g 2
7 7 00 an d 3 500:
mi en/T i
5 1 ,
_ i
2)
2 lo g 2)
ab c
u s i nvested were
85
2)
or
80
95
o 6 14 o
74
l)
553
N SW ER S
1 _ 2x
4x
1 07
1 09
mz
1)
a,
1
111
117
y
1
=
y b;
a,
or
2)
(
m
(
)
(
u
'
1;
(
)
(
)
(
l 1,
1 38
11 3
12 1 08
r
i
+
+ a:
11
or
2
2
a: +
n + 2n
1)
2x ; g
a:
ene r l t rm i s
a
(
2)
1 29
12 , 16 ;
2
{
"
:
r
1
;
or 4 8
2ab c
1 34
3 28
or
29
z :
e a
7
1 37
1;
(
)
z
+2
6, 2 ; y = 9 ,
2) E g
a
b
1 33
3;
3;
1)
=
y b
1 0x
1 30
or
sc le fr l ti on i s 1
x=
1)
_ 9 48 , y _ 4 9 2
=
2 2a
;
y
a,
1)
23
3 53
1 25
1 4 1 88
1 ; y = 1,
= 0, y = 0,
1 22
2)
1 27
1)
1
.
_1
1 24
1 20
or
1 , y = 2,
29
=
y
a:
1 21
12 + 1 + 1 + 1 +
mz
1 2 p er son
2)
b,
1 08
where
2b
3 8 4 sq y ds
2 2
2 2
26 a
1 36
+ 2a b
at th e r s t sal e an d
:1:
d:
12 s
at
e.
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H I GH ER
554
1 39
(
(
)
(
)
(
)
2)
1)
L G EBRA
141
142
gy
31
'
145
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1 46
+1
(
2)
a:
+7
s o
the values 3
5, 7
a:
(
(
)
(
)
(
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(
8r : 0
1)
0
a: 5
g y
or
15
h ve th e p erm ut ti on
3
m ay
"
143
or
14
1 4x
1 57 a:
5x
1 44
8x
(
b3
d3
( )()
3 b
2,
6
1 47
1
148
+ wb +
2
c0 0
n
n
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a
b
1 50
wh ere A
sp o n
1 51
1 53
qy
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.
2:
a
::
(
b4
easy to
g
3, 4
/i
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+y +
44
h o ur s
d ay s
wher e
an
3x y z =
2
a z
(
be
2e
=
F1
2 k2
= O,
c z
=
=
p 2,
y
b zy
1,
x = i
Q 2
2
c x
1 61
1 54
13
a x
l,
s h ew th t
58 5
4
4
39
92
corr e
2)
qu ti on re duce s to ( b
(
1)
a s
I
V 9
2:
5i
e r ne rly
[ It is
1 64
(
2)
1 63
(
1 62
denotes
219 3
2)
1 57
fB
d B
ax
din g f
1
1 56
an
I)
5
.
4 ab c
ab
7;
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3 a b 202)
ca
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x
;
556
22 3
H I GH ER
4, 6 ,
4,
)
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(
x
230
235
Sc al e
)
d
)
2n
3n
24 3
((
1
21
(
u
L im
1 2 2:
3 202 ;
2
b +c
S= 1
a x
23 7
h ou r
5 8
a x
4x
24 9
8 12
a x
51 m in
3 , 4 , 5, 6
.
2, 6 , 1 , 3
(
1)
(
(
3n
24 6
a3
1 2 20
33
16
2 40
term
th
1
w
8
+
{
-
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6n 2
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3n
3
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17
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2
or
2
3
3d
ab
2 42
3
+ 2d
72 +
1 40
(b
a
32
3 ?
2 71 +
71
1
m
(
E
2 1
+] x n t l
-
a:
=y = z = 0
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+y +z =
a , an
2)
(
(
17
( )(
(
1 5
3
28
13
hen is odd
1)
conve rgent
+1
2 50
( 1 ) ( 3)
71
2
2
ab
2 36
24 7
3 71
cd
'
b
4
22 9
bc
7
232
1)
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heep
is 1
rel ati on
()
()( (
11
1 2 c alv e s , 1 5pig s, 2 0s
5,
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= 5, 5,
233
6;
4;
=
y 6: 4 :
231
L G EBRA
or x=
226
a:
I f h owever
th e n
2 53
A + By
(
b
A
J (
:
A x + By
+ Oz )
0.
&C
Oz ) A x
By
Oz ) A x + B y
02 )
wh e re
(
2)
()
+b
or
3,
T0
26 2
26 6
2q
6p r
(
1)
ba
or
or
= 4,
ces
2 pla
'
au
2 58
; &c
en
erage
f v er g e g
2 4 D o ctor
f ver ge g
2 0 L wy r
s o
(
or
an
27 4
2
3
a
_
(
27 6
27 9
2 87
291
294
w ork
(
b
a 23
a 1 a4
(
)
2
{
1
(b
24
27 7
28 1
al k
(
2
C L AY
+ 3p 1 p 2
3193
( )(
( )(
b1
dl
b2
b1
0, 1 0 d ay
b1
dI a
Dal
bu )
&c
p1
x1
BY
d ay s ;
2 89
s; B
4 5 d ay
2
5,
4 b ird
5a
1;
5a,
a,
ird s ; B
A, 6 b
5
3
4, y =
267
x = i
2b
3
2)
:
15
27 3
:
1:
27 5
(
b
1)
a1 a3
a oa
8d
e rs ;
3 0 y e rs
35y
a e
e,
13
4 5 y ear s
ag e
a e
2 a1 a2 a3
23 2
a a 2a
4
0
27 0
f av
e s o
a o a2
'
; C ff
n gZ
1 6 C lergy m
s o
2b
26 9
Te a, 23 6 d
+ b ro
a,
268
% %
u
s.
y,
x,
ee
3 d uc k s
1 1 turk ey s 9 g ees
26 3
+ 24
h ve the p ermut ti on f the v lues
e st 3
at
aw +
=
7, or 3
y
2 57
557
N SW ER S
day ;
day
A ND
SO NS , A T TH E U NI V
E R SITY
PR S S