SYNTAX and MORPHOLOGY

In

linguistics, syntax (from Ancient Greek "arrangement" from syn,

"together", and txis, "an ordering") is the study of the principles and rules for
constructing sentences in natural languages.
In addition to referring to the discipline, the term syntax is also used to refer directly
to the rules and principles that govern the sentence structure of any individual
language, as in "the syntax of Modern Irish."
Modern research in syntax attempts to describe languages in terms of such rules.
Many professionals in this discipline attempt to find general rules that apply to all
natural languages. The term syntax is also used to refer to the rules governing the
behavior of mathematical systems, such as formal languages used in logicsee
syntax (logic)and computer programming languagessee syntax (programming
languages). Although there has been an interplay in the development of the modern
theoretical frameworks for the syntax of formal and natural languages, this article
surveys only the latter.

Early history
Works on grammar were written long before modern syntax came about; the
Adhyy of Pini is often cited as an example of a pre-modern work that
approaches the sophistication of a modern syntactic theory. [1] In the West, the
school of thought that came to be known as "traditional grammar" began with the
work of Dionysius Thrax.
For centuries, work in syntax was dominated by a framework known as grammaire
gnrale, first expounded in 1660 by Antoine Arnauld in a book of the same title.
This system took as its -basic premise the assumption that language is a direct
reflection of thought processes and therefore there is a single, most natural way to
express a thought. That way, coincidentally, was exactly the way it was expressed
in French.
However, in the 19th century, with the development of historical-comparative
linguistics, linguists began to realize the sheer diversity of human language, and to
question fundamental assumptions about the relationship between language and
logic. It became apparent that there was no such thing as the most natural way to
express a thought, and therefore logic could no longer be relied upon as a basis for
studying the structure of language.
The Port-Royal grammar modeled the study of syntax upon that of logic (indeed,
large parts of the Port-Royal Logic were copied or adapted from the Grammaire

gnrale[2]). Syntactic categories were identified with logical ones, and all sentences
were analyzed in terms of "Subject Copula Predicate". Initially, this view was
adopted even by the early comparative linguists such as Franz Bopp.
The central role of syntax within theoretical linguistics became clear only in the 20th
century, which could reasonably be called the "century of syntactic theory" as far as
linguistics is concerned. For a detailed and critical survey of the history of syntax in
the last two centuries, see the monumental work by Graf (2001).
Within traditional grammar, the syntax of a language is described in terms of a
taxonomy (i.e. the classificatory list) of the range of different types of syntactic
structures found in the language. The central assumption underpinning syntactic
analysis in traditional grammar is that phrases and sentences are built up of a
series of constituents (i.e. syntactic units), each of which belongs to a specific
grammatical category and serves a specific grammatical function. Given this
assumption, the task of the linguist analysing the syntactic structure of any given
type of sentence is to identify each of the constituents in the sentence, and (for
each constituent) to say what category it belongs to and what function.

Morphology?
Di dalam kamus Oxford Advanced Learners Dictionary of Current English,
ASHornby,: morphology adalah study of the morphemes of a language and of how
they are combined to make word, atau studi tentang morfem-morfem, termasuk
tentang bagaimana morfem-morfem tersebut dikombinasikan untuk membentuk
kata.

Morpheme?
Masih di kamus yang sama, Morpheme adalah: smallest meaningful part into which
a word can be divided: Run-s contains two morphemes; and un-like-ly contains
three morphemes. Jadi, morpheme adalah bagian terkecil dari kata. Bagian terkecil
tersebut memiliki arti atau memiliki (maaf saya mengistilahkannya) implikasi
linguistik. Misal, Run memiliki implikasi yang tidak sama dengan Runs. Demikian
juga dengan kata un-like-ly, dimana un dan ly memiliki makna dan implikasi
linguistik tersendiri. Mari kita perjelas:
Like : adj. (alike) similar; having the same or similar qualities, etc.
Like : vt. be fond of; have a taste for;..
Like-ly : adj. 1. that is expected; the likely winner of the contest. Is he likely to win?
2. that seems reasonable, suitable, or right for a purpose
Un-like-ly : adj. not likely to happen or be true: an unlikely event/hypothesis.

Terlihat bahwa penambahan morpheme un- dan ly, dapat merubah makna dari
morpheme lainnya (like).

Free Morpheme and Bound Morpheme

Run-s contains two morphemes; and un-like-ly contains three
morphemes
Run dan Like disebut dengan Free Morpheme sementara s pada runs, dan unserta ly pada un-like-ly disebut bound morpheme. Free morpheme bersifat
independent atau dapat berdiri sendiri sebagai sebuah kata (run, like). Sementara,
bound morpheme tidak bisa berdiri sebagai kata. Ia selalu terangkai dengan
morpheme(s) yang lain untuk menjadi sebuah kata.
Glossary
Widdowson (2003)
Morphology : The study of the structure of words, of how morphemes operate in
the process of derivation and inflection.
Derivation : Thepart of morphology concerned with the formation of lexical
items.
Inflection : The morphological process which adjust words by grammatical
modification, e.g. in The rains came, rain is inflected for plurality and came for
past tense.
Lexicalitem/lexem : A separate unit of meaning, usually in the form of word (e.g.
dog, but also as a group of words (e.g. dog in the manger)
Morpheme : An abstract element of meaning, which may be free in that it takes
the form of an independent word, or bound in that it is incorporated into a word as
a dependent part.
Free-morpheme : An element of meaning which takes the form of an independent
word.
Bound-morpheme : An element of meaning which is structurally dependent on
the word it is added to, e.g. the plural morpheme in dogs.

Syllabic Structure & Morphological Structure

Ada yang disebut dengan syllabic structure dimana struktur sebuah kata dilihat dari
dimensi silabis-nya. Secara syllabic structure, kataparson (par-son) dan parting

(part-ing) adalah sama, karena terdiri dari dua silabis. Namun demikian,
morphologically, atau menurut morphological structure, keduanya berbeda, parson
terdiri dari satu morpheme sementara parting terdiri dari dua morpheme (two
morphemes), yaitu part (independentor free morpheme) dan ing (dependent or
bound morpheme).
Ada yang disebut monomorphemic dan polymorphemic words. Mono-artinya satu
atau sendiri, dan poly- berarti banyak. Monomorpemic word adalah kata yang
terdiri dari satu morpheme sepertiparson. Polymorphemic word adalah kata yang
terdiri atas dua morpheme atau lebih, seperti parting dan unlikely.
Widdowson (2003: 46)
It seems clear, then, that the syllable as a unit of sound has, in English at any rate,
no correspondence with the morpheme as a unit of meaning. Parson has two
syllables, but consists of only one morpheme. Parting has two syllables, and two
morphemes.
Glossary Kridalaksana (2001)
Leksem (lexeme)
1. satuan leksikal dasar yang abstrak yang mendasari pelbagai bentuk inflektif
suatu kata; mis. Ing. sleep, slept,sleeps, sleeping adalah bentuk-bentuk dari
leksem sleep. 2. Kata atau frase yang merupakan satuan bermakna; satuan
terkecil dari leksikon.
Leksikon (lexicon, vocabulary)
1. komponen bahasa yang memuat semua informasi tentang makna dan
pemakaian kata dalam bahasa3. daftar kata yang disusun seperti kamus,
tetapi dengan penjelasan yang singkat dan praktis.
Derivation & Inflection
The following explanation is excerpted from Widdowson (2003: 46) and is conveyed
in Indonesian language.
Lihat kembali halaman 46 dan 47!
Di sana ada frasa different lexicalitem yang menjadi kata kunci paragraph 3.
Maksudnya, setiap kata dalam bahasa Inggris memiliki kelas kata (word class),
misalnya beauty adalah noun, dan beautify adalah Verb dan seterusnya,
perbedaan kelas kata tersebut termasuk fenomena different lexical item.
Kata Parson misalnya adalah Noun sebagai kelas katanya. Namun, kata Parting
bisa menjadi Noun dan Verb. Dalam frase The parting of the ways, kataparting
adalah Noun. Namun dalam kalimat They were parting company for good kata

parting adalah Verb. Kecuali itu, kata parting dalam The parting of the ways,
disebut sebagai fenomena derivation (karena kata parting dalam konteks
tersebut berasal dari kata kerja part, dan penambahan ing menjadi parting telah
merubah lexical itemnya dari kata kerja menjadi kata benda. Sementara kata
parting dalam They were parting company for good adalah Verb dan dikenal
dengan istilah Inflection. Dipandang sebagai fenomena inflection karena ing pada
kata parting tidak merubah lexical item part (Verb) menjadi Noun. Dengan kata
lain, parting tetap menjadi Verb untuk menunjukkan bahwa part menjadi parting
bertujuan untuk memberi tanda continuous aspect.
Lihat penjelasan tentang Derivation berikut ini!
Kata Derivation berasal dari kata kerja derive (yang artinya berasal dari).
Penambahan atau the attachment of -tion, membuat kata kerja derive menjadi
kata benda derivation. Istilah atau konsep Derivation selanjutnya, terkait dengan
konsep afxesyang dibagi menjadi prefixes (awalan) dan sufxes(akhiran).
Dalam ketiga konsep ini dikenal istilah root atau base dan stem. Lihat chart
berikut ini, untuk penjelasan tentangroot atau base dan stem!

Prefix(es)

Base/root

Sufx(es)

Dis-

like (v)

--

Dislike (v)

like

-able

Likeable (Adj.

Prefix(es)

Stem

Sufx(es)

Un-

Likeable
(Adj.)

Un-

likeable
(Adj.)

Unlikeable
(Adj.)

-ness

Unlikeablenes
s (N)

Contoh : Prefixes: de- , dis-, un-, pre-,etc.

Contoh : Sufxes: -ure, -age, -ing, -ize, -ful, -able, etc.

Kata kunci yang membedakan antara Derivation dan Inflection terlihat pada hal.47
paragraf 3: (inflection)is not a process of Lexical Innovation but of Grammatical
Adaptation.
Pada paragraph sebelumnya diketahui bahwa:
Derivation:

has the permanent effect of changing the word.

creating different lexical item. (merubah sebuah kata secara permanent,

menghasilkan leksikal item yang berbeda.

Inflection:

its effect is temporary in that it changes the form of the word.

doesnt create new word but adapts existing word so that they operate
effectively in sentence. (tidak menciptakan kata baru, perubahan yang
terjadi; misalnya dari sleep menjadi sleeping, slept, sleeps semata-mata
karena tuntutan gramatika).

(Agar lebih jelas, baca kembali Glossary pada halaman di atas sebelumnya)
Allomorphs
Morphological inflection/ inflectional morphology : is dependent on the
grammatical categories of tense and aspect. Contoh fenomena ini pada Verbs
adalah sebagai berikut:

Present tense

Past tense

Part

Part^ed

Partition

Partition^ed

Depart

Depart^ed

Departmentalize

Departmentaliz^ed

Morphological marking for grammatical function selain terjadi pada Verbs, seperti
contoh di atas, juga terjadi pada nouns dan pronouns. Misalnya, kata departure
sebagai noun yang berfungsi sebagai subject, memiliki morphological marking for
singular and plural: a departure/several departures. [ contoh lain, she-her-hers]
Allomorph : the version of a morpheme as actually realized in speech or writing,
e.g. s, -es, and en are all allomorphs (in writing) of the plural morpheme.
Allophone : the version of phoneme as actually realized phonetically in speech.
Dari pengertian allomorph tersebut, dikembangkan sebuah konsep lain yang
disebut allomorphic variants. Misalnya, allomorphic variants untuk bentuk
singular dan plural dalam bahasa Inggris adalah: -s, -es, dan en. Sedangkan untuk
bentuk verb dalam past tense adalah phonologically /Id/, /d/, /t/, dan radical
changes meskipun graphologically adalah ^ed kecuali radical changes.

phonologically

Graphologically

/Id/

ed part^ed

/d/

ed -- pull^ed

/t/

ed -- push^ed

Radical changes

sleep

Slept

Morphology, then, is the study of two aspects of words:

1. Word derivational formation
Words mean, lexical semantics (arti kata)
2. Word inflectional function

the way words function in syntax. (structure and grammar)

Examples of The Allomorphic Variants of Singular and Plural Nouns in
English

Singular

graphologically

Lamp

Cat

Pen

box

es

Dish

es

Church

es

Moss

es

Buzz

es

Lady

-ies

City

-ies

Army

-ies

Ladies

Day

-s

Play

-s

Joy

-s

Toy

-s

hero

-es

potato

-es

child

-en

Children

man

-en

Men

Examples of the Allomorphic Variants of Past Tense Form in English

Root/Base

Start

Visit

Admit

-ed

Phonologically

Graphologically

/Id/

Start^ed

Paint

Attend

Add

Stop

-ed

/t/

Ask

Stopp^ed

Ask^ed

Pass

Approach

Watch

Enjoy

Dig

Move

Listen

Hurry

-ed

/d/

Enjoy^ed

See

RD*

Saw

Sell

Sold

Drink

Drank

*radical change