KFCL Summer Project

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KANPUR FERTILIZER &

CEMENT LIMITED
Cooling Tower
Chemistry and Performance Improvement
Prepared for
Training Department
Kanpur Fertilizer & Cement Limited (KFCL)
Cee Kay Estate, Panki Industrial Area, Kanpur, UP INDIA
Prepared by
Sumit Mohan Gupta
Institute Of Engineering & Technology
Sitapur road, Lucknow
Email: sumitmg@gmail.com
Contact: +91 7379543866
June 2014
Cooling Tower Chemistry and Performance Improvement | Training Report 2014
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Transmittal
Shree Umesh Kr. Saxena ji
Vice President
HR Department
Kanpur Fertilizer & Cement Limited (KFCL)
Dear Sir
Please find the enclosed Training report due June 28, 2014. The report as requisite by your
office has been drafted on the assigned project Study the Cooling Tower Chemistry and
Identify Key Parameters for Improving Performance. The report discusses the cooling tower
design, chemistry and performance parameters along with the suitable recommendations for
the assigned project. Feedback will be most appreciated.
Kind Regards
Sumit Mohan Gupta

Institute Of Engineering & Technology
Sitapur road, Lucknow
Email: sumitmg@gmail.com
Contact: +91 7379543866
Countersigned
Shree G.S Shukla ji

(Mentor)
Shree P.S Bhatia ji

VP OP
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Acknowledgement
I am indebted to many KFCL employees and personnel who directly or indirectly helped me in
giving valuable information and process knowledge of the plant. I greatly acknowledge Mr. P.K.
Srivastava, Mr. D.Sinha, Mr. Umesh Saxena, Mr. R.K. Malhotra under whose guidance I
completed my training.
I would like to thanks my mentor Mr. G.S. Shukla who with utmost cooperation provided all the
relevant text and reference material for sound grasping of the entire important features of KFCL
plant and helping me complete this project report.
I am thankful to Shree P.S. Bhatia ji (Vice President OP) for providing me best guidance in
scheduling my training appropriately and helping me understand the various scope in this
industry.
Lastly, I would like to thanks Mr. Umesh Kr. Saxena (Vice President HR) without whom this
training could not be possible. Also I would like to thank Mr. Sumesh Rajak. for having faith in
my capabilities and knowledge.
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Table of Contents
1. Transmittal
2. Acknowledgement
3. Table of Contents
4. Abstract
5. Introduction
6. Cooling Tower
6.1. Components
6.2. Materials
10
6.3. Types
12
6.3.1.Natural draft cooling tower
12
6.3.2.Mechanical draft cooling tower
12
6.3.3.Open vs. Closed-Circuit Towers
12
6.3.4.Hybrid Towers
13
6.4. K F C L Equipments and Process
16
6.4.1. Cooling Water Treatment
18
6.4.2. Operating Instruction
20
6.4.3. Equipment Details
24
6.5. Performance
29
6.6. Assessment
31
6.7. Factors Affecting Performance
32
6.8. General Improvement Procedures
39
7. Cooling Water Chemistry
41
7.1. Corrosion Control
41
7.2. Scaling
43
7.3. Microbial Growth
48
8. Performance Improvement
49
8.1. Water Use
49
8.2. Use alternative water supplies
51
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9. Water treatment
52
10. Recommendation
58
11. References
59
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4. Abstract
Cooling towers are one of the most important industrial utilities used to dissipate the unwanted
process heat to the atmosphere through the cooling water in the heat exchangers across the
plant site. Cooling tower is one of the most expensive utility in terms of power consumption
and water circulation. Maintaining water quality in the circulation loops is one of the major
challenges in process optimization for most efficient performance. To identify the key
performance parameters with respect to perspective of the operations team, the water
chemistry is the most crucial level and demands proper understanding to maintain complete
control over the variations.
Latest technological developments have made the water conservation more efficient and use of
chemicals more limited by introducing Recycling / reusing water practices and Chemical
free platforms. With limited options available to the designed and operating cooling tower,
these areas could be explored for better and cost effective performance and environment.
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5.Introduction
You cannot create experience, you must undergo it

Industrial Trainings are incomparable experience for an undergraduate student. With fertilizer
industry holding the maximum learning potential for a chemical engineer, KFCL leaves an
impact of its own. The four week Training experience is unique in every sense of the word. The
learning opportunities and industrial exposure at the KFCL made not just possible to relate the
book knowledge to field application but also in developing a thorough understanding of
industrial practices and operating concepts.
Production of Chand Chaap Urea Indias one of the largest ammonia urea complex was an
amazing experience for the author. From the up to date urea complex technology to Indias one
of the tallest prilling tower, it added many landmarks in list of experience. With Training project
over cooling water chemistry and performance improvement parameters, the author has
compiled the information on cooling water design, chemistry and operation; which could serve
as a comprehensive study aid on the subject. The recommendations generated are but most
effective to date, which should be considered with economical feasibility.
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6. Cooling Tower
Cooling towers are a very important part of many chemical plants. The primary task of a cooling
tower is to reject heat into the atmosphere. They represent a relatively inexpensive and
dependable means of removing low-grade heat from cooling water. The make-up water source
is used to replenish water lost to evaporation. Hot water from heat exchangers is sent to the
cooling tower. The water exits the cooling tower and is sent back to the exchangers or to other
units for further cooling. Cooling towers are able to lower the water temperatures more than
devices that use only air to reject heat, like the radiator in a car, and are therefore more costeffective and energy efficient.
Figure. Schematic of an Induced Draft Cooling Tower
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6.1 Components
The basic components of a cooling tower include the frame and casing, fill, cold-water basin,
drift eliminators, air inlet, louvers, nozzles and fans. These are described below.
a) Frame and casing: Most towers have structural frames that support the exterior enclosures
(casings), motors, fans, and other components. With some smaller designs, such as some
glass fibre units, the casing may essentially be the frame.
b) Fill: Most towers employ fills (made of plastic or wood) to facilitate heat transfer by
maximizing water and air contact. There are two types of fill:
Splash fill: Waterfalls over successive layers of horizontal splash bars, continuously
breaking into smaller droplets, while also wetting the fill surface. Plastic splash fills
promote better heat transfer than wood splash fills.
Film fill: consists of thin, closely spaced plastic surfaces over which the water spreads,
forming a thin film in contact with the air. These surfaces may be flat, corrugated,
honeycombed, or other patterns. The film type of fill is the more efficient and provides
same heat transfer in a smaller volume than the splash fill.
c) Cold-water basin: The cold-water basin is located at or near the bottom of the tower, and it
receives the cooled water that flows down through the tower and fill. The basin usually has
a sump or low point for the cold-water discharge connection. In many tower designs, the
coldwater basin is beneath the entire fill. In some forced draft counter flow design,
however, the water at the bottom of the fill is channelled to a perimeter trough that
functions as the coldwater basin. Propeller fans are mounted beneath the fill to blow the air
up through the tower. With this design, the tower is mounted on legs, providing easy access
to the fans and their motors.
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d) Drift eliminators: These capture water droplets entrapped in the air stream that otherwise
would be lost to the atmosphere.
e) Air inlet: This is the point of entry for the air entering a tower. The inlet may take up an
entire side of a tower (cross-flow design) or be located low on the side or the bottom of the
tower (counter-flow design).
f) Louvers: Generally, cross-flow towers have inlet louvers. The purpose of louvers is to
equalize air flow into the fill and retain the water within the tower. Many counter flow
tower designs do not require louvers.
g) Nozzles: These spray water to wet the fill. Uniform water distribution at the top of the fill is
essential to achieve proper wetting of the entire fill surface. Nozzles can either be fixed and
spray in a round or square patterns, or they can be part of a rotating assembly as found in
some circular cross-section towers.
h) Fans: Both axial (propeller type) and centrifugal fans are used in towers. Generally,
propeller fans are used in induced draft towers and both propeller and centrifugal fans are
found in forced draft towers. Depending upon their size, the type of propeller fans used is
either fixed or variable pitch. A fan with non-automatic adjustable pitch blades can be used
over a wide kW range because the fan can be adjusted to deliver the desired air flow at the
lowest power consumption. Automatic variable pitch blades can vary air flow in response to
changing load conditions.
6.2 Materials
Originally, cooling towers were constructed primarily with wood, including the frame, casing,
louvers, fill and cold-water basin. Sometimes the cold-water basin was made of concrete.
Today, manufacturers use a variety of materials to construct cooling towers.
Materials are chosen to enhance corrosion resistance, reduce maintenance, and promote
reliability and long service life. Galvanized steel, various grades of stainless steel, glass fibre,
and concrete are widely used in tower construction, as well as aluminium and plastics for some
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components.
a) Frame and casing. Wooden towers are still available, but many components are made of
different materials, such as the casing around the wooden framework of glass fibre, the
inlet air louvers of glass fibre, the fill of plastic and the cold-water basin of steel. Many
towers (casings and basins) are constructed of galvanized steel or, where a corrosive
atmosphere is a problem, the tower and/or the basis are made of stainless steel. Larger
towers sometimes are made of concrete. Glass fibre is also widely used for cooling tower
casings and basins, because they extend the life of the cooling tower and provide protection
against harmful chemicals.
b) Fill. Plastics are widely used for fill, including PVC, polypropylene, and other polymers. When
water conditions require the use of splash fill, treated wood splash fill is still used in wooden
towers, but plastic splash fill is also widely used. Because of greater heat transfer efficiency,
film fill is chosen for applications where the circulating water is generally free of debris
that could block the fill passageways.
c) Nozzles. Plastics are also widely used for nozzles. Many nozzles are made of PVC, ABS,
polypropylene, and glass-filled nylon.
d) Fans. Aluminium, glass fibre and hot-dipped galvanized steel are commonly used fan
materials. Centrifugal fans are often fabricated from galvanized steel. Propeller fans are
made from galvanized steel, aluminium, or moulded glass fibre reinforced plastic.
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6.3 Types
6.3.1 Natural draft cooling tower
The natural draft or hyperbolic cooling tower makes use of the difference in temperature between
the ambient air and the hotter air inside the tower. As hot air moves upwards through the tower
(because hot air rises), fresh cool air is drawn into the tower through an air inlet at the bottom. Due
to the layout of the tower, no fan is required and there is almost no circulation of hot air that could
affect the performance. Concrete is used for the tower shell with a height of up to 200 m. These
cooling towers are mostly only for large heat duties because large concrete structures are
expensive. There are two main types of natural draft towers:
Cross flow tower: air is drawn across the falling water and the fill is located outside the
tower
Counter flow tower: air is drawn up through the falling water and the fill is therefore
located inside the tower, although design depends on specific site conditions
6.3.2 Mechanical draft cooling tower

Mechanical draft towers have large fans to force or draw air through circulated water. The
water falls downwards over fill surfaces, which help increase the contact time between the
water and the air - this helps maximize heat transfer between the two. Cooling rates of
mechanical draft towers depend upon various parameters such as fan diameter and speed of
operation, fills for system resistance etc.
6.3.3 Open vs. Closed-Circuit Towers

One of the primary differentiations between cooling towers is whether it is an open or closedcircuit tower. In open towers, the cooling water is pumped through the equipment where it
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picks up thermal energy and then flows directly to the cooling tower where it is dispersed
through spray nozzles over the fill, where heat transfer occurs. Then, this same water is
collected in the tower sump and is sent back to the equipment to begin the process again. In an
open tower any contaminants in the water are circulated through the equipment being cooled.
In a closed-circuit tower, sometimes referred to as a fluid cooler, the cooling water flows through
the equipment as in the open tower. The difference is when the water is pumped to the cooling
tower, it is pumped through a closed loop heat exchanger that is internal to the cooling tower,
then returned to the equipment. In this application, water in the closed loop is not in direct
contact with the evaporative water in the tower, which means contaminants are not circulated
through the equipment. In a closed-circuit tower, a small pump, known as a
spray pump circulates a separate body of evaporative water from the tower sump, through
the spray nozzles and over the internal heat exchanger piping. This open evaporative body of
water is contained within the tower and needs to be regularly made up to replenish
evaporative and other losses. However, once water treatment in the closed cooling loop is
stabilized, the only time it needs to be made up or adjusted is if there is a leak.
6.3.4 Hybrid Towers

Hybrid towers are closed towers which can operate either in the sensible heat transfer mode
only (without evaporation) or a combination of sensible and latent heat transfer (with
evaporation). During periods of low load and/or low ambient temperature, the spray of water is
stopped and heat is sensibly transferred to the flow of air across the fins of the coils containing
the cooling fluid. During periods when this is not enough, a latent heat transfer system is
activated by switching on an evaporative cooler or water is sprayed across the dry coils to allow
for increased heat transfer through evaporation. These processes offer substantial savings in
water.
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Figure. Cooling Tower Types
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Mechanical draft towers are available in a large range of capacities. Towers can be
either factory built or field erected for example concrete towers are only field erected.
Many towers are constructed so that they can be grouped together to achieve the desired
capacity. Thus, many cooling towers are assemblies of two or more individual cooling towers or
cells. The number of cells they have, e.g., an eight-cell tower, often refers to such towers.
Multiple-cell towers can be lineal, square, or round depending upon the shape of the individual
cells and whether the air inlets are located on the sides or bottoms of the cells.
Table. Types of Cooling Towers
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6.4 KFCL Equipments and Process

There are six cooling water systems on Site.
They are;
a) Old (No.1 & 2) Ammonia & Offsites Cooling Tower
b) Old ( A & B) Urea Cooling Tower `
c) Surface Condenser Cooling Tower for Urea B plant.
d) New (No.3) Ammonia and Offsites Cooling Tower.
e) New (C) Urea Cooling Tower
f) Sigma Cooling Tower ( For Urea A Plant Surface Condenser & Howden No.1 and No.2)
All the towers except the Sigma Cooling Tower are Marley Class 600 towers supplied by
Paharpur. The Sigma Cooling Tower is of the Marley series Sigma 120 type with PVC fills.
The Class 600 towers are cross flow induced draft towers with splash bar packing. The towers
are split into various cells. Each cell has an induced draft fan, a water distributor at the top and
an isolated basin at the bottom enclosed by wooden partitions.
The tower structure is made of timber, strengthened by timber Connectors and
galvanised/Steel shear plates. Inside the tower there are a large number of splash bars
symmetrically arranged on the Glass Reinforced Polyester grids. There are 2 pass herring- bone
type drift eliminators supported on pressure treated marine plywood around the central shaft.
Distribution of inlet air is by means of corrugated asbestos cement louvers mounted along the
outer periphery of the tower from top to bottom. Hot water flows through two isolation valves
(for each cell into open distribution throughs on the top of the tower. High density polythene
metering orifices are provided to regulate distribution of water.
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All bolts, nuts, washers, shear plates and timber constructions are hot dip galvanised. All timber
components are of Pinus Longfollia, pressure impregnated with arsenic copper. The Sigma
cooling tower is a film type cross flow induced draft tower of the SIGMA series. It is designed by
Marley Corp. and supplied by Paharpur. The highlight of the design is greater cooling capacity in
a smaller space with lower operating costs. This has been achieved by'
a) Replacing splash bars with a more efficient PVC film fill,
b) New design of fan and fan cylinder.
c) No framing obstructions in the fill area.
d) Polypropylene water redistribution channel located above the fill for equal distribution
e) Lower overall profile and hence pumping cost.
The Sigma tower has been installed to meet the cooling water requirements of the Howden
Compressors of the No.1 & 2 Ammonia Plants and the surface condensers and off gas recovery
units of 'A' Urea Plant. of water.
The towers are in 3 blocks. In the old cooling tower block are situated the old Ammonia and
Offsite cooling tower (3) Cells), the old Urea cooling tower (3 cells) and the Urea B surface
condenser cooling tower (1 cell). In the new cooling tower block are the No.3 Ammonia and
Offsite plant cooling towers (2 cells) and the No.3 Urea Plant cooling tower (3 cells). The Sigma
Cooling Tower with its 3 cells forms a separate block.
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6.4.1 COOLING WATER TREATMENT

The basic objectives of cooling water treatment are:
a) To prevent corrosion and scaling of the heat exchanger surface.
b) To prevent degradation of the fills in the cooling tower. To this end, the following are
controlled:
A. pH control
The pH of the circulating water is controlled so that a) it is not low enough to cause corrosion in the coolers and heat exchangers and
b) it is not so high as to cause precipitation of CaCO3 as scale.
The pH is usually maintained between 8.5 and 9.0 depending on the concentration factor and
the calcium hardness of the makeup water. pH is increased by dosing a dilute alkali (sodium
carbonate solution).
B. CONCENTRATION FACTOR
The concentration factor is maintained between 4.0 and 5.0 by purging cooling water whenever
required.
C. ALFLOC 502
To reduce corrosion and scaling, Alfloc 502 is dosed in the cooling water. Alfloc is a
polyelectrolyte based on zinc. For Alfloc to be effective, the concentration in the cooling water
must be maintained at 40 ppm and the pH between 8.0 and 9.0.
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D. ORGANIC GROWTH
Algae and Fungi are the main organisms that grow in cooling towers. They cause damage in the
following ways.
a) Growth of algae and fungi on the tower packings causes reduction in the efficiency of
the tower.
b) Deterioration of the timber due to organic growth.
c) Lowering of pH due to the waste products of organic growth.
Organic growth is controlled by continuous dosing of chlorine so as to maintain FRC level of 0.2
to 0.5 ppm in return water. Chlorine is dosed along with chlorine activator N-7342.
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6.4.2 OPERATING INSTRUCTIONS

I. TAKING COOLING TOWERS ON LINE :
1. Check that tower basin and sump are full with water upto 90 - 100%. Check that sump
and basin drain valves are closed.
2. Check that the sluice gates of the basins to be taken on line are open and the strainers
fitted and clean.
3. Open the top isolation valves to the distributor of each half of the cell.
4. Open fully the return water isolation valve.
5. Check that makeup water is available.
6. Check that the suction valves of two recirculation pumps are open.
7. Prime the two pumps.
8. Check that the inter connection valve between the cooling tower headers of Ammonia
and Urea is shut.
9. Start one of the recirculation pumps as per instructions. Keep a close watch on the sump
level until water is returned back to the towers.
10. Build up the level in the sump by makeup water.
11. If necessary start the second recirculation pump following the same procedure.
12. Adjust recirculation pumps delivery valve to obtain desired header pressure.
13. Check ID fans gear box oil level.
14. Start ID fans as per instruction.
15. Check for any vibration.
16. Send cooling water sample to laboratory and after getting the results do chemical dosing
as required.
II. STARTING /STOPPING/CHANGEOVER OF COOLING WATER CIRCULATION PUMPS

A. STARTING
1. Check that cooling towers return riser valve and top isolation valves are open.
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2. Check that sump level is at least 90%

3. Check the pump bearings are lubricated.
4. Check the pump trip circuit by pressing trip circuit healthy button.
5. Open pump suction valves, pump vent cock and pressure gauge isolation valve.
6. After priming the pump shut the vent cock.
7. Start the pump and slowly open the delivery valve keeping watch on the delivery
pressure and motor amps.
8. Check motor and bearing temperatures.
B. STOPPING
1. Close the pump delivery valve until the pressure reaches 6.0Kg/Cm2g for Ammonia and
Urea pumps and 3.5 Kg/Cm2g for crystalliser pumps.
2. Stop the pump and close the delivery valve.
3. Check that the motor anti-condensation heater is ON
C. CHANGEOVER
Normally two pumps should be on line to meet the cooling water requirements of plants
running at 100%. During changeover, the spare pump MUST be brought on line first and then
the pump to be taken off line should be stopped as per the procedure.
III. SUMP LEVEL CONTROL

a) Sump level should be maintained between 90% (max recommended is 100%) and
80%.
b) Open makeup water valve and adjust rate according to drop in level.
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c) If the level drops very fast, ask water treatment technician to start another
makeup pump and inform Superintendent to check cooling water losses.
IV. A. PREPARATION OF DILUTE ALKALI SOLUTION
15O Kg of sodium carbonate is required to prepare solution in one compartment.

Working temperature
: 32 Deg C
Output
: 1600 m3/hr
Discharge head
: 53 metres of water.
Motor
: 3.3KV/47OHP/1488 rpm
INDUCED DRAFT FANS

Make
: Paharpur
Dimensions
: 18 ft dia/12 blades
Material Hub A
: HDG Steel
Blades
: FRP
Hub cover
: Glass reinforced polyester
Speed
: 252 rpm
Air flow rate
: 13,000 m3/min
Fan efficiency
: 79.8%
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ALKALI SOLUTION TANK

Horizontal MS tank of rectangular cross section divided into two equal halves by a MS partition.
Each section has a soda ash dissolving basket of cross section 2' x 2' x 2' deep having MS walls
and bottoms. The baskets are provided with lids. Each compartment has water inlet lines,
recirculation water inlet and outlet lines, drain and overflow connections and a float gauge.
Volume of tank is 4 m3.
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6.4.3 EQUIPMENT DETAILS

OLD AMMONIA PLANT COOLING TOWER
Make:
Paharpur Marley Type 600
No. of cells:
Design heat load:
62 MMKcal/hr
Temperature range:
45.2 to 33.2 Deg C
Water circulation rate :
5170 te/hr.
Sump capacity :
Q40 m3
Basin capacity :
840 m3
FILL DETAILS
Splash bars :
Pressure treated Pinus Longfellia.
Supports:
Glass reinforced polyester grids.
Span of supports:
16"
Spacing of splash bars :
4" horizontal x 8" vertical
OLD (1 & 2 )AMMONIA PLANT COOLING TOWER CIRCULATION PUMPS (PO-J-701 A,B,C)
Make :
Mather & Platt
Type:
M-ML,
Horizontal
split
casing,
centrifugal with cast iron casing &

internals, MS shaft.
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Working temperature:
33.2 Deg C
Fluid.
Cooling water
Rate:
2580 m3/hr
Discharge head:
47 metres
Suction lift :
3 metres
Motor:
600 HP/1000 rpm
Current :
3.3KV, 3 phase
QLD (1 & 2) AMMONIA PLANT COOLING TOWER FANS (POJ-704 A,B,C)
Manufacturer:
Paharpur/Marley
Dia:
No. of blades: 22 ft/9 blades
Hub:
Fabricated steel, hot dip galvanised
Fan blade:
FRP
Speed:
166 rpm
Air flow rate
: 19,700 m3/minute.
BHP at motor shaft
: 59 HP
GEAR REDUCER
Manufacturer
: Paharpur / Marley
Model
: Marley series 32 spiral level cum

helical.
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Reduction ratio
: 8.72/1
Bearings
: Heavy duty Timken roller bearings.
MOTOR
Manufacturer
: KIRLOSKAR
TYPE
: Squirrel cage Induction motor
Power/speed
: 90 HP/1500 rpm
Current
: 415 volts, 3 phase
DRIVE SHAFT
Manufacturer
: Paharpur Marley
Yoke material
: Malleable iron
Shaft material
: Fabricated hollow shaft, hot dip

galvanised
OLD(A & B) UREA COOLING TOWER

TYPE
: Paharpur Marley Type 600
No. of cells
:3
Design heat load
: 61.4 McCall/hr
Temperature range
: 42 to 33.2 Deg c
Design circulation rate
: 6985 te/hr
Sump capacity
: 240 m3
Basin capacity
: 840 m3
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Fill detail
: Identical to Ammonia cooling

tower.
NEW AMMONIA AND OFFSITES COOLING TOWER

Make/Type
No. of cells
:2
Heat load
: 26.071 MMKcal/hr
Temperature range
: 41 to 32 Deg C
Water flow rate
: 3000 m3/hr
Basin capacity
: 533 m3
Sump capacity
: 190 m3
Fills details
: Identical to old Ammonia CT
NO.1 & 2 CRYSTALLISER SECTION COOLING TOWER

Make/Type
No. of cells
:1
Design Heat load
: 17.2 MMKcal/hr
Temperature range
: 42.5 to 33.2 Deg C
Water flow rate
: 3000 m3/hr
Circulation rate
: 1448 te/hr
Basin capacity
: 280 m3
Sump capacity
: 90 m3
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Fills details
NO.3 UREA COOLING TOWER

Make/Type
No. of cells
:3
Heat load
: 37.36 MMKcal/hr
Temperature range
: 39 to 32 Deg C
Basin capacity
: 840 m3
Sump capacity
: 240 m3
Fills details
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6.5 Performance
These measured parameters and then used to determine the cooling tower performance in
several ways.
a) Range. This is the difference between the cooling tower water inlet and outlet
temperature. A high CT Range means that the cooling tower has been able to reduce the
water temperature effectively, and is thus performing well. The formula is:
b) Approach. This is the difference between the cooling tower outlet coldwater temperature and
ambient wet bulb temperature. The lower the approach the better the cooling tower
performance; although, both range and approach should be monitored, the `Approach is a
better indicator of cooling tower performance.
Figure. Range and approach schematic
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c) Effectiveness. This is the ratio between the range and the ideal range (in percentage), i.e.
difference between cooling water inlet temperature and ambient wet bulb temperature, or
in other words it is = Range / (Range + Approach). The higher this ratio, the higher the
cooling tower effectiveness.
d) Cooling capacity. This is the heat rejected in cal/hr or TR, given as product of mass flow
rate of water, specific heat and temperature difference.
e) Evaporation loss. This is the water quantity evaporated for cooling duty. Theoretically
3
the evaporation quantity works out to 1.8 m for every 1,000,000 cal heat rejected. The
following formula can be used (Perry):
T1 - T2 = temperature difference between inlet and outlet water
f) Cycles of concentration (C.O.C). This is the ratio of dissolved solids in circulating water to
the dissolved solids in makeup water.
g) Blow down losses depend upon cycles of concentration and the evaporation losses and is
given by formula:
h) Liquid/Gas (L/G) ratio. The L/G ratio of a cooling tower is the ratio between the water and the
air mass flow rates. Cooling towers have certain design values, but seasonal variations require
adjustment and tuning of water and air flow rates to get the best cooling tower effectiveness.
Adjustments can be made by water box loading changes or blade angle adjustments.
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Thermodynamic rules also dictate that the heat removed from the water must be equal to the
heat absorbed by the surrounding air. Therefore the following formulae can be used:
Where:
L/G = liquid to gas mass flow ratio (kg/kg)
T1 = hot water temperature (C)
T2 = cold-water temperature (C)
h2 = enthalpy of air-water vapour mixture at exhaust wet-bulb temperature
h1 = enthalpy of air-water vapour mixture at inlet wet-bulb temperature
6.6 Assessment
The performance of cooling towers is evaluated to assess present levels of approach and range
against their design values, identify areas of energy wastage and to suggest improvements.
During the performance evaluation, portable monitoring instruments are used to measure the
following parameters:
Wet bulb temperature of air
Dry bulb temperature of air
Cooling tower inlet water temperature
Cooling tower outlet water temperature
Exhaust air temperature
Electrical readings of pump and fan motors
Water flow rate
Air flow rate
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6.7 Factors Affecting Performance

Wet Bulb Temperature
Wet bulb temperature is an important factor in performance of evaporative water cooling

equipment. It is a controlling factor from the aspect of minimum cold water temperature to
which water can be cooled by the evaporative method. Thus, the wet bulb temperature of the
air entering the cooling tower determines operating temperature levels throughout the plant,
process, or system. Theoretically, a cooling tower will cool water to the entering wet bulb
temperature, when operating without a heat load. However, a thermal potential is required to
reject heat, so it is not possible to cool water to the entering air wet bulb temperature, when a
heat load is applied. The approach obtained is a function of thermal conditions and tower
capability.
Initial selection of towers with respect to design wet bulb temperature must be made on the
basis of conditions existing at the tower site. The temperature selected is generally close to the
average maximum wet bulb for the summer months. An important aspect of wet bulb selection
is whether it is specified as ambient or inlet. The ambient wet bulb is the temperature, which
exists generally in the cooling tower area, whereas inlet wet bulb is the wet bulb temperature
of the air entering the tower. The later can be, and often is, affected by discharge vapours being
re-circulated into the tower. Recirculation raises the effective wet bulb temperature of the air
entering the tower with corresponding increase in the cold water temperature. Since there is no
initial knowledge or control over the recirculation factor, the ambient wet bulb should be
specified. The cooling tower supplier is required to furnish a tower of sufficient capability to
absorb the effects of the increased wet bulb temperature peculiar to his own equipment.
It is very important to have the cold water temperature low enough to exchange heat or to
condense vapours at the optimum temperature level. By evaluating the cost and size of heat
exchangers versus the cost and size of the cooling tower, the quantity and temperature of the
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cooling tower water can be selected to get the maximum economy for the particular process.
The Table illustrates the effect of approach on the size and cost of a cooling tower. The towers
3
included were sized to cool 4540 m /hr through a 16.67C range at a 26.7C design wet bulb.
The overall width of all towers is 21.65 meters; the overall height, 15.25 meters, and the pump
head, 10.6 m approximately.
The design wet bulb temperature is determined by the geographical location. For a certain
approach value (and at a constant range and flow range), the higher the wet bulb temperature,
the smaller the tower required. For example, a 4540 m3/hr cooling tower selected for a16.67C
range and a 4.45C approach to 21.11C wet bulb would be larger than the same tower to a
26.67C wet bulb. The reason is that air at the higher wet bulb temperature is capable of
picking up more heat. This is explained for the two different wet bulb temperatures:
Each kg of air entering the tower at a wet bulb temperature of 21.1C contains 18.86 cal. If
the air leaves the tower at 32.2C wet bulb temperature, each kg of air contains 24.17 cal.
At an increase of 11.1C, the air picks up 12.1 cal per kg of air.
Each kg of air entering the tower at a wet bulb temperature of 26.67C contains 24.17 kales.
If the air leaves at 37.8C wet bulb temperature, each kg of air contains 39.67 cal. At an
increase of 11.1C, the air picks up 15.5 cal per kg of air, which is much more than the first
scenario.
Tower Size
If heat load, range, approach and wet-bulb temperature are held constant, changing the fourth
will affect the tower size as follows:
Tower size varies inversely with approach. A longer approach requires a smaller tower.
Conversely, a smaller approach requires an increasingly larger tower and, at 5F approach,
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the effect upon tower size begins to become asymptotic. For that reason, it is not customary in
the cooling tower industry to guarantee any approach of less than 5F.
Figure 4 Tower size v/s approach
b) Tower size varies inversely with wet bulb temperature. When heat load, range, and
approach values are fixed, reducing the design wet-bulb temperature increases the size of
the tower. This is because most of the heat transfer in a cooling tower occurs by virtue of
evaporation (which extracts approximately 1000 Btus for every pound of water
evaporated), and airs ability to absorb moisture reduces with temperature.
Figure. Tower size v/s wet-bulb
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c) Tower size varies directly and linearly with heat load.
Figure. Tower size v/s head load
d) Tower size varies inversely with range. Two primary factors account for this. First; increasing
the rangealso increases the ITD (driving force) between the incoming hot water
temperature and the entering wet-bulb temperature. Second, increasing the range (at a
constant heat load) requires that the water flow rate be decreasedwhich reduces the
static pressure opposing the flow of air.
Figure. Tower size v/s range variance
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Fill media effects

In a cooling tower, hot water is distributed above fill media and is cooled down through
evaporation as it flows down the tower and gets in contact with air. The fill media impacts
energy consumption in two ways:
Electricity is used for pumping above the fill and for fans that create the air draft. An
efficiently designed fill media with appropriate water distribution, drift eliminator, fan,
gearbox and motor with therefore lead to lower electricity consumption.
Heat exchange between air and water is influenced by surface area of heat exchange,
duration of heat exchange (interaction) and turbulence in water effecting thoroughness of
intermixing. The fill media determines all of these and therefore influences the heat
exchange. The greater the heat exchange, the more effective the cooling tower becomes.
There are three types of fills:
a) Splash fill media. Splash fill media generates the required heat exchange area by splashing
water over the fill media into smaller water droplets. The surface area of the water droplets
is the surface area for heat exchange with the air.
b) Film fill media. In a film fill, water forms a thin film on either side of fill sheets. The surface
area of the fill sheets is the area for heat exchange with the surrounding air. Film fill can
result in significant electricity savings due to fewer air and pumping head requirements.
c) Low-clog film fills. Low-clog film fills with higher flute sizes were recently developed to
handle high turbid waters. Low clog film fills are considered as the best choice for sea water
in terms of power savings and performance compared to conventional splash type fills.
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Table 2 Design Values of Different Fills
Splash fill
Film fill
Low clog film fill
Possible L/G ratio
1.1 1.5
1.5 2.0
1.4 1.8
Effective heat exchange area
30 45 m2/m3
150 m2/m3
85 - 100 m2/m3
Fill height required
5 10 m
1.2
1.5 m
1.5
1.8 m
Pumping head required
9 12 m
8m
9m
Quantity of air required
High
Lowest
Low
Water Distribution
Optimize cooling water treatment
Cooling water treatment (e.g. to control suspended solids, algae growth) is mandatory for any
cooling tower independent of what fill media is used. With increasing costs of water, efforts to
increase Cycles of Concentration (COC), by cooling water treatment would help to reduce make
up water requirements significantly. In large industries and power plants improving the COC is
often considered a key area for water conservation.
Install drift eliminators
It is very difficult to ignore drift problems in cooling towers. Nowadays most of the end user
specifications assume a 0.02% drift loss. But thanks to technological developments and the
production of PVC, manufacturers have improved drift eliminator designs. As a result drift
losses can now be as low as 0.003 0.001%.
Fans
The purpose of a cooling tower fan is to move a specified quantity of air through the system.
The fan has to overcome the system resistance, which is defined as the pressure loss, to move
the air. The fan output or work done by the fan is the product of air flow and the pressure loss.
The fan output and kW input determines the fan efficiency.
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The fan efficiency in turn is greatly dependent on the profile of the blade. Blades include:
a) Metallic blades, which are manufactured by extrusion or casting processes and therefore it
is difficult to produce ideal aerodynamic profiles
b) Fibre reinforced plastic (FRP) blades, are normally hand moulded which makes it easier to
produce an optimum aerodynamic profile tailored to specific duty conditions. Because FRP
fans are light, they need a low starting torque requiring a lower HP motor, the lives of the
gear box, motor and bearing is increased, and maintenance is easier.
A 85-92% efficiency can be achieved with blades with an aerodynamic profile, optimum twist,
taper and a high coefficient of lift to coefficient of drop ratio. However, this efficiency is
drastically affected by factors such as tip clearance, obstacles to airflow and inlet shape, etc.
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Cases reported where metallic or glass fibber reinforced plastic fan blades have been replaced
by efficient hollow FRP blades. The resulting fan energy savings were in the order of 20-30%and
with simple payback period of 6 to 7 months (NPC).
6.8 General Improvement Procedures

The following could be fruitful options to improve energy efficiency of cooling towers:
i.
Follow manufacturers recommended clearances around cooling towers and relocate or

modify structures that interfere with the air intake or exhaust
ii.
Optimize cooling tower fan blade angle on a seasonal and/or load basis
iii.
Correct excessive and/or uneven fan blade tip clearance and poor fan balance
iv.
In old counter-flow cooling towers, replace old spray type nozzles with new square spray
nozzles that do not clog
v.
Replace splash bars with self-extinguishing PVC cellular film fill
vi.
Install nozzles that spray in a more uniform water pattern
vii.
Clean plugged cooling tower distribution nozzles regularly
viii.
Balance flow to cooling tower hot water basins
ix.
Cover hot water basins to minimize algae growth that contributes to fouling
x.
Optimize the blow down flow rate, taking into account the cycles of concentration
(COC)limit
xi.
Replace slat type drift eliminators with low-pressure drop, self-extinguishing PVC cellular
units
xii.
Restrict flows through large loads to design values
xiii.
Keep the cooling water temperature to a minimum level by (a) segregating high heat loads
like furnaces, air compressors, DG sets and (b) isolating cooling towers from sensitive
applications like A/C plants, condensers of captive power plant etc. Note: A 1Ccooling
water temperature increase may increase the A/C compressor electricity consumption by
2.7%. A 1oC drop in cooling water temperature can give a heat rate saving of 5 cal/kWh in a
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thermal power plant.

xiv.
Monitor approach, effectiveness and cooling capacity to continuously optimize the cooling
tower performance, but consider seasonal variations and side variations
xv.
Monitor liquid to gas ratio and cooling water flow rates and amend these depending on the
design values and seasonal variations. For example: increase water loads during summer
and times when approach is high and increase air flow during monsoon times and when
approach is low.
xvi.
Consider COC improvement measures for water savings
xvii.
Consider energy efficient fibre reinforced plastic blade adoption for fan energy savings
xviii.
Control cooling tower fans based on exit water temperatures especially in small units
xix.
Check cooling water pumps regularly to maximize their efficiency.
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7. Cooling Water Chemistry

7.1 Corrosion Control
Cathodic Polarization
Process of changing the anodic or cathodic potential or both to reduce the driving force of the
corrosion reaction is called polarization. Polarization reduces the driving force of the
corrosion reaction and minimizes metal loss by changing the potential of either the anode or
the cathode or both so that the difference in potential between them is reduced to a minimum.
If the amount of oxygen diffusion to the metal surface can be controlled, the corrosion reaction
can be polarized. This is achieved by cathodic corrosion inhibitors. They form a film, which
prevents the diffusion of oxygen to the cathode side.
Anodic Polarization
Anodic surfaces can be polarized by formation of an oxide layer. This film formation is
accomplished by a mechanism known as chemisorption. Stainless steel naturally forms such
films. This unfortunately is not always the case with all metals. Most metals must be aided by
the addition of such anodic corrosion inhibitors as chromate, nitrite, etc.
Passivation
When corrosion reactions are completely polarized, the metal is said to be at passive state At
this point there is no difference in potential between the anode and cathode areas, and
corrosion ceases. When polarization is disrupted in a passive metal at a given point, a very
active anodic site is set up, with resultant accelerated local corrosion, particularly if the metal
was strongly anodically polarized.
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Corrosion Inhibitors
The principal method of controlling corrosion in cooling water system is by means of chemical
corrosion inhibitors. Their function in preventing corrosion lies in their ability to insulate the
electric current between the cathode and anode. If the insulation effect occurs at the anodic
site, then the inhibitor is classified as an anodic inhibitor and if the cathodic site is insulated
then the inhibitor is classified as a cathodic inhibitor.
Corrosion inhibitors are classified as anodic, cathodic or both depending upon the corrosion
reaction each controls. Inhibition usually results from one or more of three general
mechanisms. In the first, the inhibitor molecule is adsorbed on the metal surface by the
process of chemisorption, forming a thin protective film either by itself or in conjunction
with metallic ions. In second mechanism inhibitors however merely cause a metal to form
its own protective film of metal oxides, by increasing its resistance. In the third type
inhibitor reacts with a potentially corrosive substance in the water.
Anodic inhibitors build a thin protective film along the anode increasing the potential at the
anode and slowing the corrosion reaction, the film is initiated at the anode although it may
eventually cover the entire metal surface. Because this film is not visible to the naked eye so
the appearance of the metal will be left unchanged.
Cathodic inhibitors are generally less effective than the anodic type. But they often form a
visible film along the cathode surface, which polarizes the metal by restricting the access of
dissolved oxygen to the metal substrate. The film also acts to block hydrogen evolution sites
and prevent the resultant depolarizing effect.
Examples include:
Chromates
Orthophosphates
Zinc
Polyphosphates
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Synergic Blends like

o zinc-chromates
o
chromate-polyphosphates
o chromate-orthophosphate
Note: Now chromates are avoided due to health issues.
Inhibitor Selection
It is often difficult to make a proper choice between the many cooling water corrosion
inhibitors unless there is some understanding of their properties. Choice of the proper inhibitor
is determined by:
Design parameters
Water composition
Metals in the system
Stress conditions
Treatment level required
pH
Dissolved oxygen content
Salts and SS composition
7.2 Scaling
Scaling is the precipitation of dissolved minerals components that have become saturated in
solution. Factors that contribute to scaling tendencies include water quality, pH, and
temperature. Scale formation reduces the heat exchange ability of the system because of the
insulating properties of scale, making the entire system work harder to meet the cooling
demand. Deposits typically consist of mineral scales (i.e.CaCO3. CaSO4, Ca3(PO4)2, CaF2,
etc), corrosion products (i.e. Fe2O3, Fe3O4, CuO etc), particular matter (i.e. clay, slit), and
microbiological mass.
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10.2.1
Types
10.2.1.1 Waterborne salts
Precipitated salts of calcium and magnesium often form dense scales and sludges which are
usually quite adherent and therefore difficult to remove. In addition they are effective heat
insulators, which reduce process efficiency. Calcium carbonate, calcium sulphate, calcium and
magnesium silicates and calcium phosphate are some of the more prevalent compounds found
in cooling water systems.
10.2.1.2 Waterborne foulants
A variety of such materials as suspended mud, sand, silt, clay, biological matter or even oil may
enter a cooling water system through its make up supply. They usually accumulate in low flow
areas, or in locations at which an abrupt change in flow velocity occurs. Therefore the most
sedimentation is found in such places as cooling tower basins and heat exchangers. To control
sedimentation it is necessary to control the suspended particulate matter. The control of
particle size and density is accomplished by use of modern deposit control materials. To a
certain degree mud, sand, slit, dirt and clay are suspended in most make up supplies. However
the amount of these constituents is usually much greater for surface waters.
Microbiological growth may be a particularly troublesome foulant in the makeup supply. The
microbiological population in a towers make up supply often approaches or exceeds the control
limit for proper tower operation. Oil often adheres to metal; surfaces and acts as a deposit binder.
Oil films serve as insulators and can seriously retard heat transfer. In addition oil acts as a nutrient
for microbes, therefore increasing microbiological activity, fouling and slime binding. Also oil films
prevent corrosion inhibitors from reaching and passivating metal surfaces.
10.2.1.3 Airborne foulants
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The air in contact with open cooling water systems contains many of the same suspended
materials found in the makeup water. Sand, slit, clay, dirt, bacteria etc. entering with the air
add to the overall fouling of the system. Airborne contamination by gases also helps in
deposition. Oxygen and carbon dioxide accelerate corrosion, leading to deposition and further
corrosion by the under-deposit mechanism. Since pick up of both gases occur continuously,
near saturation levels of these dissolved gasses are present in the water. Gaseous
contaminants such as sulphur dioxide, hydrogen sulphide and ammonia may also be absorbed
from the air. The first two reduce oxidizing corrosion inhibitors (e.g. chromates) to insoluble
foulants. Hydrogen sulphide is very corrosive and quickly forms iron sulphide deposits, which
lead to further corrosion. Ammonia selectively corrodes copper and its alloys leading to the
deposition of copper corrosion products.
10.2.2
Deposit Control Methods
10.2.2.1 Conventional treatments
Softening (sodium or hydrogen zeolite exchange, lime softening and demineralization all
remove the ions that cause scale formation)
Acid feed (acid neutralizes alkalinity in the water, thereby preventing carbonate formation)
Side stream filtration (Side stream filters are used in some cooling tower applications, with
1 to 5 % of the cooling water flow passing through the filter. Several type of media are used
but sand is the most common, operating at a 10 % to 20 % efficiency level. For greater
efficiency, anthracite or mixed media can be substituted. If the suspended solids are in the
range of 10 to 30 ppm, 50~75 % removal can be achieved, and in highly turbid waters, 90 %
removal is possible. In general a side stream filter allows cooling water turbidity to
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approach the turbidity of the filter effluent. With oil contamination side stream filters are
impractical because of rapid fouling of the filter medium.)
10.2.2.2 Use of Polymeric Deposit Control Agents
A polymer is defined as macromolecule consisting of a number of repeating units of building

blocks. These units are referred to as monomers. Modern technology has made it possible to
build chains of various lengths and compositions by varying the polymerization conditions and
the monomer groups incorporated into the structure. The behaviour of a polymer results
primarily from two factors: its chain length or molecular weight and its functional group.
These polymeric deposit control agents include, Scale inhibitors, Dispersants, Flocculants
10.2.2.3 Scale Inhibitors
Scale inhibitors are important to the performance of many treatment programs. Scale inhibitors
function by adsorbing on to suspended solids/scaling particles and adsorbing on to solids/
surfaces in the system, thereby acting to prevent growth of scale/deposits and enhancing
performance of corrosion inhibitors.
These polymers have the ability of adsorbing on active sites of the crystal to prevent any further
growth of crystal. Some of the functional groups of the scale inhibitor adsorbed on the crystals
but the rest of them are free from the adsorption and give electrical charge to the crystals.
Thus, the static electrical repelling force of the crystals is increased and the crystals are kept in a
dispersed condition.
Certain polymers can distort scale crystals by disrupting their lattice structure and normal
growth patterns. The inclusion of a relatively large irregularly shaped polymer in the scale
lattice tends to prevent the deposition of a dense uniformly structured crystalline mass on the
metal surface. These crystals can develop internal stresses which increase as the crystal grows,
with the result that deposit breaks away from the metal surface. Anionic polymers such as
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polyacrylates, polymethacrylates and maleic anhydride derivatives are excellent scale control
agents. Also polyphosphate, phosphate esters and phosphonates can control scale.
10.2.2.4 Dispersants
The principal role of a dispersant is to reduce the tendency for small particles to agglomerate.
Dispersants are polymers, which control particles by increasing charge on the particle surface,
thereby keeping the particles repelled and suspended. A polymer can be adsorbed on foulant
surface imparting a like charge to them and thereby causing the particles to remain in
suspension because of charge repulsion.
Dispersant polymer is a common component of cooling water treatment programs. These

polymers prevent deposit because they keep suspended particles from adhering to pipes,
tubes, or other surfaces in the cooling systems and are removed with the water by blow down.
In order to be effective the polymers must strongly adhere to the particle surfaces so that the
polymers fate is the same as the particle it is bound to. The amount of polymer necessary is a
complex function of hardness, temperature, pH, and many other factors. Much of this is due to
the increased thermodynamic driving force for precipitation of calcium carbonate or calcium
phosphate. At high bulk water temperatures (>60 C), high calcium concentrations (>750mg/lit
as CaCO3), or low flow rates (<1 m/sec), the tendency for scale formation, even with cooling
water treatment programs, is greatly increased.
10.2.2.5 Flocculants
A high molecular weight polymer can attach itself to many foulant particles creating a low
density floc. With an increase in the overall size of suspended material, there is a corresponding
decrease in the surface area available for attachment, which reduces the extent of deposition
possible.
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Much of suspended matter found in cooling water has a negative surface charge. This charge
keeps the suspended matter separated. If the surface charge of the particles can be reduced,
the particle will agglomerate into light, fluffy flocs with little tendency to adhere to metal
surfaces. This can be accomplished by adding a long chain oppositely charged (cationic)
polymer to the cooling water, which neutralizes the negative charge of the suspended material.
7.3 Microbial Growth

Microbiological activity is microorganisms that live and grow in the cooling tower and cooling
system. Cooling towers present the perfect environment for biological activity due to the warm,
moist environment. There are two distinct categories of biological activity in the tower system.
The first being plank tonic, which is bioactivity suspended, or floating in solution. The other is
sessile bio-growth, which is the category given to all biological activity, biofilms, or bio-fouling
that stick to a surface in the cooling system. Bio films are problematic for multiple reasons.
They have strong insulating properties, they contribute to fouling and corrosion, and the biproducts they create that contribute to further micro-biological activity. They can be found in
and around the tower structure, or they can be found in chiller bundles, on heat exchangers
surfaces, and in the system piping. Additionally, bio films and algae mats are problematic
because they are difficult to kill. Careful monitoring of biocide treatments, along with routine
measurements of biological activity are important to ensure bio-activity is controlled and
limited throughout the cooling system. Cooling water microorganisms include: Algae, Fungi,
and Bacteria etc
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8 Performance Improvement
8.1 Water Use
The hierarchy of opportunities approach can be used to identify and prioritise water efficiency
opportunities.
Reduce water loss

Reducing water losses reduces the quantity of make-up water required for the system.
Potential opportunities to reduce water loss include:
Fixing leaks
Reducing splash
Optimising overflow
Eliminating drift drift losses should be maintained at less than 0.002% of

cooling water circulation rate. Repair or install new systems to achieve best
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practice.
Reduce blow down

Increase cycles of concentration
As water evaporates from cooling towers the contaminants, salts and minerals measured as
total dissolved solids (TDS) that accumulate can cause biological growth, corrosion and scale
resulting in tower damage, poor heat transfer and possibly the growth of harmful bacteria such
as Legionella. The sources of contaminants include:
Salts and minerals already in the make-up water
Chemicals added to reduce corrosion, scale and biological growth
Pollutants entering the water during the evaporation phase from the surrounding air
such as dust.
To reduce the build up of these contaminants, a portion of the water in the tower is bled off
(blow down). This water loss from the tower is then replaced with fresh incoming make-up
water. A conductivity probe or sensor in the tower basin initiates blow down when the levels of
dissolved solids exceed a set value. Cycles of concentration (C.O.C.) compare the level of
dissolved solids in the towers make-up water to the level of dissolved solids in the towers bleed
water.
Increasing the number of C.O.C. will reduce the volume of blow down and consequently the
volume of make-up water required by the tower. The maximum C.O.C. for a tower will depend
on the quality of the make-up water and the corrosion resistance of the towers basin and
condenser. C.O.C. over 5 is considered to be efficient but this is not always achievable. Scale
forming ions such as calcium and magnesium can often be precipitated out (by water softeners)
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or kept in solution (by acids) through effective water treatment enabling the tower to operate at
higher cycles of concentration.
According to the Queensland Water Commission, a cooling tower is considered inefficient if:
The system is operating at less than 5 COC or 1850 mg/L TDS/2750 s/cm conductivity
(Allowed only in documented instances of high-TDS make-up water); and/or
System losses are greater than 8% of the make-up water.
8.2
Use alternative water supplies
Alternative water supplies have the potential to reduce potable water requirements in cooling
towers, through direct substitution and by reducing the cycles of concentration. Alternative
water supply options include recycled water, process or rainwater. Note that health risks need
to be considered when assessing the viability of alternate water supplies. Additional water
treatment may also be required depending on the quality of water available.
Reuse blow down

Potential opportunities to reuse cooling tower blow down include:
Toilet and urinal flushing (treatment may be required)
Landscape irrigation (may require dilution with potable or rainwater due to salt content or
treatment)
Cleaning (health risk assessment may be required and the impacts of corrosion should Be
considered).
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9. Water treatment
Almost all well-managed cooling towers use a water treatment program. The goal of a water
treatment program is to maintain a clean heat transfer surface and preserve capital while
minimizing water consumption and meeting discharge limits. Critical water chemistry
parameters that require review and control include pH, alkalinity, conductivity, hardness,
microbial growth, biocide and corrosion inhibitor levels. Depending on the quality of the makeup water, treatment programs may include corrosion and scaling inhibitors, such as organophosphate types, along with biological fouling inhibitors. Historically, chemicals have been fed
into the system by automatic feeders on timers or actuated by conductivity meters. Automatic
chemical feeding tends to decrease chemical dosing requirements. Current technology allows
chemicals to be monitored and controlled online 24-7 in proportion to demand. This ensures
results and can allow cycles to be increased. Where overfeed is prevalent, it can reduce
chemical feed, too. Water treatment is required in cooling towers to prevent corrosion of the
system, build up of scale and for microbiological control. Typically this is carried out through
one of the following:
Direct chemical dosing (to prevent scale and prohibit corrosion)
Acid dosing (to control ph and scale)
Ozone dosing (or other microbial treatment to prevent microbial growth)
Pre-treatment of make-up water (e.g. Water softening, reverse osmosis)
Side stream filtration (to prevent solid build up)
Cover exposed areas of cooling towers (to reduce algal growth).
Sulphuric Acid Treatment

Sulphuric acid can be used in cooling tower water to help control scale build-up. When properly
applied, sulphuric acid will lower the waters pH and help convert the calcium bicarbonate scale
to a more soluble calcium sulphate form. In central North Carolina, most plants will be able to
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operate six to 10 cycles of concentration without acid feed. Along our coasts, acid can be used to
increase cycles as water tends to be harder and higher in alkalinity. The same can be said if hard
alkaline well water is used as tower make-up. Important precautions need to be taken when
using sulphuric acid treatment. Because sulphuric acid is an aggressive acid that will corrode
metal, it must be carefully dosed into the system and must be used in conjunction with an
appropriate corrosion inhibitor. Workers handling sulphuric acid must exercise caution to
prevent contact with eyes or skin. All personnel should receive training on proper handling,
management and accident response for sulphuric acid used at the facility.
Side Stream Filtration

In cooling towers that use make-up water with high suspended solids, or in cases where airborne
contaminants such as dust can enter cooling tower water, side stream filtration can be used to
reduce solids build up in the system. Typically, five to 20 per-cent of the circulating flow can be
filtered using a rapid sand filter or a cartridge filter system.
Rapid sand filters can remove solids as small as 15 microns in diameter while cartridges are
effective to remove solids to 10 microns or less. High efficiency filters can remove particles
down to 0.5 microns. Neither of these filters are effective at removing dissolved solids, but
can remove mobile mineral scale precipitants and other solid contaminants in the water.
The advantages of side stream filtration systems are reduced particle loading on the tower.
This ensures heat transfer efficiency and may reduce biocide or dispersant demands.
Ozone
Ozone can be a very effective agent to treat nuisance organics in the cooling water. Ozone
treatment also is reported to control the scale by forming mineral oxides that will precipitate
out to the water in the form of sludge. This sludge collects on the cooling tower basin, in a
separation tank or other low-flow areas. Ozone treatment consists of an air compressor, an
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ozone generator, a diffuser or contactor and a control system. The initial capital costs of such
systems are high but have been reported to provide payback in 18months.
Table. Treatment options comparison
Option
Advantages
Disadvantages
Operation improvements
Low capital costs
None
to control blow down and
Low operating costs
chemical additions
Low maintenance requirements
Sulphuric acid treatment
Low capital cost
Potential safety hazard
Low operating cost
Potential for corrosion damage if
Increased concentration ratio, when
overdosed
alkalinity limited
Side stream filtration
Low possibility of fouling
Moderately high capital cost
Improved operation efficiency
No effectiveness on dissolved solids

Additional maintenance
Ozonation
Reduced chance for organic fouling
High capital investment
Reduced liquid chemical requirements
Complex system
Possible health issue
Magnet System
Reduced or eliminated
Novel technology
chemical usage
Controversial performance claims
Reuse of water within the
Reduces overall facility water
Potential for increased fouling, scale
facility
consumption
or corrosion
Possible need for additional water
treatment
Magnets
Some vendors offer special water-treating magnets that are reported to alter the surface charge
of suspended particles in cooling tower water. The particles help disrupt and break loose
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deposits on surfaces in the cooling tower system. The particles settle in a low-velocity area of
the cooling tower -- such as sumps --where they can be mechanically removed. Suppliers of
these magnetic treatment systems claim that magnets will remove scale without conventional
chemicals. Also, a similar novel treatment technology, called an electrostatic field generator, is
also reported.
Sonication
An emerging technology is sonication or ultrasound which uses vibration to remove fats. This
technology can be used in wastewater systems to emulsify fats making them easier to remove by
methods such as DAF. Sonication has also been trialled in conjunction with anaerobic treatment
as a means of disrupting sludge production to yield a larger quantity of biogas.
Electro coagulation
Electro coagulation can be used to remove suspended and colloidal solids, fats, oils and grease
and complex organics. The process involves passing an electrical current through water to
initiate a range of electrochemical reactions which destabilise, suspend, emulsify or dissolve
contaminants in the wastewater which forces them to precipitate.
Activated carbon
Activated carbon is generally used after biological or physical-chemical treatment to polish
waste water for reuse. The carbon absorbs both organic and inorganic compounds including
heavy metals. Activated carbon is formed by heating carbon containing substances such as coal
or charcoal in the presence of steam to form highly porous carbon providing a large surface
area for contaminants to adsorb onto. Activated carbon can be regenerated on site by heating
carbon to a high temperature. Using activated carbon prior to a disinfection phase can reduce
the disinfection requirement. The use of activated carbon as part of the cooling tower or boiler
Page 56 of 59
water treatment can lead to better water efficiencies through reduced bleed.
Ultraviolet radiation (UV)

This chemical-free method of disinfecting water inactivates microorganisms such as protozoa,
bacteria, moulds and yeasts through the use of ultraviolet radiation. The effectiveness of the
system can be increased with the simultaneous use of ozone. However, water quality
characteristics such as high turbidity, organic components and flow rate can reduce efficacy.
Like ozone, UV radiation does not provide any residual sanitisation compared with chlorine.
Hydrocavitation
Hydrocavitation is a chemical free system of water treatment. Two streams of water are
accelerated to high velocities and collide which results in hydrodynamic cavitation and
mechanical shear forces, which are believed to kill bacteria and reduce corrosion activity. It
removes the need for chemicals and can increase the ability to reuse water.
It is generally applied to cooling tower water (refer to case study below) as it can control
corrosion and kill legionella. However, new studies are investigating the efficiency of removing
heavy metals, phosphorous and trichloroethylene (TCE) from wastewater with additional
reductions in BOD.
Figure. Hydrocavitation system
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Radio frequencies
Radio frequencies alter the waters scaling tendencies by creating a seeding mechanism that
agglomerates scale-forming minerals in the water. This technology removes minerals before
they can be deposited on heat exchange surfaces.
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10 Recommendation
Based on the study on the assigned project, it is recommended to reduce the water leakages in
the tower by overcoming the construction flaws of the project. Further it also recommended to
ursue the options for water and chemical conservation opportunities in cooling tower
operation. The field will unleash the wide spectrum of cost effective and environmental friendly
operating practices which would be next to the international eco-efficiency standards.
Water conservation will not only reduce the load on environment and natural resources, but
would also enable the organization to claim for eco-efficiency indicator points a new brand
image perspective.
The adoption of chemical free platforms completely or partially will reduce the cost of chemical
purchases, dependence of service provider and most important regional leadership in
emerging the cooling water treatment technologies, since the application has only been
adopted in Western continents.
Page 59 of 59
11 References
Bonneville Power Administration. (1991, November). Optimizing Cooling Tower Performance.

Technology Update, pp. 1-4.
Clayton Technologies. (2014). Clayton Cooling Towers. Indore, India: Clayton Technologies India
Pvt. Ltd.
Daeil Aqua Co., Ltd. (2004, May 10). Cooling Tower Thermal Design Manual. Retrieved August
2014,
from
Cooling
Tower
Technical
Site:
http://myhome.hanafos.com/~criok/english/publication/thermal/thermallisteng.html
General Services Administration. (2014). Water Management: A Comprehensive Approach for

Facility Managers. In Water Management Guide (pp. 1-140). Kansas City.
Ken Mortensen. (2003, May). How to Manage Cooling Tower Water Quality. RSE Journal, pp. 14.
N.C. Department of Environment and Natural Resources. (2009). Water Efficiency Manual. North
Carolina: N.C. Department of Environment and Natural Resources.
Pacific Northwest National Laboratory. (2014). Cooling Towers: Understanding Key Components
of Cooling Towers and How to Improve Water Efficiency. US Department of Energy.
Ray Congdon, Rand Conger, Mike Groh, Roger van Gelder. (2014). Cooling Tower Efficiency
Manual. In R. C. Ray Congdon, Cool Tunes (pp. 1-26). Washington DC: Water Smart Technology
Program.
Saving Water. (2014, August). Improve Control of Cooling Tower Water. WATER SMART
TECHNOLOGY, pp. 1-2.
SPX Cooling Technologies. (1986). Cooling Tower Performance. USA: Cooling Tower Information
Index.
SPX Cooling Technologies. (2005). Corrosion Protection for Cooling Towers. Kansas: SPX Cooling
Technologies.

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KANPUR FERTILIZER &

Cooling Tower Chemistry and Performance Improvement | Training Report 2014

Sumit Mohan Gupta

Shree G.S Shukla ji

Shree P.S Bhatia ji

Cooling Tower Chemistry and Performance Improvement | Training Report 2014

Cooling Tower Chemistry and Performance Improvement | Training Report 2014

6.3.1.Natural draft cooling tower

6.3.2.Mechanical draft cooling tower

6.3.3.Open vs. Closed-Circuit Towers

6.4. K F C L Equipments and Process

6.4.1. Cooling Water Treatment

6.4.2. Operating Instruction

6.4.3. Equipment Details

6.7. Factors Affecting Performance

6.8. General Improvement Procedures

7. Cooling Water Chemistry

7.1. Corrosion Control

7.3. Microbial Growth

8.1. Water Use

8.2. Use alternative water supplies

Cooling Tower Chemistry and Performance Improvement | Training Report 2014

Cooling Tower Chemistry and Performance Improvement | Training Report 2014

Cooling Tower Chemistry and Performance Improvement | Training Report 2014

You cannot create experience, you must undergo it

Cooling Tower Chemistry and Performance Improvement | Training Report 2014

Figure. Schematic of an Induced Draft Cooling Tower

Cooling Tower Chemistry and Performance Improvement | Training Report 2014

Cooling Tower Chemistry and Performance Improvement | Training Report 2014

Cooling Tower Chemistry and Performance Improvement | Training Report 2014

Cooling Tower Chemistry and Performance Improvement | Training Report 2014

6.3.2 Mechanical draft cooling tower

6.3.3 Open vs. Closed-Circuit Towers

Cooling Tower Chemistry and Performance Improvement | Training Report 2014

6.3.4 Hybrid Towers

Cooling Tower Chemistry and Performance Improvement | Training Report 2014

Figure. Cooling Tower Types

Cooling Tower Chemistry and Performance Improvement | Training Report 2014

Table. Types of Cooling Towers

Cooling Tower Chemistry and Performance Improvement | Training Report 2014

6.4 KFCL Equipments and Process

Cooling Tower Chemistry and Performance Improvement | Training Report 2014

Cooling Tower Chemistry and Performance Improvement | Training Report 2014

6.4.1 COOLING WATER TREATMENT

Cooling Tower Chemistry and Performance Improvement | Training Report 2014

Cooling Tower Chemistry and Performance Improvement | Training Report 2014

6.4.2 OPERATING INSTRUCTIONS

II. STARTING /STOPPING/CHANGEOVER OF COOLING WATER CIRCULATION PUMPS

2. Check that sump level is at least 90%

III. SUMP LEVEL CONTROL

Cooling Tower Chemistry and Performance Improvement | Training Report 2014

IV. A. PREPARATION OF DILUTE ALKALI SOLUTION

15O Kg of sodium carbonate is required to prepare solution in one compartment.

INDUCED DRAFT FANS

: Glass reinforced polyester

Air flow rate

Cooling Tower Chemistry and Performance Improvement | Training Report 2014

ALKALI SOLUTION TANK

Cooling Tower Chemistry and Performance Improvement | Training Report 2014

6.4.3 EQUIPMENT DETAILS

Paharpur Marley Type 600

Design heat load: