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appliances
refrigerator).
(cellular
phones,
televisions,
radio
computers
and
In Partial Fulfillment
Of the Requirements for the Degree
Bachelor of Science in Electrical Engineering
CHAN, ENGELBERT
ESPINO, RENZ ANTHONY
RAMOS, ARMAGEDON
August 2016
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
Background of the Study
The demographic factor implies that population is an important factor
that might influence electricity demand; with growing population, the total energy
requirement in all sectors is expected to rise. Technological factors imply that
introducing new technologies in the production side, improvement of raw material
processing and purification, increase in the efficiency of the machineries may
influence energy demand. Global and regional policy changes may influence
energy consumption, government financial policies, building regulations, taxation,
and commitment to reduce Green House Gas emission, shifting towards
renewable and cleaner energy, use of energy efficient equipment may play
significant role in the variation of demand of electricity (Momani, 2012).
According to the research of World Renewable Energy Congress
(2015), one of the most effective organizations in supporting and enhancing the
utilization and implementation of renewable energy sources, the world population
in the year 2100 will be in excess of 12 billion. If the current trends in
technological progress and innovation continue, the demand for energy then will
be five times greater than what it is now. If we continue the policy of using coal,
oil and gas at the present rate, then by the year 2020 the global temperature will
have increased by two degrees Celsius.
industry accounts for one-third of these. Within the total GHG emissions, CO2
emissions account for more than 80% of the overall U.S. contribution and 38% of
this amount is derived from the electric power sector.
To be able to obtain definite information and data regarding the
effectiveness of using solar energy to support the Electrical Engineering
Laboratory at University of Perpetual Help Calamba Campus, this study will seek
answer to the following sub-problems such as:
1. What are the factors to be considered in using a solar system to
provide adequate electricity supply at Electrical Engineering
Laboratory of University of Perpetual Help Calamba Campus?
1. To design a backup system if in case there is no availability of solar
radiation to be able to sustain the normal electricity in the EE
laboratory.
2. What value of lighting consumption and cost can be minimized in
developing a solar charger with digital metering at Electrical
Engineering Laboratory of University of Perpetual Help Calamba
Campus?
Academe
The proposed design project will help University of Perpetual Help
Calamba Campus to have a new source of energy. Thus, this new system of
lighting electricity supply will help the University reduce its lighting electricity
consumption and so its cost. This project will also serve as an additional
reference material for University of Perpetual Help Calamba Campus as a
reference in producing renewable energy. The engineering faculty and
students could use this research design as an instructional material for their
design in new alternative energy and in renewable energy. The significance
of this study is to save energy using a solar charger. This also serves as an
alternative source of power charger during outage. This device also helps
reducing the GHG (Green House Gases).
Field of Engineering
This project design can serve as a sample technical project for
renewable energy especially in solar energy that will be benefited to the
discipline of Electrical Engineering, Electronics Engineering, Agricultural
Engineering and other related Engineering courses. This study gives an
overall view on the different processes in designing this technology.
Future Researchers
The research will help the future researchers by giving basic concepts of
Definition of Terms
For the completion of the study, the researcher used the following terms
such;
Green House Gas Emission- these are the pollutants that are available at
the global, national, facility, and individual levels.
Digital metering- measurement and display of all major electrical and power
quality parameters including true rms values, power quality data and
measurement of total harmonic distortion.
Solar Energy- is energy from the sun that is converted into thermal or
electrical energy.
CHAPTER 2
depending on the way they capture it, convert and distribute the sunlight.
Active solar techniques use photovoltaic panels, pumps and fans to convert
sunlight into useful outputs. Passive solar techniques include selecting
materials with favorable thermal properties, designing spaces that naturally
circulate air, and referencing the position of a building to the Sun. active
solar technologies increase the supply of energy and are considered supply
side technologies, while passive solar technologies reduce the need of
alternate resources and are generally considered demand side technologies.
2.1.2 Photovoltaic Cell
A photovoltaic cell or solar cell is a semiconductor PN junction
diode, normally without an external bias, that provides electrical power to a
load when illuminated.
The structure of photovoltaic cells is quite simple, the consist of six different
layers of materials as the researchers can see in the figure, firstly there is a
black cover glass surface which helps in increasing the protons absorption
and protects the cell from the atmosphere elements as well. After that there
is an antireflective coating which reduces the reflection losses from the
photons to more thah 5%. The contact grid which follows helps to minimize
the distance which the photons have to travel in order to reach the
semiconductors. The two thin layers or semiconductors p and n follow and
they are the heart of the photovoltaic system, finally there is the back contact
which allows a better conduction.
Basically, when the light strikes the cell, a certain proton of it is absorbed
within the semiconductor material. This means that the energy of the
absorbed light is transferred to the semiconductor. The energy knocks
electrons loose, allowing them to flow freely, PV cells also all have one or
more electric fields that act to force electrons freed by light absorption to flow
in a certain direction.
This flow of electrons is a current, and by placing metal contacts
on the top and bottom of the PV cell, the researchers can draw that current
off to use externally. For example, the current can power a calculator. This
current, together with the cells voltage (which is a result of its built-in electric
fields), defines the power (wattage) that the solar cell can produce.
2.1.2.2 Anatomy of a Solar Cell
Before now, our silicon was all electrically neutral, our extra
electrons were balanced out by the extra protons in the phosphorous. Our
missing electrons (holes) were balanced out by the missing protons in the
boron. When the holes and electrons mix at the junction between the N- type
and P-type silicon, however, that neutrally is disrupted. Do all the free
electrons fill all the free holes? Definitely NO. If they did, then the whole
arrangement wouldnt be very useful. Right at the junction, however, they do
mix and form a barrier, making it a harder and harder for the electrons on the
N- side to cross to the P- side. Eventually, equilibrium is reached, and the
researchers have an electric field separating the two sides.
countries such as China and India. At the same time, the tremendous risk of
climate change associated with the use of fossil fuels makes supplying this
energy increasingly difficult (Global Economic Symposium, 2016).
According to world Energy Crisis, abundant and economical energy is
the life blood of modern civilizations. Coals, nuclear and hydro are used primarily
to make electricity. Natural gas is widely used for heating. Biomass, which
usually means wood or dried dung, is used for heating and cooking. The red
sliver is wind and solar power, primarily. The red sliver may be small, but it is the
future because wind and solar power are sustainable. The bar graph shows oil,
coal and natural gas together supplying 85 percent of the world's energy supply
in 2008.
reserves are in the hands of a small group of nations, several of which are
considered political unstable or have testy relationships with large consuming
countries. Furthermore, he also found three solutions to these differing energy
crisis demands which 1.) To reduce growing energy demand through improved
energy efficiency and conservation, 2.) Research, develop and deploy a broad
range of energy sources, both domestic and international, to work with properly
functioning global markets to help meet future energy demands and 3.)
Research, develop and deploy a broad range of energy sources, both domestic
and international, to work with properly functioning global markets to help meet
future energy demands.
The Fraunhofer Institute for Solar Energy Systems ISE, Soitec, CEALeti and the Helmholtz Center Berlin jointly announced today having achieved a
new world record for the conversion of sunlight into electricity using a new solar
cell structure with four solar subcells. Surpassing competition after only over
three years of research, and entering the roadmap at world class level, a new
record efficiency of 44.7% was measured at a concentration of 297 suns. This
indicates that 44.7% of the solar spectrum's energy, from ultraviolet through to
the infrared, is converted into electrical energy. This is a major step towards
reducing further the costs of solar electricity and continues to pave the way to the
50% efficiency roadmap (Soitec, 2016).
wind, the third most important renewable energy source in terms of globally
installed capacity. In addition, EPIA`s annual Global Market Outlook (2013) have
released the top 10 countries with the highest installed capacity of solar PV
power. Table is shown below.
Table 2.1 Top 10 Countries With The Highest Installed Capacity Of Solar PV
Power
Ranking
Country
Installed PV [MW]
Germany
32,411
Italy
16,361
China
8,300
USA
7,777
Japan
6,914
Spain
5,166
France
4,003
Belgium
2,650
Australia
2,650
10
Czech Republic
2,072
Maehlum (2014) also stated that solar energy exists in abundance all
over the globe, but not every place would be suitable for solar PV panels,
solar thermal collectors or other means of converting sunlight into useful
energy. The figure below shows the higher solar density of the countries.
CHAPTER 3
THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK
The system approach (Input Process Output) will be used in
describing the conceptual framework of the study which is shown in the Figure
3.1 which the researchers used as guide in order to achieve the objectives
stated in Chapter 1.
OUTPUT
INPUT
Knowledge
Electrical
Generation
Pulse Width
Modulation
Hardware
Solar Panel
Charge
Controller
Dc Charger
Battery
Dc Lamp
PROCESS
Photovolataic
Process
Planning
Designing
Effective
efficiency on
electrical
lighting
Reduced
preventive
maintenance
cost
Automated
switching
when solar
panel is lack
of voltage
Minimized AC
electrical
consumption
Minimized
electrical cost
Research Locale
The research proposed system is primarily applicable only at the
Electrical Engineering Laboratory of the University of Perpetual Help Calamba
Campus.
Research Instrument
Technology has been the other half of this research. Browsing internet
serves a big role in the research; it is used in finding journals relative in the topic.
It is also use for learning unusual words often use in the study.
As the target location of the study, the researchers will be requesting
for the data they will need to start the study from the University of the Perpetual
Help Calamba Campus. After the data gathering and documentations, a solar
charger with digital metering prototype will be created.
Covering a total area of 621 sq.m., the solar panels are capable of
providing around 28 percent of the schools daily energy needs.
Solar power supply has been in the country for five years. But when
you ask people about it they still respond with whats that? said
Secretary Petilla. Through this project, we can show people that solar
panels are here to stay.
St. Paul College of Paraaque has joined the solar energy bandwagon
in the Philippines.
SPCP launched a 96-kilowatt peak solar photovoltaic system,
becoming the first solar-powered school in Paraaque City.
Green Heat Corp. chief operating officer Helen Tong and Paraaque
Rep. Eric Olivarez press the switch to launch the schools 96-kilowatt
peak solar power plant installed on the rooftop of its high school
gymnasium, making SPCP the first solar-powered school in
Paraaque City. The solar rooftop can generate 2.22 percent of
the schools daily energy need estimated at 14,500 kilowatt-hours,
allowing the school to save P3,900 a month. Using the system over
a year has the equivalent of planting 525 trees.
The schools solar rooftop can generate 2.22 percent of its daily
energy needs estimated at 14,500 kilowatt-hours, which translates into
P3,900 in savings a month. Using the system over a year has the
equivalent of planting 525 trees.
is what these solar panels are all about, SPCP director Sr. Mary
Edwardine Columbano said during the ceremonial launching of the
solar rooftop.
SPCP joins other schools that now use solar energy to cover part of
their power requirements over the past two years, including the Manila
campuses of Manuel L. Quezon University, St. Scholasticas College,
Mapua Institute of Technology and La Consolacion College.
The high school unit of SPCP will benefit from the use of solar panels
installed on 621 square meters of its gymnasium roof.
Paraaque Rep. Eric Olivarez, guest of honor at the launching of the
SPCP solar rooftop on July 6, lauded St. Paul College for being the
first school in the city to install solar panels.Olivarez encouraged other
schools to follow St. Paul Colleges renewable energy effort as the city
undertakes similar green initiatives such as installing LED lamp
posts.Green Heat chief operating officer Helen Tong said the
companys partnership with St. Paul College was significant because
children, being our future, are exposed to renewable energy at a
young age and become better stewards of our planet.
Since the energy consumption of SPCP is at its peak during the day
when classes are being held and its offices are open, operating its
solar power plant gives the school its best savings, Tong said.
SPCP students and teachers who attended the launching also learned
about the many benefits of using solar energy during the open forum.
Offices in the university are also observing Green Hour wherein lights
in offices and idle monitors are turned off during lunch breaks. Further,
the university is encouraging more members of the community to bike
PRICE
TYPE
QTY
P 3,900
P 1,850
P 4,000
P 31,000
P 100
P 1,150
P 6,000
P 86,650
BRAND NEW
BRAND NEW
BRAND NEW
BRAND NEW
BRAND NEW
BRAND NEW
BRAND NEW
4
4
4
1
15
1
N/A
OPTION 1 :
PARTS
PRICE
TYPE
QTY
P 3,900
P 16,000
P 8,000
P 100
P 1,150
P 6,000
P 72,250
BRAND NEW
BRAND NEW
BRAND NEW
BRAND NEW
BRAND NEW
N/A
4
1
4
15
2
N/A
OPTION 1 :
PARTS
PRICE
TYPE
QTY
P 3,700
P 1,000
P 4,000
P 10,000
P 100
P 1,125
P 6,000
P 68, 850
BRAND NEW
BRAND NEW
BRAND NEW
BRAND NEW
BRAND NEW
BRAND NEW
N/A
4
4
4
1
15
1
N/A
standard test conditions, and typically ranges from 100 to 365 watts.
The efficiency of a module determines the area of a module given the same
rated output an 8% efficient 230 watt module will have twice the area of a 16%
efficient 230 watt module. There are a few commercially available solar panels
available that exceed 22% efficiency and reportedly also exceeding 24%. A
single solar module can produce only a limited amount of power; most
installations contain multiple modules. A photovoltaic system typically includes a
panel or an array of solar modules, a solar inverter, and sometimes
a battery and/or solar tracker and interconnection wiring.
I.a Brands
Bosca (Germany)
Glomax (China)
Sun Power (Philippines)
I.b Specifications
Peak Power (PmaK):200W
Voltage (Vmp):35.64V
Current (Imp):5.62A
Open Circuit Voltage(Voc):42.84V
I.c Classifications
Monocrystalline Silicon Solar Cells
Solar cells made of monocrystalline silicon (mono-Si), also called singlecrystalline silicon (single-crystal-Si), are quite easily recognizable by an external
even coloring and uniform look, indicating high-purity silicon, as you can see on
the picture below:
Monocrystalline solar cells are made out of silicon ingots, which are cylindrical in
shape. To optimize performance and lower costs of a single monocrystalline
solar cell, four sides are cut out of the cylindrical ingots to make silicon wafers,
which is what gives monocrystalline solar panels their characteristic look.
Advantages
Monocrystalline solar panels have the highest efficiency rates since they are
made out of the highest-grade silicon. The efficiency rates of monocrystalline
solar panels are typically 15-20%. SunPower produces the highest efficiency
solar panels on the U.S. market today. Their E20 series provide panel conversion
efficiencies of up to 20.1%.[3]Update (April, 2013): SunPower has now released
the X-series at a record-breaking efficiency of 21.5%.
Monocrystalline silicon solar panels are space-efficient. Since these solar panels
yield the highest power outputs, they also require the least amount of space
II.a. Brands
Tracer
Bosca
Zuder
II.b. Specifications
Rated system voltage
40A
40A
due to smaller cable cross sectional areas). The MPPT controller will also
harvest substantially more power when the solar cell temperature is low (below
45C), or very high (above 75C), or when irradiance is very low.
III. Battery
An electric battery is a device consisting of one or more electrochemical
cells with external connections provided to power electrical devices. When a
battery is supplying power, its positive terminal is the cathode and its negative
terminal is the anode. The terminal marked negative is the source of electrons
that when connected to an external circuit will flow and deliver energy to an
external device. When a battery is connected to an external
circuit, electrolytes are able to move as ions within, allowing the chemical
reactions to be completed at the separate terminals and so deliver energy to the
external circuit. It is the movement of those ions within the battery which allows
current to flow out of the battery to perform work. Historically the term "battery"
specifically referred to a device composed of multiple cells, however the usage
has evolved to additionally include devices composed of a single cell.
Primary (single-use or "disposable") batteries are used once and discarded; the
electrode materials are irreversibly changed during discharge. Common
examples are the alkaline battery used for flashlights and a multitude of portable
devices. Secondary(rechargeable) batteries can be discharged and recharged
multiple times; the original composition of the electrodes can be restored by
reverse current. Examples include the lead-acid batteries used in vehicles
and lithium-ion batteries used for portable electronics.
Batteries come in many shapes and sizes, from miniature cells used to
power hearing aids and wristwatches to battery banks the size of rooms that
provide standby power for telephone exchanges and computer data centers.
According to a 2005 estimate, the worldwide battery industry generates
US$48 billion in sales each year, with 6% annual growth.
Batteries have much lower specific energy (energy per unit mass) than
common fuels such as gasoline. This is somewhat offset by the higher
arefficiency of electric motors in producing mechanical work, compared to
combustion engines.
III.a Brands
Motolite
Caterpillar
Amaron
III.b Specifications
AGM Battery
AGM technology became popular in the early 1980s as a sealed lead acid
battery for military aircraft, vehicles and UPS to reduce weight and improve
reliability. The sulfuric acid is absorbed by a very fine fiberglass mat, making the
battery spill-proof. This enables shipment without hazardous material restrictions.
The plates can be made flat to resemble a standard flooded lead acid pack in a
rectangular case; they can also be wound into a cylindrical cell.
AGM has very low internal resistance, is capable to deliver high currents on
demand and offers a relatively long service life, even when deep cycled. AGM is
maintenance free, provides good electrical reliability and is lighter than the
flooded lead acid type. While regular lead acid batteries need a topping charge
every six months to prevent the buildup of sulfation, AGM batteries are less
prone to sulfation and can sit in storage for longer before a charge becomes
necessary. The battery stands up well to low temperatures and has a low self-
discharge.
The leading advantages of AGM are a charge that is up to five times faster than
the flooded version, and the ability to deep cycle. AGM offers a depth-ofdischarge of 80 percent; the flooded, on the other hand, is specified at 50
percent DoD to attain the same cycle life. The negatives are slightly lower
specific energy and higher manufacturing costs than the flooded.
IV.a Brands
Tracer
Panther
Zuder
IV. Specification
IV. c Classification
Output waveform
An inverter can produce a square wave, modified sine wave, pulsed sine wave,
pulse width modulated wave (PWM) or sine wave depending on circuit design.
The two dominant commercialized waveform types of inverters as of 2007 are
modified sine wave and sine wave.
There are two basic designs for producing household plug-in voltage from a
lower-voltage DC source, the first of which uses a switching boost converter to
produce a higher-voltage DC and then converts to AC. The second method
converts DC to AC at battery level and uses a line-frequency transformer to
create the output voltage.[3]
Square wave
Square wave
This is one of the simplest waveforms an inverter design can produce and is
best suited to low-sensitivity applications such as lighting and heating. Square
wave output can produce "humming" when connected to audio equipment and is
generally unsuitable for sensitive electronics.
Sine wave
Sine wave
A power inverter device which produces a multiple step sinusoidal AC waveform
is referred to as a sine wave inverter. To more clearly distinguish the inverters
with outputs of much less distortion than the "modified sine wave" (three step)
inverter designs, the manufacturers often use the phrase pure sine wave inverter.
Almost all consumer grade inverters that are sold as a "pure sine wave inverter"
do not produce a smooth sine wave output at all,[citation needed] just a less
choppy output than the square wave (one step) and modified sine wave (three
step) inverters. In this sense, the phrases "Pure sine wave" or "sine wave
inverter" are misleading to the consumer.[citation needed] However, this is not
critical for most electronics as they deal with the output quite well.
Where power inverter devices substitute for standard line power, a sine wave
output is desirable because many electrical products are engineered to work best
with a sine wave AC power source. The standard electric utility power attempts to
provide a power source that is a good approximation of a sine wave.
Sine wave inverters with more than three steps in the wave output are more
complex and have significantly higher cost than a modified sine wave, with only
three steps, or square wave (one step) types of the same power
handling. Switch-mode power supply (SMPS) devices, such as personal
computers or DVD players, function on quality modified sine wave power. AC
motors directly operated on non-sinusoidal power may produce extra heat, may
have different speed-torque characteristics, or may produce more audible noise
than when running on sinusoidal power.
Modified sine wave
A modified sine wave inverter has a non-square waveform that is a useful
approximation of a sine wave for power translation purposes.
Most inexpensive consumer power inverters produce a modified sine wave rather
than a pure sine wave.
The waveform in commercially available modified-sine-wave inverters is a square
wave with a pause before the polarity reversal, which only needs to cycle back
and forth through a three-position switch that outputs forward, off, and reverse
output at the pre-determined frequency.[3] Switching states are developed for
positive, negative and zero voltages as per the patterns given in the switching
Table 2. The peak voltage to RMS voltage ratio does not maintain the same
relationship as for a sine wave. The DC bus voltage may be actively regulated, or
the "on" and "off" times can be modified to maintain the same RMS value output
up to the DC bus voltage to compensate for DC bus voltage variations.
The ratio of on to off time can be adjusted to vary the RMS voltage while
maintaining a constant frequency with a technique called pulse width
modulation (PWM). The generated gate pulses are given to each switch in
accordance with the developed pattern to obtain the desired output. Harmonic
spectrum in the output depends on the width of the pulses and the modulation
frequency. When operating induction motors, voltage harmonics are usually not
of concern; however, harmonic distortion in the current waveform introduces
additional heating and can produce pulsating torques.[4]
Numerous items of electric equipment will operate quite well on modified sine
wave power inverter devices, especially loads that are resistive in nature such as
traditional incandescent light bulbs.
However, the load may operate less efficiently owing to the harmonics
associated with a modified sine wave and produce a humming noise during
operation. This also affects the efficiency of the system as a whole, since the
manufacturer's nominal conversion efficiency does not account for harmonics.
Therefore, pure sine wave inverters may provide significantly higher efficiency
than modified sine wave inverters.
Most AC motors will run on MSW inverters with an efficiency reduction of about
20% owing to the harmonic content. However, they may be quite noisy. A series
LC filter tuned to the fundamental frequency may help.[5]
A common modified sine wave inverter topology found in consumer power
inverters is as follows:
An onboard microcontroller rapidly switches on and off power MOSFETs at high
frequency like ~50 kHz. The MOSFETs directly pull from a low voltage DC source
(such as a battery). This signal then goes through step-up transformers
(generally many smaller transformers are placed in parallel to reduce the overall
size of the inverter) to produce a higher voltage signal. The output of the step-up
transformers then gets filtered by capacitors to produce a high voltage DC
supply. Finally, this DC supply is pulsed with additional power MOSFETs by the
microcontroller to produce the final modified sine wave signal.