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The normal stress on the plane with unit normal n is given by n T n . This should be
maximized with respect to n subject to the constraint that n n 1. Thus we define the objective
function F to be extremized as
F n T n n n 1
Here, is the Lagrange multiplier. Extremization can be performed by differentiation with
respect to each component of n and equating the derivative to zero. Simpler way is to
differentiate directly with respect to n and get
F
0 T n n T 2n T T T n 2n
n
But since T is a symmetric matrix, T T T . Hence the equation above reduces to
T n n
T I n 0
The set of equations has only trivial solution n 0 if the determinant T I 0 . On the other
T I 0 ,
1
12
13
21
2
23 0
31
32
3
1
3 I1 2 I 2 I 3 0
where
I1 1 2 3
2
2
I 2 1 2 2 3 31 122 23
31
2
2
2
I 3 1 2 3 212 23 31 112
2 23
3 31
I1 , I 2 , and I 3 are called invariants of stress tensor. They remain the same if the coordinate frame
is rotated, although the values of the individual components change.
The cubic equation written above has three roots. All roots are real ( eigenvalues of
symmetric matrix are real) The roots give three values of stresses (1) , 2 , 3 . These are called
the principal normal stresses.
Each root when substituted in the equations, T I n 0 yields one value of n , i.e. one
direction. It is called the principal direction of normal stress. These form the set of three vectors
eigenvalues are real and eigenvectors are orthogonal to each other. If we setup our Cartesian
system along the three principal axes, we call it the principal coordinate system for the given
tensor field.
10.1 Determining the values of principal normal stresses
The equation 3 I1 2 I 2 I 3 0 is a cubic equation and its roots can be found using
the standard procedure reported in the literature for finding roots of cubic equations. It is
described below
(1) 0 2
where
J2
cos
3
2 0 2
J2
cos
3
3
3 0 2
J2
cos
3
3
1
1 2 3
3
cos 3
J3
2 J2 3
32
and
2
2
J 3 1 0 23
2 0 31
3 0 122 1 0 2 0 3 0
After obtaining principal normal stresses (1) , 2 , 3 , we can obtain the corresponding
principal directions n 1 , n 2 , n 3 by solving the equations
T n 1 (1) n 1 , T n 2 ( 2) n 2 and T n 3 3n 3
10.3 Example: Find principal normal stresses and their directions for the following stress tensor
3 0 0
T 0 2 2 MPa
0 2 5
Solution: Principal normal stresses are obtained by solving the following equation
0
0
2
2
0
2 0
5
Expansion gives
3 2 5 4 0
One of the roots of the equation is 3 . Other two roots are obtained by solving the quadratic
equation
2 7 6 0 or 6 1 0
Thus we have three principal normal stresses (1) 6 MPa, ( 2) 3 MPa, and (3) 1 MPa.
The principal direction corresponding to (1) 6 MPa is obtained by solving the equation
0
0 n1 0
3 0 0
3 6
0 2 2 n 6n or 0
26
2 n2 0
0
0 2 5
2
5 6 n3 0
Simplification gives
3
0 n1 0
3 0
3n1 0
0 4 2 n 0 or 4n 2n 0
2
3
0
2n2 n3 0
2 1 n3 0
These give the following solutions
6 is n 1
1
2
and n2
5
5
0
1
.
5
2
0
0 n1 0
3 3
3 0 0
0 2 2 n 3n or 0
23
2 n2 0
0
0 2 5
2
5 3 n3 0
Simplification gives
0
0 0 0 n1 0
0
0 1 2 n 0 or n 2n 0
3
2
2
2n2 2n3 0
0 2 2 n3 0
These give the following solutions
( 2)
3 is n
1
0 .
0
0 n1 0
3 0 0
3 1 0
0 2 2 n n or 0
2 1 2 n2 0
0
0 2 5
2
5 1 n3 0
4
Simplification gives
2 0 0 n1 0
2n1 0
0 1 2 n 0 or n 2n 0
3
2
2
0 2 4 n3 0
2n2 4n3 0
These give the following solutions
2
1
and n2
5
5
0
2
.
1 is n 3
5
1
2n T n T n n T n
The square of the magnitude of the shear stress is obtained by subtracting the square of the
magnitude of the normal stress from the square of the magnitude of the total stress on the plane.
The problem of finding the extremum values of the shear stresses involves finding n so as to
2
G T n T n n T n 2 n n 1
Here, 2 is the Lagrange multiplier.
The problem of finding the extremal shear stress planes in a direct manner is complicated.
It can however be simplified if we rotate the coordinate axes so that they coincide with the
principle normal stress directions n 1 , n 2 , n 3 .
n 1 , n 2 , n 3 .
1
n1
Q n21
n31
n12
n32
n32
n13
n23
n33
QT n 1 n21
n31
n12
n11
QT n 2 n21
n31
n12
n11
QT n 3 n21
n31
n12
n32
n32
n32
n32
n32
n32
n13
n23
n33
n13
n23
n33
n13
n23
n33
n11 n11
1 2
n2 n1
n21 n13
n12 n11
2 2
n2 n1
n22 n13
n13 n11
3 2
n2 n1
n23 n13
n21
n22
n23
n21
n22
n23
n21
n22
n23
n31 n11 1
n32 n21 0 e1
n33 n21 0
n31 n12 0
n32 n22 1 e2
n33 n22 0
n31 n13 0
n32 n23 0 e3
n33 n23 1
Note that
QT Q I and hence QT Q 1
Thus by multiplying all vectors of the original system by Q T we can form new coordinate
2
T 0
0
0
0 3
Hence for a plane with normal n in the new system, the stress vector is
1n1
T n 2 n2
3n3
Hence
This function can be extremized with respect to n1 ,n2 and n3 to give, the following three
equations
0 2 n 4 n n
0 2 n 4 n n
n 2 n
n 2 n
3 2
2
1
2 n22
2
1
2 n22
2
3
2
3
Note that each of the vectors n 1,0,0 , n 0,1,0 and n 0,1,1 satisfy these equations.
For example, if we substitute n 1,0,0 into these equations, The from the first equation, we get
0 2 1 4 1 1 2 2 or 2 1
2
The rest of the are identically satisfied. However, shear stress on these planes is zero and hence
they are the trivial solution of the problem.
If n1 n2 n3 0 , then the equations reduce to the following form
1 2
3 2
2 n
2 n
n
n
2
1
2 n22
2
1
2 n22
2
3
2
3
2 n
2 n
n 0
2
1
2 n22 3n32 0
2
1
2 n22
2
3
2 2 2 n22 3n32 2 0
7
2 3 2 n22 3n32 2 0
Or
2 n
2
2
2
3n32 0
2 n
2
2
2
3 3n22 0
Simplification gives
2 n
2
2
2
1
1
or n2
2
2
n 1
0
0
1
1
and n '1
2
2
1
1
2
2
Note that
n 1 n '1 0
This means these two planes are orthogonal to each other. We call n '1 the complementary shear
plane to n 1 .
The shear stress on this plane is
n n n n
1 2
1 2
2
1
2
2
2
3
2
1
2 n22 3n32
2
3 1 2
1
3 2 1
3
2
4
2
2 2
2
Or
1 2
3
2
Similarly for
2
n
1
1
2
2
0 and n ' 2 0
1
1
2
2
1 1
3
2
and for
n 3
1
1
2
2
1
1
and n '3
2
2
0
0
1 1
2
2
e1 n 1 1 0 0
0
0
0
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
, e3 n 0 0 1
0 , e2 n 0 1 0
2
2
2
2
2
1
1
1
2
2
2
This means the principal shear plane passes through axis-1 and makes angle of 450 with axis-2
and axis-3. On the other hand
0
0
1
1
1
,
e1 n '1 1 0 0
0 , e2 n '1 0 1 0
2
2
2
1
1
2
2
0
1 1
e2 n 1 0 0 1
2
2
1
This means the complementary principal shear plane passes through axis-1 and makes angle
of 1350 with axis-2 and 450 with axis-3.
In a similar manner, we can prove that the shear plane corresponding to
through axis-2 and makes angle of 450 with axes-1 and 3. Similarly,
n 2 passes
corresponding to n 3 passes through axis-3 and makes angle of 450 with axes-1 and 2.
It is important to note that the normal stresses on the principal shear planes need not be
zero since
2 3
n 1 T n (1) 1n12 2 n22 3n32
2
Similarly
1 2
1 3
n 2 T n ( 2)
and n 3 T n (3)
2
2
10.3 Example: Find principal shear planes and principal shear stresses for the following stress
tensor
3 0 0
T 0 2 2 MPa
0 2 5
Solution: For this tress tensor , we have already obtained the principal stresses as (1) 6 MPa,
( 2) 3 MPa, and (1) 1 MPa The corresponding principal normal directions are
10
n 1
0
1
0
2
1
2
3
, n 0 and n
5
5
0
1
5
5
We now assume that we have rotated the coordinate axes to coincide with the principal normal
direction. In this frame
6 0 0
T 0 3 0
0 0 1
1 2
1
3 3 1 1 MPa.
2
2
1 1
1
5
3 6 1 MPa.
2
2
2
1 1
1
3
2 6 3 MPa.
2
2
2
5
MPa.
2
We are interested in finding the directions of shear planes with respect to the original coordinate
system.
n1s
1 2
, n s
2
0 , ns3
1
2
1
2
0
T
1
1
Q
n s Q n s
0
1
5
2
5
1
0
2
0
5
1
0
0
1
2
1
2
2
2
10
1
10
11
Q ns2
Q n s
0
1
5
2
5
0
1
5
2
5
1
0
2
0
5
1
0
5
1
0
2
0
5
1
0
1
2
0
1
0
3
10
1
10
2
0
2
1
10
2
10
These three vectors are the components of the normal to the principal shear planes in the original
system.
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