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Math
TABLE OF CONTENTS
TOPIC
PAGE
Fractions
Fractions to Decimals
10
12
14
Formulas
19
Speed Formulas
20
23
Tapping
27
29
30
we picked up 3 hundredths more overnight. This would be written (.03). All together, we picked up
eighty three hundredths of an inch of rain(.83).
To a machinist, it would be understood that we picked up Eight Hundred and Thirty
Thousandths of an inch of rain (.830). This is because machinists work to the thousandth of an inch in
measurement. Even though there werent any thousandths of an inch present, the statement is written
to reflect the accuracy of how machinists work. To see the difference of how machinists read and
speak decimals values versus standard school taught mathematics, refer to the chart below
School Math Decimal Pronunciation Method
1.0
0.1
0.01
0.001
0.0001
= One inch
= One tenth of an inch.
= One hundredth of an inch
= One thousandth of an inch
= One ten thousandth of an inch
= One inch
= One hundred thousandths of an inch
= Ten thousandths of an inch
= One thousandth of an inch
= One tenth of an inch
As you see, the only two things in common with both ways of reading decimal statements is the
Inch place and the Thousandths of an Inch place. Practice and working with decimals daily will help
reinforce the proper way a machinist pronounces decimal statements.
Complete the exercise on the following page by reading the statement and filling in numeric value
that you think the statement is trying to describe. All of the statements are written in the machinist
way of writing decimal values.
Practicing the exercise on the previous page will help understand position of numbers and how
to write out the numeric value for spoken decimal statements. You will have homework just like the
decimal statement exercise on the previous page. It will be located at the back of this book. Your
instructor also has copies of the exercise on the previous page so that you may test yourself to see how
your well you are progressing.
will need to be known first. If a machine only reads in the thousandths place, then the number to the
right (the tenths place) will need to be rounded.
Use the following list to know what the value should be before rounding either up or down.
0.
0.
0.0
0.0
0.00
0.00
0.000 =
0.000 =
0.000 =
0.000 =
Since machinist most typically only deal with to the tenth place, there would be no need to
round beyond tenths. Any number beyond the tenth place is usually dropped with a few exceptions.
Knowing when to round can be a bit tricky and you will certainly need to consult a machines
manual to know which values need to be rounded and what actual values are used for various machine
functions.
Fractions
Fractions have been used through history to determine how much of an item has been taken
and how much of an item is left. Common fractions such as , , and are well known by most
people. Machinist use fractions only when they speak about things but not while they make
calculations. A machinist might say his job is completed but you will not hear him say that a slot is
wide or a hole is deep. The term without the benefit of the inch sign() does not refer to an actual
amount rather a portion of an unspecified amount and to speak in fractions without first referring to a
value would surely become confusing in a hurry!
When someone talks in fractions, it is universally known and regarded by machinists that
fractions are what is called an open tolerance feature, meaning they have a broad tolerance amount
and are considered to be for reference only. An example of this is that if you want to drill a very
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accurate hole for a precision pin to fit in, you would not want to tell a machinist that you want a
diameter hole drilled. This would result in getting a hole that is roughly in diameter. What you
should tell the machinist is the EXACT size you want the hole and give him/her a tolerance for that hole
to fall in. If you are unsure of what was just stated above, please rest your concerns because we will
discuss sizing, tolerance and other machining data throughout your training.
Fractions to Decimals
Now that you have an understanding of how machinist read decimals, the next step is to learn
how to convert fractions to decimals. First and foremost, CNC machines do not use fractions in their
programming or in their settings. CNC machinists do not use fractions when making measurements and
calculations. As stated earlier, fractional values written on blue prints are almost always converted to
decimal values and then tolerance so that a measurement range can be obtained to a highly accurate
level.
The first step in learning how to read fractions is to know what a fraction is, how a fraction is
made up and what the major parts are called.
A fraction is a number statement which shows the value of how many parts are available from
a whole unit value. For example, if a pie is cut into 8 slices and 8 slices remain, a whole unit is still
present and it is written 8/8.
The first number is called the numerator. It is the number of equal parts remaining.
The second number is called the denominator. It shows how many equal parts that the whole
value was broken into.
In this case, there were 8 equal parts that make up one pie. Now, lets say that 3 pieces of pie
are taken from the plate. That would leave us with 5 pieces of pie remaining in the plate. That would
be written 5/8. The numerator would be 5 and the denominator would be 8. Notice that the bottom
number does not change when pieces of pie are removed since it represents the number of pieces that
we started with.
Below is a graphic that shows the pie as it is described above. The first picture shows the whole
pie and the second shows the pie with the pieces removed, represented by the gray shaded area.
10
One of the easiest ways to turn a fractional statement into a decimal statement is to divide the
top number (numerator) by the bottom number (denominator). As long as the top number is less than
the bottom number the result will ALWAYS be less than a whole number. To use our fraction example,
5 divided by 8 equals (5 / 8) = 0.625.
Now that you have the formula for converting any fraction into a decimal, work on the fractions
below and turn them into decimals. Before converting every fraction, go down the list try to see if you
know the answers to some of the more common fractions.
1. 1/4
2. 7/8
3. 5/16
4. 1/2
5. 11/16
6. 3/8
7. 13/16
8. 1/16
9. 3/4
10. 7/16
11. 1/8
12. 9/16
13. 5/8
14. 3/16
15. 15/16
The fractions listed above are from a standard machinist ruler called a scale. Scales are commonly
graduated in increments ranging from 1/8ths, 1/16ths, 1/32nds, and 1/64ths.
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Memorizing the decimal equivalent of commonly used fractions is more than convenient, it is
essential. By having the sizes committed to memory, a machinist can readily calculate values and
quickly identify common fractional sizes when they are listed in their decimal form. This will help when
determining the tooling required when creating specific geometric shapes. Getting comfortable with
decimal equivalents is also useful when dealing with blue print reading as you will see in the next
lesson.
An important note when converting fractions to decimals is to be sure to write down your results
as you obtain them, then go back and double check your results. This will prevent transposition and
typographic errors while entering your formulas into a calculator or writing them on a piece of paper.
4 & 11/16 =
4.6875
2.625
4.6875
7.3125
12
Now that you have an understanding of why it is important to convert fractions to decimals as
well as adding and subtracting them, use your newly developed skills on solving the following
problems:
1. 6 27/64
3.9375
2. 12.375
2 9/16
3. 4 17/32
19/64
4. 8 1/2
17 13/16
5. 3 3/32
1.1562
6. .8125
11/32
7. 7.875
8 19/32
8. 2.0312
3.1875
9. 5 1/8
2 11/16
10. 9 5/16
6 5/8
11. 14.2812
8.4688
12. 6 3/16
4.3125
13. 2 3/4
27.2188
14. 3/64
21/32
15. 16 31/32
5 7/16
16. 1 27/32
4 9/16
13
Practicing not only converting but adding and subtracting decimals will help with calculating
missing dimensions and figuring measuring reference points when making parts.
the features that will need to be made. Often it is the intersection of two edges of the stock material.
Sometimes, especially on round work pieces, it is the center of the work piece so that all of the
features appear at equal distance from the center of rotation on the part.
Machinists use their math skills in order to gather the necessary values for the locations of each
feature to be machined. Some prints may be entirely in decimals, some may be in fractions while
others may have a combination of both.
Extracting information needed to make calculations is often a combination of several simple
and basic math calculations. You may need to add, subtract, multiply or divide to get an answer or
possibly a combination of up to all four.
For the example below, you will need to first find what the dimension is that is needed, extract
the values to be used for the calculation, then use a simple math formula to determine the answer. In
this case, we will need to find the ???? dimension that appears near the middle of the image. It is
considered a wall thickness for a simple slot to be machined in the work piece drawn. We know what
the distance from the edge of the part to the middle of the slot and we also know what the distance is
from the center of the slot to the edge of the slot. Using a subtraction statement, calculate what the
missing value is.
???? =
15
???? =
Using the example above, figure out what the ???? dimension is. Be careful, there are several
dimensions on this exercise that do not have anything to do finding the ???? dimension. Study the
image and determine which values will be needed to create the math statement. You may need to
convert a fraction to a decimal in order to solve the problem.
Using the skills you have learned so far regarding fractions to decimals, look at the prints below and
on the following pages and find the missing dimensions that are labeled with letters. Be sure to
document the method you used to find the answer. If you cannot find a solution to one of the
questions, it is better to leave it blank than to guess.
A =
C =
B =
D =
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A =
C =
B =
D =
The following two images contain common symbols and abbreviations that you will find on part
prints. Symbols and abbreviations are often used to save space on prints and to keep the notations
short and simple. The following two symbols and abbreviations will be used on the following images
and you will learn more of them as you progress through Print Reading and Precision Measurement.
= Diameter. This is a symbol used on prints to describe the measured distance across the middle
of a hole or round feature. Use the formula Diameter (D) / 2 ( /2) for finding the hole size, which is
also called the Radius.
Typ. = Typical This is an abbreviation which means that similar looking features found on a part
print that do not have dimensions will be this stated size or value. Abbreviations help save space and
de-clutter the print area.
Watch for the above stated symbols and abbreviations and you may need to use them in your
calculations.
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A =
D =
B =
E =
C =
A =
E =
B =
F =
C =
G =
D =
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Formulas
Formulas are used constantly throughout manufacturing to help solve all sorts of daily
problems. Everything from fractions to decimal conversions, threading feed and speed calculation,
feed rate calculations, spindle speed calculations to geometric and trigonometric functions use various
formulas that simplify those tasks. Having a working knowledge of the various formulas is not only
helpful with operations but also in learning how to plan and program CNC machines.
Formulas which machinists often use are kept on what is called a cheat sheet. This is nothing
more than a quick reference list of the most common formulas and their variables. Cheat sheets are an
industry wide term that represents any handy reference information specifically set up to aide in the
calculation of a mathematical problem which may be seen in day to day operations. The following
pages have several examples, formulas and exercises which you may use during your machining
experience.
A word of advice when working with formulas is to be sure to always write down the result of
each calculation before moving onto the next step. If you try to do everything at once, there will be a
good chance that you will make a mistake and come up with the incorrect result. Look at the following
example of a RPM speed formula.
RPM = 3.82 x SFM / D
If you use a calculator and key in the 3.82 incorrectly, lets say 3.28, you may not see the
mistake, then finish the equation without writing down the results from each part. This type of mistake
is common. It is called transposition error. This means that you have the correct numbers but they are
in the wrong sequence. If you do not confirm your findings, the mistake will not be caught and the
error, though seemingly small, may result in shorter tool life, improper part finish or worse, a scrapped
work piece.
One such mistake would look like this:
RPM = 3.82 x SFM / D
RPM = 3.28 x SFM / D
Do you see the mistake? Though the correct numbers are in there, just by misplacing the 8 and
2, you have completely distorted the calculation. It is very easy to miss. Another piece of advice is to
ALWAYS verify your results two more times to make sure you did not make a mistake in the
calculations. When you go back to verify you will see that your numbers do not match. If you have each
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result written down as you perform the equations, you will easily see any mistake made, if you do not
write down your results, you will have no way to know where the mistake was made.
Speed Formulas
There are two types of speed formulas used when working on CNC machines. One is for
converting RPM (Revolutions Per Minute) into SFM (Surface Feet Per Minute) and vice versa, SFM to
RPM. The reasons for converting one to the other mainly relies on what mode the CNC machine you
are working on requires for operation. CNC machining centers usually require RPM to be programmed
but rely on SFM to help calculate RPM for the various sizes, materials and number of teeth on cutters.
CNC lathes require SFM to be programmed but use RPM to calculate maximum part speed based on
part size. Yes, it can become confusing but when you work with the various machines on a daily basis,
you will quickly learn which machines require what information. The most important thing to
remember is the formula which will help you in calculating the mode of speed designation required.
= 3.82 x SFM / D
SFM
= Diameter of Tool
An example would be to take a 0.750 inch diameter cutter and have a requested SFM of 150.
The resulting formula and answer will be as follows:
RPM
RPM
= 573 / 0.75
RPM
= 764
When breaking down the equation, do one mathematical function at a time. Then put the
result of that first function on a new line with the rest of the formula. As you can see on the second
line, the product of 3.82 and 150 is 573. This is then divided by 0.75 and the result is the RPM of 764.
If for any reason, the result of this equation gives a decimal value, round your final answer to
the whole number non-decimal value.
20
Please calculate the RPM for each of the following examples using the formula
RPM
= 3.82 x SFM / D
1.
SFM=285
DIA.=.75
RPM = _____________
2.
SFM=325
DIA.=2.5
RPM = _____________
3.
SFM=840
DIA.=3.25
RPM = _____________
4.
SFM=625
DIA.=1.5
RPM = _____________
5.
SFM=382
DIA.=2.8125
RPM = _____________
6.
SFM=445
DIA.=1.2812
RPM = _____________
7.
SFM=282
DIA.=.4375
RPM = _____________
8.
SFM=875
DIA.=6.750
RPM = _____________
9.
SFM=638
DIA.=8.9375
RPM = _____________
10.
SFM=463
DIA.=12.625
RPM = _____________
21
= Diameter of Tool
RPM
An example of this will be to take a 1.25 inch diameter cutter and have a requested RPM of
1500. Round the final answer to the whole number, non-decimal value.
SFM = .262 x 1.25 x 1500
SFM = 0.3275 x 1500
SFM = 491.25
SFM = 491
Please calculate the SFM for each of the following examples using the formula
SFM = .262 x D x RPM
1.
RPM=1675
DIA.=1.25
SFM = _____________
2.
RPM=2400
DIA.=.625
SFM = _____________
3.
RPM=825
DIA.=8.4375
SFM = _____________
4.
RPM=3300
DIA.=.900
SFM = _____________
5.
RPM=1000
DIA.=5.2
SFM = _____________
6.
RPM=545
DIA.=8.75
SFM = _____________
7.
RPM=1875
DIA.=2.375
SFM = _____________
8.
RPM=145
DIA.=15.125
SFM = _____________
9.
RPM=5850
DIA.=.275
SFM = _____________
10.
RPM=1660
DIA.=3.875
SFM = _____________
22
= Number of Teeth
RPM
An example of this will be to have a tool with 7 teeth, with a 0.007 feed per tooth rotating at
1750 RPM.
IPM = 0.007 x 7 x 1750
IPM = 0.049 x 1750
IPM = 85.75
For normal milling operations, the FINAL answer from this equation is normally rounded to the
tenth place.
If you need to find SFM for a lathe, use the formula, IPM = IPR x RPM
The reason for this is that lathes only have one tooth while mills usually have tools with several
cutting teeth. You will mostly use the formula for machining centers since lathe usually operate in IPR.
23
Please calculate the IPM for each of the following examples using the formulas, round the final answer
to the nearest tenth place if needed.
IPM = FPT x T x RPM or
1.
FPT=.005
T=3
RPM=1500
IPM = _____________
2.
FPT=.0025 T=8
RPM=2200
IPM = _____________
3.
IPR=.007
RPM=1900
IPM = _____________
4.
FPT=.0035 T=4
RPM=1800
IPM = _____________
5.
IPR=.012
RPM=3300
IPM = _____________
6.
FPT=.009
RPM=2250
IPM = _____________
7.
IPR=.0068
RPM=2825
IPM = _____________
8.
FPT=.0032 T=3
RPM=1700
IPM = _____________
9.
IPR=.014
RPM=1100
IPM = _____________
10.
FPT=.0015 T=8
RPM=7500
IPM = _____________
T=6
24
RPM
An example of this will be to have a tool moving at 7.6 IPM and the spindle rotating at 2430
RPM.
IPR = 7.6 / 2430
IPR = .0031
The answer from this formula is usually rounded to the tenths place since lathes normally move
in values less than one whole inch.
Please calculate the IPR for each of the following examples using the formula
IPR = IPM / RPM
1.
IPM=18.5
RPM=1650
IPR = _____________
2.
IPM=33.
RPM=2900
IPR = _____________
3.
IPM=3.8
RPM=800
IPR = _____________
4.
IPM=21.
RPM=2000
IPR = _____________
5.
IPM=16.3
RPM=2750
IPR = _____________
6.
IPM=12.
RPM=1770
IPR = _____________
7.
IPM=30.
RPM=3650
IPR = _____________
8.
IPM=6.7
RPM=795
IPR = _____________
9.
IPM= 42.5
RPM=5400
IPR = _____________
10.
IPM=17.25
RPM=2125
IPR = _____________
25
An example of this will be to have a tool with 6 teeth moving at 96 IPM and the spindle rotating
at 4765 RPM.
FPT = 96 / 6 / 4765
FPT = 16 / 4765
FPT = 0.0034
The answer of this formula actually figured out to several more places beyond the tenths place
so it was rounded to the nearest tenth.
Please calculate the FPT for each of the following examples using the formula
FPT = IPM / T / RPM
1.
IPM=16.
T=5
RPM=1500
FPT = _____________
2.
IPM=12.
T=3
RPM=2200
FPT = _____________
3.
IPM=23.
T=4
RPM=1900
FPT = _____________
4.
IPM=17.
T=2
RPM=1800
FPT = _____________
5.
IPM=8.
T=1
RPM=3300
FPT = _____________
6.
IPM=14.
T=6
RPM=2250
FPT = _____________
7.
IPM=25.5
T=3 RPM=2825
FPT = _____________
8.
IPM=34.
T=8
RPM=1700
FPT = _____________
9.
IPM=6.5
T=2
RPM=1100
FPT = _____________
10.
IPM=72.5
T=10 RPM=7500
FPT = _____________
26
Tapping
Tapping, which is the operation of cutting threads into a hole on the work piece, requires that
you make two calculations in order for this function to work correctly. First, you will need to know
what the pitch is for the thread. This is a simple calculation. Every tap has a standard designation which
describes the size of the tap and the number of threads per inch. For example 5/8 11 means the tap
is 0.625 in diameter and has 11 threads per inch. To find the pitch, you divide the number of threads
per inch into the number one.
P = 1 / TPI
TPI = Threads Per Inch
P= 1 /11
P = 0.0909
This value is almost always rounded to the tenths place on most modern CNC machines.
Please calculate the Pitch (P) for each of the following examples using the formula listed above.
1.
5/8 x 11
2.
x 20
3.
3/8 x 24
4.
7/8 x 9
5.
x 13
6.
1x8
7.
#10 x 32
8.
5/16 x 18
9.
x 10
10.
7/16 x 14
27
Once you have determined the thread pitch value, you can move onto step two, the Feedrate
formula. This formula uses the pitch and multiplies it by the programmed RPM. For our example, we
will run our tool at 600 RPM.
IPM = P x RPM
P = Pitch
RPM = Revolutions Per Minute
IPM = .0909 x 600
IPM = 54.54
You now have the exact value needed to feed the tool into the work piece at 600 RPM. This will
result in an accurate thread form. If you change the RPM in any way, you will need to recalculate the
IPM each time.
Please calculate the IPM for each of the following examples using the formula listed above.
1.
5/8 x 11
600 RPM
IPM = _____________
2.
x 20
1250 RPM
IPM = _____________
3.
3/8 x 24
640 RPM
IPM = _____________
4.
7/8 x 9
335 RPM
IPM = _____________
5.
x 13
425 RPM
IPM = _____________
6.
1x8
180 RPM
IPM = _____________
7.
#10 x 32
1400 RPM
IPM = _____________
8.
5/16 x 18
980 RPM
IPM = _____________
9.
x 10
240 RPM
IPM = _____________
10.
7/16 x 14
650 RPM
IPM = _____________
28
Formula:
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