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THURAN NATHAN
CHAPTER 2: MATTER
1. To determine melting point
Heating
Cooling
Boiling point
Time, s
to
t1
t2
t3
Example:
Graph shows the heating curve of element X.
Describe the graph in terms of states of matter, particle arrangements and changes in energy.
Sample answer:
Stage
to t1
State of matter
Liquid
t1 -
t2
Liquid
gaseous
t2 t3
Gaseous
Particles arrangement
The particles are close to each other.
The particles arrangement is not orderly.
Some of particles are close to each other
and some far apart.
The particles arrangement is not orderly.
The particles are far away from each other.
The particles arrangement is not orderly.
Changes in energy
The kinetic energy increases
The kinetic energy is constant
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Atom
Proton number
No. of electron
Valence electron
Number of neutron / nucleon number
Chemical properties
Physical properties
No. of occupied shell
X
6
6
4
6/ 12
Y
6
6
4
8 /14
similar
different
similar
6p
6n
6p
8n
c) Procedure
- Weigh and record the mass of combustion tube
with porcelain dish
- Add a spatula of copper (II) oxide on the
porcelain dish. Weigh the tube again.
- Allow hydrogen gas flow into the tube for 5 10
minutes.
- Burn the excess hydrogen.
- Heat copper (II) oxide strongly.
- Turn off the flame when black solid turns brown
completely.
- Continue the flow of hydrogen until the set of
apparatus cool down to room temperature.
- Weigh the combustion tube with its content.
- -Repeat the process heating, cooling and
weighing until a constant mass is obtained and
record.
Result :
- combustion tube with porcelain dish = a g
- combustion tube with porcelain dish + copper (II)
oxide = b g
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- mass of oxygen = ( c b) g
Calculation:
Element / atom
Mass (g)
Number of mole
Simplest ratio of mole
Cu
x
x / 64
O
y
y / 16
Element / atom
Mass (g)
Number of mole
Simplest ratio of mole
Precaution :
1. The flow of H 2 must be continuous during
cooling to prevent hot copper metal from
oxidized.
2. Allow hydrogen gas flow into the tube for 5
10 minutes to unsure air totally removed. The
mixture H 2 and air may cause an explosion.
3. To determine all air totally removed, collect the
air and place lighted splinter, the gas burn quietly.
[To prepare H 2 ]
4. Zn + 2HCl ZnCl 2 + H 2
5. Anhydrous calcium chloride to dry the H 2 gas.
6. CuO + H 2 Cu + H 2 O
Mg
x
x / 24
O
y
y / 16
Precaution :
1. Clean Mg ribbon with sand paper to remove the
layer of oxide on its surface.
2. Lift / raise the lid at intervals to allow air in
3. When Mg ribbon start to burn, cover the crucible
with lid to avoid the white fume produced from
being escape to the air.
4. Repeat the process heating, cooling and
weighing to make sure all magnesium is
completely reacted with oxygen.
5. 2Mg + O 2 2MgO
Na 2 O
+1
Sodium oxide
Does not have roman number
because sodium has only one
oxidation number
CuI
+1
Copper (I) iodide
Has roman number because
copper has more than one
oxidation number
Explain the following statements, referring to the electron arrangement of the elements.
(a) The elements of Group 18 are unreative and exist as monoatomic particles (3 marks)
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(b) The reactivity of Group I elements increases down the group, whereas the reactivity of Group
17 elements decreases down the group.
(12 marks)
The points are:
1
2
3
4
5
Explanation
Change in proton number
Change in number of electrons and electron filled shells
Change in atomic size/radius/diameter
Strength of electrostatic attraction between nucleus and
valence electron
Tendency to
6 To become
7 Reactivity
Group I
Increases
Increases
Increases
Decreases /weaker
Group 17
Increases
Increases
Increases
Decreases /weaker
Releases electron
increases
Positive ion
Increases
Attract t/ accept
electron decreases
Negative ion
Decreases
(2) Explain how the melting point of Group 1 elements change down the group (4 marks)
decreases gradually
Reason
atomic size increases
metallic bonding between the atoms become weaker
Less energy is required / needed to overcome this metallic bonding.
(3) Chemical properties of element in group 17
I
II
III
Cl 2 + H 2 O HCl + HOCl
Cl 2 + 2NaOH NaCl + NaOCl + H 2 O
3Cl 2 + 2Fe 2FeCl 3 (brown solid)
Chlorine gas
To
produce
Cl2
III
Soda lime
Hot iron wool
HCl (cons) +
II
KMnO4(s)
Example: Compare the reactivity of reactions between chlorine and bromine with iron. [Diagram III]
Reaction
Reactants
A
Iron + chlorine gas
B
Observation
The hot iron wool ignites rapidly with a bright flame.
A brown solid is formed.
The hot iron wool glows moderately with fast.
A brown solid is formed.
Sample answer:
a) Chemical equation: 3Cl 2 + 2Fe 2FeCl 3
b) The reactivity of reaction A is higher than reaction B.
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4. one ( Carbon ) atom share 4 pairs of electrons with 4 (H) atoms to form covalent compound , CH 4 /
ratio
5. diagram
CHAPTER 6: ELECTROCHEMISTRY
1. Factor that affect the electrolysis of an aqueous solution
(a) position of ions in the electrochemical series (cathode)
(b) concentration of ions in the electrolyte - halide ( Chloride, bromide and iodide)
(c) type of electrodes used in the electrolysis ( anode metal )
Application
(i) Electroplating
anode electroplating metal ( less electropositive metal / Cu, Ag, Ni )
cathode metal /object to be electroplated
electrolyte - solution that contains the metal ions of electroplating metal
(ii) Purification
anode impure metal ( Cu Cu2+ + 2e )
cathode pure metal ( Cu2+ + 2e Cu )
electrolyte - solution that contains the metal ions ( Cu2+)
(iii) Extraction of metal (reactive metal, sodium, aluminium)
Down`s Process extraction of sodium from molten sodium chloride.
Extraction of aluminium from molten aluminium oxide ( bauxite)
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2. To construct the electrochemistry based on tendency to release electron /potential differences - voltaic
cell/ Electrochemical cell.
lead
copper
Copper(II)
sulphate solution
Cell P
Cell Q
4. Compare and contrast cell P and Q. Include in your answer the observation and half equation for the
reaction of the electrodes in both cells.
Cell P
Electrical chemical
+ve / anode: copper (OXIDATION)
-ve / cathode: copper
Cu2+ , H+
OH- , SO 4 2Anode :Cu Cu2+ + 2e
(type of electrode)
Characteristics
Cell Q
Energy change
Chemical electrical
Electrode
+ve/cathode: copper
-ve/ anode: lead (OXIDATION)
Ions present in
Cu2+ , H+
the electrolyte
OH- , SO 4 2Anode: Pb Pb2+ + 2e
Half equation
2+
Cathode: Cu + 2e Cu
Cathode: Cu2+ + 2e Cu
( ECS)
Observation
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(ECS)
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MBVB
Result :
Titration
Final burette reading, cm3
Initial burette reading, cm3
Volume of hydrochloric acid 0.1 mol dm-3 , cm3
calculate the mass of solute ( mole = 0.1 x 100/1000 , 0.01 = mass/ 40)
weigh 0.4g of NaOH in weighing bottle using digital balance / electronic balance
pour into a beaker, rinse the bottle with distilled water.
dissolve NaOH with a little ( 10 20 cm3 )distilled water.
transfer the mixture into volumetric flask 100 cm3 rinse the beaker with distilled water.
pour the washings into volumetric flask 100 cm3
add distilled water, shake well
add distilled water drop by drop to finally bring the volume of solution to the 100 cm3 mark /
calibration mark.
Industries
Health
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2NaNO 2
+ O2 )
Example: You are given lead (II) nitrate and aluminium nitrate solution. Describe chemical test to
verify the cation and anion.
(c) test for cation
1. pour 2 cm3 the solutions into different test tubes
2. add 1 cm3 potassium iodide solution into the test tubes
3. yellow precipitate formed
4. lead (II) ion present
(d) test for anion
1. pour 2 cm3 of lead (II) nitrate solution into a test tube
2. add 1 cm3 of dilute sulphuric acid
3. add 1 cm3 of iron (II) sulphate solution
4. shake the mixure
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5. tilt the test tube, add concentrated sulphuric acid carefully // drop by drop down the side
of the test tube
6. the brown ring formed
7. nitrate ion, NO 3 - present.
Aim : To construct the ionic equation for the formation of lead (II) chromate(VI)
[Continuous variation method]
Apparatus
: Test tubes of the same size, test tube rack, burette, retort stand with
clamp, ruler, glass rod, dropper.
: 0.5 mol dm-3 potassium chromate (VI) solution, 0.5 mol dm-3 lead (II)
nitrate solution.
Procedure
:
1. Seven test tubes of the same size were labelled from number 1 to 7. They were placed in a test tube
rack.
2. A burette was filled 0.5 mol dm-3 lead (II) nitrate solution, 5.00 cm3 of the lead (II) nitrate
solution was run into each the seven tubes.
3. Another burette was filled with 0.5 mol dm-3 potassium chromate (VI) solution.
4. Potassium chromate (VI) solution from the burette was added into each of the seven test tubes
according to the volumes specified in the table.
5. The mixture in each test tube was stirred with a clean glass rod.
6. The test tubes were left aside for about an hour.
7. The height of the precipitate in each test tube was measured. The colour of the solution above the
precipitate in each test tube was observed and recorded.
Material
Results:
Test tube
Volume of 0.5 mol
dm-3
Pb(NO 3 ) 2 /cm3
Volume of 0.5 mol
dm-3
K 2 Cr O 4 /cm3
Height of precipitate
(cm)
Colour of solution
above the precipitate
5.00
5.00
5.00
5.00
5.00
5.00
5.00
1.00
2.00
3.00
4.00
5.00
6.00
7.00
0.60
1.20
1.80
2.40
3.00
3.00
3.00
colourless
colourless
colourless
yellow
yellow
colourless
colourless
Paper 2
Discussion
The volume of 0.5 mol dm-3 potassium chromate (VI), solution required to exactly react with 5.00 cm3 of 0.5
mol dm-3 lead (II) nitrate solution is 5.00 cm3.
Calculation:
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Discussions:
1. A yellow precipitate of lead (II) chromate (VI) is formed in each of the seven test tubes.
2. The height of the precipitate increases gradually from test tubes 1 to 5 because more and more lead (II)
chromate (VI) is formed due to the increasing amount of potassium chromate (VI) added to the test tubes.
3. The colour of solution above the precipitate in test tubes 1 to 4 are colourless due to the excess lead (II)
nitrate.
4. The colour of solution above the precipitate in test tubes 6 to 7 is yellow due to the excess potassium
chromate (VI).
5. Ionic equation: Pb2+ + Cr 2 O 7 2- PbCr 2 O 7
Conclusion:
As / when the volume of potassium chromate (VI) solution used increases, the height of the precipitate
increases until it achieves a maximum height.
S + O2
2SO 2 + O 2 2SO 3
SO 3 + H 2 SO 4
H2S2O7
H2S2O7 + H2O
2H 2 SO 4
Equation
SO 2
Explanation
Sulphur is burned in the excess of oxygen gas to produce sulphur
dioxide gas.
SO 2 is then heated in excess oxygen gas, catalyst Vanadium (V)
oxide, 1 atm and 450 550 o C , to produce sulphur trioxide gas.
Gas sulfur trioxide dissolve in sulphuric acid to produce oleum
Oleum is added to water to produce sulfuric acid
Gas SO 3 is not dissolve in water to produce H 2 SO 4 straight away because the reaction will produce a
lot of heat which is dangerous( cause the forming of acid fumes)
Usage of sulphuric acid:
To manufacture fertilizer, soap and detergent
To make explosive material, paint / pigment, polymer
As metal cleaner and electrolyte in car battery.
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2. Haber Process
N 2 + 3H 2
2NH 3
Condition: Catalyst: iron, temperature: 450 550 oC, Pressure 200 500 atm
Usage: to manufacture fertilizer
2NH 3 + H 2 SO 4 (NH 4 ) 2 SO 4
3NH 3 + H 3 PO 4 (NH 4 ) 3 PO 4
NH 3 + HNO 3 NH 4 NO 3
3. High percentage of nitrogen is a good fertilser for plants. How to calculate %N in fertiliser?
urea CO(NH 2 ) 2 and ammonium nitrate (NH 4 NO 3 ), which one is a better fertiliser?
[ RAM : N,14; C,12 ;O,16; H,1]
Sample answer:
% N in Urea = mass of nitrogen / RMM urea x 100
= 2x14 / 60 x 100 = 46.67%
% N in NH 4 NO 3 = 2x14 / 80 x 100 = 35.00 %
Urea is a good fertilizer than ammonium nitrate, because the percentage of nitrogen in urea higher than
ammonium nitrate.
4. Describe how toxic waste product from factory affects the quality of the environment. Your description
should include the following aspects. Source, process and effect.
Sample answer:
1. [Source] sulphur dioxide gas produced by factory or burning of fossil fuels
2. [process ] sulphur dioxide gas dissolves in rain water / water to form acid rain,
2SO 2 +O 2 + 2H 2 O 2H 2 SO 4 ]
3. [effect ] toxic waste / acid flows to into lakes and rivers, acid rain lowers the pH value of water, soil
and air.
4. Fish and other aquatic organisms die.
5. acid rain corrodes concrete buildings and metal structures
6. acid destroys trees in forest
7. Acid rain reacts with minerals in soil to produces salt which are leached out the top soil.
8. Plants die of malnutrition and diseases.
9. Soil becomes acidic, unsuitable for growth of plants and destroys the roots of plants.
10. sulphur dioxide causes respiratory problems in humans.
5. POLIMER: - large molecules made up of identical repeating sub-units of monomers which are
joined together by covalent bonds.
Synthetic polymer
Monomer
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Uses
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Polythene
Polypropene
Polyvinyl chloride, PVC
Perspex
Ethene
Propene
Chloroethene
Methylmethacrylate
monomer ( ethene)
polymer (polyethene)
ALLOY
An alloy is a mixture of two or more elements with a certain fixed composition in which the major
component is a metal.
1. The composition , properties and uses of some alloy
Alloy
Bronze
Composition
Cu
Tin
Brass
Cu
Zinc
Iron
Carbon
Steel
Stainless
steel
Iron
Carbon
Chromium
Duralumin Aluminium
Copper
Magnesium
manganese
Pewter
Tin, Copper
antimony
Properties
-Hard and strong
-does not corrode easily
-has shiny surface
-harder than copper
Hard and strong
-shiny
-strong
-does not rust
-light
-strong
-lustre, shiny
-strong
Uses
-in building of statue or monuments.
-in making of medals
-swords and artistic material
-in making of musical instruments and
kitchenware
-in construction of buildings and bridges
-in building of the body of cars and railway
tracks
-in making of cutlery
-in making of surgical
instrument
-in building of the body of aeroplane and
bullet trains
In making of souvenirs
Copper atom
Stanum atom
Reason:
1. The presence of atoms of other metals / tin that are different sizes
2. Disrupt the orderly arrangement of copper atoms
3. Tin atoms reduce the layers of copper atoms from sliding
4. Alloy is stronger and harder than pure metal
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2. You have learnt the steel is an alloy of iron. Steel is harder than pure iron. Both iron and steel can rust
when exposed to air and water. Do they rust at the same rate?
Aim : To compare the rate of rusting between iron, steel and stainless steel
Problem Statement
How does the rate of rusting between iron, steel and stainless steel differ?
Hypothesis
Iron rust faster than steel and steel rust faster than stainless steel.
Variables
Manipulated : Iron, steel and stainless steel.
Responding : intensity / amount of dark blue colour / rate of rusting
Fixed
: size of nail, concentration of solution, duration of rusting
Procedure:
1. Clean the nails with sand paper (to removed the rust from all the nails)
2. Place the iron nail, steel nail and stainless steel nail into the test tube A, B and C respectively.
3. Prepare a 5 % jelly solution by adding 5 g jelly to 100 cm3 of boiling water. Add a few drop of potassium
hexacyanoferrate (III) solution.
4. Pour the hot jelly into the test tubes until all the nails are fully immersed.
5. Leave the nails for 3 days.
6. Observe and record the intensity of the dark blue colour.
Tabulation of data
Test tube
A
B
C
Paper 2
Conclusion
1. The concentration of Fe2+ ions in the test tube A is higher than in test tube B. No Fe2+ ions are present in
test tube C.
2. The rate of rusting in test tube A is higher than that in test tube B. No rusting takes place in test tube C.
Alloy slow down the rate of rusting.
Properties, composition and uses different type of glass
Type
Fused glass
Soda lime
glass
Properties
-Very high softening point
-Highly heat resistant
-Does not crack when temperature changes
-very resistant to chemical reactions
-difficult to be shaped
-low softening point
-does not withstand heating
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Chemical
Uses
composition
SiO 2
Lenses, telescope
mirrors, optical fibres,
Laboratory glassware.
SiO 2
CaCO 3 /
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-break easily
-less resistant to chemical reactions
-easy to be shaped
- cracks easily with sudden change in temperature
Borosilicate -lower thermal coefficient
-heat resistant
- Does not crack when temperature changes
-very resistant to chemical reactions
-does not break easily
Lead glass -low softening point
-high density
-High refractive index
Na 2 CO 3
containers.
SiO 2
B2O3
Na 2 O
Laboratory glassware,
cooking utensils.
Automobile
headlights.
SiO 2
PbO
CaO
Decorative items,
crystal glass ware,
lens, prism, chandelier
Composite Materials is a structural material that is formed by combining two or more different
substances such as metal, alloys, glass, ceramics and polymers.
Composite
material
Reinforced
concrete
Component
Concrete
Steel
Superconductor
Properties of
composite
Stronger, high tensile
strength does not
corrode easily, can
withstand higher
applied forces and
loads, cheaper.
Uses of
components
Construction of
framework for
highway, bridges
and high-rise
building
Conducts electricity
Generators,
transformers,
electric cable,
amplifiers,
computer parts
MRI
Water storage
tanks, small boat,
helmet
Fibre glass
Properties of
component
Hard but brittle, low
tensile strength
Glass of high
refractive index
Glass
Polyester plastic
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Photochromic
glass
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Glass
Silver chloride
or silver
bromide
Sensitive to light
Sensitive to light :
darkens when light
intensity is high,
becomes clear when
light intensity is low.
Photochromic
optical lens, camera
lens, car
windshields, optical
switches, light
intensity meters.
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Note:
1. Catalyst a substance which alters the rate of chemical reaction while remains chemically
unchanged at the end of reaction.
2. Observable changes for measuring the rate of reaction.
(a) volume of gas liberated
(b) precipitate formation
(c) change in mass during reaction, colour ,temperature, pressure
1. Catalyst (Manganese (IV) oxide)
a) Decomposition of sodium chlorate (V), 2NaClO 3 2NaCl + 3O 2
b) Decomposition hydrogen peroxide ,
2H 2 O 2 2H 2 O + O 2
2. Catalytic converters in the car exhaust system contain rhodium, platinum or chromium (III) oxide Cr 2 O 3 .
Example:
1. Aim: To investigate the effect of temperature of sodium thiosulphate Na 2 S 2 O 3 solution on the rate of
reaction
Problem Statement:
How does temperature of sodium thiosulphate Na 2 S 2 O 3 solution affect the rate of reaction?
Hypothesis:
When the temperature of sodium thiosulphate Na 2 S 2 O 3 solution increases, the rate of reaction increases.//
the higher the temperature of sodium thiosulphate solution, the higher the rate of reaction.
Variables:
Manipulated :Temperature of sodium thiosulphate solution.
Responding :Rate of reaction/ Time taken for the cross X to disappear from the sight.
Fixed
: Concentration and volume of sulphuric acid, concentration and volume of sodium
thiosulphate solution.
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Apparatus : 150 cm3 connical flask, 50 cm3 measuring cylinder,10cm3 measuring cylinder, stopwatch,
thermometer, Bunsen burner, tripod stand, wire gauze.
Materials: 0.2 mol dm-3 sodium thioulphate solution, 1.0 mol dm-3 sulphuric acid, white paper marked X
at the centre.
Procedure:
1. 50 cm3 of 0.2 mol dm-3 sodium thiosulphate solution is measured using measuring cylinder and poured
into a conical flask.
2. The temperature of the solution is measured with a thermometer.
3. The conical flask is placed on a white paper marked`X`.
4. 5 cm3 of 1 mol dm-3 sulphuric acid is measured and then poured quickly and
carefully into the sodium thiosulphate solution.
5. The stopwatch is started immediately and the conical flask is swirled.
6. The mark `X` is viewed / observed vertically from above.
7.The stopwatch is stopped as soon as the mark disappear from sight.
8.Time taken is recorded.
9. Steps 1 to 9 are repeated by using the different temperature of sodium thiosulphate solution.
Data and Observation
Experiment Temperature ,
(oC)
1
28
2
35
3
40
4
45
5
50
1/ time taken ,
1/t ( s-1)
Discussion
Based on plotted graph: [ calculation ]
The higher the temperature of sodium thiosulphate, the shorter the time taken for crossX to disappear
from the sight.
The rate of reaction directly proportional to the temperature of sodium thiosulphate solution used. //
As the temperature sodium thiosulphate solution increases, the time taken decreases. Therefore the rate of
reaction increases.
Conclusion :
The rate of reaction increases as the temperature sodium thioulphate solution increases.
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Apparatus: test tube, 10 cm3 measuring cylinder, test tube rack, spatula.
Materials: (5-10) volume of H 2 O 2 solution, manganese (IV) oxide (MnO 2 ) powder, wooden splinter
Procedures:
1. label two test tube as A and B
2. Using a measuring cylinder measure 5 cm3 of 20 volume of H 2 O 2 solution and pour into test
tube A.
3. Add spatula of manganese (IV) oxide powder into test tube A.
4. Shake the test tube.
5. Immediately place a glowing splinter into the test tube.
6. Observe and record the changes.
7. Repeat the same procedure for test tube B without MnO 2
Observation: [Paper 2]
Test tube
Observation
21
A
B
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Discussion:
Manganese (IV) oxide (MnO 2 ) increases the rate of decomposition of hydrogen peroxide. Decomposition
of hydrogen peroxide produces oxygen gas. 2H 2 O 2 2H 2 O + O 2
C6H12O6
Fermention
C2H4Br2
C2H5OH
Hydroxyl
-OH
Br2
H2
C2H6
CH3COOH
Carboxyl
-COOH
Oxidation
C2H4
Double bond between
C atoms, C=C
C2H4(OH)2
KMnO4/ H+,
K2Cr2O7/ H+
KMnO4/ H ,
K2Cr2O7/ H+
A
d
d
i
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Esterification
H2SO4
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H2O
C2H5OH
CH3COO C2H5
Ethyl ethanoate
HX
C2H5Br
- CH2- CH2-
KMnO4/H+ / K2Cr2O7/ H+
1. C 2 H 4 + [O] + H 2 O
2. CH 3 COOH + C 2 H 5 OH
CH 3 COO C 2 H 5 + H 2 O
3. C 2 H 4 + H 2 O
4. C 6 H 12 O 6
C 2 H 5 OH
Yeast
2C 2 H 5 OH + 2CO 2
Homologous
series
Alkane
General formula
Functional group
C n H 2n + 2 , n = 1,2..
Ethane
Alkene
C n H 2n , n = 2..
Ethene
Alcohols
C n H 2n + 1 OH, n = 1,2..
Hydroxyl group / - OH
Ethanol
Carboxylic
acid
C n H 2n + 1 COOH, n =
0,1,2..
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Member , example
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4. Your are required to prepare one namely ester by using ethanoic acid is one of the reactants. By using a
namely alcohol, describe one experiment to prepare the ester. In your description include the chemical
equation and observation involved.
Ester: ethylethanoate
Material: ethanol, etahanoic acid, water, concentrated sulphuric acid
Apparatus: Boiling tube / test tube, Bunsen burner, test tube holder, beaker
Procedure:
1. Pour 2 cm3 of ethanol into a boiling tube / test tube
2. Add 1 cm3 of ethanoic acid
3. Add 2 to 4 drops of concentrated sulphuric acid
4. Heat the mixture gently for about two minutes
5. Pour the mixture into a beaker containing water.
Observation: Sweet/ pleasant / fruity smell // insoluble in water
Chemical equation: CH 3 COOH + C 2 H 5 OH CH 3 COO C 2 H 5 + H 2 O
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4. Dehydration of alcohol
Diagram of set up of apparatus
1. Complete and functional
2. Labels of set up of apparatus correct
Procedure:
a) Place some glass wool in a boiling tube
b) Use a dropper to add propan-1-ol to wet the glass wool.
c) Clamp the boiling tube horizontally and placed unglazed porcelain chips in the mid section of
the boiling tube.
d) Heat the unglazed porcelain chips strongly.
e) Then heat the glass wool gently to vaporize the propanol.
f) [Description of the chemical test to the gas collected in the test tube.]
Add 1 cm3 of bromine water and shake well.
[Observation]:
Reddish brown colour of bromine decolourised
Or,
Add 1 cm3 of acidified potassium manganate(VII) solution and shake well.
[Observation]:
Purple colour of potassium manganate(VII) solution decolourised
Chemical equation: C 3 H 7 OH C 3 H 6 + H 2 O
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Observation
Latex coagulates immediately
Latex coagulates slowly
Rubber particles
Rubber molecules
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7. Due to the slow bacterial action, the coagulation of latex takes a longer time to occur.
[Monomer of natural rubber: 2 methylbuta-1,3- diene , C 5 H 8 / isoprene ]
Explain how to prevent coagulation of latex
1. Add ammonia solution
2. Ammonia solution contains / ionized to produce hydroxide ions , OH3. Hydroxide ions, OH- neutralized the hydrogen ions, H+ / acid produced by the bacteria
4. The rubber particles remain negatively charged and coagulation is prevented.
6. [Paper 3]
Aim: To compare the elasticity / strength of vulcanised and unvulcanised rubber
Problem statement: Does vulcanised rubber more elastic than unvulcanised rubber
Hypothesis: Vulcanised rubber is more elastic than unvulcanised rubber
Variable:
Manipulated : vulcanised rubber and unvulcanised rubber
Responding : length of rubber strip / elasticity
Fixed
: mass of weight, size of rubber
Material and apparatus:
Retort stand, bulldog clip, meter ruler, weight, vulcanised and unvulcanised rubber
Procedure:
1. Hang both rubber strips to the retort stand with bulldog clip.
2. Measure the initial length of both rubber strips and record.
3. Hang 50 g weight to the end of each rubber using bulldog clip.
4. Remove the weight and measure the length of both rubber strips and record.//
5. Record all the data obtained.
Unvulcanised rubber
Vulcanised rubber
Result / Data
Type of rubber
vulcanised
unvulcanised
Initial length , cm
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Vulcanized rubber
Harder
More elastic
Stronger
Can withstand higher temperature
Less easily oxidized
Does not become soft and sticky easily
Elasticity
Hardness
Elasticity
Tensile strength
Resistance to heat
Resistance to oxidation
Effect of organic solvent
Unvulcanised rubber
Less harder
Less elastic
Weaker
Cannot withstand higher
temperature
More easily oxidized
Become soft and sticky easily
Conclusion:
1. Vulcanised rubber is more elastic than unvulcanised rubber due to the presence of cross-linkage of
sulfur atoms between the rubber molecules. Vulcanised rubber could return to its original length
after removal of the weight.
To prepare vulcanised rubber
Rubber can be vulcanized by dipping natural rubber sheets into disulphur dichloride solution
in methylbenzene or heated with sulphur.
Note:
Vulcanised rubber is more heat resistance due to the presence of cross-linkage of sulfur atoms
increases the size of rubber molecules. Force of attraction between molecules will increase.
Alkene ( hexene )
Hydrocarbon ( contain C and H atom)
Low melting and boiling point
Insoluble in water, soluble in organic solvent
Cannot conduct electricity
Density less than water
Completely combustion produce CO 2 + H 2 O
10 Identify test
1. Combustion, burn less soot flame.
(% of carbon per molecule is lower)
Chemical tests
2. add bromine water , brown colour
remains
3. add acidified KMnO 4 , purple colour
remains
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, C n H 2n , n= 2
Rusting of iron
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Observation
Metal
Fe
Observation
Intensity of dark
blue colouration
Low
Intensity of pink
colouration
FeMg
Fe-Zn
High
High
Fe-Sn
Moderate
Low
Fe-Cu
High
Low
Condition of nail
The surface of the nail was partially covered with
reddish brown solid
No reddish brown solid was found on the surface of
the nail.
No reddish brown solid was found on the surface of
the nail.
The whole surface of the nail was covered with
reddish brown solid
The whole surface of the nail was heavily covered
with reddish brown solid
The nail in test tube A rusted a little. No rusting occurred to the nails in test tubes B and C .The nail in test
tube D rusted but the nail in test tube E rusted even more.
Discussion
1. Based on the observations magnesium and zinc metals inhibit rusting of iron, while copper and tin
metals speed up rusting of iron.
2. This is because magnesium and zinc are more electropositive than iron. Magnesium atom or zinc
atom releases its electron more easily than iron.
Mg Mg2+ + 2e
O 2 + 2H 2 O + 4e 4OH3. Copper and tin are less electropositive than iron. Iron atom releases its electrons more easily than
copper atom or tin atom.
4. Fe Fe2+ + 2e
5. The less electropositive metals that in contact with iron, the faster the rusting of iron occurs.
6. The more electropositive metals that in contact with iron prevent iron from rusting.
Conclusion:
Rusting can be prevented when iron is in contact with a more electropositive metal. Rusting occurs faster
when iron is in contact with a less electropositive metal.
1. Displacement reaction Metal:
Example: Zn + CuSO 4 ZnSO 4 + Cu // Zn +
Cu2+ Cu + Zn2+
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An experiment is carried out to determine the relative position of three metals, silver, L and M, in the
electrochemical series.
silver nitrate
solution
Experiment
silver nitrate
solution
Observation
grey deposit
colourless solution
L nitrate
solution
grey deposit
light blue solution
no change
Based on results, arrange the three metals in order of increasing electropositivity. Explain you answer.
Sample answer:
1. Silver, M and L
2. L can displace silver from silver nitrate solution.
3. L is more electropositive than silver // L is higher than silver in electrochemical series.
4. M metal can displace silver from silver nitrate solution.
5. M is more electropositive than silver // M is higher than silver in the electrochemical series.
6. M cannot displace L from L nitrate solution.
7. M is less electropositive than L // L is higher than M in the electrochemical series.
2. Displacement of Halogen:
Aim: To investigate oxidation and reduction in the displacement of halogen from its halide solution.
Procedure:
1. Pour 2m cm3 of potassium bromide solution into a test tube.
2. Add 2 cm3 of chlorine water to the test tube and shake the mixture.
3. Add 2 cm3 of 1,1,1-trichloroethane / tetrachlorometane to the test tube and shake the mixture and
leave it on the test tube rack
4. Record theobservation.
5. Repeat steps 1 to 4 using another halogens and halide solutions.
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Tabulation of data:
Halogen
Halide
solution
Potassium chloride
Potassium bromine
Potassium iodide
Chlorine
Bromine
Iodine
X
X
/
/
2I- I2 + 2e (oxidation
bromine water
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b.
Br 2 + 2e 2Br
2. Iron (II) ions releases / donates electron to become iron(III) ions. Iron(II) ions are oxidized.
3. Bromine molecules receive/ gain electrons to form bromide ions. Bromine molecules are reduced.
(any suitable oxidizing agent, Cl 2 , KMnO 4 /H+ )
(ii)
1. Fe+3 + e Fe+2
2. Zn Zn+2 + 2e
3. Iron(III) ions gain electron to become iron(II) ions. Iron(III) ions are reduced.
4. Zinc atoms releases/ donates electrons to form zinc ions. Zinc atoms are oxidized.
(a: any suitable reducing agent)
5. Describe an experiment to investigate oxidation and reduction in the change of iron(II) ions to iron(III)
ions and vice versa.
(i) Changing of Fe2+ ions to Fe3+ ions
Procedure:
1. Pour 2 cm3 of freshly prepared iron(II)sulphate solution into a test tube.
2. Using dropper, add bromine water drop by drop until no further changes are observed.
3. Heat slowly / gently
4. Add 3 drops of potassium hexacyanoferrate (II) solution / sodium hydroxide solution.
5. Dark blue precipitate // brown precipitate formed.
(ii) Changing of Fe3+ ions to Fe2+ ions
Procedure:
1. Pour 2 cm3 of iron(III)sulphate solution into a test tube.
2. Add half spatula of zinc / Mg powder to the solution.
3. Shake the mixture until no further changes are observed.
4. Filter the mixture.
5. Add 3 drops of potassium hexacyanoferrate (III) solution / sodium hydroxide solution into the filtrate.
6. Dark blue precipitate // green precipitate formed.
Reactivity series
1. reactive metal with oxygen
Aim: 1. to investigate the reactivity of metal with oxygen
2. To arrange metals in term of their reactivity with oxygen
Procedure:
1. Put one spatula of potassium manganate(VII), KMnO 4 ,
into a boiling tube.
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K
Na
Ca
Mg
Al
C
Zn
H
Fe
Sn
Pb
Cu
Positions of
carbon and
hydrogen in the
reacting series
of metal
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2. Push some glass wool into the boiling tube and clamp horizontally.
3. Place one spatula magnesium powder on a piece of asbestos paper
and put into the boiling tube.
4. Heat magnesium powder strongly and then heat the solid KMnO 4 .
5. Observe and record how vigorous the reaction and colour of
the residue when it is hot and when it is cold.
2Mg + O 2 2MgO
Produce oxygen
reducing
agent
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+ 3C 4Fe + 3CO 2
+ 3CO 2Fe + 2CO 2
CaO + CO 2 ( lime stone decomposed)
SiO 2 CaSiO 3 ( impurities )
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x
y
(x-y) // z
1
2
( 1 - 2 ) // 3
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aJ
(z/74) mol
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Precautions:
1. Make sure the flame from the combustion of ethanol touches the bottom of the copper can // The
spirit lamp is placed very close or just beneath the bottom of the copper can.
2. Stir the water in the copper can continuously.
3. The spirit lamp must be weighed immediately (because the ethanol is very volatile).
4. A wind shield must be used during experiment.
Heat of displacement
Aim: To determine the heat of displacement of copper by zinc and iron
Procedure:
1. Measure 25 cm3 of 0.2 mol dm-3 of copper(II)sulphate solution and pour into a plastic cup / polystrene cup.
2. Record the initial temperature of the solution.
3. Pour 0.5g of zinc powder into the solution.
4. Stir the mixture with thermometer
5. Measure and record the highest temperature of the reacting mixutre.
Tabulation of data:
Metal
Zinc
Iron
Initial temperature, oC
Highest temperature, oC
Heat of precipitation
Aim: To determine the heat of precipitaion of silver chloride, AgCl
Apparatus: plastic cup, thermometer, measuring cylinder
Material : silver nitrate solution , 0.5 mol dm-3 , sodium chloride solution, 0.5 mol dm-3
Procedure:
1. Measure 20 cm3 0.5 mol dm-3 of silver nitrate solution and pour into plastic cup.
2. Measure and record the initial temperature of silver nitrate solution.
3. Measure 20 cm3 0.5 mol dm-3 of sodium chloride solution and pour into plastic cup.
4. Measure and record the initial temperature of sodium chloride solution.
5. Add the sodium chloride soltuions into the silver nitrate solution quickly and stir the mixture.
6. Measure and record the highest temperature of the reacting mixture.
Tabulation of data:
initial temperature of silver nitrate solution, oC
initial temperature of sodium chloride solution, oC
Average temperature of both solutions, oC
highest temperature of the reacting mixture, oC
Heat of precipitation is the heat released / heat change when one mole of precipitate is formed from their
ions in aqueous solution.
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ammonium nitrate
(NH4NO3)
Calcium chloride or
magnesium sulphate
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(b) Another student carried out four experiments to investigate the cleansing effect of soap and detergent on
oily stains in soft water and hard water respectively.
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Exp. II and IV
The sock in Experiment II remains oily but is clean in experiment IV.
The soap anions form scum when reacts with Ca2+ and Mg2+ ions in hard water.
The formation of scum makes anions less efficient for cleaning
2. Preparation of soap
Procedure
1. pour 10 cm3 palm oil ( vegetable oil ) into a beaker
2. add 50 cm3 of 5.0 mol dm-3 NaOH / KOH solution
3. heat the mixture for (10 minutes)
4. stir
5. stop heating, add 50 cm3 distilled water and solid NaCl
6. boil the mixture for 5 minutes
7. cool
8. filter, wash / rinse
9. dry ( press the residue between filter papers
Test
10. Place a small amount of the residue into a test tube add distilled water, shake it well.
produce a lot of lather ( very foamy)
Observation : white solid, slippery and produce a lot of lather ( very foamy).
Chemical equation:
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3. You are given liquid soap, sample of hard water, sample of soft water and other materials.
Describe an experiment to investigate the effect of cleaning action of the soap in different types of water.
You description must include example of hard water and soft water, observation and conclusion.
[10 marks]
Sample answer:
1. hard water : sea water
2. soft water : distilled water
Materials: liquid soap, sea water, distilled water, pieces of cloth with oil stain.
Apparatus: beaker (suitable container), glass rod, measuring cylinder
Procedure:
1. pour (100 200) cm3 sea water into a beaker/ suitable container
2. Add (10 20 ) cm3 liquid soap into the beaker.
3. stir the mixture
4. Place a piece of cloth with oil stain into the beaker.
5. Record the observation.
6. Repeat step 1 4 using distilled water.
Observation:
1. The oil stain in hard water remained but removed in soft water.
Conclusion:
1. Hard water contains Mg2+ or Ca2+. Soap anion formed scum (insoluble salt) when react with Mg2+ or
Ca2+.
2. Soap is not an effective cleansing agent in hard water but only effective in soft water.
Detergent
Sodium carboxylate
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Preparation
Saponification
1. sulphonation
2. neutralization
1. alkylation
2. sulphonation
3. neutralization
Function
Example
To add fragrance to both the detergent and
fabrics
To remove protein stains such as blood
Amylases, proteases, celluloses, lipases
To convert stains into colourless
substances
To prevent the dirt particles removed from
redepositing onto cleaned fabrics
To add to the bulk of the detergent and
enable it to be pour easily
To add brightness and whiteness to white
fabrics.
To enhance the cleaning efficiency of
detergent by softening the water
Sodium perborate
Carboxymethylcellulose (CMC)
Sodium sulphate, sodium silicate
Fluorescent dyes
Sodium tripolyphosphate
Food additive
Type
Preservatives
Function
To slow down/ prevent the
growth of microorganism,
therefore food can kept for
longer periods of time
Examples
Salts/sugar: draws the water out of the cells of
microorganism and retards the growth of
microorganism.
Vinegar: provides an acidic condition that inhibits the
growth of microorganism.
NaNO 3 (Burger)
Benzoic acid / sodium benzoate: to slow down the
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growth of microorganism.
Antioxidants
Flavorings
Stabilizers
Thickeners
Dyes
Type
Analgesic
Antibiotics
Medicine
Function
Example
To relieve pain without affected Aspirin
consciousness
b) antidepressant:
to reduce tension and anxiety
c) antipsychotic: to treat
psychiatric illness
Effect on health
-Internal bleeding and
ulceration
-can cause brain and liver
damage to children
Paracetamol
Codeine
Penicillin
(Penicillium
notatum)
Streptomycin
Amphetamines
Barbiturate /
tranquilizer
chlorpromazine
haloperidol,
clozapine
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