Seismic Parameter Design

And Operation Quality Control

Yogyakarta, 8 - 12 September 2014

Dr. Alpius Dwi Guntara

Seismic section

Page 2

Seismic section

Page 3

Seismic section

Page 4

Seismic section

Page 5

Seismic data environment

Plan &
Design
SHE

Operation

Seismic
data

Permit &
social

Data QC

Nature

Page 6

Parameter
test

AGENDA
Day-1
Wave theory and propagation
Sampling theory and resolution
Seismic instrumentation

Day-2
Parameter design

Day-3
Seismic operation and quality control

Day-4
Seismic field processing

Day-5
Workshop (Mesa design) on case study

SAMPLING THEORY

Seismic vs real world

Seismic vs real world

10

The wavelet
An ideal wavelet is sinusoidal in
shape and reflects compression
and expansion of a bodymass.
The frequency is the number of
wavelets (or cycles) per second.
The wavelength is found by
dividing the velocity by frequency.
There is a simple relationship
between a wavelength and
frequency given by =v/f

11

Acoustic impedance and reflection

coefficient
Acoustic impedance is
the product of velocity
and density given as
AI=v
The reflection coefficient
determines how much
energy that will be
reflected at the interface
of two adjacent layers.
AI 2 AI 1
Rc
AI 2 AI 1

12

Phase
The acoustic signal
emitted from a
marine source has
minimum phase
signatures.
The interpreter would
like to interpret zero
phase data.
The wavelet can be
described in terms of
phase rotation.
Phase rotation of a zero phase
wavelet.
13

Phase

14

Phase

15

Polarity

SEG standard: A positive reflection coefficient as peak

(normal polarity).
European standard: A positive reflection coefficient as
through.

16

SAMPLING THEORY

In signal processing, sampling is the reduction of a continuous

signal to a discrete signal
A sample refers to a value or set of values at a point in time
and/or space.
A sampler is a subsystem or operator that extracts samples from
continuous signal. A theoretical ideal sampler multiplies a
continuous signal with a Dirac comb. This multiplication "picks
out" values but the result is still continuous-valued. If this signal
is then discretized (i.e., converted into a sequence) and
quantized along all dimensions it becomes a discrete signal.

17

SAMPLING THEORY
In order to use an analog signal on a computer it must be digitized
with an analog to digital converter (ADC)
Sampling is usually carried out in two stages, discretization and
quantization
In the discretization stage, the space of signals is partitioned into
equivalence classes and discretization is carried out by replacing
the signal with representative signal of the corresponding
equivalence class.

In the quantization stage the representative signal values are

approximated by values from a finite set.
In order for a sampled analog signal to be exactly reconstructed, the
Nyquist-frequency sampling theorem must be satisfied.
18

SAMPLING THEORY
Seismic signals generally peak around 30 Hz and
seldom exceed 100 Hz.
In seismic surveys, there are two types of sampling,
that are spatial and temporal sampling
Temporal sampling is a sampling of a single channel
of data in time domain.
Spatial sampling is determined from geophone
arrays, group intervals, line spacing, and line length.
A seismic survey is a sampling of continuous
medium of the earth.
The sampling in time and space sample the signal
should well enough to resolve the geological
conditions.
19

RESOLUTION
Resolution is the ability to separate two features that are
very close together; the minimum separation of two
bodies before their individual identities are lost
(SEG Encyclopedic Dictionery of Exploration Geophysics, 1991)

20

SAMPLING THEORY/RESOLUTION

21

RESOLUTION

22

RESOLUTION

23

SAMPLING THEORY/RESOLUTION

24

TEMPORAL SAMPLING
The input to the sampling is a time signal.
This signal has some fixed upper limit to the
frequencies it contains.
The Uniform sampling theorem is :

If f(t) is bandlimited to fm Hz then f(t) is completely

caracterized by samples taken at uniform intervals less
than 1/(2fm) seconds apart.

1
=

2 fm
25

TEMPORAL SAMPLING
ALIASING
Two waveforms of different frequency are
sampled at the same instants in time.
The amplitudes of the recorded signals
are the same, ilustrating the aliasing
ambiguity.

26

TEMPORAL SAMPLING

27

Vertical seismic resolution

Relationship between bed

thickness and acoustic impedance
contrast for seismic resolution of
the layer.

The vertical seismic resolution is

given by the tuning thickness.
When the top and base of a layer
is less than 1/4 wavelength,
constructive (and finally
destructive) interference results. 28

TEMPORAL SAMPLING

29

TEMPORAL SAMPLING

30

SPATIAL SAMPLING/RESOLUTION

31

SPATIAL SAMPLING/RESOLUTION

32

SPATIAL SAMPLING/RESOLUTION

33

SPATIAL SAMPLING
(GROUP INTERVAL)
Group interval is the distance between receiver station as formed
by the summation of the array response and the effective sampling
in the spatial dimension on the surface
The subsurface sampling is half the group interval. Structure
smaller than half the group interval cannot be individually
distinguished on the seismogram
When the horizon is dipping, the data must be migrated updip from
ythe apparent location to the true subsurface location.

Gmax

V
=

2 fm sin

Gmax : group interval

V
: waveform velocity
fm
: maximum frequency

: dip of the reflection

34

Lateral seismic resolution

The radius (R) of the Fresnel Zone defines the lateral

seismic resolution. From this relationship, it is clear that
the greater the TWT (t), the wider the Fresnel Zone and
that the higher the velocity, the wider the Fresnel zone. 35

SPATIAL SAMPLING/RESOLUTION
First Fresnel Zone
The area of a reflector that returns energy to the receiver within half a cycle of
the first reflection
Fresnel zone (FZ) for a finite offset is the double square root DSR equation
(Claerbout, 1985) can be expressed as

36

SPATIAL SAMPLING/RESOLUTION
Fresnel zone (FZ) for a finite offset

37

SPATIAL SAMPLING/RESOLUTION
Fresnel zone (FZ) for a finite offset

38

SPATIAL SAMPLING/RESOLUTION
Fresnel zone (FZ) for a finite offset is the double square root DSR
equation (Claerbout, 1985) can be expressed as

39

SPATIAL SAMPLING/RESOLUTION

40

SPATIAL SAMPLING/RESOLUTION

41

SPATIAL ALIASING

Sampling theorem is modified

by a velocity term to give a
distance or proportion of a
wave length :

V
=

2 fm

x : sampling interval
V : waveform velocity
fm : maximum frequency
42

SPATIAL ALIASING

Spatial aliasing could be caused by steep dip and sparse

geophone spacing
43

SPATIAL ALIASING

Spatial aliasing could be caused by temporal frequency of

the signal

44

SPATIAL ALIASING

45

TEMPORAL ALIASING

46

SEISMIC METHOD

47

Elastic Waves
When the is Earth rapidly displaced or distorted at some point, the energy
imparted into the Earth by the source of the distortion can be transmitted in the
form of elastic waves. A wave is a disturbance that propagates through, or on
the surface of, a medium. Elastic waves satisfy this condition and also
propagate through the medium without causing permanent deformation of any
point in the medium. For example, sound propagates through the air as elastic
waves and water waves propagate across the surface of a pond as elastic
waves.
There are two distinct ways of looking at the waves as they travel. These
two distinct viewpoints are called frames of reference :
We can view the waves propagating across the surface of the pond from above
the pond. At any time, the waves form a circular ring around the source with
some radius that is governed by the speed at which the wave propagates
through the water and the time elapsed since the wave originated at the source.
In this viewpoint, we fix time and we view the wavefield at any location across
the entire surface.
We can view these same waves as they propagate through some fixed location on
the surface of the pond. That is, imagine that instead of observing the waves from
above the pond, we are in a small boat on the surface of the pond, and we record
how the boat moves up and down with respect to time as the wave propagates
past the boat. In this viewpoint, we fix our spatial location and view the wavefield
48
at this location at all times.

Seismic Body Waves

Wave Type
(and names)

Particle Motion

Other Characteristics

Alternating compressions
(pushes) and dilations
P,
(pulls) which are directed
Compressional, in the same direction as the
Primary,
wave is propagating (along
Longitudinal
the raypath); and therefore,
perpendicular to the
wavefront.

P motion travels fastest in

materials, so the P-wave is the firstarriving energy on a
seismogram. Generally smaller
and higher frequency than the S
and Surface-waves. P waves in a
liquid or gas are pressure waves,
including sound waves.

Alternating transverse
motions (perpendicular to
the direction of propagation,
and the raypath); commonly
approximately polarized
such that particle motion is
in vertical or horizontal
planes.

S-waves do not travel through

fluids, so do not exist in Earths
outer core (inferred to be primarily
liquid iron) or in air or water or
molten rock (magma). S waves
travel slower than P waves in a
solid and, therefore, arrive after the
P wave.

S,
Shear,
Secondary,
Transverse

49

3-D Grid for Seismic Wave

No attenuation (decrease in amplitude with distance due to

spreading out of the waves or absorption of energy by the material)
dispersion (variation in velocity with frequency), or anisotropy
50
(velocity depends on direction of propagation) is included.

Compressional Wave (P-Wave)

Deformation propagates. Particle motion consists of alternating compression

and dilation. Particle motion is parallel to the direction of propagation
(longitudinal). Material returns to its original shape after wave passes.
51

Shear Wave (S-Wave)

Deformation propagates. Particle motion consists of alternating transverse

motion. Particle motion is perpendicular to the direction of propagation
(transverse). Transverse particle motion shown here is vertical but can be in
any direction. However, Earths layers tend to cause mostly vertical (SV; in the
vertical plane) or horizontal (SH) shear motions. Material returns to its original
52
shape after wave passes.

Seismic Surface Waves

Wave Type

Particle Motion

Other Characteristics

L,
Love, Surface
waves, Long
waves

Transverse horizontal
motion, perpendicular to the
direction of propagation and
generally parallel to the
Earths surface.

Love waves exist because of the Earths

surface. They are largest at the surface and decrease
in amplitude with depth. Love waves are dispersive,
that is, the wave velocity is dependent on frequency,
generally with low frequencies propagating at
higher velocity. Depth of penetration of the Love
waves is also dependent on frequency, with lower
frequencies penetrating to greater depth.

R,
Rayleigh,
Surface waves,
Long waves,
Ground roll

Motion is both in the

direction of propagation and
perpendicular (in a vertical
plane), and phased so that
the motion is generally
elliptical either prograde
or retrograde.

Rayleigh waves are also dispersive and the

amplitudes generally decrease with depth in the
Earth. Appearance and particle motion are similar
to water waves. Depth of penetration of the
Rayleigh waves is also dependent on frequency,
with lower frequencies penetrating to greater depth.
Generally, Rayleigh waves travel slightly slower
than Love waves.
53

Rayleigh Wave (R-Wave)

Deformation propagates. Particle motion consists of elliptical motions

(generally retrograde elliptical) in the vertical plane and parallel to the direction
of propagation. Amplitude decreases with depth. Material returns to its original
shape after wave passes.
54

Love Wave (L-Wave)

Deformation propagates. Particle motion consists of alternating transverse

motions. Particle motion is horizontal and perpendicular to the direction of
propagation (transverse). To aid in seeing that the particle motion is purely
horizontal, focus on the Y axis (red line) as the wave propagates through it.
Amplitude decreases with depth. Material returns to its original shape after
55
wave passes.

Elastic Waves

In this reference frame, the wave is defined by two parameters:

amplitude and wavelength.
Amplitude is the peak to trough height of the wave divided by two.
Wavelength is the distance over which the wave goes through one
complete cycle (e.g., from one peak to the next, or from one trough to
the next).
56

Seismic Wave Speeds

and Rock Properties
It can be shown that in homogeneous, isotropic media
the velocities of P and S waves through the media are
given by the expressions shown to the left. Where Vp
and Vs are the P and S wave velocities of the medium,
is the density of the medium, and and k are
referred to as the shear and bulk moduli of the media.
Taken together, and k are also known as elastic
parameters. The elastic parameters quantitatively
describe the following physical characteristics of the
medium.
Bulk Modulus - Is also known as the incompressibility of the medium. Imagine we
have a small cube of the material making up the medium and that we subject this
cube to pressure by squeezing it on all sides. If the material is not very stiff, we
can image that it would be possible to squeeze the material in this cube into a
smaller cube. The bulk modulus describes the ratio of the pressure applied to the
cube to the amount of volume change that the cube undergoes. If k is very large,
then the material is very stiff, meaning that it doesn't compress very much even
under large pressures. If k is small, then a small pressure can compress the
material by large amounts. For example, gases have very small
incompressibilities. Solids and liquids have large incompressibilities.
57

Seismic Wave Speeds

and Rock Properties
Shear Modulus - The shear modulus describes how difficult it is to deform a cube of
the material under an applied shearing force. For example, imagine you have a cube
of material firmly cemented to a table top. Now, push on one of the top edges of the
material parallel to the table top. If the material has a small shear modulus, you will
be able to deform the cube in the direction you are pushing it so that the cube will
take on the shape of a parallelogram. If the material has a large shear modulus, it
will take a large force applied in this direction to deform the cube. Gases and fluids
can not support shear forces. That is, they have shear moduli of zero. From the
equations given above, notice that this implies that fluids and gases do not allow the
propagation of S waves.
Any change in rock or soil property that causes r, m, or k to change will cause
seismic wave speed to change. For example, going from an unsaturated soil to a
saturated soil will cause both the density and the bulk modulus to change. The bulk
modulus changes because air-filled pores become filled with water. Water is much
more difficult to compress than air. In fact, bulk modulus changes dominate this
example. Thus, the P wave velocity changes a lot across water table while S wave
velocities change very little.
Many other factors causing changes in velocity (such as changes in lithology,
changes in cementation, changes in fluid content, changes in compaction, etc.). Thus,
variations in seismic velocities offer the potential of being able to map many different
subsurface features.
58

Seismic Waves Propagation

Body waves - These are elastic waves that propagate through the Earth's interior.
In reflection and refraction prospecting, body waves are the source of
information used to image the Earth's interior. Like the ripples on the surface of
the pond, body waves propagate away from the source in all directions. If the
speed at which body waves propagate through the Earth's interior is constant,
then at any time, these waves form a sphere around the source whose radius is
dependent on the time elapsed since the source generated the waves.
59

Seismic Waves Propagation

Surface Waves - Surface waves are waves that propagate along the Earth's surface.
Their amplitude at the surface of the Earth can be very large, but this amplitude
decays exponentially with depth. Surface waves propagate at speeds that are slower
than S waves, are less efficiently generated by buried sources, and have amplitudes
that decay with distance from the source more slowly than is observed for body
waves.
60

Wavefronts and Raypaths

Raypaths - Raypaths are lines that show the direction that the seismic wave is propagating.
A valid raypath could be any radial line drawn from the source.

Wavefront - Wavefronts connect positions of the seismic wave that are doing the same thing
at the same time. In the example shown above, the wavefronts are spherical in shape. One
such wavefront would be the sphere drawn through the middle of the dark blue area. This
surface would connect all portions of the wave that have the largest possible negative
amplitude at some particular time.
In principle and in practice, raypaths are equivalent to the directions of current flow, and
wavefronts are equivalent to the equipotential lines.

61

Wave Interaction with Boundaries

In this particular example, the speed* at which seismic waves propagate in the layer
is faster than the speed at which they propagate in the halfspace. Let's now watch
the seismic waves propagate through this medium and see how they interact with
the boundary at 150 meters. Shown below are three snapshots of the seismic wave
at times of 25, 50, and 75 ms.
62

Wave Interaction with Boundaries

From 0 to 50 ms, the wave propagates solely within the upper layer. After 50 ms,
the wave begins to interact with the boundary at 150 meters depth. Part of the
wave has penetrated the boundary. The portion of the wavefield that has
penetrated the boundary is referred to as the refracted wave. Also notice that part
of the wave has bounced off, or reflected off, the boundary. This part of the
wavefield is referred to as the reflected wave. This is the portion of the wavefield
that is used in reflection surveying. Finally, part of the wavefield has not
interacted with the boundary at all. This part of the wavefield is called the direct
wave.
63

Snell's Law

These raypaths are simply drawn to be perpendicular to the direction of propagation of the
wavefield at all times. As they interact with the boundary, these raypaths obey Snell's Law.
Snell's Law can be derived in a number of different ways, but the way it is usually described
is that the raypath that follows Snell's Law is the path by which the wave would take the
least amount of time to propagate between two fixed points.
Consider the refracted raypaths shown above. In our particular case, v2, the velocity of the
halfspace, is less than v1, the velocity of the layer. Snell's Law states that in this case, i2, the
angle between a perpendicular to the boundary and the direction of the refracted raypath,
should be smaller than i1, the angle between a perpendicular to the boundary and the
direction of the direct raypath. This is exactly the situation predicted by the wavefronts
shown in the figure above.
64

Snell's Law
If v2 had been larger than v1, then Snell's
Law predicts that i2 would be greater than
i1. In this case, the wavefront of the
refracted wavefield would have smaller
curvature than the wavefront of the direct
field (in the present case, the wavefront of
the refracted field has greater curvature
than the wavefront of the direct field).

Snell's law can also be applied to the reflected raypath by setting v2

equal to v1. If v2 is equal to v1, then the angle of reflection, i2, should
be equal to the angle of the incident wave, i1, as we would expect
from our physics classes.

65

Seismic Velocities of Earth Materials

The P and S wave velocities of various earth materials are shown below.
Material

P wave Velocity (m/s)

S wave Velocity (m/s)

Air

332

Water

1400-1500

Petroleum

1300-1400

Steel

6100

3500

Concrete

3600

2000

Granite

5500-5900

2800-3000

Basalt

6400

3200

Sandstone

1400-4300

700-2800

Limestone

5900-6100

2800-3000

Sand (Unsaturated)

200-1000

80-400

Sand (Saturated)

800-2200

320-880

Clay

1000-2500

400-1000

Glacial Till (Saturated)

1500-2500

600-1000
66

Simple Earth Model:

Low-Velocity Layer Over a Halfspace
Shown below are a few snapshots of the seismic waves as they propagate away from the
source at times of 65, 80, and 110 ms.

67

Simple Earth Model:

Low-Velocity Layer Over a Halfspace
As the refracted arrival propagates
through the halfspace, because it
travels faster than the direct arrival in
the layer, it begins to move across the
layer boundary before the direct arrival.
The refracted arrival is propagating
horizontally at the speed of the
halfspace, and the direct and the
reflected arrivals propagate horizontally
at the speed of the layer.

68

Simple Earth Model:

Low-Velocity Layer Over a Halfspace
As the refracted wave moves across the layer boundary, it generates a new wave
type in the layer called a critically refracted or head wave that propagates upward to
the surface. In the layered model considered previously, a high-velocity layer
overlying a low-velocity halfspace, this arrival never exists. This is primarily
because the refracted arrival, the direct arrival, and the reflected arrival all move
across the boundary at the same rate (There is never a separation in the arrivals at
the boundary that we see above).
In this particular example, note that if we were observing the ground's motion from
any point on the Earth's surface, we could observe three distinct waves. The
reflected arrival will always be observed after the direct arrival at any distance
from the source, thus it can never be the first arriving energy. At short distances
between the source and the receiver, the direct arrival would be observed first. At
long distances, however, notice that the critically refracted arrival could be
observed before the direct arrival.
This observation, that if the velocity of the material increases with depth, the
seismic waves recorded initially at a given receiver will be of the direct wave at short
source/receiver distances and the head wave at long source/receiver distances,
forms the basis of the seismic refraction method.
69

Wave Propagation
with Multiple Subsurface Layers
Consider the slightly more complicated model shown below.

This model consists of two layers overlying a halfspace. The speed of

wave propagation of the halfspace is greater than either layer, and the
speed of propagation in the middle halfspace is greater than the
speed in the top halfspace (i.e., velocity increases with depth).
70

Wave Propagation
with Multiple Subsurface Layers

Several seismic waves are apparent. There are direct, reflected, and
critically refracted (head wave - B1) arrivals originating from the top
interface. The head wave generated from this top interface propagates
horizontally with a speed equal to that of the middle layer.

71

Wave Propagation
with Multiple Subsurface Layers

because there is a second interface below this, we generate additional arrivals that
can be observed at the Earth's surface. There exists a second reflected arrival and
critically refracted (head wave - B2) arrival originating from the bottom interface. The
reflected arrival is too small in amplitude to be observed in the snapshot. The
second head wave is just beginning to develop at a distance of about 450 m. Like
the head wave from the top interface, this head wave will propagate horizontally with
72
a speed equal to that of the half space.

SEISMIC METHOD

73

REFLECTION SEISMIC METHOD

Single channel

74

REFLECTION SEISMIC METHOD

Multi channel
Near offset
Geophone

Far offset
Geophone
Surface

Source
Seismic Wave
Raypath

Reflector

Reflector

75

Common mid point and common

shot gather

The common midpoint

configuration allows a
specific point in the
subsurface to be imaged
several times.

Common shot gather (not

so common) consider
the data collected at a
spesific source location.
76

REFLECTION SEISMIC METHOD

77

REFLECTION SEISMIC SURVEY

A program for mapping geologic structure by
observation of seismic waves, especially by creating
seismic waves and observing the arrival time of the
waves reflected from acoustic-impedance contrast or
refracted through high velocity members.

78

SEISMIC WAVE

79

SEISMIC WAVE ON DATA RECORDED

80

SEISMIC SURVEY
INSTRUMENTATION

81

SEISMIC EQUIPMENT
EQUIPMENT OVERVIEW
Seismic Source - This is nothing more than an apparatus for delivering
seismic energy into the ground. Sources can vary greatly in their size and
complexity. All, however, share the following characteristics:
They must be repeatable. That is, the nature of the energy delivered into
the ground (its amount and the time duration over which it is delivered)
should not change as the source is used in different locations and Time
of delivery must be controllable. We must be able to tell exactly when the
source delivered its energy into the ground. In some cases, we can
control the time of delivery.
Receiver - These are devices capable of measuring ground motion generated
by the seismic source. these typically convert the ground motion into
electrical signals (voltages) that are recorded by a separate device.

Recording System - This actually consists of a number of components. In

essence, this entire system does nothing more than store the ground motion
detected by a number of geophones. This number could be quite large. In
addition to recording ground motion, this system must also control the
synchronization of the source. It consists of not only a "black box" to store
information but also numerous electrical connections to the geophones and
the source and usually a device to select subsets of the installed geophones
to record.

82

SEISMIC SOURCE
Basis for choosing a seismic energy source
1.Penetration of the required depth
2.Bandwidth for the required resolution
3.Signal to Noise ratio
4.Environment
5.Productivity
6.Availability and cost

83

SEISMIC EQUIPMENT
SEISMIC SOURCE
Impact Sources - Sources that generate seismic energy by impacting
the surface of the Earth are probably the most common type employed.
Although impact sources can be rather sophisticated in their
construction, the most commonly used type of impact source is a simple
sledgehammer. In this case, an operator does nothing more than swing
the sledgehammer downward onto the ground. Instead of striking the
ground directly, it is most common to strike a metal plate lying on the
ground, to avoid dissipating energy in plastic deformation of the earth.
The sledgehammer is usually connected to the recording system by a
wire. The moment the sledgehammer strikes the plate, the recording
system begins recording ground motion from the geophones.
The principle advantages to using a sledgehammer source are primarily Low Cost
and Simple to operate and maintain
The principle disadvantages of this source are It can be difficult to assure that the
source is operated in a repeatable fashion, Operation is manually strenuous, Source
outputs relatively small amounts of seismic energy.
Therefore, it can be difficult to record reliable observations at great distances, and
Source outputs seismic energy that tends to be low frequency in nature (i.e. this
source generates a lot of surface waves).
84

SEISMIC EQUIPMENT
SEISMIC SOURCE
Gun Sources - Like impact sources, gun sources generate
seismic energy by transferring the kinetic energy of a moving
object into seismic energy. In this case, the moving object is a
bullet or shotgun slug. Some sources use blanks instead of
bullets or slugs. In this case, energy is transferred from the
column of air in the gun's barrel that is set in motion by the
blank to the ground.
Like the sledgehammer, gun sources must also be connected
to the recording system so that you can begin recording
ground motion from the geophones at the instant the slug or
shell hits the ground.
The principle advantages of gun sources are :
- Highly repeatable source,
- Energy imparted into the ground is larger than is possible from a
sledgehammer, and Gun sources generally output higher-frequency energy.
This helps to minimize surface wave generation.

The principle disadvantages of gun sources are

- Safety, Equipment is more bulky and expensive than simple impact sources,
and
- Getting permission (permitting) to use this source may be more difficult.

85

SEISMIC EQUIPMENT
SEISMIC SOURCE
Explosive Sources - Explosive sources can impart a large amount
of seismic energy into the ground given their relatively small size.
These sources can vary in size and type from small blasting caps and
shotgun shells to larger, two-phase explosives. All explosive sources
are triggered remotely by a devise known as a blasting box. The
blasting box is connected to both the explosive and the recording
system. At the moment the box detonates the explosive, it also sends
a signal to the recording system to begin recording ground motion
from the geophones.
The principle advantages of explosive sources are
- These types of sources impart the most amount of seismic energy into the ground of
any of the sources described here,
- The energy tends to be very high frequency, and because the explosives are usually
placed in a shallow borehole, it tends not to be contaminated by surface waves, and
Explosive sources are very repeatable.
The principle disadvantages of explosive sources are
- Safety (the person in the photograph above is being foolishly irresponsible),
- Permitting. Landowners tend to be nervous about allowing the use of explosives on
their property,
- Data acquisition using explosive sources is much slower than using impact or gun
sources. This is primarily because boreholes must be drilled within which the explosives
86
are to be placed, and Explosives tend to be expensive to acquire and maintain.

SEISMIC EQUIPMENT
Shot hole drilling

87

SEISMIC EQUIPMENT
Explosive/dynamite

88

SEISMIC EQUIPMENT
Dis-advantages of Dynamite
1. Source wavelet can vary with changes in shot depth, size,
shooting medium, and hole condition. Ideally, this problem
can be alleviated in processing.
2. More expensive. Deeper holes, larger charges, and multiple
shots cost more.
3. Buried shots produce ghosting. This puts a notch in the
amplitude spectrum of the source signature. This problem
can also be alleviated to some extent in processing.
4. Less safe. This leads to greater difficulty in obtaining permits,
special storage and security requirements, and the possibility
of damage (real or imagined).

SEISMIC EQUIPMENT
VIBROSEIS
An Instrument which produces mechanical
oscillations used as a seismic source to the ground
called sweep. Vibroseis can vary in size and type
from small weight to larger. Vibroseis are triggered
remotely by a devise known as vibroseis controller.
This device is connected to both the vibroseises and
the recording system. At the moment the device
triggers the vibroseis, it also sends a signal to the
recording system to begin recording ground motion
from the geophones.
A sinusoidal vibration of continuously varying frequency is applied during a
sweep period typically lasting seven seconds or longer. In upsweeping, the
frequency begins low and increases with time, and in downsweeping the
highest frequency occur first. The frequency is usually change linearly with
time.

A nonlinear sweep usually involves vibrating longer at the higher frequencies

to compensate for the increased loss of high frequencies in travel through the
earth. The field record which consists of the superposition of many long
reflected wavetrain is correlated with the sweep wavetrain. The correlated
90
record resembles a conventional seismic record such as an impulse source.

SEISMIC EQUIPMENT
Vibroseis

91

SEISMIC EQUIPMENT
Vibroseis
StAtSin2[F1+(F2-F1) t/2T]t

At

St:
At:
T1,T2 :
F1, F2:
TD
:

[1+Cost/T1+1]/2
1,

0t TD
0tT1
T1tTD-T2

[1+Cos1+TD-t/T2]/2 TD-T2tTD

Sweep Signal
Amplitude Envelope of St
Taper
Start and End Frequency
Sweep Length

Linear up-sweep

Linear down-sweep

92

SEISMIC EQUIPMENT
Vibroseis

Characteristics of a linear up sweep.

a) frequency f(t) of the sweep increases linearly with time.
b) amplitude a(f) is constant over sweep band.
c) the upsweep time signal a(t) corresponding to a(f).
93

SEISMIC EQUIPMENT
Vibroseis

SEISMIC EQUIPMENT
ADVANTAGES OF VIBROSEIS
1. Non explosive, hence safer. Less danger to people,
buildings, water weIls, etc.
2. Less expensive

3. Allows control over frequencies input to the earth

noise frequencies (ground roll , 60-Hz power Iine
interference) can be avoided
4. Source arrays are easier and cheaper to implement
5. The long duration of the sweep allows for building
the signal-to-random-noise ratio during correlation

SEISMIC EQUIPMENT
Dis-advantages of Vibroseis
1. It is a surface source, therefore it
often generates more ground roll,
often creates a large air wave,
does not provide uphole times for static corrections, and
allows changes in surface characteristics to affect
the source signature, whereas dynamite can often be placed in a
nonvarying formation
2. Vibroseis must follow routes accessible by trucks.
3. Increasing the bandwidth (through increased sweep time)
increases cost and decreases daily production, hence
the need to estimate the usable frequency band at the start of production
recording and
cost may be increased when extra bandwidth is needed for some special
purpose (e.g. picking first breaks).
4. Operational problems are common to vibrators
precise control over, and knowledge of, the actual waveform put into the
earth is difficult and is crucial to producing a good seismogram,
care must also be taken that vibrators in an array are synchronized, and
a spare truck is helpful in case another breaks down

SEISMIC EQUIPMENT
Airgun

An air gun is used for marine reflection and refraction surveys. It consists of one
or more pneumatic chambers that are pressurized with compressed air at
pressures from 14 to 21 MPa (2,000 to 3,000 psi). The air gun array is
submerged below the water surface, and is towed behind a ship. When the air
gun is fired, a solenoid is triggered, which releases air into a fire chamber which
in turn causes a piston to move, thereby allowing the air to escape the main
chamber and to produce a pulse of acoustic energy. Air gun arrays are built up of
up to 48 individual air guns with different size chambers, the aim being to create
the optimum initial shock wave with minimum reverberation of the bubble after
the first shot.

Gun arrays can be fired in flip-flop mode; typically this would be 48 guns per
source, which would be selected and fired alternately. Large chambers (i.e.,
greater than 1.15 L or 70 cu in) tend to give low frequency signals, and the small
chambers (less than 70 cubic inches) give higher frequency signals. The air gun
is made from the highest grades of corrosion resistant stainless steel.
97

SEISMIC EQUIPMENT
Airgun

98

SEISMIC EQUIPMENT
Airgun
What can you optimise ?
Primary to bubble ratio,
bubble period (lengthen or shorten),
average spectral response in a band,
peak spectral response,
most deconvolvable signature
What can you vary ?
Volume,
Gun type,
Gun delays,
Gun pressure,
Gun (x,y) positions,
Gun depth (individually or by sub-array)

99

SEISMIC EQUIPMENT
Airgun

The important properties of an airguns signature are characterized by

two parameters, strength and bubble period.
Strength is simply the amplitude of the sound, measured in pressure units
at the direct arrivals peak (peak strength) or from the direct arrivals peak
to the ghost arrivals peak (peak-to-trough strength).
The bubble period is the time between consecutive bubble pulses.
100
Source: BILL DRAGOSET, Western Geophysical

SEISMIC EQUIPMENT
Airgun

101
Source: Sercel

SEISMIC EQUIPMENT
Airgun
The signature has three main components:

(1) the so-called direct arrival, the sound

produced when the air guns ports first
open
(2) the source ghost, the reflection of the
direct arrival from the water surface and
which has opposite polarity from that of
the direct arrival because the reflection
coefficient of the water-air boundary is
negative
(3) the bubble pulses produced by the
expansion-collapse cycle of the air
bubble created in the water when an air
gun fires.

102
Source: BILL DRAGOSET, Western Geophysical

SEISMIC EQUIPMENT
Airgun

103
Source: BILL DRAGOSET, Western Geophysical

SEISMIC EQUIPMENT
Airgun
The SEG-approved unit for farfield strength
of an array is the bar-m.
Abar is a unit of pressure, equivalent to 14.5
psi (about 1 atmosphere) or 1011 Pa
(micro-Pascal).
The bar-m unit is obtained by multiplying
measured pressure expressed in bars by
the distance between the sensor and the
sound source.
The advantage of the bar-m unit is that
source strength is characterized by a single
number rather than by two numbers (the
pressure and where it was measured).
In the far field, peak-to-trough strength in bar-m can be converted to actual peak positive
pressure at any distance by taking half the peak-to-trough number and dividing by that
distance.
For example, at 300 m a peak-to-trough 60 bar-m source creates a peak positive pressure
of 0.1 bar [.5(60/300)]; at 1000 m it creates a peak positive pressure of 0.03 bar
[.5(60/1000)].
104
Source: BILL DRAGOSET, Western Geophysical

SEISMIC EQUIPMENT
Airgun

Source: Sercel

105

SEISMIC EQUIPMENT
SEISMIC RECEIVER

106

SEISMIC EQUIPMENT
SEISMIC RECEIVER
GEOPHONE
Like gravity meters, the active element of the
device consists of a mass hanging on a spring.
When the ground moves, the mass (because it has
inertia) wants to remain motionless. If you were
watching the seismometer as the ground moved, it
would look like the mass itself was moving. But, in
reality, you are moving with the ground, and the
mass is remaining motionless.
Wrapped around the mass is a strand of wire. Surrounding the wirewrapped mass is a magnet that is fixed to the Earth. As the Earth moves,
the magnet moves up and down around the mass. The magnetic field of
this moving magnet produces an electrical voltage in the wire. This voltage
can be amplified and recorded by a simple voltmeter. It is relatively easy to
show that the voltage recorded by the voltmeter is proportional to the
velocity (speed) at which the ground is moving.
107

SEISMIC EQUIPMENT
SEISMIC RECEIVER
Shown to the left is an example of a geophone that is
representative of those typically used in seismic refraction
and reflection work. A quarter is shown for scale. This
particular seismometer has had its side cut out so that you
can see its working parts. The wire- (copper wire in this
case) wrapped mass can be clearly seen inside the
geophone. The spring connecting the geophone to the case
can not be seen but is just above the mass. The silver
colored case just inside the blue plastic external case is
magnetized. The black wires coming out from either side of
the blue case transmit the variations in voltage to the
recording system. The long silver spike below the blue case
is used to firmly attach the geophone to the ground. This
spike is pressed into the ground by stepping on the top of
the geophone until it is completely buried.

Different styles of geophone cases are available for

use in different environments. Several examples
are shown to the right. The geophone shown to the
far right (the one without the spike), for example, is
designed for use on hard surfaces into which
spikes can not be pushed.
108

SEISMIC EQUIPMENT
SEISMIC RECEIVER

Ref - IONGEO

109

SEISMIC EQUIPMENT
SEISMIC RECEIVER

Multi component
single geophone
(Sercel)

110

SEISMIC EQUIPMENT
SEISMIC RECEIVER

111

SEISMIC EQUIPMENT
SEISMIC RECEIVER

Multi component
single geophone
(Fairfield/Nodal)

112

SEISMIC EQUIPMENT
SEISMIC RECEIVER
HIDROPHONE
A detector which is sensitive to
variation in pressure, as opposed
to geophone which is sensitive to
particle motion. The sensing
element of hydrophone is usually a
piezoelectric ceramic material such
as barium titanite, lead zirconate or
lead metaniobate.
Piezoelectric hydrophones are high impedance devices and signals
may be passed through preamplifiers or impedance matching
transformers before transmission through the streamer to the
recording instruments.

113

SEISMIC EQUIPMENT
HYDROPHONE
Definitions
Hydrophones are sensitive to sound pressure, which is measured in micropascals (mPa). By tradition,
the geophysicist uses a different pressure unit, microbar (mbar). One bar is equivalent to 1011 mPa.
The far-field signature of an air-gun array, measured vertically beneath, is used to define the nominal
source level. This is the acoustic pressure 1 m away from its hypothetical point source equivalent that
would radiate the same amount of sound in the far-field as the actual source. Units are in bars at 1 m,
abbreviated as bar-m. For example, 100 bar-m means that if the array were a point source and a
hydrophone were 50 m away, then the hydrophone would detect a pressure of 2 bar.

In presenting sound measurements, acousticians use ratios of pressures; in underwater sound the
adopted reference pressure is one mPa. Further, acousticians adopt the decibel (dB) scale so that
sound pressure level (SPL) of a sound of pressure S is SPL (dB) = 20 log10(S/S0) where S0 is the
reference pressure. The standard for specifying air-gun signal levels is the peak-to-peak (P-P) level,
which is the maximum negative-to-positive measurement of the air-gun signature. The seismic survey
literature refers to P-P pressure amplitudes in bar-m. P-P can be converted to source level Ls in dB re 1
mPa-m as follows: Ls (dB re 1 mPa-m) = 20 log(P-P)+220. Acoustic pressures of 10-20 bar-m
correspond to 240-246 dB re 1 mPa-mP-P.
The source amplitude spectrum level gives source amplitude strength versus frequency. It is common to
normalize the amplitude spectrum in dB relative to 1 mPa/Hz at 1 m, abbreviated as dB re 1 mPa/Hz-m.
Because the reference pressure 1 mPa is a small pressure, a moderately sized air-gun array will have a
spectrum that peaks above 200 dB above this reference level.
114

SEISMIC EQUIPMENT

RADIO TELEMETRY SYSTEM

A wireless system that increases
layout capability and flexibility.
Seismic crews are able to avoid all
types of obstacles like river
crossing, dense houses, industry
facilities, etc. and achieve greater
field efficiency.

115

SEISMIC EQUIPMENT
WIRELESS RECORDING

116

SEISMIC EQUIPMENT
WIRELESS RECORDING

Less instrument (cables)

Less crew (cheaper operational)
Less trouble caused by cables
Using GPS for position
Flexible location (under soil)
Could be harvested by wifi
Environment friendly (less power)
Record continuously up to 1 month and stored in
memory

117

SEISMIC EQUIPMENT
EQUIPMENT OVERVIEW
Multi-channel seismic recording systems are widely available from a
number of different manufacturers. Photos of examples of (Sercel)
systems currently available and commonly used for seismic
exploration are shown below.

FIELD DIGITIZING UNIT

(FDU)

CABLES
LINE ACQUISITION
UNIT LINK (LAUL)

118

SEISMIC EQUIPMENT
EQUIPMENT OVERVIEW

Geophones are connected to the recording system by electrical

cable. Each cable is capable of carrying the signals produced by
several (10s to 1000s) of geophones at once, rather than having a
single cable go to each geophone separately. An example of a set of
geophones connected to seismic cable. This particular cable was
commonly used for exploration, such as was done in the oil and gas
industries since 1970s.
119