I

.]

-m

LATIN

NEW

GRAMMAR

BASED ON THE RECOMMENDATIONS

OF THE JOINT COMMITTEE ON
GRAMMATICAL TERMINOLOGY
BY

E. A.

SONNENSCHEIN.

D.Litt.

PROFESSOR OF CLASSICS IN THE UNIVERSITY

OF BIRMINGHAM
CHAIRMAN OF THE JOINT COMMITTEE
ON GRAMMATICAI, TERMINOLOGY.

AT

THl-:

OXFORD
CLARENDON PRESS
1912

HENRY FROWDE,

M.A.

PUBLISHER TO THE UNIVERSITY OF OXFORD

LONDON, EDINBURGH, NEW YORK

TORONTO AND MELBOURNE

h
]

PREFACE
This volume and the companion volume of my French
grammar are based upon the work of the Joint Committee
on Grammatical Terminology whose final Report was issued
and they are designed to make the Committee's
last year
scheme of grammar teaching available for use in schools. It
;

'

a matter of great satisfaction to observe the rapid progress

is

of the

movement

which the Committee devoted so much

to

labour; since the publication of our Report the recommendations contained in

or with

have been adopted either

it

seme modifications by

English grammars, and

it

in their entirety

the writers of at least four

seems

to

be generally recognized

recommended by the
Committee constitute a real advance in the direction ot
simplicity and uniformity in the teaching of grammar.
So far no Latin or French grammar has appeared on these
but the Committee's work is expressly designed to
lines
that the terminology

and

classifications

scope the grammar of other languages besides

English, and so to secure that the grammatical doctrine taught

include in

its

to pupils shall

be

all

of a piece.

It is

as a contribution to this

movement that I have undertaken the task of writing the

for the
no little labour
It has involved
present books.
;

'

On

the Teimi)iologv of Giaiiniiar,

mittee on Grammatical Terminology

being the Report of the Joint

revised 191

Com-

(John Murray, Albemarle

The Committee contained representatives of the Classical

Modern Language Association, the English Association,
Incorporated Association of Head Masters, the Head Mistresses' Asso-

Street, W.).

Association, the
the

ciation,

Schools,

the Incorporated Association of Assistant Masters

the

Incorporated

Association

in

of Assistant Mistresses

Secondary
in

Public

Secondary Schools, the Association of Preparatory Schools, and two coopted members.
r) kj ') U
I

........

.PREFACE

of the Committee cannot be attained by a mere

mechanical substitution of one term for another. The whole
scheme of grammar teaching had to be thought out from

objects

new point of view. Grammatical ideas are far more than

mere labels they are abstracts and brief chronicles of theories
and doctrines; so that the choice of a term means the choice
a

of one grammatical conception in preference to another.

This

being so, the importance of a uniform system of grammatical

terminology in schools becomes obvious ; to teach pupils half

names for the same thing is to demand of

them that they shall carry in their heads half a dozen different
ways of regarding the point in question, or to tempt them to
carry nothing in their heads, but rather to reject all grammatical terms as mere sound and fury, signifying nothing. The
principle that where the same grammatical feature presents
itself in different languages of the same family it should be
But
described by the same name will be generally conceded.
it is also true that where these languages differ in their usage,
their differences should be stated in terms which will be inand this cannot be secured except on
telligible to the pupil
a dozen different

the basis of a

study of a

common system

new language

To

of terminology.

with a

new

start the

stock of grammatical

is a fundamental mistake.
This Latin grammar, however, contains many things for
which the Joint Committee is in no sense responsible. In the
first place, the outline drawn by the Committee had to be filled
in by the adoption of some terms not expressly countenanced
and secondl}', I have introduced into my book several
therein
features which stand in no relation to the work of the Committee, but which have presented themselves to me in the

ideas

course of a long experience of teaching Latin as desirable

innovations.
(i)

It

is

generally recognized that the rigid separation of

syntax from accidence involves

other hand

syntax

it

many disadvantages

would not be desirable

to pupils in the first stage of learning.

on the

complete
have steered

to present a

PREFACK

a middle course by giving a simple account of

some

of the

prominent uses of forms as introductory matter to the study

and I have called this part of the
of the forms themselves
I
have intentionbook 'Forms and their chief meanings'.
ally made the accidence brief and simple, on the principle
;

'

approved by the Curricula Committee of the Classical Associa-

The

Odiiic sitpcn'acuiini plcuo dc pcctorc iiianat.

tion."

details

of accidence are relegated to an Appendix as matter of far less

importance and interest to the beginner than the fundamental

features of sentence construction.^
(2)

have throughout called attention

to the similarities of

assume that nearly all

pupils learning Latin have already begun or are beginning the
It seems to have been too much forgotten
study of French.
by writers of Latin grammars that French sometimes throws
light on Latin/ and that the English derivatives formed from
Latin words may be turned to account in the learning of Latin
forms.
This I have tried to do wherever possible."
Latin to English, and to French

(3)

for

have

intro-

believe to be a substantial improvement.

For

In dealing with the principal parts of verbs

duced what

know, the forms of the Perfect Active

have been reduced to rule by means of a classification according to the final sound of the stem from which they are formed.

the

first

time, so far as

1
e.g. 11-13 on the meanings of the cases, and 125-38 on the
meanings of the voices, moods, tenses, verb-adjectives and verb-nouns the
chief uses of the pronouns are given in 101-24.
2 Reconiiiiendatioiis of the Classical Association on the Teaching of Latin
and Greek (London, John Murray, 1912;, pp. 29 f.
It is hardly necessary to say that great care has been paid to correctness
;

5^

of statement in regard to the details of accidence included.

authorities used in this part of the

book are referred

to in

Some

of the

theAppendix.

* That French may be turned to account in the study of Latin is shown

throughout my Syntax. But I would also call attention to the fact that the
scanning of Latin verse would be greatly facilitated by the learning of
see French Grammar, 11, and
a simple rule of syllabic division in French
;

compare Latin Grammar, 9.

e.g. in the examples for declension
''

in

34-9 and .\ppcndix

in the formation of the Perfect Participle Passive, 172-237.

xiii,

and

PREFACE

seemed worth while

It

to try

how

far

such a catalogue

exhibiting the formations of the Perfect Active in

raisoniic,

all

the four

conjugations at a single view, might prove to be in practice the

simplest method of dealing with these apparently anomalous
forms, which have always been the crux of pupils learning

When

one realizes that the learning by heart of a list

many isolated forms involves the
memorizing of, on a moderate estimate, 750-1000 facts, one is
not surprised that the forms are not actually remembered
Latin.

of principal parts as so

without long practice.

historical philology

how

not to explain

Incidentally the pupil will learn

some

but the purpose of m}' classification

the facts

came

to

is

be what they are, but

mastery of the forms and it is in

must be judged. The Supine is no integral
part of the system of any Latin verb, except in so far as it
simply

to lead to a practical

this light that

it

emplo3'ed in the periphrastic Future Infinitive Passive

is

has, therefore, no proper

By

long usurped.
Passive

we

title

to the position which

substituting for

it

it

it

has so

the Perfect Participle

not only get rid of a multitude of bogus Supines

which have been manufactured by grammarians

supply a fourth 'principal part
a form which

is

',

but

we

in

order to

also teach the pupil

of incomparably greater value both in

and as an element

in the

formation of the

compound

itself

tenses

of the passive voice.

(4)

by

The Subjunctive mood

my

treated on the lines indicated

is

previous work on the subject/

have here attempted

form intelligible

to present the results of that investigation in a

to the beginner,
sition of the

and

mood

will

am encouraged

to think that m}'

be found useful in practice.

expo-

Here, as

my book, I have aimed at lucidity

But I have not included, here or elsewhere, any usages which go beyond what a pupil comes across
in his everyday reading of authors like Caesar and Virgil.
in several other parts of

rather than brevity.

'

The Unity oj

Street,

W.,

the

1910).

Latin Suhjundivc

Quest

i^Jolin

Murray, Albemarle

PRKFACK
Most of my examples

(5)

in

syntax arc designedly taken

from Caesar, and where possible from the books of the Gallic
War most commonly read in schools. Caesar is an admirable

exponent of Latin prose usage, and an interesting author if he

is studied properly.
But, apart from this, the advantage of
teaching syntax by way of examples which may have been
already met with in the course of reading is very great and
I
have rarely gone for my examples beyond the range of
;

books commonly read

in schools.

I
have adopted
which is new in Latin grammar, though it is implicitly recognized by all grammarians, viz. that the meanings of
the ablative depend to a great extent on the meaning of the
noun used and on that of the verb or adjective or adverb with
which it is used ( 12, 428). An ablative like hom stands on
an altogether different footing from ablatives like Roma and

In the treatment of the ablative case

(6)

a principle

sagiita

and

believe this fact ought to be recognized in the

earliest stages of teaching, as

an aid

to undet"standing.

have

carried out the principle in 429-51 of the syntax.

I have adopted
(7) In regard to the pronunciation of Latin,

scheme of the Classical Association,^ which has been

recognized by the Board of Education and is rapidly
coming into general use. In the matter of the marking of the
the

officially

quantities of vowels

mended by

have carried out the principle recom-

the Classical Association,'^ and recently endorsed

by a resolution of the Classical Association of Scotland. In

matters of phonology and S3'llable division I have been guided
by Niedermann's Outlines of Latin Phonetics.^
I

am

indebted

With my

to

several friends for help and counsel.

colleague, Mr. C. D.

almost every point dealt with

Chambers, I have discussed

grammar, and he has

in this

The Pro)iunciation of Latin (John Murray, Albemarle Street, W., 1906}.

That in texts of Latin autliors
the Teaching of Latin and Greek, p. 2
intended for the use of beginners the quantities of long vowels be marked,
except in syllables where they would be also " long by position '.'
^ Translated by Strong and Stewart (George Routledgc and Sons, 1910.
'

On

'

PREFACE

me much

given
press.

MS.

MS.

for

Dr. H. Blase, of Mainz, has been so good as to read

my

assistance in preparing parts of the

of the syntax on the Subjunctive and the Cases.

W.

Prof

of Behast,

dered

me

He

and

R. Hardie, of Edinburgh, and Prof. R. M. Henry,

who have

read the whole of

my

proof, have ren-

the inestimable service of sympathetic criticism, and

man}' points my book has profited by suggestions they

have made. Mr. W. E. P. Pantin, Secretary of the Joint
Committee on Grammatical Terminology, has read part of my
proof, and to him too I owe several useful hints.
My former
pupil, Dr. Henry Thomas, of the British Museum, has done
me the kindness of reading the MS. of my Subjunctive and

at

suggesting various modifications of detail.

My

best thanks are also due to the officials of the Clarendon

Press for the help they have given

me

in the

production of

the book.

E. A. S.

BL.

CONTENTS
PART

ACCIDENCE

FORMS AND THEIR CHIEF MEANINGS

PAGE

SECTIONS
I-IO

11-13
14-54

55
56-65
66-72

73-77
78.79
80-95
96-101
102
103
104-109

no
111-118
119-121
122-124

125-138
'39-140
141,142

'I3-148

Introduction

11

General meanings of the cases

Declension of nouns and adjectives
The Locative Case

18

....
....

19

32
32

Gender of nouns
Comparison of adjectives

Formation of adverbs from adjectives

Comparison of adverbs

35
37
38

Numeral

39

adjectives

Personal pronouns

The emphasizing

....
....

adjective

r/>sc

Possessive adjectives

Demonstrative adjectives and pronouns

Interrogative pronoun and adjective
Indefinite pronouns and adjectives
Relative pronoun and adjective
Table of corresponding words
Meanings of voices, moods, tenses, verb-adject
and verb-nouns
Conjugation of voco, with meanings
Conjugation of simi, with meanings
Formation of moods, tenses, verb-adjectives, and
verb-nouns in the four conjugations
.

....

149-151

The

152, 153
154. 155

Formation of the passive voice

Conjugation of vocor, with meanings

156-158

The

159-^63
164-169

Tlie

170-237
238 249

Principal parts of verbs

four conjugations, active voice

44
46
47
47

49
50
52
53

55
60
62
64
66
68

four conjugations, passive voice

70
72

....

75
77

mixed conjugation
Deponent verbs
Irrcsrular verbs

80
95

CONTENTS
Appendix to Part
i-xxii

xxiii-xxvii

xxviii-xxxvii
xxxviii-xl
xli, xlii

Peculiarities of declension

PART II-SYNTAX
250-268

....

Exceptions to rules of gender

Notes on verbs
The Calendar, Roman money, Abbreviations
Alphabetical list of Principal Parts
.

104
107
109
iii

114

:;

PART

ACCIDENCE

I.

INTRODUCTION
Laiin

is

languages,

to

member

of the great Indo-European famih- of

Hence many

English also belongs.

which

and some Latin forms are similar to

English constructions and forms.
French is an altered form of Latin. Hence French, too,
Moreover, after the
stands in a close relation to English.
Norman Conquest many French words were taken over into
English, and the forms and constructions of Norman French
Latin constructions

had an influence
language.

moulding the structure of the English

in

way English was brought

In this

closer relation to French and Latin.

And

into a

still

since that date the

vocabulary of English has been enriched by the introduction

of a large number of Latin and French words.

We

fact

ancestry, partly to

and English have much

due partly to their common
the influence which French and Latin

shall see that Latin, French,

common a

in

which

is

have had on English.

Comparison of Latin with modern languages. When
we compare an ordinary Latin sentence with its English or

French translation, we notice two important differences, apart

from the differences in the words used.
Britanniac
nationes barbaras
Populus Romanus
Th" nation

Roman

expedltionibus
by
i.

lite

e.

expeditions

The Ro\nan

barbarous of Britain

the tribes

debellaverat
Caesaris non
not had subdued
of Caesar

)iation

had

not

subdued

the

barbarous

tribes of

Britain by {by means of) the expeditions of Caesar.

Haec

possum
facere non
not I can
do

hodie

These things today

i.

e.

/ cannot do these things

to-day.

Note that

words is quite different

some of the English words have no Latin words to
'1'.
things
had
'of, by
the
correspond to them
(i)

the order of the

(ii)

'

',

'

',

'

',

'

',

'

INTRODUCTION

12

Order of Words.

(ij

The normal

from the normal EngHsh order

Rule i. Most
come immediately
after ndtioiies

cf.

noun

after the

not specially emphatic,

to

Rbmdnus

e. g.

French

le

Latin order differs

two important respects/

when

adjectives,

sense, as in French

in

which they belong

after popitlns,

pcuple roinain,

Ics

in

barbards

peuplcs bar-

bares.

Rule 2. Adverbs and objects usually come before (most

adverbs iminediatdy before) the words to which they belong
in sense
e. g. non (adverb) and ndtibnes barbards Britanniae
(object) both before debclldverat
haec (object) and hodie
:

(adverb) both before /aa'r^

facerc (object) before possum;

non (adverb) before possum.

These rules apply also, for the most part, to words and
groups of words which are equivalent to adjectives and adverbs
for example, they apply to cases of nouns used
;

adjectivally or adverbially

(adjectival^ 'Caesarian

')

thus

we have

of Caesar
and expedltionibus

Caesaris

after cxpedttionibus,

'

(adverbial) before debelldverat

The second

rule causes the chief difficulty to the English

reader of Latin.

For

in

any group of Latin words containing

an adverb or an object, the most important word, that on

which the sense depends, comes

at the

end of the group, and

But in English,

not at the beginning, as generally in English.

too, the

Latin order

sometimes found, especially

is

poetry

in

How

happy is the blameless vestal's lot

The zvorld forgetting, by the ivorld forgot.

The reader

(Pope.)

of Latin must therefore learn to break up Latin

sentences into groups of ivords that go together

Populus Romanus nationes barbaras Britanniae
:

tionibus Caesaris

non dcbellaverat.

The

art of

expedl-

reading

Latin depends on forming the habit of breaking up sentences

'

By

verse

is

tli(j

'

normal order

much

freer.

'

is

meant the usual urder

in

i)rusc

the order in

'

INTRODUCTION
ill

this

way, and of expecting the words

demanded by
4

13
to

come

the order

in

the rules.

English words not expressed by separate words

Note tlie following points:
ia) Latin has no articles, definite or indefinite
thus expafltio might mean either 'an expedition or 'the expedition
[b) The subject of a
Latin finite verb is often only
indicated by the inflexion of the verb e. g. possiiiii,
I can
possiaiius, 'we can.'
But Latin also has pronouns, which
may be used in the nominative case for the sake of emphasis
or contrast e. g. ego possum, fu non potes, / can, you cannot
(French tnoi, je pciix; foi, in nc pcux pas).
(ill

in Latin.

'

'.

',

'

'

The compound

(r)

tenses of the active voice of English

verbs are expressed by simple tenses of Latin

dlbeUdvcrat,

'had subdued', dcheUabat, 'was subduing', debclldbH, 'will

subdue.'
{d)

The meaning

of

some prepositions maybe expressed in

Thus in 2

Latin by the inflexion of a noun or pronoun.

'

of and

'

by

'

are expressed by the inflected forms called the

and the

gcni/ii'c case

ablative case

('

expeditions

by the

0/

Other English prepositions

whose meaning may be expressed in certain phrases by

Caesar

',

expeditionibus Caesaris).

a Latin case without a preposition are

'

with

',

'

at

'

',

But Latin

on

',

also

'

in

the
'

1 1,

the

sense,

'

for

',

'

from

',

12.

sometimes

are

especially

in

prose

for

'

'

'

in certain

of

see

',

an expedition has been prepared by Caesar 'would

even 'of may
Latin expedltio a Caesare parata est

example,
in

to

has prepositions, which

necessary to express
be

'

'

many

'

',

phrases be expressed by a preposition,

unus dc

inultts

'

(compare

French

e. g.

de).

'

one

And

meaning of the prepositions 'before', 'after', 'across',

and many others is always expressed by a pre-

without

',

position in Latin {ante, post, trans, sine, &c.).

INTRODUCTION

14

Pronunciation of Latin.
5

The

much the same sounds as they have

and German.
The chief difference
between Latin and French is that the Latin u was pronounced
like 00 in English, not like the French ii in /une.
In the following English words the vowels have nearly the
same sounds as the Latin a, e, i, o, it
Latin vowels had

French,

in

Italian,

aha, d^m^sne,

hitrlgiie,

sorrow, c/vckoo.

French a in pate or English a m father e. g. mater.

same sound shortened) like French a in pa$ or the
first a in English aha
e. g. pater.
e like French e in e'te, but lengthened
or English a in fate
without the faint /-sound at the end
The Lat. e
e. g. me.
was what is called a 'close e\
e like English e in fret or French
in nette
e. g. tenet.
The Latin e was what is called an 'open e\
i like / in English machine, French rire or i/e
e. g. imus.
a

like

(the

('

like / in

like

English

English

French
in

/;/,

in

pit

e. g.

tno/e

home without

or

regit.

French

in

eaii

beau

the faint /^sound at the end

e.

or
g.

Roma.
in English hot or French Jiiol: e. g. hominem.
like
u like English oo in too or French oii in goiife e. g. tu.
u (the same sound shortened) like English oo in took or
French on in gonite: e. g. conjLul.
y (a Greek letter, used only in foreign words) like French
sometimes short,
//
in Inne
sometimes long, e. g. Lydia
e. g. tyrannu?.
6
Diphthongs (double vowel sounds) are produced by running
two different vowel sounds together so as to make a single

long syllable.

The

Latin

diphthongs

were pronounced

follows

ae

like English

au

like

(?/

in aisle:

English on

in lotui

e.g. taedae.
;

e.g. laudo.

somewhat

as

INTRODUCTION
Knglish rv

ei like

eu
oe

like

English

like

English 0/

in

gtrv

new

ezv in

15

e.g. eia (Interjection).

in boil:

seu, heu.
poena.

e. g.

e.g.

French o///{'yes'): e.g. huic. The word cni (dat.

and (/nJ) was sometimes pronounced as two short
syllables, cui, like the two vowels of the English ntiii.
The consonants were pronounced by the Romans much
as they are pronounced in English, except the following
c, always like English r in can (= k): e. g. cano, cecini
ui like

sing. q{ qnis

condicio, scit.

always

g,

like

English

good:

in

_i,'

e.g.

reg5,

regis,

regam, reges, regunt; regid.

s,

always

English (h
t,

always

English 5 in

like

Greek

z (a

letter,

in

a(ke

gas

e. g.

sus, rosa.

in foreign words),

probably

like

Zephyrus, gaza.

e. g.

English

like

sea/,

used only
in

/<-;/

tenet, natio, fortia.

consonant (sometimes written y), like English y in yoke:

e.g. iugum, iacere, cuius, huius, eius.
u consonant (generally written z>), like English
in zlui//,
loiue: e.g. vallum, vinum.
qu and ngu before a vowel were pronounced as in the
English queen, anguish (not like the French qu in qui, que)
e. g. qui, anguis.
Similarly, su was pronounced like English
5a' in sweet m the three words suavis, suadeo, suesco, and
i

ti'

their derivatives.

Doubled consonants (./, ///;;/,

nounced e. g. col-lis, Cot-ta.

//;/,

rr,

ti,

iSrc.)

were both pro-

Quantity of Syllables.
8

By

the quantity of a syllable

which

is

taken to pronounce

to be equal in duration to

syllable
(i)

when

is

long

it

in

when

it

is

meant the amount of tim^

long syllable

is

considered

two short syllables.

two cases

contains a long vowel or diphthong

matres, regJ, taeciae, laudo

(ii)

it.

e, g.

me,

contains a short vowel followed by two or

::

INTRODUCTION

i6

more consonants other than

mute

(c,

g;

t,

p,

b)

or/

and a liquid (r, /)

(k,i\i, troh?, ccnduni, aimant.
The
double consonants x [= cs) and z (= dz, 7) count as two
consonants thus dux and the first syllable o{ gaza are long.
The letter h and the u in qti. do not count as consonants.
:

Thus

the

first

syllable of ad/ific, loquor, ncqiie, &c.,

is

short.

short when its vowel-sound is short and is

followed either by no consonant or by only one consonant
ego, -que, dat, dabai, rapere.
Syllables in which a short vowelsound is followed by a mute or/ and a liquid are properly
short, except when the mute and the liquid belong to different
parts of a compound word, as in abripcre, neglegerc.
In order to understand the reason for these rules it is
syllable is

necessary

to

consider

are (as in French)

(i)

vowel

division

the

as pronounced.

syllables,

The

of Latin

rules for

words

S3'llable

into

division

^
:

single consonant

is

pronounced with the following

md-ter, ca-dit, bo-niis, iid-incn.

Two

(ii)

or more consonants are divided between two

when the first consonant is a mute or/and the

second one of the liquids r or /. In this case the two consonants are easily combined, and are therefore pronounced
syllables, except

together at the beginning of a syllable (except in compounds)

la-crhna, a-gruni, pa-treiu, va-fra, lo-cu-ples, A-tlds, &c.

From

these rules of syllable

syllables

ends

(i)

is

at

once

the

division

intelligible.

syllable

quantit}'

ot

when it
with two or more
is

long

with a long vowel or diphthong, (ii)

[trabs, Jiieius, dant) or a double consonant {dux),

consonants

consonant followed by a syllable which

(iii) with a single
begins with a consonant [ar-iua, ad-suui, con-dit, vac-ca, bel-lus,
ab-ripere,

con-traho).

In this case

the

consonant

first

is

separated from the second by a slight pause.

viz. (i) those ending with
All other syllables are short
a short vowel {e-go, be-ne, ma-le,pi-a, a-grl, padre, &c.); (ii) those
:

See French Gram.

ii.^The

to divisions like iiHi-giiiis, nc-ftds,

rule ot'the
ili-ciiis

Roman grammarians

has been

shown

to

wliicli led

be mistaken.

fj^

1*VA /^^^

pa, t^a,

..r>^

V-

INTRODUCTION

i?

containing a short vowel followed by a single consonant

{liat)

and not followed by a syllable beginning with a consonant.

In connected discourse (prose or verse) the words arc run
on together, so that the first syllable of the next word counts
as the next syllable, within the limits of the sentence or clause
or, in verse,

generally of the

line.

grammar

long vowels are marked (a, e, i, 5, u),

except where they are followed by two or more consonants such as themselves make the syllable long, apart
from the length of the vowel.' Short vowels have no
mark over them, except for some special reason (as in
Diphthongs, being necessarily long, are also not
5).
In this

marked,
o

Accent. All Latin words of more than one syllable had an

accent (stress), which did not necessarily fall on a long
syllable.
In words of three or more syllables, if the last
if short, the
syllable but one was long it was also accented
accent fell on the last syllable but two thus yocabo, hoiie'sftts
;

but vocdverit, hone'stior, hdniinis, hojniinbus.

In words of two syllables the

first

was accented, whether

was long or short thus

The words -que, 'and ', -ve, or', -ne (used in asking questions)
and -CHDi with counted as part of the word to which they
were attached in speaking and writing; and the accents fell
it

iiiafcr,

pater, v6cd, Mfisas.

'

'

in accordajice

voconc ?

'

with the above rules

thus Musasque,

pate'rve,

but Miisaqiw, rdsdvc, ntilunc ?.

In words that had lost a syllable the accent might

the last syllable remaining:
(for isliin-ce).

e.g. taiiton (for

iaiitoiie),

fall

on

istihic

But apart from such cases no Latin words

of two or more syllables were accented on the

last syllable.

Contrast French.
1 When a
word, whose vowel is marked long on the above principle,
enters into composition with another word, the mark of length is retained

e. g. iioiiite,

mosque,

undeciitt, vciido.

FORMS AND THEIR CHIEF MEANINGS

General meanings of the Cases.
It

Most Latin nouns, pronouns, and adjectives have inflected

cases ', which differ from one another in
forms called
Note that (i) all
meaning, though not always in form.
neuter nouns, pronouns, and adjectives have the same form
in the nominative, vocative, and accusative cases, both in the
'

singular and in the plural

same form

in

number

all

(ii)

nouns have the

the dative as in the ablative plural;

(iii)

the

vocative does not differ from the nominative in form, except

in the singular number of nouns and adjectives of the 2nd

declension in us

18, 22).

( 16,

general meanings of the nominative, vocative, accusagenitive, and dative cases are the same as in English

The
tive,

Nominative. Patria mihi est Britannia. My country

(lit. To me the country is) Britain.
Vocative.

Te, patria, amo.

I love

Accusative.

Patriam amo.

love

Genitive.

Litora patriae relinquo.

country's

thee,

my

my country.

country.

/ am

sJiorcs (or

is

the

leavitig

sho>es of

my
my

country).

Vincet amor patriae,

ivill

Dative.

llie love

of country

prevail.

Patriae libertatem dedit.

try freedom, or

He

He gave his coungave freedom to his

country.

Non

tibi

ipsl sed patriae natus es.

born

not for yourself

country.

but

You arc

for

your

FORMS AND
12

rillClR CllIKF

iM

KANINGS

19

Its meaning
riic Ablauve is a case peculiar to Latin.
depends partly on the meaning of the noun used and of the
verb with which it is used. Thus with a verb denoting 'to

patria exmay express the idea of from

The
he has been expelled from his country '.
abl. of a noun denoting an instrument may express the idea
of 'with', or 'by means of: aquilam sagitta necavit, 'he
expel

the abl.

'

pulsus

est,

'

'

an eagle with (or by

killed

means

an arrow
may express

of)

of a noun denoting a period of time

'

at

',

on

'

',

'

in

'

'

prima h5ra diel, at the

on this day
h5c anno,
abl. of a noun denoting
'

day
hoc die,
Note that the
'

'

not express the idea of

could

instance f)rtiud nicnsd could not

nor could hoc horto mean

similar instances the abl.
/;/

'

'

in

on

'

his father

'

'

this

hour of the

a material object

in

garden

abl.

the idea of

in this year.'

'

mean 'on

'

in

the

prose
first

for

table',

In these and

'.

in

prose

Similarly, ex patria (or a patria)

he comes from his native land

lives with

or

first

The

'.

would take a preposition

prirnd nicnsd, in hoc horto.

venit,

'

a patre

'

aiiidtur,

cum
'

he

patre
is

vtvit,

'

he

loved by his

father.'

13

Names

of towns and a few other nouns (including

names

of small islands which had only one town of importance in

them, after which they were called) have also a Locative case

denoting

'at',

'in',

or 'on'; see

55.

DECLENSION OF NOUNS AND ADJECTIVES

14

Latin nouns are arranged in five declensions, according to

the endings of the genitive singular and the genitive plural

Ending of Gen. Sing.

1st

Declension

Ending of Gen.

2nd

,,

3rd

is

,,

us

um
uum

,,

ei

erum

4th
5th

Pliir.

arum
orum

ae

Latin adjectives have forms similar to (though not exactly

the

same

as) those of

nouns.
13

20

ACCIDENCE
Nouns of the

15

insula,

First Declension.
f.,

island.

DKCLENSION OF NOUNS AND ADJECTIVES

Vir,

111.,

Si'/ig.

man

iVom

(as distinct

viruni, virl, viro

-woniaii) is

P/ur.

21

declined as follows

virl, viros,

virorum,

viris.

Adjectives like nouns of the and and the ist declension.

18

I.

cams, cara, carum,

(/rar (like (/oniinifs, insula, hrllton, p. 20)

ACCIDENCE

22

21

Examples for Declension (Nouns and Adjectives, pp. 20,21).

Likedominus: Maso. amicus, /nW/^; annus, vmr; numerus, number. F EM. Iagu5, Ijcech
ulmus, elm (names of trees).
;

Like bellum

Neut. perlculum, danger,

peril;

proelium,

signum, standard; consilium, //, counsel.

Like carus, a, um: bonus, a, um, good; antlquus,

battle;

a, um,
um, empty; idoneus, a, um, fitted tertius,
a, um, third; datus, a, um, given; tuus, a, um, your; tantus,
a, um, 50 great; quantus, a, um, hoiv great?
and all superlatives in -issimus, a, um.
Like magister (magistr-) and creber, crebr-a, crebr-um
are declined most nouns and adjectives of the 2nd decl. in

ancient; vacuus, a,

er

e.g. arbiter, m., witness; faber, m., carpenter or smith;

minister, m., servant;

ager, m., field; liber, m., book; aeger,

aegr-a, -vim,sick; integer, integr-a, -um, ivhole, entire

pulchr-a, -um, fine

sacer, sacr-a, -um, sacred

pulcher,

noster, nostr-a,

-um, our.

Like puer and liber, a, um are declined only a iew nouns

and adjectives chiefly (i) llberl (no sing.), m., children, lit.
free-born ones
lacer, a, um, torn
(2) asper, a, um, rough
miser, a, um, unhappy; tener, a, um, tender; (3) compounds of
-fer and -ger, like aquilifer, m., standard-bearer; armiger, m.,
:

'

'

aniiour-bearer

frugifer, a, i\m, fruit-bearing.

Nouns
22

I.

Nouns

prose

in

m., son,

except proper names,

2.

in ius,

ium.

(but not adjectives) in ius or

the gen. sing, in

e. g. filius,

Proper names

(in

fill

e. g.

in ius

verse often

negotium,

ium properly form

in

n.,

-ii)

business, negoti

Clodius, gen. Clodil.

and the noun

filius

form the voc.

sing, in t:

Gains (three syllables). Gal.

Deus, m., god, has its voc. sing. = nom. sing., and
generally contracts two syllables into one in the nom., voc,
gen. sometimes deuni.
dJ, dis
dat., and abl. plural
e.g. Vergilius, Vergill

3.

nrcLF.NSiox

(^f

Nouns
23

xorNs and adjectives

23

of the Third Declen&ion.

(Consonant stems with gen, plur. in -um).

Those nouns of the 3rd decl. which have one more syllable
Class

in the genitive singular than in the nominative singular and

only one consonant before the ending of the gen. sing, form

um.

the genitive plural in

24

(i)

Nominative singular formed without any

M.ASCULI.NES

AND FeMININES
natio,

victor, m., victor.

Sing.
N., V.

vlctor-is

victor-um

Abl.

victor-e

nation-em

nation-Ps
I

nation-um

nation-is

nation-T

victor-ibus

'

[nation-ibus

nation-e

Neuters

25

nomen,

n.,

Sing.
N.,i^.,A.
Gen.
Dat.
Abl.

26

P/iir

natio
victor-es

victor-i

tribe.

f.,

Sing.

Pill

victor
victor-em

Ace.
Gen.
Dal.

suffix.

(ii)

nomen

'

nomin-is
nomin-I

tempus,

name.

time.

Plur.

Phir.

Sing.

nomin-a

tempus

tempor-a

nomm-um

tempor-is
tempor-I

tempor-um

nomin-ibus

nomin-e

n.,

tempore

Nominative singular formed with the

tempor-ibus

suffi.x -s

(before

whicl^ a dental disappears).

Chiefly Feminine
hiems,

f, winter.

hiems

Ace.
Gen.
Dat.
Abl.

hiem-em
hiem-is
hiem-i

hiem-e

Examples

f.,

civita-s

hiem-es

state.

Plur.

Sing.

Plur.

Sing.
N., V.

cTvita=;,

civitat es

civitat-em

hiem-um

civitat-is

civitat-um

cTvitat-I

[hiemibus

for declension (like

civitat-ibus

civitat-e

i,

ii)

are given in

34-9.

ACCIDENCE

24
27

Class B (Vowel stems with gen. plur, in -i-um). Those

nouns of the 3rd decl. which have either the same number of
syllables in the gen. sing, as in the nom. sing, or two consonants before the ending of the gen. sing, form the genitive
plural in ium.'

28

(i)

in

With

the

same number of

syllables in the gen. sing, as

the nom. sing.

navis,

f.,

ship.

caedes,

f.,

inassaar.

DECLENSION OF NOUNS AND ADJECriX'ES

animal,

insignfe, n., badge.

25

n., (Uiiiiml.

Most of these neuters were originally adjectives. Thus

animal (originally annndk) meant 'possessed of life', from
aniiiia.

Examples

for declension (like

i,

ii,

iii)

are given in 40-5.

-i^

Adjectives like nouns of the 3rd declension.

31

Adjectives of this kind are declined

Class

B on

singular always ends in

(i) brevis, m.,

insigne

30).

hke the nouns of

the opposite page, excepting that the ablative

f.,

breve,

(not

e).

n., short,

brief (like navis

28,

and

ACCIDENCE

26
33

(3)

f., n., huge (like gens 29

Note the nom. and ace. sinsr. neut.)

ingeris, ni.,

fem.

in

Singular
niasc.

Plural

andfenu

neut.

ingen-s

uiasc.

ingen-s
uigen-s

ingentem

the niasc. and

and fem.

neut.

ingentes
ingentes

ingentia
ingentia

ingentis

ingentium

ingentl

ingentibus

Obs. The ace. plur. (niasc. and fem.) of adjectives

above (i, 2, 3) often ends in -7,9.

Examples

lii<e

the

for declension are given in 46-8.

Examples of nouns of thf 3RD declension

The

Class A.

34

only difficulty

especially those which

end

in

words of

in s, is to find

this

class,

out the stem of the

word from the form of the nominative singular

in

many

of

these words the English derivatives, formed from the stem,

provide a

ke}'.

(i)

Like victor

{a)

with long vowel in stem

24).
:

imperator, m., general, and

many

others

qui imperat); clamor, m., shout; honor or honos, m.,

is

honour;
{b)

sol, m.,

(derived from the stems of verbs

this

ending

in

Unperator

"^

sun.

with short vowel

mound;
woman.
m.,

To

in /or

in

stem: Caesar, m., Caesar; agger,

consul, m., eonsul;

arbor,

f.,

tree;

mulier,

group belong a number of words with nom. sing,

which is part of the stem, appearing as r in the

s,

other cases
'I

f,

mos, m., eustom

m., Jloiver
^.pulvis, m., dust
''\flos,

[moral
]

[Horal]
[pulverize

STEM morSTEM florSTEM pulver-

DFXLENSION OF NOUNS AND ADJKCTIVKS

35

Like natio

(2)
((/)

legiu,

f.,

region

(6)

Here

( 24).

the

ends

stt ni

with long o in last syllable of stem

legion

oratio,

sernio,

ni.,

with short

;'

speech

f.,

ratio,

f.,

in

;/

Cruptio,

reason

27

J
f.,

sortie

regio,

f.,

discourse [sermon].

in last syllable

of stem

[longitudinal]

longitudo, f., loigtii

multitudo, f., uuiltitude
ordo, m., rank

[multitudinous]
[ordinary

stem longitudinstem multitQdinstem ordin-

So consuetudo,

f.,

habit,

stem consuetudin-

homo,

m.,

man, stem homin-.

36

(3)

nomen

Like

25)

advancing^ eohinui; crimen,

caput,

head

n.,

[capital],

in

Like tempus ( 25
nws above. The last

is

generally short.

(4)

3/7

corpus,

body

n.,

"vdecus, n., ornament

lltus, n., shore

genus,

kind

n.,

latus, n., side

^onus,
opus,
'

pondus,

Jb'

iPy^

n.,

vulnus,

-^Jfls, n.,

\^ rus,
v^os,

n.,
n.,

n.,

weight
ivound

right

country

mouth

cadaver,

f robur,

burden

n.,

n., li'ork

corpse
strength

n.,

n.,

agmen,
n.,

stem

army on

the
n.,

march,
river)

capit-.

The

).

n.,

accusation; flumen,

final s is part

syllable of the

[corporal]
decorate
1

of the stem, as

stem of these neuters

ACCIDENCE

28
38

(5)
'

Like hiems

( 26).

plebs, f., rabble

princeps, m., chief
pax (x
cs), f., peace
lex (x = gs), f,, law
vox, f., 7^0?C^
dux, m. or f., leader
iudex, va., judge
radix, f., roo/

rex, m., khig

39

(6)

Like civitas

( 26).

has been dropped before the

aestas,

f.,

summer;

dental
suffix

calamitas,

f.,

(/

or d) or of the stem

5.

disaster; iTbertas,

f.,

liberty.

DECLENSION OF NOUNS AND ADJECTIVES

^3

or

Like gens
with

mens,

viiiid

f.,

mons,

cliens, ni.

ni., iiiounloiti.

with other consonants before the ending of the gen.

ars,

trale, n.,

f.,

mors,

f, death,

night, noct-is.

30)

ovile,

n., An";-;

sheep-fold;

n.,

mare,

n.,

sea; pene-

inner sanctuary.

Like animal

(6)

cohort-is; nox,

f, cohort,

Like insigne

(5)

V cublle,

pars, f, part, part-is

art, art-is;

f.,

mort-is; cohors,

tribunal,

29

29)

before the ending of the gen. sing.

;//

client;

f.,

{b)

^5

30):

platform; vectlgal,

i).,

exemplar,

tax;

n.,

calcar,

n.,

spur;

n., pattern.

Examples of adjectives like nouns of the 3RD

DECLENSION
Like brevis, breve

(i)

|6

48

(4)

(a)

sing.

^4

47

;;

facilis,

easy;

fortis,

unarmed; omnis,

e,

e,

of such a kind)

all; utilis,

e,

qualis, e,

alacer,

equester,

cris,

ere,

tris, tre,

lively

(3)

32)

33)

frequens, mimerous

prudens, prudent

celeber,
;

e,

heavy; inermis,

useful;

talis,

e.

such

?.

<^

bris,

bre,

celebrated

and
November, December

voluce^, cris, ere, winged;

October,

mense SeptembrI,

Like ingens

e,

of ivhat kind
{

equestrian

adjectives September,

(bris, bre), e.g.

brave; gravis,

Like acer, acris, acre

(2)

the

31)

(
e,

^^^ (f

in September.

praesens, present

potens, poiverful

recens, recent.

Also some with only one consonant before the ending

of the gen. sing.,
gen.

fellcis,

e. g.

Arplnatis, belonging

Arpinum

to

as a noun, aristocrats
capit-),

audax, gen. audacis, audacious;

lucky; velox, gen. velocis, sivift;

unequal.

nom.

optimates(plur.), aristocratic,

praeceps, gen. praecipitis (from caput,

headlong; teres, gen.

5 in the

felix,

Arpinas, gen.

teretis, shapely.

Similarly (without

sing.) par, gen. ^slyxs, equal ; impar, gen. imparls,

ACCIDENCE

3o

Declension of Comparatives
Adjectives in the comparative degree are declined like the

49

nouns on

p.

23 (not like those on pp. 24, 25)

singular ends

in

nominative plural

e,

the genitive

66

briefer.'\

e.g.

thus the ablative

um, the neuter

in a.

[The formation of the nominative singular

in

plural in

car-ior, -ius,

dear-cr

in lor, lies is

brev-ior,

-ius,

given

short-er,

\2

DECLENSION OF NOUNS AND ADJ ECl IVES

Examples of nouns of the
1.

4T11 peclen.

Like exercitus.

Masc.
i'lsus,

31

use

impetus, aUack

adventus, arrival;

xw^tiwa,

fear

currus, chariot.

Fem. idils (plur.), the Ides nianus, hand.

Like cornu. Neut. genu, knee.
:

2.

domus,

house, home, belongs parti}' to the

f.,

Singular

2nd

decl.

Plural

N., V.

donuis

domus

Ace.

doniuni

Geti.

domus

demos [2nd decl.) or domus (4//1)

domdrum {2.nd) or domuum (4///)

Dat.
Abl.

domui

Loc.^

domi

domb

doniibus

(2/id decl.)
{-zud decl.)

Nouns of the
res,

)3
1

f.,

Fifth Declension.
thing, affair.

ACCIDENCE

32

THE LOCATIVE CASE

The endings

55
'

at

'

',

in

or

',

are as follows
in

of the Locative, which

on

'

(see 13)

'

e,

(i.

used to denote

is

answer the question

to

'

Where

?
'),

Singulars of the ist decl. ae

Romae,

at

Rome;

mllitiae,

on military service

2nd

in Singulars of the

Brundisii, at BriDidisitoii

decl.
;

BeneventI, at Beneventum,

domi, at home

( 52), belli,

///

nmr,

humi, on the ground.

In

all

ablative

other nouns the locative has the same form as the

thus

Singulars of the 3rd decl.

Carthagine, at Carthage

at Tibur; rure, in the country; Neapoli, at Naples

Names

of towns of plural form

ist decl.

Tibure,

28, Obs.).

Athenis, at Athens (nom. Athenae)

[^

Cannis, at

Cannae.

2nd

decl.

3rd decl.

Philippis, at Philippi

Gabils, at Gabii.

Gadibus, at Gadcs.

GENDER OP NOUNS'
56

The

rule for the gender of nouns denoting persons is

same as in French, and there are no exceptions to it
of any importance
Nouns that denote a male person are masculine
Nouns that denote a female person a.v& feminine.
The gender of these words depends on their meaning, and

the

has nothing to do with the'ir/orm or declension.

ThusMASc: agricola, farmer; Sulla, Sulla; Horatius,

Horace

puer, boy

frater, brother

god Cupid.
Fem. puclla,
:

'

On

this

and

the

type, teininines in

vir,

rex, king

girl;

pater, father
man, husband
Cupidd, the
senex, old man
;

Cornelia,

Cornelia;

regJna,

two following pages masculines are printed

italics,

and neuters

in

CAPITALS.

queen;
in

heavy

;:

GENDER OF NOUNS
woman

inulier,

57

wile

iixor,

Venus

rcnus, the goddess

soror,

sister

anus, old

33
motlicr

iiuiUr,

woman.

Nouns wiiich may denote persons of either sex are mascuUne

or feminine according to their application

my

father

priest

parens

)nca,

sacerdos longaiva, an aged priestess

or clvis Ronidna, a

Roman

comes, companion

dux, guide

parens meus,

e. g.

my mother sacerdos

castus, a holy

Romanus

civis

Similarly masc. or

citizen.

hospes, host or hostess

tern.

hostis,

enemy; miles, warrior.

Note, (i) This rule does not apply to nouns which denote
58
these follow the rules for the separate
a collection of persons
declensions given below e. g. ndlio (fern.), tribe plebs (fem.),
;

commons;

the

AUXiLiA

supply);

cbpiae (fem.), forces (plur. oi copia,

(neut.), auxiliary forces (plur.

oi auxilium,

aid).

Words

like the following do not properly denote

though they are sometimes applied to persons
J MANCiPiUM, chattel (neut., sometimes applied to slaves);
(ii)

persons,

deliciac,

delight

The gender

(=

darling).'

of nouns not denoting perso:^s

may

be mostly

found by the following rules.-

gg

I.

hora,

60

Those
hour

of the

ist

declension are

insula, island

Jra,

feminine,

all

bank

rlpa,

e. g.

vita, liie.

Those of the 2nd declension

in us or er are nearly all

annus,
hortus,
numerus,
year
e. g.
garden
number ager, field liber, book those of the 2nd declension
in L^^f are all neuter, e. g. donum, gift ; vInum, wine.
III. I. Those of the 3rd declension which form the nom.
sing, by adding the suffix
to the stem are mostly feminine
II.

masculine,

^61

anger

6'

e. g.

winter

liiem-s,

virtue (Class

(Class
(Class

B (i),
B (ii),

(ii),

28)

state

civitd-s,

26)

ndvi-s,

urb-s, city

welfare

salH-s,

ship

gen-s,

clan

caede-s,
;

virtu-s,

massacre

cohor-s,

cohort

29).

^ In a play of Plautus a lady is humorously called

my delight, my life,
apple of my eye, tip of my lip, my salvation, my honey, my heart, my little
'

cream cheese
*

The
801

'.

chief e.\.ceplioii6 to ihc^e rules are given in the .\ppeiitJix.

ACCIDENCE

34
62

Those of

2.

the 3rd declension which form the nom. sing,

without the addition of the suffix s are

feminine
e. g.

nom.

the

if

sing,

tribe

naiio,

ends

in

tude, ortgo, origin

tudb,

tid,

oration

drafio,

go

multi-

niuliilfidd,

imago, image (Class

(i),

24).

Most other nouns

legion

e. g. legio,

NEUTER

and do are also feminine

the nom. sing ends in men, us, ur, e, |^^

if

e. g.

in id

NO MEN, name

(Class

(i),

formido, terror.

temp us, time

25)

robur, strength
insigne, badge ; mare, sea

ANIMAL, anirnal; exemplar, pattern (Class

(iii),

30).

Note that these neuters

39

two ways

in

firstly,

that of the feminines

is

in us differ

always long

and GENUS, gener-ls with

e. g.

Contrast tempus, tempor-is,

in all other cases

labor, labour
(Class

(i),

the above

in us of

generally short,

salu-s, salut-is.

mos, custom
fl^jP'Test

is

secondly, the neuters have an

r before the ending of gen. sing.

masculine

from the feminines

the u of the neuters

mound

agger,

pulvis, dust

sol, sun
sermo, discourse

24).

rule

by referring

to

the

nouns on

pp. 26-9.

50

IV. Those of the 4th declension in tus and sus are

all

masculine
e. g.

So

exercitus,

e. g.

currus, chariot

The two
e. g.

64

motus, motion

usus, use.
;

gradus, step.

or three of the 4th declension in

are

all

neuter

GENU, knee.

V. Those of the 5th declension are

dies

65

army

too are most of the others of the 4th decl. in us

all

feminine, except

54).

The above

rules apply in general to nouns denoting kinds of

animals, except that none of these arc neuter.

Those which would

GENDER OF NOUNS

35

be neuter according to the above rules are masculine

mouse

e. g.

mils,

But some nouns denoting kinds of animals

are masc. when they denote the male, and 1cm. when they denote
the female e. g. b5s, bull bos, cow. Some have difterent forms to
denote the two sexes e.g. equus, horse lyjita, mare.
;

vultur, vulture.

COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES
66

The Comparative
and

fern.),

is

regularly formed by adding /or (masc.

ius (neut) to the part of the positive

which remains

when the ending of the genitive singular is removed.

The Superlative is generally formed by adding to the same
part of the positive the endings issimus (masc.), issiina (fem.),
issiinidii (neut.)

Positive

ACCIDENCE

36

68

Many

verb-adjectives (present

and perfect

degrees of comparison formed regularly

amant-ior, amant-issimus

have

participles)

e. g.

amans,

loving,

paratus, prepared, ready, parat-ior,

parat-issimus.

69

preceded by a vowel making a separate

generally form the comparative and
more and
superlative by means of the adverbs magis,
Adjectives in

syllable [c-us,

lis

ii-tis)

i-iis,

'

',

maxiine,

most

'

'

^'ms, faithful
'\dbnc\xs, suitable

70

magis pius, a, um
magis idoneus, a, um

similar form of speech

ideas of

'

less

'

carus, dear

and

'

least

minus

maxime pius, a, um
maxime idoneus, a, um

always used to express the

is

'

carus,

um

a,

minime

For the declension of comparatives see

are declined like other adjectives in us,

a,

carus,

a,

um

superlatives
49
um, 18.
;

Irregular Comparatives and Superlatives

71 bonus,

good

malus, bad
magnus, great
parvus, stiiall
multus, nuich
multi,

many

minimus, smallest

plus

plurimus, most

(n.), niore"^

plurimi, very many

[natu minimus, youngest~\
natu maximus, eldest^
sen-ior, elder
f
[recent-ior, -ius,/;r6V;^r] novissimus, a, um, last

more
iun-ior, younger

senex, aged
novus, nciv
vetus (veter-), old [vetust-ior, -ius, oldcr^
propinquus, near prop-ior, -ius, nearer

72

maximus, greatest

pliir-es, -a,

young

iuvenis,

optimus, best
pessimus, ivorst

mel-ior, -ius, better

peior, peius/ worse
maior, mains,' greater
mill or, -us, snmller

veterrimus,

proximus,

oldest

nearest, next

In the case of the following comparatives and superlatives

the corresponding positive adjective does not exist, or is
rare

^
:

Two

The

wine).
3

syllables (with

singular plus

is

pronounced as j,

used like a noun

For the declension of plus see

In this

regularly.

list

only the masc.

is

7).

plus vnil,

ritoic ivinc (lit.

more of

50.

given

the

fern,

and neut. are formed


COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES
deterior, worse
exterior, onfcr
inferior,

hwrr

37

dcterrimiis, worst
cxtremus, on/crniost

Tmus

infimus)
intimus, inmost

interior, inner

postremus, fast
primus, first

posterior, later
prior, former
superior, /lig/ier

suprcmusl^^^.^^^^^^

ulterior, fartlier

ultimus, farthest

summus

-^

FORMATION OF ADVERBS FROM ADJECTIVES

73

I.

sion

From
(

adjectives declined like

part of the positive which remains

gen. sing,

is

removed

Adjective

74

nouns of the 2nd declen-

18-20) adverbs are mostly formed by adding

when

e to

the

the ending of the

ACCIDENCE

38
75

II.

From

adjectives declined like

nouns of the 3rd

3i~3) adverbs are mostly formed by adding

part of the positive which remains

gen, sing,

removed

is

brev-is

lucky

Note audax, bold

felic-is

brev-iter, briefly
fellc-iter, luckily

audac-is

audac-ter, boldly

But when the adjective has nt before is in the gen.

is formed by adding er instead of iter:

tjQ

the

the ending of the

brevis, brief
felix,

when

decl.

iter to

sing.,

the adverb

prudens, prudent
77

III.

Many

prudent-is

prOdent-er, prudently

adverbs are supplied by the accusative singular

neuter of adjectives, especially adjectives of quantity and

number: multum, niucli', aliquantum, considerably; nimium,

much paulum, paululum, a little quantum, how much
tantum, so much (or only just so much, hence only) solum,
secundum, secondly
only primum, flrst, in the first place
too

tertium, thirdly,
all

&:c.

So

comparative adverbs

also (from

facilis) facile, easily,

and

( 78).

COMPARISON OF ADVERBS
n8

The Comparative

of adverbs formed from

adjectives

is

supplied by the accusative singular neuter of the comparative

adjective

the Superlative

is

formed by adding

of the superlative adjective which remains

of the gen. sing,

Positive
vere, truthfully

is

removed

the part

the ending

Comparative
ver-ius,

e to

when

more

Superlative

truth- verissim-e,

most

truth-

fully^
fully
pulchre, finely pulchr-ius, more finely pulcherrim-e, mostfinely
crebr-ius, mo?'e fre- creberrim-e, most frecrebro,
frequcntly
qucntly
quently
breviter, briefly brev-ius, more briefly brevissim-e, most briefly

COMPARISON OF ADVERBS
79

The tbllowing arc irregular

39

(cither in tlic positive or in tlie

comparative and superlative)

bene/ ivcll
male/ hadly

pcius, worse

niagnopere," greally

magis, more

multum, )}tnch
non multum)

plus,

parum

optime, hesl
pessime, ivorst

melius, be tier

,.,,,

maxime, most
plurimum, )]iost

more

mini me, least

minus, /ess

liltle

did, loiig (of time)

diutius, longer

diutissime, longest

nuper, lately
[wanting]
prope, m'ar
saepe, often

[wanting]

nuperrimc, most recently

potissimum, especially
proxime, next

potius, rather
propius, nearer
saepius, oftener

saepissime, oftenest

NUMERAL ADJECTIVES

80

Cardinal
some declinable

Ordinal
all

89)

declinable

primus, a, um
secundus, a, um
or alter, alter-a, -um
tertius, a,

um

quartus, a, um
quintus, a, um
sextus, a, um
Septimus, a, um
octavus, a, um

nonus, a, um
decimus, a, um
vicensimus, a, um
tricensimus, a, um

quadragensimus, a, um
quinquagensimus, a, um

um
um
octogensinius, a, um
nonagensimus, a, um
centensimus, a, um
sexagensinius, a,

septuagensimus,

'

Note the short final e in these adverbs.

Magnopcre wagtto opere (from opufi work', 3rd
'

a,

decl.).

ACCIDENCE

40

CC
CCC

ducenti, ae, a
trecenti, ae, a

CCCC
D
DC
DCC
DCCC
DCCCC

ducentensimus, a,

'

quadringenti, ae,
quingenti, ae, a
sescenti, ae, a
septingenti, ae, a
octingenti, ae, a
nongenti, ae, a
mille ( 83)

nongentensimus, a,

undecim
duodecim

XII
XIII

XV

quindecim
sedecim
septendecim

XVI
XVII
XVIII

duodevlginti"

XIX
82

In

(2)

undevTgintr

compound numbers from 20-100

generally placed

is

and-twenty
one')

is

larger

Ondecimus
duodecimus
tertius decimus
quartus decimus
quintus decimus
sextus decimus
Septimus decimus
duodevicensimus
Ondevlcensimus

tredecim
quattuordecim

XIV

Adjectives.

Ordinal.

Cai'diual.

XI

81

first

with

ct

'and

'

the smaller

(as in the

but the other order without

'),

often found; in

number

is

generally placed

Onus

(a,

et (like

'

twenty-

first

(without

et)

the

Ordinal.

um)

ginti or vigintT
(a,

number

English 'one-

compound numbers above 100

Cardinal.

XXI

um

um

millensimus, a,

Compound forms of Numeral

The numerals 11-19:

(i)

um

trecentensimus, a, um
quadringentensimus, a, tim
quingentensimus, a, um
sescentensimus, a, um
septingentensimus, a, um
octingentensimus, a, um

et

vl-

Onus

um)

Onus

um) et vicensium) or viccnsi(a, um) primus (a,

(a,

mus
mus

(a,

um)

XXVIII

XXIX
CXXXIII

duodetriginta
Ondetrlginta ^

centum

triginta tres

duodetrlcensimus (a, um)

undetricensimus (a, um)
centensimus (a, um) trl-

censimus

(tria)

tius (a,
'

of

(a,

um)

ter-

um)

The hundreds are declined regularly in the plural.

Numbers compounded witli 8 and 9 are generally expressed by means
f/r,

denoting subtraction ('two from twenty-, 'one from twenty', &c.)

except 98 octo

ei uCtidgiiitii,

99 novem

et

nondghiia.

NUMERAL ADJECTIVES
Where
agree

compound

fmiis occurs in

number (though

in

it

does

minibers, it docs not

gender and case) with the

in

plural noun, e.g. coitiini uni is pedes,

Numbers above 1,000.

The numeral niillct 'thousand',

83

41

'

loi feet'.

(3)

gular and

is

men', cum
plural

an adjective:

niillc /lotiiiiiibus,

viJ/in,

'

thousands

'

is

indeclinable in the sin'a

e.g. Diillc hoiiiines,

thousand

'with a thousand men'; but the

(used

in

multiples of 1,000),

is

noun of the 3rd declension, declined like the plural

of wsigue (p. 25) ni7/ia, inJh'uut, nulibiis; and it takes the
genitive after it: e.g. duo mllia homiuum, lit. two thousands

a neuter

'

of men',
'

with

'2,000

i.e.

2,000

men

'.

men'; cum dudbiis mllibiis hominuiu,

But compound numbers containing

hundreds as well as thousands (e.g. '3,333 men ') do not

need the genitive iria m'llia trecentl trlgintd trcs homines or
:

iria mllia

84

homimim

et trecenfi trigintd ires.

Distributive Adjectives

answering the question

many

apiece

'

'

how

{quotrnl?)

singuli, ae, a, one apiece

bini, ae, a, tii<o apiece
tcrni (trlnT), ae, a, three apiece
quaternl, ae, a, four apiece
quTni, ae, a., five apiece
seni, ae, a, 57.r apiece
septcni, ae, a, seve)i apiece
octonT, ae, a, eight apiece
noveni, ae, a, nine apiece
deni, ae, a, ten apiece
undeni, ae, a, eleven apiece
duoclcni, ae, a, iivetve apiece
tern! deni, ae, a, thirteen apiece
duodevTceni, ae, a, eighteen apiece,

Numeral Adverbs
answering the question

many

times

?
'

[quotiens

'

how

.^)

semel, once
bis, twice
tor, t/irice

quater, four times

quinquiens,7?z;e times
sexiens, six times
septiens, seven times
octiens, eight times
noviens, nine times
deciens, ten times
undeciens, eleven times
duodeciens, twelve times
terdeciens, thirteen times
duodevlcicns. eighteen times

81

The

others can be found from the cardinals

ending;: thus

b}-

changing the

:
;

ACCIDENCE

42

viceni, ae, a, 20 apiece

vTceni (ae, a) singull (ae, a)
21 apiece
tricenl, ae, a, jo apiece
quadrageni, ae, a, 40 apiece
&c. {-geni iov -gin fa, 80)
centeni, ae, a, 100 apiece
ducenl, ae, a, 200 apiece
treceni, ae, a, joo apiece
quadringenj, ae, a, 400 apiece
&c. (-gem for -gentt, 80)

viciens, 20 times
semel et viciens, 21 times
trlciens,

jo times

quadragiens, 40 times
Sec.

{-giens for -gintd, 80)

centiens, 100 times

ducentiens, 200 times
trecentiens, joo times

quadringentiens, 400 times

&c. {-iens for -F, 80)

Note
singula mllia, /,ooo apiece

bina mllia, 2,000 apiece

centena mllia, 100,000 apiece
deciens centena mllia, 1,000,000 apiece

85

The

miliens
bis miliens
centiens miliens
deciens centiens miliens

distributives, except singull, ae, a, are

cardinals

bIna castra,

(i)

sometimes used as
with plural nouns which have singular meaning

tivo

camps

(ii)

in multiplication

bis bIna sunt quattuor,

twice two is [oY are) four', deciens centena mllia sestertium(gen.plur.),

teit

times a hundred thousand sesterces

(iii)

in poetry,

denoting a group

(= a

million

sesterces)

bIna pocula, a pair of cups.

Declension of certain numeral adjectives

86

unus, solus, totus, ullus, nullus (gen.

sing.

sing,

-i).

unus, una, unum, one (or alone, only)

-ius,

dat.

'

NUMERAL ADJECTIVES

43

nouns whose plural has singular meaning, e. g. una castra,

one camp
Tittar lilterac,
one letter (= iitia cpistitla).
Like fmus, a, tini are declined the following adjectives of
88
kindred meaning:

89

'

'

'

'

solus
a/one

totus
ivhole

ullus
any at all

nullus'
not any at all

All these adjectives (including unus) are sometimes found with

i in the gen. sing, {-ms) in the poets, that form being more
convenient for some kinds of verse. For examples showing the

a short

meaning of

ullns see ii6.

duo, duae, duo,

tcvo

tres, tria, three

ACCIDENCE

44
the

first alter

means

other of the two

the one of the two

'

The plural altert,

or, when repeated,
The

the one of the two parties

'
:

alter! erant

disappears in
(i) uter,

the other forms

all

utrum,

utra,

Roman!,

'

tvhich

the

'

'
;

the

alter! Gall!.

number are declined

except that the

altcrnm,

'

'

following adjectives of

altera,

the second

Romanus, alter Gallus.

a means
one of two parties

ae,
'

other of the two parties

93

',

alter erat

'

like alter,

of the nom. sing. masc.

of the two?

(interrogative):

utro oculo captus erat ?

Or

vohichever of the tivo (relative,

v!ta superaverit,

ad

eum

of them survives, to him

The

plural

utrl,

ae,

falls

So
e. g.

too

is

The
(2)

115):

uter
'

'.

a means 'which of the two parties?

declined the

plurals of such

neuter,

neutr!, ae,

a,

neutra,

first

part of the

= ambobus
compounds
neutrum,

compounds of

Person

(i.e.

uter,

both

ocul!s captus.
refer to
neither

two

parties.

of the

tivo

neither of the tzvo parties.

First

',

'.

PERSONAL PRONOUNS
96

eorum

whichever

uter-que, utra-que, utrum-que, either of the two

utroque oculo captus

95

the share of both

or 'whichever of the two parties

94

cf.

pars utr!usque pervenit,

the person speaking)

plural

97

PERSONAL PRONOUNS
Second Person
Singular

(i.

c.

the person spoken

45

to).


ACCIDENCE

46
reflexive

form

for the ace, gen., dat.,

Sing, and Plur.

and

abl. cases

masc.,fem., and neut.

Ace.
Gen.
Dat.
Abl.

se or sese
himself, herself, itself; themselves
sui
of himself of herself of itself ; of themselves
,

'

sibi

se or sese

Examples
Cato se

Homo
loi

Of

himself &c.
himself &c.

to {or for)

Cato

killed

sibi soli

natus

occldit.

non

himself {committed s/-cide).

sed patriae.

est,

man

is

born not for himself alone, but for his country.

the above forms of the genitive case ( 96-100) only

and corum, edrum have possessive meaning liber

of him = his book. The genitives in i are used
memento mel, remember
chiefly as genitives of the object
me or be mindful of vie memor sum tui, / am mindful of
you amor sul, the love of self; odium vestri, the hatred of
The genitives
you = the feeling of hatred against you.
nostrum and vestrum are used chiefly as genitives of partition
quis nostrum? who of us?, nemo vestrum, no one of you.
The possessive meaning in the ist and 2nd persons, and
in the 3rd person when reflexive, is expressed by possessive
eius

eius, the book

(y

adjectives

103).

THE EMPHASIZING ADJECTIVE IPSE

102

ipse m., ipsa f., ipsum n., -self differs from se ( 100) in
two respects
se is
(i) it is an emphasizing adjective or pronoun
occidit.
ipse
e. g. Brutus fllios suos
a reflexive pronoun
Mulierem ipsam
Brutus himself put his own sons to death.
:

vidi.

/ saw the woman herself.

it may agree with a pronoun

(ii)

of the ist or 2nd

refers only to the 3rd person

fecistl.

You did

Ipsi diximus.

it

(generally not expressed)

as well as of the 3rd person, whereas se

yourself.

We said

it

Ipse

feci.

Ipse dixit.

ourselves, t&c.

/ did

He

it

myself Ipse
it himself

said

THE EMPHASIZING ADJECTIVE IPSE

47

ACCIDENCE

48

The c at the end of most of the above forms ( 104)

a demonstrative suffix with the same force as the French
in cea and celiu-ci
thus Lat. hie is Hterally 'this here*.

is

ci

For the pronunciation oUiuius and

hitic

see

and 6.

and pronouns (demonstraand relative, 105-19) have

All the following adjectives

tive, interrogative, indefinite,

the neuter nominative and accusative singular in

d.'

OTHER DEMONSTRATIVE ADJECTIVES AND

PRONOUNS
105

ille

m., ilia f, illud

n,, that,

yon

DEMONSTRATIVES
i-dem

in.,

ea-dem

t\,

i-dem

(literally, that

49

n., ///< saiiif

very one)

Plural

Singular

Nom. idem
eadem idem Idem
eaedem eadem
Ace.
eundem candem idem eosdem easdem eadem
eorundem earundem eorunderr
Gen.
eiusdem
Dat.
Abl.

eld em

eodem eadem eodem

Isdem
I

ACCIDENCE

50

Exx.: Quis vocat ? Who is calling t^

Qui puer vocat ? What boy is

Quae

puclla vocat?

calling ?

What girl is

calling?

may

All the forms in the above table except quis and quid

be not interrogative but exclamatory

qui sermones

ivhat

talk {there loill he)

For the pronunciation of

cUiits

and cui see

and

6.

INDEFINITE PRONOUNS AND ADJECTIVES

The

111

Latin indefinite pronouns and adjectives are closely

connected

form with the interrogatives

in

no), but

in

meaning with numerals. They denote indefinite number.^

(i) quis (qui) m., quae f,, quid (quod) n,, anyone, any
declined like the interrogative ( no), except that the nom.
sing. fem. and the nom. and ace. plur. neut. are generally
;

shortened to qua.

Used

words

after

like , 'if,

'unless', ne, 'not' or

nisi,

whether
lest ',
quid
rumore acceperit, ad magistratum deferat.
quis
Si
anything by report, he is to inform the
hears
anyone
If
nuni,

'

'

'

magistrate.

Ne qua
of men
(2)

112

multitudo trans

Rhenum

traducatur.

Let no mass

in) with an

indeclinable

be led across the Rhine.

Compounds

of the above

part.

Forms
in

-qxii,

and -quid are generally pronouns

in -quis

aliquis)
aliqui

Exx.

'

f.,
'

Aliquem ad me

Cum

,.

\w. someone, some.

Send someone to nu\

omnespugnant.

incidit,

JVheu

arises, they all fight.

Other words of the same kind are nemo ,- no ono and ?77, 'nothing',
not and ticniu (an Old Latin form of lioiiio, man '), Itlluni,
lu''
nemo = not a man tii'/iil = not a whit.
a whit'
1

'

derived from
'

forms

aliquod)

mitte.

aliquod bellum

some ivar

aliquid

m., aliqua

,.

-quae (or -qua), -quod generally adjectives.

'

'

'

INDEFINITE PRONOUNS AND ADJECTIVES

13

quidam
Exx.

quaedam

ni.,

sonic

quiddam (quoddam)

(.,

declined with n instead of;;/ beft^rc

Quentlani ad sc vocat.

n.,

He calls a certain

nian

quibusdam adulescentibus conloquitur.

verses iv/tli some yo/mi^ men.
quaevis f., quidvis (quodvis) n.
quidlibet (quodlibet)

f.,

him.

do

Non

^y^y y^^ "^^

every (-vis from void).

Anyone (=

Quilibet haec facere potest.

to

He con-

qullibet m., quaelibet

Exx.

irr/aiii,

(/.

Cum
14 quivis m.,

51

ei'cry one)

can

this.

homini contingit adire Corinthum. // is

good luck to visit Corinth.
15 qui^quam m. and f., quicquam (for quidquam) n.; used like
the English anyone at all, chiefly in negative and interrocuivis

not every one's

gative sentences (no plural).

Exx.

Ne quemquam

oderis.

Cur quicquam
anything at
16

[17

[18

The

Do not hate anyone at all.

sibi postulat ?

all /or

adjective which corresponds in

is nlhts, a,

JVhy does he demand

himself F

tim (declined like rmus,

a,

meaning {= any

am,

Exx.: Neque ullam vocemexprimere poterat.

utter

a single

at all)

86).

Norcotddhe

ivord.

Sine ullo maleficio abibimus.

IVc shall depart

ivithottt

any wrong- doing at all.

quisque m., quaeque f quidque (quodque) n., each one, each.
Exx. Quaerunt quid quisque eorum de quaque re audierit.
They inquire what each one of them has heard about
,

each matter.

Materia cuiusque generis

timber of each

quispiam

m.,

quaepiam

(=
f

in

Britannia

est.

quidpiam (quodpiam)

There

is

every) kind in Britain.

n.,

someone

or other.

Exx.

Cum

quaepiam cohors ex orbc excesserat, hostCs reWhetiever some cohort or other quitted
the circle, the enemy fled.
Dixerit quispiam
Somebody is likely to say
fugiebant.

D 2

ACCIDENCE

52

RELATIVE PRONOUN AND ADJECTIVE

119

The

relative

pronoun and adjective are connective

new clause
The word in

i.

e.

they introduce a

with a verb of

a conjunction.

the other clause to which the

its

relative refers is called the antecedent.

qui m., quae

(.,

quod

n., w/io, ivhicli

own,

like

RELATIVE PRONOUN AND ADJECriVE

written

ct

Compare
121

Jus adducl'is or qui

B. G.

ct

lii)

cnin addiidl

53
cssciit.

vii. 5. 4.

Notes. i. An old ablative (sing, and pliir., all gendei^s) is

which is generally used as an adverb meaning 'how' or^
'wh^', but sometimes as a rcl. proii., c.^. quicum, a'//// iK.'lioin.^
2. Another form oi" the dat. and abl, plur. is quls (in poets).
3. Latin has two generalizing relatives, meaning whoever',
'whatever
(i) quicumque m., quaecumque L, quodcumque

mil,

'

'

n.

compounds of

quidj^iid n.

qui,

doubled

quae, quod, 119; (ii) quisquis m., f.,

form of an old-fashioned relative qui's,

quid.

Table of Corresponding Words

122

In the following table

the relatives

(i)

Tantam eorum
They

spatium.

correspond

to the

demonstratives:

quantum

multitudinem interfecerunt
killed

e.g.

fuit diei

as great a number of them as was

the

Duae naves eosdem port us quos reliquae

capere non potuerunt.
Two ships could not make the same

length of the day}

as

ports

Dixerunt se ibi futures esse ubi Caesar

They said they would be there where Caesar

the rest.

voluisset.

wished.
(2)

The adverbs correspond

ibi there

(= quo
123

to the

pronouns

demonstrative and relative to relative

tive to

(=

in

eo loco) corresponds to is

that,

demonstrafor instance,

and ubi

lohere

in loco) to qui which.

Note the English word as

'

'

in the table

with relative or conjunctive meaning

(i)

and the fourth columns)

with demonstrative meaning

(ii)

(in

the

(in

the second

and

the

number

of the

first

third columns).
1

i.

slain

as the day was long

The sentence means
e,
was proportionate to the length of the day.
'

'.

that the

ACCIDENCE

54
124

Demonstrative
Pronouns and

Relative

Demonstrative

Relative

Pronouns and

Adverbs

Adverbs and

Adjectives

Adjectives

Subordinating Conjunctions
here
hue, hither
hine, hence

hie,
hie,

haec, hoc,

this

illie,

that,

yon

thence

illinc,

there

ibi,
is,

there

illuc, thither

ille, ilia, illiid

qui, quae,

ea, id
that, tJie

ivho,

quod

which

[ibidem,

Jeodem,

idem, eadem, idem

the

same

lubi,

eo, thither
hide, thence

where

quo, ivliithcr
[unde,iiihence

///

to

[indidem, /ro///^
[istie, there

iste, ista,

istud

that ofyours
tantus, a, um

istue, thither

[istine, thence

quantus,
as

so great, as great

a,

um

tantopere
so

quantopere

much

as

tarn, so (before ad-

quam, as

I
I

talis,

qualis, e

of such a kind
tot,

so

as

as

many,

quot, as

jeetivesand adverbs)
ita, sic, adeo, so
(before verbs)
totiens, so

many

times, as

many
many

ut,

as

quotiens, as

times

THE VERB
I.

125

Meanings of Voices, Moods, and Tenses.

Voices.
I.

There are two voices

in

The Active Voice, which

or intransitively

nuntium

is

Latin

used either transitively

vocat, he calls the

quis vocat?

messenger

(trans.),

ivho is calling? (intrans.).

VERB

rilK
2.

The Passive Voice

nuiuius vocatur,

llic

messenger

vocatur ad anna, there

passive construction

126

Moods and
I.

55

is

is ealled.

literally

arms (impersonal

call to
it

is called to

arms).

their Tenses.

The Indicative

Mood

relates to matters of tact

vocat, he is calling.

num

vocat ?

is

he calling ^

riiere are six tenses of the Indicative.

127

The

Present,

the Past Imperfect and the

tenses of incomplete action

Present

vocat, he

Future are

calling

is

or he

'

calls (habi-

tually).

Past Imperfect

was

vocabat, he

(habitually

Future

The

128

vocabit, he

Perfect, the Past Perfect

tenses of completed action

.

Perfect

calling or he called

= he

ivill

used

call

or

be calling.

and the Future Perfect are

vocavit, used either

to call).

ivill

marking

Perfect,

completed

(i)

as a Present

the

at the time of

action

as

speaking

he has called;
or

as a Past Historic,

(ii)

marking

the action as having taken place in

the past

speaking)

(i.

e.

he

before the time of

called.^

Past Perfect
vocaverat, he had called.
Future Perfect vocaverit, he will have called.
2. The Imperative Mood is used like the English im129
perative, and has in addition a 3rd person (sing, and plur.).
It has two forms of the 2nd person (singular and plural)
:

a short form
a long form
'

The Present

is

Continuous, except
-

Used

like tlie

in

voca

vocato

call.
I

most commonly translated by the English Present

verbs that denote a slate as distinct iVoin an act.

French Past Historic

//

a/iptla,

il

s'icrid.


ACCIDENCE

56
130

3.

Mood

The Subjunctive

has the same kind of meaning

is more widely used.^
It has

as the English subjunctive, but

which are translated in different ways, according

which they stand. Their uses will be given
later (Syntax, 318-67).
Meanwhile note the following
translations, which, though they are not applicable to all
usages, express the fundamental meanings of the tenses of
the subjunctive, and will serve as a clue to their more difficult
four tenses,

to the context in

uses

Present Subj.

vocet, he

he

call,

Compare
zvill call,

he shall

is to call,

call.

the Fut. Indie: vocabit,/?^

which expresses no more

The

than future time.

Pres. Subj.

combines the idea of obligation with

that of future time.

Perfect Subj.: vocaverit, he have

he shall have

the

Fut.

Perf.

(which has the same form

Indie,
in this

have

called,

Compare

called.

person)

vocaverit, he will

called.

The Past and the Past Perfect Subjunctive have the

corresponding meanings in past time
:

Past Subj.

vocaret, he

was
(a

Past Perf. Subj

to call, lie

should

kind of Future

call,

in the past)

vocavisset, he should have called.

(a

kind of Future Perfect

in

the past)
1

Examples

denoting what
king^).

of

the English

is to be

Somebody

call

done.

Present

Call

him

(= somebody

Subjunctive (from

my
is

king?

(=

Am

to call, let

Shakespeare)
him my

to call

somebody

call)

my

wife. Now call we (= let us call) our high court of parliament. Look you
Past Subjunctive (from
call (-^look: you are to call) me Ganymede.
a daily paper) : No cabinet would be able to endure the odium attaching to
a government which called upon us to make peace on such terms [called

should

call

11 lie

But

131

in

some uses

bubjunctive

is

/ini'c

VERB

57

the s/ial/-meRn\ng of the tenses of the

modified

be done or woii/d

sometimes they denote what

ivoitld

been done under certain conditions

should [yon zvonld, he

vocem, voces, vocet
\ I
ivouhi) call.
vocarem, vocares, vocaret
vocavissem, vocavisses, vocavisset,/s/o?//(/(_>'OM would,
he ivould) have called.
j

In some subordinate clauses they may be translated by

English indicatives of the corresponding tense e. g. Quis
:

/ do not knoiv who

vocet (vocaverit) nescio.

calling (has

is

called).

132

Verb Nouns

Meanings of Verb Adjectives and

II.

(formed from the stem of the verb).

I.
(iii)
(ii)

The

(i)
Present (ii) Perfect
going on or not completed

three Participles, called

Future, mark the action as

completed

(iii)

(i)

in prospect

Present Participle Active

Perfect Participle Passive
Future Participle Active

vocans

(-nt), calling.

vocatus,

a, urn, called.

vocaturus,

a,

um, about

to

call.

Note the absence of a Perfect

Participle Active, a Present

Participle Passive and a Future Participle Passive.

133

2. The Gerund Adjective is a passive verb-adjective,

marking the action as to be done vocandus, a, umjjo-be-called
The messenger is to be called
Nuntius revocandus est.
back (= must be called back).
The soldiers had to
Milites ab opere revocandi erant.
:

be

(lit.

The nom.

were

to be) called

sing. neut. of the

a tense of esse in an

125,2):

back from their work.

is used with

gerund adjective

impersonal passive construction

^^^~
^^^

Magna voce vocandum

est.

We must call

(lit.

(cf.

// is to

be called) with a loud voice.

Magna voce vocandum

to be called) wil/i

erat.

a loud voice.

We had to

call{\\\..

It

was

ACCIDENCE

58

some cases the Gerund Adjective may be translated

in -able or -iblc, where these adjectives

In

by an English adjective
have passive meaning

liber laudandus, a laudable book, a praiscivoHliy book.

homo contemnendus, a
^^^

3-

134

mark

Infinitives called

the action as

(i)

contemptible person.

(i)

Present

(ii)

Perfect

going on or not completed

(iii)

(ii)

Future

completed

in prospect:

(iii)

PASSIVE

ACTIVE
I

Present Infin.
to

vocare,

be calling.
Infin. :

vocaturus

Future

um)

4.

vocatum

(a,

esse, to be about to call.

Perfect "Tnfin.
have called.
135

vocarl, to be called.

to call,

vocavisse,

to

vocatus

to
\

The Gerund

iri (

137), to be

about

be called.
(a,

um)

esse, to have

been called.

an Active Verb-Noun of the neuter

is

gender, corresponding to the English verb-noun in -ing, and

ing; it is used only in the singular
denoting the act of

number and

chiefly in the genitive

vocandl causa, for

the

and the ablative cases

sake of

calli)ig.

vocando, by calling.
It

136

5.

has no nominative case.^

The Supine

in

-um

is

the Accusative Case of a Verb-

of the 4th declension (Nom. vocatus, a calling, a

the Accusative here denotes the end in view or purpose
vocatum, to call (lit. with a vieiv to calling).

Noun

call);

Venerunt rogatum ut sibi ignosceret. They came to ask

that he shoidd pardon them.
The combination of the Supine in -um with the Present
137
Infinitive Passive of eo 'I go' is equivalent to a Future
Infinitive Passive:^

Non
1

The form

credo mllites revocatum

/ don't

think that the

in the following tables ( 139, &c.)

used after certain prepositions (chiefly; ad).
This construction is impersonal see Syntax, 377.
in

Accusative, which
2

-um given

irI.

is

is

the

Till-:

VVAU)

so/dtcrs null be called back

59

(lit.

/ do not believe there to

be a going zvith a view to calling bach the soldiers).

Many

verbs have no supine

in -uni.

A few verbs have also a Supine

138

or Dative or Locative case of a

sion

in -u, which

Verb-Noun

but supines in -u are very rare

an easy thing

facile facta,

Difficile dictu est.

The following

tables

is

an Ablative

of the 4th declen-

to do.

// is difficult to say.

show

the principal translations

of the moods, tenses, verb-nouns, and verb-adjectives in

the active voice of

(2)

the verb

sioit,

two verbs

am/

which

(i)

is

the verb

used

in

voco,

I call,'

two ways

in sentences like Sti})i pins Aeneas

Aeneas
Est^profedbjdeus qui quae nos
geriinus audit et videt "There is (= exists) assuredly a god
who hears and sees what we are doing (Plautus, The Captives,
(ij

'

with

am

full

meaning,

the faithful

'

'

313)(ii)

as an auxiliary verb, which,

when joined with

the Perfect

Participle Passive, forms the tenses of completed action of the

Passive Voice

158).

6o

ACCIDENCE

VOCOActive
Tenses of incomplete

Voice

IHE VERB

VOCO Active

6i

Voice (continued)

Tenses of completed action Stem vocav-

IMPERA TIVE

INDICATIVE
Perfect
vocavi / have called
vocavisti yoii have called
vocavit he has called
vocavimus ive have called
vocavistis vo// have called
vocaverunt (-ere) they have called
or / called, &c., 128

[None]

SUBJUNCTIVE
Perfect

Future Perfect

vocaverim

vocavero / shall have

vocaveris ^ yon zvill have
^
vocaverit he ivill have
\_^
vocaverimus ive shall have "^
vocaveritis yon ivill have
/
vocaverint they ivill have
^

vocaveris ^
vocaverit

vocaverimus ^

'

vocaveritis

'

vocaverint

For

the

meanings

see

130* 131

Past Perfect

Past Perfect
vocaveram / had
vocaveras j'o/^ had
'^
vocaverat he had
vocaveram us ive had ""^
vocaveratis you had
vocaverant they had

vocavissem
vocavisses
vocavisset

vocavissemus
vocavissetis
vocavissent

'

For

the

meanings

see

130, 131

VERB.

[None]

VERB-

Perf. Infin. vocavisse

NOUN
1

often lengthened.

The same statements apply

to

have called

often shortened.

in all other verbs [sec Appendix],

62

ACCIDENCE

SUM
Tenses of incomplete action

THE VERB
SUM

63

(continued)

Tenses of completed action Stem

fu-

ACCIDENCE

64
143

III.

Formation of moods, tenses, verb-adjectives and

verb-nouns.

The

personal inflexions of the active voice in

all

tenses of

the indicative and subjunctive, except the perfect indicative,

are as follows
Sing.

See the

Two

-m

-o or
-s

2.

tis

3-

-t

3-

nt

tables of voco

Plur.

and sidh

i.

139-42).

of these inflexions are seen in English verbs

of the ist pers. sing, in the verb

pers. sing, in forms like

some French verbs

144

mus

I.

2.

The four

'

love/A

'.

'

am

the m

and the t of the 3rd

Three of them survive in
',

tn coiir-s, il coiir-t, tls coure-nt.

conjugations.

Latin verbs are divided into four conjugations,' which are

by their characteristic vowels

distinguished

(seen

in

the

present infinitive active)

ISt CONJ.

'res. Infin.

Act.

2nd CONJ.
3rd CONJ.
4th CONJ.
145

By removing

audire,

is

Examples

to

the re of the pres. infin. act.

stem from which

and which

vocare, to call
habere, to have, to hold
regere, to rule, to guide

hear

may

be found the

the tenses of incomplete action are formed,

found unchanged

in

most forms

Stem Imperative Imperative Past Suhj. Past Subj.

Active
ISt CONJ.

2nd coNj.

Passive

Act.

Pass.

TIIR VER15
But

in

65

man}' of the forms belonging to the tenses of incom-

plete action the stem suflers modifications

final

vowel

shortened, as in

in

some forms

voca-t, habc-t, audi-t

in

its

others

in rcgi-t, rcgii-nt.
Some of the forms of
and 4th conjugations are got from imitation of the

changed, as

is

it

is

the 3rd

2nd conjugation; so rcgc-batn,

necessary

audi-c-haui.

It

is,

therefore,

learn these tenses separately in the separate

to

conjugations.

They

are given side by side in f 149, 150 for

purposes of comparison.

The

46

tenses of completed action have exactly

endings

in all the four conjugations,

which

tlic

formation of the stem from which these tenses come.

the conjugations can be learned together: see

all

47

The stem

same

differ only in the

Here

151.

of the perfect tenses active

is formed
and 4th conjugations by adding
the suffix V to the stems in a and J: voca-v-, audi-v-;
in most verbs of the 2nd conjugation by adding v to the
stem in e (here shortened to c)', but the 7' amalgamates
with the c so as to form h habuin most verbs of the 3rd conjugation from a stem which
has no final vowel, e. g. rcg-. To this stem the suffix
5 is very commonly added
rex- (for rcg-s-)}
The stem of the perfect participle passive is formed
in most verbs of the ist and 4th conjugations by adding
the suffix /- to the stems in a and 1: voca-t-, audi-tin most verbs of the 2nd conjugation by adding t to the
stem in c (here shortened to /) habi-tin most verbs of the 3rd conjugation by adding / to a stem
which has no final vowel rec-t- (for rrg-(-).

in

most verbs of the

ist

48

'

Other ways of forming

tin;

perf. act.

and the

pcrf. part. pass, arc given

in 171, 172.

This

same

d which

form the past participle

which is found in the
future participle active and the supine is of different origin, being the same
as that which is used in nouns of the 4th declension.
Hence these forms
have no sense of completion vocaturus = ahotit to call, not about to hate called.
2

/ is

the

as the

of most English verbs

ov

dwcl/,

los/,

''01

is

hearr/.

used

to

The

66

ACCIDENCE
The Four Conjugations Active Voice

149

T11F-:

VKRB

The Four Conjugations Active

67

V'oice (continued)

68

ACCIDENCE
The Four Conjugations Active

voice (continued)
1

151

J-^

Tenses of completed action

Stems vocav-, habu-, rex-, audiv-

THE PASSIVE VOICE

Endings.

Indie, Subj. ami short forms of the Im[)ciativc

1.

2.

ris or re

3.

ur

S.

69

P.

I.

3.

Long forms

In P. 2 mini is
substituted for

ur

-/is

and

-fc

of the Imperative, 2nd and 3rd persons,

r.

where the active form ends in a consonant and the passive

ending begins with r, the last consonant of the active is
dropped (ii) the stem vowels, a, c, i of the ist, 2nd, and 4th
conjugation recover their length in some of the forms in which
they are shortened in the active; (iii) a fmal b in the active is
shortened to b in the passive; (iv) a short / before 5 in the
active becomes c in the passive.
(i)

Examples

voc6-r

voco,

vocem, voce-r

vocamus, vocamu-r
vocas, voca-ris

(s

(5

dropped)

(;//

dropped),

dropped)

vocatis, voca-minl.

vocat, vocat-ur {a long); vocant, vocant-ur.

voca, voca-re

vocate, voca-minl.

vocabis, vocabe-ris

153

regis, rege-ris.

The passive tenses of completed action are formed by combining the perfect participle passive with tenses of the verb
sum ( 141). The participle, being an adjective, agrees in
gender number and case with the subject of the sentence or
clause populus Romanus ad arma vocatus est, the Roman
mater Gracchorum
nation has been (lit. is) called to arms
vocata est Cornelia, the mother of the Gracchi was caUed
:

Cornelia)
invoked.

verb

numina magna vocata

The

sum

person

(i.

but by the participle

e.

sunt, the great deities -were

sense of completed action

a person

who has been

English 'All these articles are sold

been sold *.
/ have been

Vocatus
called),

as the perfect active

/ was

called.

sum

but
(

it

is

is

given not by the

vocatus sum, /

'

'

am

a called

Compare

called).

in

All these articles have

properly a present perfect (= Engl.

to have the same double use

came

128); as a past historic

it

is

translated

70

ACCIDENCE

VOCOR Passive
154

Voick

Tenses of incomplete action Stem voca-

THE PASSIVE VOICE

VOCOR Passive

Voice (continued)

Tenses of completed action-

71

72

ACCIDENCE

The Four Conjugations Passive Voice

156

Tenses of incomplete action

THE PASSIVE VOICE

Tiii:

Four Conjugations Passive Voice

73

(continued)

74

The Four Conjugations Passive Voice

(continued)

PERF. INDie.
S. vocatus, habitus,
j-4.
rectus, auditus

P. vocati, habiti,

recti, audltl

sum,

es, est

'

'

^""^"^' ^*^'^' ^""^

FUT. PERF. INDIC.

S. vocatus, habitus,
J-.
rectus, auditus

)
-

P. vocatI, habiti,
,-

'

,-^-

'

recti, audltl

PAST PERF.

.,

'

erimus,*

eritis,'

erunt

INDIC.

S. vocatus,
IS, habitus,
'

,-.

rectus auditus
P. vocati, habiti,
,-.-

'

)
\

eram, eras, erat

'

'

,-

ero, ens, erit

'

eramus,

eratis,' erant

'

recti, audltl

PERF. SUBJ.
S. vocatus,' habitus,
,-,
rectus, auditus
P. vocati, habiti,
,-.,recti, audltl
'

PAST PERF.

,-

Sim,

..

SIS,' sit

simus,'

sitis,

sint

'

SUBJ.

S. vocatus, habitus,
,-,
rectus, auditus
'

'

P. vocati, habiti,
.-

r
)

'

'

'

,-,-

'

recti, audltl

VERB-ADJECTIVE

1
V

essem, esses, esset

'

'

j
1

essemus,

'

_,.

essetis,' essent

75

THE MIXED CONJUGATION

59

In the following important verbs in id the present infinitive,

the past subjunctive, and most of the persons of the present

indicative

and imperative belong

the stem-vowel

to the 3rd conjugation (with

or c short), while the rest of the tenses of

incomplete action belong to the 4th conj.

capio, capere, cepi, captus, take.

cupio, cupere, cuplvl, cupltus, desire.

facio,'

facere,

fugio, fugere,
iacio,

iacere,

feci, factus,
fCigi,

make.

fugiturus, flee.

ieci, iactus, tliroiv.

pario, parere, peperl, partus, /);W//cr, bring forth.

rapio, rapere, rapul, raptus, seize.

sapio, sapere, saplvi

And compounds

of quatib

be sensible.

and

-spieid

con-cutio, -cutere, -cussi, -cussus, shake violently.

con-spicio, -spicere, -spexl, -spectus, catch sight

60

of.

Tenses of incomplete action Active voice.

INDICATIVE


ACCIDENCE

76
i6i

Tenses of incomplete action

Passive voice.

IMPERATIVE

INDICATIVE
Present
P. capimur

S. capior

caperis'
capitur

capimini !S.capere,capitor
capitor

capimini

P.

capiuntiir

capiuntor

SUBJUNCTIVE
Future

Present

capiar, capieris/capietur,i>"c.

capiar, capiaris/ capiatur, c^c.

Past Imperfect
capiebar, capiebarls/ capiebatur, c-^r.

{Gerund

VERB- ADJ.

VERB-NOUNS
1

Or with

tur,

cr^c.

Adj. capiendus,

Pres. Infin.
-re for -ris

caperer, capereris,^ capere-

a,

um

FuT. In FIN. captum

capi

compare notes on pp.

Irl

70, 72, 73.

Tenses of completed action- Active voice.

162 Perfect Indic. cepi,

cepisti, cepit, e^c.

SuBj. ceperim, ceperls/ ceperit, i>T.

FuT. Perf. Indic. cepero, ceperis/

Past Perf.

ceperit,

e^"c.

Indic. ceperam, ceperas, ceperat,

e>^<:.

SuBj. cepissem, cepisses, cepisset, 6-f.

Verb-Noun Perf.

Infin. cepisse.

Tenses of completed action Passive voice.

163 Perfect Indic. captus sum, captus

SuBj. captus sim, captus

FuT. Perf. Indic. captus

Past Perf.

es,

captus

est, c^y\

sis,

captus

sit, &-'c.

ero, captus eris, captus erit,

SuBj. captus essem, captus esses, captus

Verb-Adj.

6~-t.

Indic. captus eram, captus eras, captus erat,

Perf.

Verb-Noun Perf.

Part, captus,
Infin. captus
'

Sec notes on

a,
(a,

um.

um)

p. 61.

esse.

&-'c.

esset,C>-"c.

77

DEPONENT VERBS
6d

Deponent verbs are verbs whose indicative, subjunctive,

and imperative are passive in form, but active in meaning,
and whose only active forms are those of the present participle, future participle, future infinitive, supine, and gerund.
The gerund adjective of deponents is passive in meaning,
as in other verbs.

Deponents are the onl}' Latin verbs which have three

and three infinitives with active meaning.

participles

Participles
^

Pres.
Perf.

horta-ns
I

hortat-us,

FuT.

-a,

hortat-urus,

(-a,
-um) esse, io^
have exhorted.
-urum, hortat-Lirus(-rira, -urum)esse,

-um, linvifig hortat-us

exhorted.

horta-rl, fo exJiort.

(-nt-), ex/iorfi'ng:

-lira,

about to exhort.
to he about to exhort.
Some deponents had originally a reflexive meaning, i. e. denoted
65
an action done to oneself, e. g. orlrl, to raise oneself, French se lever;
hence to arise utT, to serve oneself, French se servir (argento meo
usus est, // s'est servi de mon argent) vescT, to feed oneself.
;

66

The

tenses

of incomplete action of deponent verbs are

exactly like those of the four regular conjugations {vocor,

habeor, regor, andior, 156, 157), except in three deponents

which belong

to the

mixed conjugation

ad-gredior, -gredi, -gressus, attack

pounds

of

gradior

161):

so too other

com-

con-gredior, in-gredior, &^c.

morior, morl, mortuus

(fut.

part, moriturus), die.

patior, pati, passus, suffer.

67

Orior,

orlrl,

ortus

(fut.

part, oriturus), arise, is peculiar

belongs to the 4th conj., but

it

conjugated like capior in the

is

and imperative, and in the past subj. forms orerer

Its gerund adjective oriundns (never oriendis
dus) has the meaning of a present or perfect participle
oriundus, springing or sprungfrom the gods.
The following tables show all the forms and meanings
of a deponent of the ist conjugation.
Examples in other conjugations vereor, I fear {"znd conj.)
fungor, / discharge (31(1 conj.)
potior, / get possession of
pres. indie,

as well as orlrer.

(4th conj.).

Infinitives

78

ACCIDENCE

CONJUGATION OF

CONJUGATION OF A DEPONENT VERB

79

Conjugation of a Deponent Verb (continued)

Tenses of completed action

IMPERATIVE

INDICATIVE
Perfect
swm, I have cxJiortcd
hortatus- es, you have exhorted
{

[None]

he has exhorted
ive have exhorted
estis, yon have exhorted
sunt, they have exhorted
est,

[sumus,
hortati

\
(

or

exhorted, 153

and

128

SUBJUNCTIVE
Perfect

Future Perfect
/ shall have
hortatus eris, yon -will have
[ero,

(sim

>

sis

-!

he -a'ill have
erimus, ive shall have

sit

[erit,
j

hortati

eritis,

simus
I

you

have

will

erunt, they will have

hortati

sitis

(snt

'

For

the

meanings

see

130* 131

Past Perfect

Past Perfect
feram, / had
hortatus^ eras, yotc had
erat, he had
[eramus, ~a'e had

[essem

hortatus-' esses

hortati

eratis,

lerant,

you had
they had

hortati

esset

essemus

essetis

[essent

For

the

meanings

see

130. 131

In

all

the above forms the participle

or neut.

may

be masc,

fern.,

Sing, hortatus,
^

AdT

VERB-

NOUN

a,

um

Pe^^' t*ART. hortatus,

Perf. Infin. hortatus

Plur.
a,

(a,

hortati, ae, a

um, having exhorted

um)

esse, to have exhorted

ACCIDENCE

8o

PRINCIPAL PARTS OF VERBS OF ALL

170

CONJUGATIONS'
The

Principal Parts given in the following

2.

3.

4.

the masculine gender

used

in

all

verbs

in

list

are

The Present Indicative Active, ist Pers. Sing.

The Present Infinitive Active.
The Perfect Indicative Active, ist Pers. Sing.
The Perfect Participle Passive. This form is

1.

whenever the

three genders

whose

Perf.

e. g.

vocaius

Pass,

Part.

given in

Perf. Part. Pass, can be

can

from
only

But

voco.

be used

in

impersonal passive construction, the form is given in

\the neuter gender e. g. niansuiu from nianeo, fantum from

vthe

The

which these participles

used intransitively or with a dative. In the
few verbs which have no Perf. Part. Pass, (masc, fern., or

favco.

active voice of the verbs to

in -uni belong

neut.)

the

is

Future

Active

Participle

is

given

as

4th

the

Principal Part.^

The 3rd Conjugation

is

taken

because the most im-

first

ist, 2nd, and

same way as those of

portant Perfects to be mentioned under the

Conjugations are formed

the 3rd Conjugation.

4th

in

the

Formation of the Perfect Active.

171

(i)

All Perfects Active which are formed from

i."
are
or
stems ending in one of the vowels a, e,
formed with the S-uffix
e.g. ist conj. voca-, vocdv-

Rule

i,

<'

In the list which follows ( 173-237) only the most important

verbs are included. Others are given in the alphabetical list in the
Appendix.
1

The Supine

in

-mn

the Perf. Part. Pass,

is

is

But

generally taken as the 4th Principal Part.

a far

more important form than the Supine

and,

moreover, many verbs have no Supine in actual use.

The Supine may be
formed by changing -lis of the Perf. Part. Pass, into -iiiii.
^

The

rules given here in

heavy type have no

exccption.s.

PRINCIPAL PARTS OF ALL CONJUGATIONS

4th

conj.

aiufi;

2nd

(JU(fiv-;

liobc; liabii- (for liabev-,

crc-sc-, crcv-

sci-sc-, sctv-

conj.

147)

8i

complcv-

coinplc-,

3rd conj.

pav-

pa-sc-,

iio-sc-, )idv-.^

Rule

All Perfects Active which are formed from

2.
stems ending in the vowel 11 or the consonant
or
in lid are formed without any suffix; e.g. 3rd conj.
statu-, statuvoh'-, volvdefend-, defend- 2nd conj. inov-,

(ii)

i<

inov- ; pciid; pcpciid-}

Perfects Active which are Ibrmed from stems ending in

(iii)

than v or nd arc formed

a consonant other
different

ways

and

[a, b,

either [a] with the sufiix 5

three

in

below)

c,

e.g. 3rd conj. sciib-, scrips-.

stem ends in a guttural, the guttural generally
amalgamates with the 6": e.g. 3rd conj. reg-, rex- { 147); 2nd
:

If the

conj. aug-, aux-

4th conj.

vine-, viiix-.

But (Rule 3) if a liquid precedes the guttural, the

guttural is always dropped before the suffix s of the
Perf. Act.: e.g. 3rd conj. sparg-, spars-; 2nd conj. indulg-,
induls-

con], fide-,

\i\\

Rule

4. If

tils-.

the stem ends in a dental, the dental

dropped before the suffix

or turned into another 5 e.

3rd conj. claud-, claus- ccd-, cess- 2nd conj. rid-, rls-.
or (b) with the sui^ix u (chiefly when the stem ends
6'

or

lit)

or

ag;

e. g.

(i)

coine. g.

in

trein-, treinu-.

3rd conj.

vert-, vert-

leg-, leg-

curr-, cuciirr-.

The stem

172

coi-,

without any suffix

(c)

eg-

3rd conj.

is

g.

of the Perfect Participle Passive

is

formed

by adding the suffix / to a stem ending in a vowel or

ist conj. vocd-, vocdt-;
in any consonant except a dental
2nd conj. eoinplc-, complet- liabe-, habit- 4th conj. audi-,
:

audit-;
'

the
(cf.

ven-,

venl-

3rd conj.

reg-,

rect-

148);

scrib-,

Note that here the stem from which the Perf. Act. stem is formed is not
same as that from which the tenses of incomplete action are formed
So too in many verbs of the ist, and, and 4th
178, 198, 199, 201%

conjugations; sec 208. 213. 223.

ACCIDENCE

82
scrip-t- {p for b)
crc-t-

by adding the

(ii)

consul-, consiil-t-

this case

suffix s to a

the dental

is

crc-sc-,

stem ending in a dental. In

dropped or turned into

either

another s before the suffix s

eland-,

mitt-,

miss-

But there are some exceptions

to the

defen-s-

vert-,

vers-

printed in heavy type in the following

The

inscr-, inscr-i-

nose-, no-U.

elau-s-

defend-,

sed-, sess-.

above rule

these are

of Principal Parts.

list

best guide to the formation of the Perfect Participle

Passive

is

the English derivative which

formed from

is

it.

THIRD CONJUGATION
I.

173

Verbs in go, guo (pronounced gik>d) or ho.

Most of these form the Perf Act. stem with

reg-o

-ere

So

rex-i

rect-us

[direction]

rule

dl-lig-o

-ere

-lex-I

-lect-us

[predilection] /ow;

ad-fllg-o

-flix-I

-flict-us

[affliction]

fig-o

-ere
-ere

fix-I

fix-us

iung-o
cing-o

-ere

iunx-I

-ere

cinx-I

iunct-us
cinct-us

-ere

fing-o

So

finx-i

suffix]

[junction]
[succinct]

fictus

'

dash down
fix
join

surround

extinct

[fiction]

'].

fashion

pingo, paint; stringo, tighten.

trah-6

-ere

trax-I

veh-o

-ere

vex-I

The

guttural

is

tract-us
vect-us

dropped

[traction]
[invective]

after a liquid

[Rule

draw
carry
3, 171].

merg-o

-ere

mers-I

mers-us

[immerse]

dip

sparg-o

-ere

spars-I

spars-us

[sparse]

scatter

{b)

175

s:

tego, eover; intellego, understand; neglego, disregard.

So ex-stinguo, quench [whence English

174

the suffix

(a)

a suffix

The

following in go form the Perf Act. stem without

ag-o

-ere

eg-i

act-us

leg-o

-ere

Icg-I

lect-us

action]
collection]

drive, do
gather

THIRD CONJUGATION
frang-o

83

'

ACCIDENCE

84

So

exu-o, take off; inibu-o, tinge

assign
ru-o

-ere

ru-I

minu-o, lessen

tribu-o,

/mr.

nietu-o (no part, pass.),

tumble

-rut-us

ruit-urus

solv-o

So
182

-ere

solv-i

solut-us

[solution]

loosen

volv-o, roll.

But vlv-o, stru-o, and Jlu-o form the Perf. Act. from a stem
ending in a guttural (not seen in the Pres. Indie), with the
suffix 5

victuals]

viv-o

live

[construction] pile up

Jlow

(influx]

Verbs

4.

183

{a)

in do.

Most of these

verbs, except those in ndo

the Perf. Act. stem with the suffix s [Rule

e-vad-o
claud-o
divid-o

So

184

-vas-i

-ere

claus-i

claus-us

-ere

divis-i

divls-us

(^)

a suffix

-ere

^^^

cess-I

186),

form

-vas-um

-ere

laed-o, hurt; plaud-o, clap; lOd-o, play

ced-o

171]

4,

cess-um

following form

the

ivnd-o, thrust.

[concession] yield
Perf.

Act.

stem without

FHIKD CONJUGATION
186

(r)

a suffix

de-fend-o

So

-ere

-ere

tend-o
fund-o
scind-o

-ere

-ere
-ere
-ere

Verbs

5.

2,

171J

-fend-I

a-scendo, climb

pand-0
pend-6

187

[a)

mid form the Perf. Act. stem without

All verbs in

[Rule

85

-fens-us

[defensive]

ac-cendo, kindle

pand-i
pass-us
pepend-i pens-us
tetend-I
tent-us
fud-P
lus-us
scid-P
sciss-us

defend

prehendo, grasp.

spread out
[pension]

K>cigli,

[attention]
[fusion]
[scissors]

slreleli

pay

pour
tear

in t5.

stem formed with the

Perf. Act.

suffix s:

mitt-6

188

189

(r)

Peto forms

(added to
pet-o
6.

190

pet-),

-ere

Verbs
[a]

scrlb-o

191

(b)

petTv-I

Perf.

Act. from a stem ending in

petlt-us

i,

171]

aim

[petition]

at

in b5, po.

Perf. Act.
-ere

So nubo,

its

with the suffix v [Rule

stem formed with the

scrips-i

maj'ry

Perf. Act.

script-us

suffix 5:

[description]

carpo, pluck.

stem formed without a

suffix

write

'

ACCIDENCE

86
192

Perf. Act.

[c]

stem formed with the

pro-cumb-o -ere -cubu-I

strep-o

-ere

Verbs

7.

a suffix

fallforward

-cubit-um

makeanoise

strepu-I

in 15.

verbs

All

(a)

193

siififix

in

lid

form the

stem without

Perf. Act.

-ere

vell-I

vuls-us

[convulsion]

fall-o

-ere

fefell-I

fals-us

pell-o

-ere

pepul-i

puls-us

per-cell-o

-ere

-cul-i

-culs-us

cast

toll-o

-ere

sus-tul-I

sub-lat-us

lift

194

All other verbs in

{b)

Id

deceive

false]

[compulsion]

down

form the Perf. Act. stem with the

nourish

alt-us

al-o

-ere

alu-T

col-o

-ere
-ere

cultivate
[culture]
consulu-i consult-us [juris-consultj consult

consul-o

colu-I

cult-us

So occulo, hide; and compare volo, nolo, malo,

Verbs

8.

(<^)

So

-ere

{l>)

stem formed with the

suffix

ti

242.

tremble

tremu-I
;

fremo,

-ere genu-i
Perf. Act.

make a

genit-us

noise.

[genitive]

stem formed without a

em-o

-ere em-i

empt-us

can-o

-ere cecin-I

cantat-us''

(^")

mo, no.

gem-o, groan

gign-o

196

in

Perf. Act.

trem-o

197

push

suffix

195

pluck

vell-o

beget

suffix

^redemption]
incantation]

^QvL Act stem formed with the

suffix s

buy, take

sing

press-us
pressure]
press
-ere press-I
con-temn-o -ere -temps-I -tempt-us [contemptible] despise
take forth
-ere promps-i prompt-US [prompt]
prom-o
consumption] /rr/vV ///>
-ere sumps-I sumpt-us
sum-o

prem-o

'

The meaning

For gi-gen-o.

From

'deceived'

is

generally expressed by

the verb canto, ist Conj.

itcccj'lus.

rillKl)
198

eONj LIGATION

87

The following verbs in no form their I*erf. Act. from

a or /), with the suffix i< Rule r,

(^1^

a stem ending in a vowel

(<?,

171]-

cern-6

So

-ere

crcv-T

-crCt-us'

discretion]

disfiiii^nis/i

sperno, scorn.

stern-o
sin-o

-ere

strav-T

strat-us

-ere

siv-l

sit-us

[site]

prrniit

p6n-o-

-ere

po&u-I

posit-us

[position]

place

Verbs

9.

199

{a)

in a

[c

or

/),

with the suffix

'o

sev-I

sat-

ter-o

-ere

triv-l

trit-us

quaer-o

-ere

quaesiv-i quaeslt-us

ac-qulr-o

-ere

-quIsTv-I

The

10.

sf/rw,/ay/oio

171].

soiv

-quIsTt-us

rub

seek
[acquisition] acquire

following form the Perf. Act. stem variously

Verbs

combustion]

btirtt (trans.)

cursory]

run

insertion]
translation]

bear

tivine

in sso, so, xo.

Verbs

a vowel

cany

gesture]

[a]

in

i,

[detrition

ger-o

201

[Rule

us

-ere

[b]

following form the Perf. Act. from a stem ending

ser-6

200

prostration

in ro.

The

vowel

[i

in sso

form the Perf. Act. from a stem ending

added

after the

.s\s),

with the suffix

t'
|

Rule

i,

171]:

arcess-o

So

-ere

arcesslv-l

lacesso, provoke

sinnnion

arcessit-us

capesso,

ca/c/i at

facesso, do eagerly

incesso, assail.

202

{b)

Vjso forms the Perf. Act. without a

with the suffix u

suffix,

and

lexo

vis-o

-ere

vis-l

tex-o

-ere

texu-I

visit

text-us

[texture]

iveave

compounds de-crctus, dis-cifltts, se-cirlns.

PoMo is a compound of sino; its original form was po-f^iiw, Perf. po-sivt,
- Only in compounds, e.g. inserii J.
of which posiii is only another form.

In

'

Fctu forms

its

principal parts from llucc entirely difTercnt stems.

ACCIDENCE

88

MIXED CONJUGATION
203

159).

Most verbs of the Mixed Conjugation form the Perf.

stem ending in a consonant (= the part
the Infinitive which comes before the ending ere).
the following list the Infinitive is divided so as to show

I.

Act. from a
of
In

this stem.

204

stem formed without a

Perf. Act.

(a)

suffix

capi-o

cap-ere

cep-i

capt-us

[capture]

faci-o

fac-ere

fec-i

fact-us

[faction]

iaci-o

iac-ere
fod-ere

iec-I

iact-us

fod-I

[fosse]
foss-us
fugit-urus [fugitive]

fodi-o

fugi-o

pari-o

205

[b]

fug-ere
par-ere

Perf. Act.

fug-i

in-lici-o,

take

make
throw
dig
flee

bring forth

peper-I part-us

stem formed with the

-cut-ere -cuss-i
con-cuti-o
con-spici-o -spic-ere -spex-i

So

hire on

suffix 5

-cuss-us

[concussion] shake

-spect-us

[inspection]

but

e-lici-o,

hire out,

look at

forms

e-licu-T,

e-licit-us [elicit].

206

(f)

rapi-o

207

Perf. Act.

rap-ere

stem formed with the

rapu-i

rapt-us

suffix

[rapture]

seise

Cnpio and sapid form their Perf Act. from the stems
cupj; sapl-, with the suffix v [Rule i, 171] like audio {/[i\\
Conjugation)
2.

cupi-o
sapi-6

cupere
sapere

cuplv-i

desire

cuplt-us

be sensible

saplv-l

FIRST CONJUGATION
208

verbs of the ist Conjugation form the Perf.

I. Four
Act. from a stem ending in a consonant (= the part of
the Infinitive which comes before the ending dre), Hke
verbs of the 3rd Conjugation.
Infinitive is divided so as to

show

In the following
this stem.

list

the

209

FIRST CONJUGATION
These four form the
{n) iiivo
iuv-t)

Perf. Act.

stem without a

89
suffix

and lord without reduplication [Rule

2, 171

ACCIDENCE

90

From

{a)

214

the suffix

most verbs

5,

in

go and

These

take

all

co of the 3rd Conjug.

173, 176):

auge-o

aug-ere

aux-I

luce-o

luc-ere

lux-i

So
215

a stem ending in a guttural.

like

luge-o,

The
So

dropped

is

indulg-ere

fulgeo, flash

after a liquid

From

{b)

(i)

ars-I

rid-ere

ris-I

suade-6

suad-ere

suas-I

without a suffix

sed-ere
vid-ere

[torture]

tort-us

a stem ending in

ard-ere

(ii)

3,

From

[c)

[Rule

2,

(not

preceded by

4,

171]

be on fire
ars-urus [arson]
laugh
ris-um- [derision]
suas-um [persuasion] advise
:

scd-I

sess-um [session]

vid-l

vIs-us

a stem ending in

sit

[vision]

see

nd

bite

always without a

From

[d)

[Rule

2,

cave-o

So

totond-I

[tonsure"

always without a

a stem ending in v;

suffix

171]

cav-ere

cav-I

mov-ere

foveo,

warm

mov-i

caut-um

[caution

mot-us

[motion]

bcivare

;;/orv(tr.)

voveo, vow.

2nd Conj. to which this rule applies

(Appendix) c. g. algco., iimlceu, icrgco.
In transitive compounds there is tiie form -visits, e. g. dcrlsiis, inlsus.
Other

(less important) verbs of the

arc given in the alphabetical

2

tons-us

/m^(intr.)

pledge
shear

faveo, be favourable.

move-d

So

suffix

171].

tond-ere

tonde-o

;/)

pende-o pend-ere pepend-I

sponde-o spond-ere spopond-I spons-us [sponsor
^^9

tivist

morde-o mord-ere momord-I mors-us [morsel]

218

171]

indulge

with the suffix s [Rule

ride-o

sede-o
vide-o

[Rule

induls-i

arde-o

217

increase
shine

urgeo, tirge}

torque-o torqu-ere tors-i

216

[auction]

mourn.

guttural

indulge-o

auctus

list

SECOND CONIUGATION
'20

(^^

From stems ending

other consonants

iubc-o
nianc-o

iub-ere
nian-erc

iuss-I

iuss-us

mans-i

mans-um mansion]

rctiiaiti

haerc-d

haer-ere

haes-I

haes-urus

clmg

[adhesion
221

in

91

jussive]

bid

note difference of spelling]

Five verbs of the 2nd Conj. form the Perf. Act. from
the stem of the Present (ending in r) with the suffix v
Rule I, 171J
2.

com-ple-o -ple-re

So

222

-plev-I

-plet-us

[completion]

y?//

get rid of
rouse

abole-o

abole-re

abolev-I

abolit-us

[abolition]

cie-o

cie-re

civ-l

cit-us

[excite]

'

The following have some

3.

z^/*

deleo, destroy; fleo, weep.

Part. Pass,
doce-u

docu-i

doct-us

tenu-i

-tent-us

miscu-I

mixt-us

torre-re

torru-I

tost-us

cense-re

censu-i

cens-us

misce-o

doce-re
tene-re
misce-re

torre-o

cense-o

tene-o

peculiarity in the Perf.

[doctor]
[retention]
[mixture]

teach

hold

mix
parch

[censure]

decide

FOURTH CONJUGATION
223

About ten verbs of the 4th Conjugation form the

from a stem ending in a consonant (= the
part of the Infinitive which comes before the ending
I,

Perf. Act.

tre),

like

verbs of the 3rd Conjugation.

Infinitive is divided so as to

224

.(a)

sanci-o
vinci-o

225

The
fulci-o

So

-cii),

From

show

In this

list

this stem.

a stem ending in a guttural, with the suffix s

sanx-I

sanc-Tre
vine-Ire

vinx-I

is

dropped

fulc-ire

fuls-I

guttural

re-fercio,

cram

The compounds of
-cthis (or -dius).

cicn

the

sanct-us
vinct-us
after a liquid

[sanction]

ratify

hind

[Rule

3,

171

fult-us

prop

sarcio, patch.
arc of the 4th Conj., e.g. ex-cio, -nrr,

-cTvT {or

ACCIDENCE

92
2a6

From stems ending

(/;)

saepi-o
senti-o
hauri-o
veni-o

saep-Tre

reperi-o

other consonants

in

saept-us
sens-us
haust-us

sent-Ire

saeps-i
sens-i

haur-ire
ven-Tre

haus-I
ven-I

reper-Ire

repper-i

vent-um
comperi-o comper-ire comper-I compert-us

The

2.

227

jugation)

sall-re

salu-I

aperl-re

aperu-T

learn

[repertory]

find

leap

open

[aperture]

apert-us

operio, cover.

Sepelio forms the Perf. Part. Pass, from the stem

3-

sepeli-re

sepeli-o

229

feel

exhaustion] drain
come
[advent]

following form the Perf. Act. like habeo (2nd Con-

aperi-o

228

fence in
[sense]

sali-o

So

repert-us

bury

[sepulture]

sepellv-I sepult-us

sepel-

Ferid forms two Perfects Active, from entirely different

4.

stems

percuss-P percuss-us [percussion] strike

ferl-re

feri-o

Tc-T

ict-us

DEPONENT VERBS
Deponent Verbs have only three Principal Parts

230

1.

2.
3.

The
The
The

Present Indicative,

1st pers. sing.

Present Infinitive.
Perfect Participle.

3rd Conjugation.
231 fung-or
loqu-or
sequ-or

loqu-I

sequ-i

fru-or
1

fru-I

From

literal

per-aitio, a

compound o(

sense with the

discharge

[function]
[elocution]
[consecutive]

funct-us
locut-us
secut-us
us-us ^

fung-I

talk

follow
enjoy
Used

qua/io, like con-ctitio, 205.

abl. secfirJ ('

with an axe')

secfirJ percussl,

'

in the
I

have

beheaded.'
-

Used in a figurative sense with the ace. Joedtis

make a treaty.'
Borrowed from ufor (see below) fmct-us and

'

to

'

fructify'

and

'

fruition'] are not usual.

1,'

a treaty

ftuit-us

')

foedns

ferlre,

[whence English

''

'

'

DEPONENT VERBS
nasc-or

nasc-i

nat-us

Irasc-or

Irasc-I

SUSCCMlSU-l

vesc-or
adipisc-or

vcsc-i

cd-P

93
be horn
gel angry

[native J

feed (\uU\)

[adept]
adept-US
comminisc-or' comminisc-i comnient-us [comment
expergisc-oi"
expergisc-I experrect-us
nancisc-or
nancisc-I
nact-us or nanct-us

acquire

adipisc-i

devise
aivake (intr.)

'

get
forget
make a bargain

'

oblivisc-or

'

pacisc-or
proficisc-or
ulcisc-or'
'

'

nlt-or

oblivlsc-i

oblit-us

pacisc-i
proticisc-i

pact-us
profect-us

ulcisc-i

ult-us

nit-i

(i)

compact]

set out

avenge, punish

nis-us

strive

(i)

on

Llt-l

nix-US
US-US

[usage]

use, enjoy

-plect-I

-plex-us

[complex]

embrace

lab-or

lab-I

slip

quer-i

laps-us
quest-us

[relapse]

quer-or

(ii)

u t-or
am-plect-or
com-plect-or

;3

rest

(ii)

complain

Mixed Conjugation.
pati-or

pat-i

pass-us

con-gredi-or

-gred-i

-gress-us

So

[passion]
(congress

suffer

meet

compounds

ag-gredior, e-gredior, trans-gredior, and other

of gradior.
mor-I
mortu-us
Put. Part, morit-urus

mori-or

[mortuary]

die

Conjugation.

ist

All the Deponents of the ist Conj, form their Perf. Part,
like voco

e. g. hort-or, hortd-ri, hortdt-us,

exhort

169).

and Conjugation.
Most of the Deponents of the 2nd Conj. form

14

Part.

\'\kt

habed

c. g. vcre-or, verc-ri, verit-us,

misere-rl, mtserit-us, pity

(ear

their Perf.
;

misere-or,

tue-or, tue-rJ, tuii-us, protect.

Note

re-or, re-ri, rat-tts [rate], think.

'

The stem

of sc;
-

Borrowed from

meaning
'

of the tenses of incomplete action

is

extended by the addition

pasc-, cresc-, &c., 178.

cf.

angry
Supplied by
'

'

susccnseo,

thus Irdtus

cdo, 184.

2nd Conj.

sum means

the form iidtus

'

am angry

',

not

is
'

an adjective
got angry

'.

ACCIDENCE

94

The
Conj.

following forms

its

Part, like a verb of the 3ril

Perf.

fate-or

fat-erl

fass-us

con-fite-or

-fit-erl

-fess-us

confess

[confession]

4th Conjugation.

Most of the Deponents of the 4th Conj. form

235

Part, like audio

of;

largi-or,

in

motion

The

give

larglt-us,

largl-rl,

speak falsely

mentt-ri, mentlt-us,

their Perf.

get possession

e. g. poti-or, potl-rl, pofit-iis,

bountifully

iiicnti-or,

moli-or, inolt-n, DidlJt-us, set

sorti-or, sortl-rl, sortlt-us,

obtain by

lot.

following form the Perfect Participle like verbs of the

3rd Conj.
meti-or
ordi-or

met-Iri

mens-us

ord-Iri

ors-us^

begin

ori-or

or-Iri

ort-us^

arise

-per-Irl

Fut. Part. orit-Lirus

-pert-us
[expert]
-sens-us
consensus]

167)
ex-peri-or
ad-senti-or
(

-sent-irl

[mensuration] measure

make

trial

of

assent

SEMI-DEPONENT VERBS
Semi-deponent verbs are verbs which have passive forms
with active meaning in only some groups of tenses.

2nd Conjugation.
236 aude-o
gaude-o

aud-ere
gaud-ere

dare

aus-us
gavis-us

sole-o, sole-re, solit-us,

rejoice

be accustomed,

is

like habcb.

3rd Conjugation.
237

fieri

fi-o

fId-6

re-vert-or
1

Ors-us (having begun) from a stem

a stem in r: see Rule,

2 The Perfect Indie,

in

li,

but orius (having arisen) from

172.
is

active in form

borrowed from

vertu,

i88): nveHl.

95

IRREGULAR VERBS
238

The verbs whose principal parts are given above ( 1 73 237)

are not properly described as irregular, though they form
their perfect active

and perfect

participle passive differently

which are taken as

The latter, it is true,
models for the four conjugations.
form the large majority of verbs in the ist, 2nd, and 4th
conjugations.
But rci^o is not really more typical of the 3rd
conjugation than verbs which form their perf. act. without
from verbs

s,

like voco, liabco,

like lego

ihvl (ist

(2nd conj.,

7rgu, auiiio,

175) or dcfcndb

conj.,

186).

209), vein (4th

214), t7";/.v7(4th conj., 224)

They

as irregular.

Nor can

perfects like

226),

or like anxi

conj.,

be properly described

are merely examples of two of the

of forming the perfect which are given in

ways

171.

irregular' is more fitly used of a small number

which stand apart from all other verbs in the
formation of the tenses of incomplete action, and of verbs
which are defective in some of their tenses, as shown in the
sections which follow.'

The term

'

of verbs

Compounds of sum.
239

Most compounds of sum, such as

ad-siini,

dc-suni, in-SHin,

prac-suni, Sec, are conjugated exactly like sui)i\ hut pro-sii in

and

are peculiar.

pos-siiii!

In pro-sum, /

older form prod

Pres. Indie.

am

lidpfid, the

when

preposition pro assumes

its

the verbal part begins with a vowel

prod-es, prod-est

pro-sum,

pro-sumus, prod-estis, pro-sunt.

Put. hidic.

pr5d-ero,

-oris, -erit, cr-T.

Past Impcrf. Indie. prod-eram, -eras,

Past Siibj. prod-essem, -esses, -esset,
:

Imperative
Infinitive
'

prod-es,

-erat, <>c.

C^c.

-esto, -este, -estote.

prodesse.

Only the forms printed

in

heavy type

in

239-47 need to be learned-

ACCIDENCE

96

possum, /

240

can,

is

compounded of siun and an

possum,
meaning 'able

adjective potts or potc

indeclinable

'

'

am

able.'

This adjective, which assumes the form />os- before 5, resumes

In the pres. infin. and the
the form pof- before a vowel.
past subj. the syllable cs- of esse and esseiii disappears.
This verb is also peculiar in the formation of its perf. active
stem potii-.
Possum forms no imperative, and the onl}' verb-noun which
it has is the infin. (pres. and perf.).
:

Pres. Indie.

pos-sum, pot-es, pot-est

pos-sumus, pot.estis, pos-sunt.

Fiif.

Indie.

pot-ero, -eris,

Past Impcrf. Indie.

Pres. Subj.

Past Subj.
Pres.

pos-sim,

fero,

-sis, -sit,

<^e.

pos-sem, -ses, -set

Itifin.

/ bear

pos-semus,

-setis, -sent.

pos-se.

Principal Parts

241

-erit, c-r.

pot-eram, -eras, -erat, ^c.

possum, posse,

potu-i,

ferre, tul-i, lat-us

i

drops

before 5 and

/,

between two rscf. die, due

'\s fer;
sing.
2nd
Imperative
The
(

I-a

short

176),

fae

159)-

[See table next page.

IRREGULAR VERBS

97

Tenses of incomplete action.

ACTIVE

IMPERATIVE

INDICATIVE
Present
P. ferimus

S. fero
fers

fertis

5. fer, ferto P. ferte, fertote

fertd
feruntd

ferunt

fert

SUBJUNCTIVE
Present

Future
feram, feres, feret, ^c.

feram, feras, ferat, d^r.

Past

Past Imperfect
ferebam, ferebas, ferebat,
Pr^-S-

VFRR
ADjs

d-^f.

Part, ferens

ferrem, ferres, ferret,

(-nt-)

Fut. Part, laturus,

Fut. Infin.

laturus

VERB-

Pres. Infix, ferre

NOUNS Gerund ferendum

PASSIVE

(a,

e-r.

a,

um) esse

Supine latum

um

ACCIDENCE

98
242

V0I5, /

-a'ill,

velle, volu-i,

and

its

compounds nolo, / ivill

I prefer [from magis

not [from ue-volo], nolle, nolui, and malo,

and volb\ malle, malui.

Tenses of incomplete

INDICATIVE

action.

IRREGULAR VERBS
1

99

ACCIDENCE

loo

245

queo, / can, quire, quivi, quitum

nequeo, / cannot, nequire, nequlvi, nequitum

are conjugated like cb ( 243), but are used only

in a

few

forms.

246

fio

(i)
,..;

(n)

/ become
r
1 am made
,

fieri,

fact-us sum.

In its second meaning fid serves as a passive to facio,

which does not itself form a passive of the tenses of incomplete action, except in those compounds which are used
transitively in the active voice
lo

be killed,

(afficT,

io be affected, interfici,

&;c.).

Tenses of incomplete action.

IMPERATIVE

INDICATIVE
Present

[Only

P.

S. fid

Old Latin and Late

in

LatinJ

fis

fiunt

fit

SUBJUNCTIVE
Future
fiam,

Present
flam, flas,

fles, flet, &'c.

Past

Past Imperfect
fiebam, flebas, flebat,

&-'c.

VERB-ADJECTIVES
[Pres. Part, and Gerund only in
Late Latin.]

Pres. Infin.
(i)

(ii)

to

fieri,

fierem, fieres, fieret, c>t.

AND VERB-NOUNS
Fut. Part, futurus, about
to become

Fut. Infin. fore, or futurus

esse,

become

to be

made

fiat, C^'c.

,,

to

be about

to

be-

^'^^"^
,

[factum TrI, to be about to be

made, belongs io facio]

IRREGULAR VERBS
247 edd, /

loi

esse, ed-i, -es-us (only hi compounds,

cat,

eaten out, amb-esus,

gnawed

I'.g.

ex-csus,

around).

Tenses of incomplete action

IMPERATIVE

IXDieATI VE

Present
S. edo
es
est

P. edimus

estis

S. es, esto

edunt

esto

P. este, estote
edunto

SUBJUNCTIVE
j

Future

Present
P. edimus

edam

S.

P. edemus

edes
edet

edetis

edis
edit

edent

Past Imperfect

editis

edint

Past

edebam, edebas, edebat

ADIS.

edim

S.

c-^c.

essem, esses, esset, ^c.

Prus. Part, edens(-nt-) Fut. Part, esurus,

a,

um

'

T-rr-nn
VERBI

NOUNS
.

Pres. Infin. esse

Fut. Infin.
_ _
esurus

Gerund edendum

Supine esum

um) esse

(a,

<

248

The

following verbs of 'saying' are used chiefly in the

tenses of incomplete action, and in these they are defective

inquam, say /(used

(i)

Pres. Indie.
Fut. Indie.

Past

/ say, forms

inquicbat.

ais, ait

(two syllables

Indie.

aiebam, aicbas, aiebat,

Pres. Subj.

aiat.

(3)

fan,

to

speak.

a-is, a-it);

fatus, a,

aiunt.

Cs^e.

Fiit.

Indie.

fare, speak.

fandl, fando,

Per/. Part.

fatur, he speaks.

Lnperat.

Gerund:

speak, forms chiefly

Pres. Indie.
,

inquiunt.

Past Imperf.

Pres. Indie.

zvi/l

inquis, inquit

inquies, inquiet.

Inipcrf. Indie.

aid,

{"l)

parenthetically), forms:

of speaking, by speaking.

um, having spoken.

fabitur,

lie

ACCIDENCE

I02

The foliowing verbs have no tenses of incomplete action.

The Perfect coep-I, / have begun, I began, coep-isse,

249

(i)

coept-us

coepi, coepisti, coepit, o^c.

Perf. Indie.
Ftit. Perf. Indie.
coepero, / shall have begun, coeperis,^
coeperit, o^c.
Past Perf. Indie. coeperam, / had begun, coeperas, coep:

>

erat, 6-t.

<

Perf Subj.

coeperim, coeperls,' coeperit, e^c.

Past. Perf. Subj.
coepissem, coepisses, coepisset,
Fut. Part.
coepturus, a, urn, about to begin.
:

&-'c.

%
<

J
1

Perf. Part.
Perf. Indie.

The

urn, begun.

coeptus,

a,

coeptus

(a,

um) sum, / have been begun.

tenses of incomplete action are supplied by

incipib,

incipiant, incipicbam.

The

chief use of both coepl and incipib

is

with an infinitive

as object
(coern, I have bemn
j.~ _
.,,
1, ,
\to build.
aedificare \.
._
^
/
(incipio, / am beginning)
.

Sometimes, however, with other objects or without any object

orationem coepisse (incipere), to begin a speech.

The

Passive forms are mostly used with a Passive Infinitive,

and are translated by active forms

coepta

est, the city

began

Sometimes, however,

in

to

be

in

English

urbs aedificarl

built.

other constructions

amicitia coepta est,

friendship ivas begun.

(2)

coept)

The

Perfect memin-i,

/ remember, memin-isse

has the meaning of a Present tense

(unlike

memini, meministi, meminit, &-'c.

Perf. Indie.
Fut. Perf. Indie. meminero, I shall remember, memineris,'
:

meminerit,

Past Perf. Indic.

c^'c.

memineram, I remembered, memineras,

meminerat,

cr'C.

Perf Subj. meminerim, meminerls,^ meminerit, ^'c.

Past PerfSubf: meminissem, meminisscs, meminisset,
Imperative
S. 2 memento
,
'
:

r>
.'i.
P.
2 mementotej

'

remember.

See notes on pp. 6i.

68.

6^t.

IRREGULAR VERBS

103

The Perfect 5d-i, I hate, 5d-isse, 6s-us has

meaning of a Present tense

(3)

the

(like tiicniinl)

Per/. Iiidic.
odl, odisti, odit, <^c.
Flit. Per/. Indie.: odero, I shall hate, oderis/ oderit, &-c.
Past Pcrf. Indie. oderam, / hated, oderas, oderat, d-r.
oderim, oderls,' oderit, &-e.
Perf. Suhj.
Past Perf. Subj. odisseni, odisses, odisset, cr-'c.
Flit. Part.
osurus, a, um, about to hate.
osus, a, um, hating.
Perf. Part.
:

The meaning of
of

its

passive form,

the Perf. Part,

cf. in

French

is

r?//t''

See notes on pp.

neither passive (in spite

'

gone

6i, 68.

')

nor perfect.

;
'
:
'

APPENDIX TO PART

PECULIARITIES OF NOUNS AND ADJECTIVES

Second Declension.
m. 'place' generally forms a'neuter nom. and ace. plural
The masc. forms loci, locos mostly mean passages in books

Locits,

loca.

'

'.

ii

few nouns

sing.

Some

iii

in

I,

'

the rabble

adjectives in us, a,

with ace. sing, the same as nom.

(rarely masc.).

'

uiii,

form gen.

sing, in

Tiis,

and

dat. sing,

see 86, 88.

Some nouns

iv

in us are neuter,

so vulgiis

by

side

retain an old

form of the gen.

um

plur. in

(generally

side with the later form in drum)

nouns denoting coins and measures e. g. nuinmus, m.' coin

m. 'sesterce' (a small silver coin) talcntum, n. 'talent
Greek word denoting a sum of money about ^200).
(b) some nouns denoting persons: e.g. deus 'god', gen. plur.
(a)

'

sestertius,

(a

often

deum

man

in poets ( 22. 3)

llberi

'

children

'

( 21)

socius

'

all}^

'.

forms gen. plur. virum in poets.

(c) some nouns denoting nationalities, especially in poets
Achlvl Achaeans Teucrt Teucrians
Similarly some numeral adjectives duo ( 89), compounds of
centum ( 80), and distributive adjectives like binT{ 84) thus pedum
quadragenum intervallo at an interval of 40 feet in each case
Vir

'

'

( 17, p.

'

21) often

'.

'

',

'

(Caesar, B. G.

iv. 17. 5).

Third Declension.

Forms with i instead of e.

{(i) The accusative singular of a few nouns in is (Class
ends in im instead of em thus Z'Js, f. 'violence forms tv/;/
(i)

B,

'

'

thirst

',

sitifii

puppis,

f.

'

stern of a vessel

',

puppim

28)

sitis,

f.

so too proper

of rivers and towns, e.g. Tiberis, m. 'the Tiber', Ncapolis,

Naples '.
A few nouns have both the form in /;// and that in em, e.g. securis,

names
f

'

f.

'axe', sccurim ov>secureui.

Tiberim, vim, Ncapolini

scciirim, sitim,

puppim.

NOUNS AND ADJECTIVES

The

105

nouns that form the ace. sing,

by violence sift by thirst
So too the ablative singular of some nouns which are properly
adjectives, such as natalis (originally dies udtalis), m. birthday
{/>)

in it

ends

ablative singular of the

in

instead of

/"

thus

i>J

'

',

'

'.

'

m.

(c) ignis,

igtilque
(ii)

with

forms
and sword

fire

'

fire

The nouns

abl. ignl in certain

'

Genitive plural in

(a)
'

'

itoii.

pokr, m. 'father', uulter,

brother' have lost an

e in

f. 'mother', frdkr, m.
the ace, gen., dat. and abl. cases pater,
:

patr-e)ii, pntr-is, patr-1, patr-e; phir. pafr-es,

the genitive plural

phrases, e.g. ferrd

'.

instead of

//;;/

'.

comes

to

be contrary

Thus

pnir-uni pafr-ibus.

to the rule

given

in 27.

The words

cam's, m. or f. 'dog', mensis, m. 'month', itive'young man or 'young woman and seiiex (gen. sou's),
m. 'old man' form the genitive plural irregularly in ;/; caniini,
mensttin,'^ iuvenum and senum.
(b)

iiis,

m. or

'

f.

',

Parens (gen.
and parentiuni.

(c)

tuni

(iii)

m. or

f.

'parent' forms both paren-

Genitive plural in iuni instead of

ia)
trary'

parentis),

The

following nouns form the genitive plural

the rule given in

to

//;//.

23:

vis,

f.

in

///;;/,

'violence' (plur.

convires,

'dispute'; faux (plur. fauces), f.

litis),
f.
imber fgen. imbris), m. 'rain'; )iix (gen. nivis),
optimdtes (plur,),
Penati's (plur.
m. ' household gods

'strength');

(gen.

lis

'throat', 'jaws';
f.

snow

'

'

or as (gen.

'

I,

m. 'aristocrats'
dtis)

i)nbriiit)i

Many

and

g. clvitds,
(iv)

The

f.

feminine nouns
'

Itis)

state

',

niviiiin, Saninltiiini, optintdfinni.

in tds (gen, tdtis)

the gen. plur. in tdtiinn, as well as the

e.

in is (gen.

vlriuni, tltiunt, faiicinm, Peiidtinni

{b)

and proper names of tribes ending

have a by-form of

more usual form

in tdtnni

clvitdlum or clvitdtiunt.

following nouns are irregular in respect of their stems

English derivatives showing the stem are given

or their endings.

square brackets,

in

'

Mensiim

is tlie

ordinary form

are later (as has been

iitatik,

1905'.

in classical

shown by Wagener,

times; nicnsium and incitsuuin

Beilrds;e ziir lateinischcn

Gmtn-

APPENDIX

io6
m. or

bos,

ox [bov-ine] hov-em, bov-is, bov-l, bov-e

bubus or bobiis.
[carn-al]
cam-em, cam-is, cant-1, carn-c

'

f.

plur.

'

bov-es, bo-iint,

card,

flesh

'

f.

'

rare.

'heart' [cord-ial]

cor, n.

plur.

'

pieces of flesh

'

cor (ace), cord-is, cord-l, cord-e; plur.

cord-a [cord-ium, cord-ibus, rare).

'journey' [itiner-arj^]
-um, -ibiis.

n.

iter,

Her (ace),

itiner-is.

plur.

-e,

-J,

itiner-a,

luppHer, m. 'Jupiter

',

lit.

'

Father Jove

'

[jov-ial]

Iov-em,Iov-is,

lov-J, lov-e.

iusiurandiim. n.

should be written as two words, ius

( 37), ifirandum an adj. of the 2nd
ins iurandum, inn's inrandi, iiirt iurando, iure
'

oath

',

a noun of the 3rd decl.

decl.

thus

no plur. in use.
'bone' [oss-ify] os (ace),

inrando
OS,

n.

oss-is, oss-i, oss-e

plur

oss-a,

oss-ittm, oss-ibus.

m.

senex,

sen-es,

old

'

m. or

sUs,

man

'

[sen-ior]

sen-em, sen-is,

sen-J, sen-e

plur.

sen-um, sen-ibus.
'pig', sn-em, su-is,

f.

sii-T,

su-e;

su-nm,

plur. sn-es,

su-bus or sn-ibus.
vis,

xiv

'violence',

f.

'strength

',

ace.

vim, no

gen.

or

abl.

dat.,

vl

[Compare above

vJr-es, vJr-inni, vlr-ibns.

plur.

xi.]

fv) Some adjectives, with no separate form for the feminine or

neuter in the nom. sing., are declined like nouns of the 3rd decl.

(Class A, 23-6), i.e. they have the abl. sing, in e and the gen.
plur. in nm, or one of these two forms.
Contrast iiigrns, 33.

XV

Verb-adjectives in ns, gen. niis (Present Participles) form

e, when they are used either as nouns or predica-

{0)

the abl. sing, in

ab ainan/e 'by a lover', flTimine

But when they are used as
attributes of a noun they have the form in 1 (like ingens, 33)
thus in flhmine cnrrentl^ in a flowing river'. In poets they sometimes form the gen. plur. in nm thus amaninm (for amantinm).
tively in the abl. absolute; thus

cnrrente 'as the river

is

flowing'.

cvi

The

ih)

following adjectives form the abl. sing, in

gen. plur. in -nm

vetns

'

old

(stem

'

vcter-,

whence English

'

veter-an

(stem dJvit-).
pauper poor (stem pauper-)
princeps 'chief (stem princip-, whence English
dives

'

rich
'

-e

and the

').

'

'

'

i-)rincip-al

').

NOUNS AND ADJECTIVES

107

Abl. sing, veicre, dlvt'ie, patipere, pnndpe.

Gen. Plur. vetenou, dlvilum, paupentm, principum.
Such adjectives generallj' have no neuter plur. (noni. or ace);
but veins forms Vetera, and dives forms dltia (contracted).
m., ceteris

(vi) ceJer

celere n.

f.,

'

swift' is declined like Acer, acris,

acre ( 32), excepting that it does not drop the e of the stem. The
genitive plural in the form ceternm is used only as a noun
'of the

cavalry
(vii)

'.

'

good

for use

few adjectives are indeclinable, as tot' so many', nequatii

(lit.
no-how '). frfigl 'good for something' (lit.

for nothing'

'

dat. of/riix).

',

Fourth Declension.

A few

masc. and fem. nouns form the

e.g. tribiis,

f.

'tribe

Alternative spellings
(i)

form

and

abl. plur. in tibus

adjectives and adverbs.

in

Instead oiimtts in superlatives and ordinal numerals an older

e.g. pesstnims, deciiimis (whence
in iiniiis is sometimes used
:

porta dccitviana

some other
(iil

dat.

'.

gate', decumae 'tithes');

also

in

adjectives, c.g.fmitituuts.

Instead of

adverbs

decuman

'the

80

f.)

-eitsiiitiis

and

numeral adjectives and

in

-ieiis

the spellings -esimiis and

-ics

are found.

(iii) Instead of -eiidits in gerund adjectives belonging to verbs of

the 3rd and 4th conjugation an older form in -itndus is found e.g.
:

moneys

'

be recovered
= money illegally extorted) orinndtis, which has come to be used
with the meaning of a present participle active, 'arising.'
repetimdus (whence pecuniae repetiindae

'

to

CHIEF EXCEPTIONS TO RULES OF GENDER

(56-65)

Exceptions to Rule for 2Nn Decl. ( 60). Proper names of

towns and countries in us, and nouns in us denoting kinds of trees,
are fem.: e.g. Coriuthus 'Corinth' {captlva Corinihus), Aegyplus
ulmus elm {uhnus oiitiqua an immemorial elm ') also
Egypt
the word humus earth (humus atra the black soil '). A few in
'

'

'

'

'

US

'

'

'

VULGUS 'the rabble' (PROFANUM

PELAGUS 'the sea' (a Greek
PELAGUS APERTUM the open sea

are neuter: note

'the profane rabble'),

VULGUS

word, used by poets

'

').

'

APPENDIX

io8

Exceptions to Rules for 3RD Decl.

The

1.

which form the nom.

following,

sing,

( 61, 62).

by adding the

suffix

s to the stem, are

masc.
(a) Nouns ending in es, gen. itis, and ex, gen. ids: thus
caespes turf (in caespite viv5 on the live turf), gurges 'whirlpool (in gurgite vasto in the wild whirlpool '), vertex summit
'

'

'

summo

(in

'

'

vertice

'

on the topmost summit

lapis, sanguis, mons and fons

pes, grex (greg-is), dens and pons
(c)

Nouns ending

stone, blood, mountain, fount

bridge

foot, flock, tooth,

same number
amnis river

in nis, with the

the gen. sing, as in the nom. sing.

').

of syllables in
crinis

'

',

'

hair

',

finis 'end' (sometimes fem. in the singular), fiinis 'rope', ignis

fire
panis
important

'

bread

'

',

'.

Also the following, with some others less

axis, orbis, collis, ensis

fascis, piscis, unguis, mensis
2.

The

following,

of the suffix

5,

axle, orb,

bundle,

which form the nom.

are exceptional

cf.

'ordin-al', 'cardin-al

dagger, staff
:

heart (a^i^), head (c.-i/'i/ 7-)

milk, honey, Spring, journc}' (/TA' A")

VERBER-A, CADAVER-A

lash, corpse

OR-A, OSS- A, AEQUOR-A

AER-A, VAS-A, 1^!ARMOR-

mouth

[ps),

bone {ps\ sea

bronze {^aes), vessel, marble

bare tree

Feminina r^or nnda

crudo

violence, earth,

Feminines of the 4TH Decl.

The

month

'Heutra.^COR>-A,CAP/T-A
LAC MEL, \'ER,iTiNER-A

vis et tellus, card

sword

fish, nail,

sing, without the addition

rank, hinge

Masculina ordo, card5

pugio^ and scipiS

hill,

following in us are fem.

domus,

nianiis, Idus, tribits ;

also porticits and querciis

raw

(cf.

flesh

63)

house, hand, the Ides, tribe

colonnade, oak

Exception to rule for 5TH Decl. The word dies

'

day

'

is

generally masc, but sometimes fem. in the singular number, when

it denotes 'lapse of time', e.g. longa dies, or an appointed date,
e.g. dies dicta, ante
1

The

cam

diem,

quantity of the n

ad hanc

in

pugio

is

given,

is

diem.

shown by an epigram

of Martial

(xiv. 33).
2

The plural

of the neuters

where

it

exists, to

show

the stem.

I09

NOTES ON VERBS
The ending

(i)

-ere for -rntiit in the

Perfect Indicative ( 140, 142, 151)

is

3rd person plural of the

especially

common

in poets

and historians.

The ending

(ii)

-;r for

-ris

in the

2nd person singular of the

passive forms of verbs ( 152, 154, 156, 157, 161, 168) is found in
prose as well as verse of all periods. Cicero generally used -ris in
the Pres. Indie, but in the Put. Indie, and Pres. Subj. and in the

Past Imperf. Indie, and Past Subj. he more

and Horace used both

Virgil

Some forms

(iii)

tracted

amasii

e. g.

-ris

and

commonly used

-re.

-re.

of the Perfect Active are occasional!}' con(for omdv-istl), audisse (for aiidiv-isse).

Perfect stems in Iv sometimes drop the t' and shorten the

i:

e. g.

aiidi-erat, peti-erat (for aiidlv-erat, petJv-erat).

The verbs

(iv)
'

died 'I say \ dFico 'I lead', faciu 'I

bear' drop the final

make 'j/frw

of the 2nd pers. sing, imperative active

die, dHC,fac,fer.

(v)

some verbs

In

the Future Participle cannot be found from

the Perfect Participle Passive:

ruilurus

( 167),

The

(vi)

and

plur.

e.g.

moritnnis

166),

orititrits

( 181).

quantity of the

and the

;'

in the

endings of the 2nd pers. sing,

ist plur. of the Fut. Perf. Indie, of all conjugations

properly short (representing, as it does,

Greek) the quantity of
the ; in the corresponding forms of the Perf. Subj. is properly
long (representing an optative i in Greek), But, owing to the
similarity of these two tenses both in form and in meaning, they
{-eris, -critis, -erivnis)

what

is

were confused
the

is

called a short 'thematic vowel' in

at

an early date

and poets treated the quantity of

in both tenses as either long or short according to metrical

convenience cf. placdris { pldcCweris, Fut. Perf., Hon Od. iii. 23. 3),
feceriniHS (Fut. Perf., Catullus 5. 10), egeritnus (Perf. Subj., Virg.
:

Aen.

vi. 514).

(viij

The

quantity of the

e in

edu (ist pers. sing. Pres. Indie,

forms of the Future and Past Imperfect Indie, and

of the Pres. Subj. is short; so too in the forms editntu, edeus

247) and

edeuditm. The quantity of the e in es (2nd pers. sing.

Indie), and before 5S (as in essem) or st (as in est, estu) is

(st. edent-),

Pres.

in all

no

APPENDIX

uncertain
till recently it was supposed to be long
but some
recent authorities maintain that it was short, as in the corresponding
forms of the verb smjh. [VoUmer, Glotta i. i, pp. 1 13-16, 1907
;

Niedermann,
Review,

vol.

Berl.

Phil.

Wochenschrift,

1908,

p.

664

Classical

xxvi (1912), pp. 78-80.]

Old Latin forms in -so and -sim. Old Latin had many
and -sim which do not belong to any of the ordinary
tenses of the verb, and a few of these were still used in the classical
(viii)

forms

in -so

period

faxo,

Aen.

Virg.

e. g.

ix. 154, xii. 316,

Hon

faxis, faxit, faxitis, faxint, e.g.

Livy
Sat.

xxii. 10. 4, xxix. 27. 3, xxxvi. 2. 5, Cic.

iusso, e. g. Virg.
recepso,

xi.

35. 9.

3. 38,

Sen.

ii.

6. 5,

Livy

73.

467.

Catullus 44. 19.

e. g.

attsim, ausis,

Georg.

32,

Aen.

vi.

ii.

ausint, e.g. Cic.

attsif,
ii.

Hon

289,

Sat.

Brutus

10. 48,

i.

v.

r8,

Virg. Eel.

Ovid, Met.

vi.

iii.

466.

The stem from which these forms come is a Perf. Act. stem
formed with s: fax- {=/ac-s-; contrast the ordinary Perf Act.
stem without fee- 204) iuss- like the ordinary Perf. Act. stem
6-,

220

ofittbeo,

aits-

(=

aud-s-, cf the Perf. Part, ans-iis, 236).

The ending itn is the same as that

The above forms in im may,

edim.

in sim, velim, nulim,

malim,

then, be described as old-

fashioned Perfect Subjunctives (often with future meaning, like

other Perf Subjunctives).

The ending

b is the same as that in the Put. Perf Indie, of other

faxo and iusso may, then, be called old-fashioned Put. Perf.
Indicatives (sometimes without the sense of completion, see 309. i)

verbs

The forms

in

is,

it,

itis, iiit

may

belong either

to the

forms in

or to those in im.
(ix) Some old-fashioned Present Infinitives Passive in -ier are
found in poets of the classical period, and in some old laws quoted

by Cicero

e.g. (ist conj.) domindrier, Virg.

Sat.

(2nd
iii.

i.

Aen.

vii.

70; landdrier, Hor.

2. 35.

con'].) fa lerier,

Hor. Epist.

ii.

2.

148

torquericr, Propertius

6. 39.

(3rd conj.) r?am^/>r Virg.

II. 8.

Aen.

iv.

493; spargicr, Hor. Od.

iv.

NOTES ON VERBS
(x)

The gerund

adjective ( 133)

adjectival form of the

the gerund

Syntax,

grew

Participimn

not to be regarded as an

gerund (verb-noun,

On

135).

the contrary

out of certain uses of the gerund adjective (see

503, note).

of these forms

is

iii

That

this is the true

account of the relation

was shown by Wcisweiler

Fiitiiri

his

in

book on the

Passivi (Future Participle Passive, the

name

by which the gerund adjective was always described by the Roman

grammarians published in 1890. The gerund is a declined form
of the neuter of the gerund adjective, used as a noun. [From a
I,

construction like cundiim

est nobis ( 501) the form eutuiuni was

detached in the sense ofiUr; cf. i/er est nobis 'our way is', Virg.
Aen. xi. 17: and from this was formed a genitive eitndf 'of the
going' and an ablative eiindb 'by the going'.]

THE CALENDAR
Names of the months
Maius,

lunitis,

Sextllis (or

laniidrius, Februarhts, Martins, Aprl/is,

Ouiuctllis

(or Inlitis, after

lulius Caesar),

Augustus, after Augustus), September, October,

Nove})tber, December.

Iduiidrius mensis

'

These words were originally adjectives

month The number of

the January

'.

days in each month subsequent to the reform of the calendar

by Caesar in b.c. 46 was the same as at the present day.

The

1st

,,

5th

13th

day of each month was called Kalendae

most months

Nonae

,,

But :

,,

Idiis (4th Decl., fem.).

In March, July, October,

The

(ist Decl., fem.).

May,

Ides were on the 15th day,

(and the Nones on the 7th).

The

many days

intervening dates were expressed as so

the Nones, Ides, or Calends.

In reckoning

be/ore

backwards the Romans

were accustomed

to count the 'terminus a quo' as well as the

terminus ad quem.' Thus Nunae means the 9th = 8th) day before
the Ides. (A good practical rule is to add one in subtracting from
Nones or Ides, and two in subtracting from the number of days in
'

the month, for dates before the Calends of the next month.)

APPENDIX

112

Examples.
'

On

the ist of January,' Kalendls lamidrus (abl.

and

,,

3rd

,,

4th

5th

14th

,,

XIX.

Kal. Febr.).

accusative after anie in these expressions

position of the

444).

ante diemundevJcensiniumKal.Febriidrids

,,

(a.d.

The

quartum Nonas Iamiarias{zA.

IV. Non. Ian.).
anie diem teriium Nonas lann arias (a. d.
III. Non. Ian.).
pridie Nonas Idnudrias{-^Y\d. 'Hon. Ian.).
NonJs Idnudrits (Non. Ian,).
ante diem

word

in the

Idnitdrids for die quarto

sentence

annum

expression ante tertium

for tertio

to the

Nbnds
compare the

Nonas Idnudrids;

ante

due

is

ante diem qiiartimi

anno

ante.

ROMAN MONEY
Amounts of money were reckoned as so many sesterces.
was the name given to a small silver coin, of the value
of two and a half ss^s. The word is a compound of semis 'half
thus it means literally
an ds [from semi and as] and tertius third
the third {ds) half an ds and was used in the sense of 'two and
Sestertius

'

'

'

',

a half s5^s' (two asses

and half of the

Note the following expressions

(i)
(ii)

duo

sestertii,

2 sesterces

third).

centum

sestertii,

two thousands of

sesterces ( 83).

which is found
some other words of the 2nd decl.

Sestertium

duo

sestertia,

tive sestertium

2000

sesterces.

see above iv,

has been detached from

its

duo mllia sestertium

a neuter singular; hence plur. sestertia.
deciens centena mllia sestertium,

thousands of

sesterces

sesterces,

lit.

an old form
p. 104.

In this expression the geni-

in expressions like

(iv)

is

sesterces.

also in the gen. plur. of

of the gen. plur.,

(iii)

100

duo milia sestertiorum or sestertium, 2,000

lit.

tert

1,000,000 sesterces

mllia sestertium, 2,000,000 sesterces, &c.

governing word
and treated as

(ii),

times a hundred

viciens centena

ROMAN MONEY

"3

These long expressions were generally shortened by omitting

words ccntcna mllia

the

deciens sestertium, 1,000,000 sesterces,

and sometimes the gen. scstcrlium was detached from these expressions and used as a neuter singular in the sense of 100,000
sesterces: e.g. emT fundiim sestertib undeciens, *I purchased an
estate at the price 0/1,100,000 sesterces

as id.)

The

'

(abl. 438).

maj' be roughly valued at 1 (reckoning the as

thus septem niilia sestertiion or septein sestcrtia = -jo.

Cention
;

sestertii

abbreviation

HS or (better)

IIS stands

for iis{emis).

ABBREVIATIONS
PraenSmina.

= Aulus
= Gains
= Gnaeus
Cn.
= Decimus
D.
= Kaeso
K.
= Lijcius
L.
= Marcus
M.
= Manius
M'.
Mam. = Mamercus
A.
C.

A.U.C. =
=
Aed.
Cos.

Coss.

D.

=
D.D.
D.D.D. =
=
D.M.
=
Des.
F.

HS.

{or

IIS)
Imp.

N.L.

O.M
P.C.

N. or Num.

114

PRINCIPAL PARTS OF VERBS IN ALPHABETICAL

ORDER
xli

In this list compound verbs are inserted under the uncompounded tbrm, e.g. abdo under do. When a verb has several compounds formed exactly in the same way, only one or two of them

are given as examples.

Rules for the formation of the Perfect Active of compounds.

1. The Perf. Act. of the compound has generally the same vowel
as the Perf. Act. of the uncompounded verb, even when the vowel
of the

compound

is

weakened

to a short

premo.
But compounds oiJiaheb, teiico, rapid,
short i of the Present in the Perf. Act.
2.
/ in

Compounds which have

in the

salio,

Present

and

see ago,

statiio retain

weakened vowel other than a

the

short

the Present retain that vowel in the Perf. Act. and Perf. Part.

Pass.

e. g.

claudb, qiiacrb, qnatib.

is generally dropped in the Perf. Act. of compounds, except in those of disco, do, posed, sisto, sto see cado, pellb.
Traces of reduplication are preserved in some compounds with
3.

Reduplication

re-

see recido,

xlii aboleo

rcpellb.

PRINCIPAL FARTS OF VERBS

capio
ac-cipio

ccpl
-ccpl
carpsi
carpere
-cerpsT
-cerpere
cavl
cave re

capere

-cipere

carpo
de-cerpo
caveo
cessT
cedo
ccdere
-cendo not in use
-ceiidi
-cendcre
ac-cendo
censui
censcre
censeo
ere VI
cernere
cerno
-crevi
-cernere
de-cerno
cieo
ex-cio

ciere

cingo
claudo
in-cludo

cingere
claudere

consulere

coquere
coquo
credo see under do
crepare
crepo

kindle
decide
distinguish
decree

rouse

221
221

-crctus

cinxT
clausl
-clusl

-cliidere

congruere

-census

citus
-civl {or -ciT) -citus

colul
colere
comminiscor comininisci commentus

consulo

$204

census

colo

congruo

tnkr
captus
-ccptus receive
pluck
carptus
-ccr^ins pluck off
beware
cautuiii
yield
cessLim

civl

-cTre

congrul
consulul

115

cinctus
clausus
-clusus
cultus

sum

call fortli

surround
shut
shut in
cultivate

devise

coxl

agree
consultus consult
cook
coctus

190

219
183
186

222
198

173
183
194
231
181
194

176
212

crepui

crepitum

creak

cresco

crescere

crevi

cretus

grow (intran. )I78

cubo

cubare

cubul

cubitum

lie

-cubul
cuplvl
cucurri

cupltus

desire

cursum

run

-cumbo not in use

pro-cumbo -cuinbere
cupio
curro
pro-curro

cupere
currere
-currere

delere
dicere
discere
disco
de-disco
-discere
dividere
divido
do
dare
-dare
circum-do
ab-do
-dere
cred-5
-dere
ven-do
-dere

deleo
dico

-curri
-cucurri
dclcvl
dixl
didici
-didici
divlsl

dcdl
-dedl

-cubitum fall forward

212

192
207
200

-cursum

run forward

deletus
dictus

destroy

221

say

learn

176
^79

unlearn
divlsus

divide

datus
-datus

give

210

surround

hide

1 185

trust

sell

-ditus
-ditus
-ditus

-didi
-did!
-didI

doivn

183

210
184
185
222

doceo

docere

docul

doctus

teach

domo

domare

domul

domitus

tame

^212,

dOco
edo

ducere

duxl

lead

esse
em ere
-imere

edi

ductus
esus

eat

emptus

buy, take

emo
ad-imo

promo
sumo
eo
red-eo
ven-eo

-emi
-cml
promere
p romp si

sumere

sumpsi

Ire

il

-Ire

-il

-Ire

-emptus take aivay

promptus take forth
sumptus take up
itum
go
-itum

-il

H 2

return
be sold

\
i^

176
184
196
197
197

243

ii6

PRINCIPAL PARTS OF VERBS

gemo

T17

ii8

PRIN'CIPAL PARTS OF
-pleo )iot ill
coni-pleo

VERBS

list'

plev!
-plcre
-pletus fill up
under sino
posco
poscere
poposcT
postulatus demand
de-posco
-poposcT
-posoerc
demand

pono

119

221

see

possum

sec tinder

sum

prehendd

prehcndcre prchendi

premo

premcre

op-primo
proficiscor

promo

ser

pun go
quaero
re-qu!ro
quatio
con-cutio

queror
queo
quiesco
rado
rapio
d!-ripio

rego

press!
-priniere
-press!
proficisci
profectus

under

prchcnsus^^;-(75/>

186

pressus
press
pressus surprise
sum
set out

231

emo

pungcre

pupug!

punctus

quaercre

quaes!v!

quaes!tus seek

-qu!rere

quatere
-cutere
quer!
qu!re
quiescere
radere
rape re
-ripere

regere

cor-rigo

-rigere

pergo
surgo

pergere
surge re

reor
r!deo
de-r!de6

quassus
-cuss!

questus

-cussus

rapu!
-ripu!

rex!
-rex!

rer!

ratus
r!s!

rodo

S^i99

shake
shatter

quitum

he able

quietus
rasus
raptus
-reptus
rectus

go

^Si78

complain

-rectus

perrex!
surrex!

to rest

scrape
snatch
rule
correct

think

r!sum
-r!sus

-r!s!

234
216

183

hurst

$191
i8r
i8r
226
227

rumpere

rup!

ruere
-ruere
saep!re

ru!
-ru!

ruiturus
-rutus

tumble

saeps!

saeptus

fence in

salio
de-silio

sal!re

salu!

sancio
sapio
sarcio

sanc!re

scisco
scr!bo

sciscere
scr!bere

seco

secare
scdere

ob-sideo

-sidere
sentio
sent!re
con-sentiu
-sentirc
ad-senlior
-sentFri

overivlielm
leap
leap

-silu!

sanctus
sartus

-scensus
scissus

doiK'ii

ratify
be sensible

patch
climb
descend

sc!v!

sc!tus

scrips!

scriptus
sectus

tear
decree
write
cut

sessum

sit

secu!
sed!
-scd!
sens!
-sens!

-sensus

-sessus

sensus

216

deride

gnaiv

rumpo

sapere
sap!v!
sarare
sars!
scandere
scando
scand!
-scendere -scend!
de-scendo
scindere
scindo
scid!

173

laugh

ruo
ob-ruo
saepio

sanx!

206

plunder

rosus
ruptus

-sil!re

SW83
^>

perrectum go on
surrectum arise

sum

ros!

175

205
231
245

sum

qu!v!
quiev!
ras!

prick

-quTs!tus require

-qu!sTv!

r!dere
-ridere
rod ere

sedeo

179

224
207
225

186
186
178
190
$212
^2T7

besiege

feel

226

-scnsum agree

sum

assent

235

I20

PRINCIPAL PARTS OF VERBS

teneo

121

PART

THE SENTENCE AND

I.

250

In Latin, as

two

II SYNTAX

in

PARTS

ITS

English and French, a sentence consists of

The

and the predicate.

parts, the subject

subject

is

the

word or group of words which denotes the person or thing of

which the predicate is said the predicate is all that is said of
the person or thing denoted by the subject
:

Subject

251

rediit.

The army
Labienus
Lab ic mis

returned.

Exercitus

exercitum reduxit.
brought back the ainnv.
salvus et incolumis erat.

The armv

zvas safe

Subject
red!,

Predicate

Exercitus

predicate

rctitni.

may be

In Latin

the

;Y///r;/

soiuid.

contained in a single word

subject

implied by the inflexion of the verb

he returns; redi-mus, av

ami

is

often

redi-s,

you return

redl-tis, j'o?/ nV//r//

expressed or

redi-t,

redeu-nt,

they return.

252

The parts of the

(1) The verb.
A verb may form
Ted.\\i, the

predicate.

the whole of the predicate

army returned Troia

;

the other hand predicates

fuit,

exercitus

Troy JmsJiad its day.

may be expressed

pavidi duces, mllites ducibus infensi, the officers [were\

fied, the )nen \were^^

enraged with

[one shouhi do] nonglit

[can I get]

253

{2)

tum

The

me

to

excess;

the officers;

On

without a verb

terri-

nc quid nimis,

unde mihi lapidem

ivhere

a stone ?

object, governed by the verb

Labiriuis exerci-

reduxit, Labienus brought bach the army.

SYNTAX

124

^54

The

(3)

dicative
(a)

indicating
ject

or pre-

what

the person or thing denoted by the sub-

declared to be, to become, to be made, to be named,

is

or to seem

was

noun

predicative adjective, predicative

pronoun

exercitus salvus et incolumis erat, the

and sound; Ubil vectigales Sueborum

safe

army
flunt,

Ubii become (or are made) tributaries of the Suebt;

Labienus certior fit, Labiemts is informed, lit. becomes (or
silva munlta oppidum a Britannls
is made) more certain

the

wood is called a
ascensus minime arduus videbatur,

vocatur, a fortified

at all steep;

ego

sum, /

is

am

toivn by the
the ascent

(=1 am

he

Britons

seemed not

the person in

question).
{b)

indicating
object

what

person or thing denoted by the

the

declared to be made, or to be

is

omnia tuta reddidit,

Ubios vectigales

named

haec res

rendered everything safe

this

Suebt make the Ubii

faciunt, the

Suebl
tribu-

Labienum certiorem facit, he informs Labienus,

BritannI silvam munilit. makes Labienus more certain
tam oppidum vocant, the Britons call a fortified ivood

taries;

255

toivn.

Predicative adjectives and nouns may be used in sentences

seeming ',
becoming
which do not contain verbs of being
'making', or 'naming': exercitus salvus et incolumis rediit, the army returned safe and sound (this does not mean 'the
safe and sound army returned ', but the army was safe and
'

'

'

',

',

'

sound when

it

returned

')

reduxit, he brought back the

exercitum salvum

army

safe

et

and sound

incolumem
= the army

and sound when he brought it back) naves humiles

naves actuarias fecit, he
built the ships as row-barges; Ubios multo humiliores redegerunt, they rendered (lit. reduced) the Ubii nnich more humble,

was

safe

factae sunt, the ships ivere built low

i.e.
3.

reduced them so that they becante more hutnble (B. G.

4)

men of

iv.

nobilissimos civitatis legates miserunt, they sent the

highest position in the state as delegates

utere, use

me

as a helper.

me

adiijtdre

THE SENTENCE AND

PARTS

ITS

125

Other parts of the sentence.

Any noun

256

sentence ma}' be qualified by an adjective

in the

An

or the equivalent of an adjective.

adjective or adjective

equivalent which merely qualifies and

called an epithet:

aniiy rctiinied (epithet

of the epithet adjective see

257

An

not predicative

is

3.

noun may stand either before or after the noun

The two nouns often form a kind of
compound noun, of which either the first or the second part

may
(i.

epithet

which

to

e.

belongs.

it

be regarded as the epithet

Roman

either the

urbs Roma,

Rome

flunien, the river

An

or

city

King Galba flumen Rhenus,

Galba,

258

is

Rdmanus rediit, ilic Roman

On the ordinary position
adjective).

exercitus

Garomie

fhc city

which ivas a

the river

of

Rome

city)

rex

Garumna

Rhine;

bellator deus, a ivarrior god.

noun which stands after the noun to which it

added as by an afterthought is said to stand
in apposition Galba, rex Suessionum, Galba, the king of the
epithet

belongs and

is
:

Siiessiones.

259

The verb, or any adjective or adverb in the sentence, may

be qualified by an adverb or the equivalent of an adverb
deinde (or proxima hieme) Rhenum transierunt, thereupon
:

(or

in

anno

not remain

of residing

260

next ivinter)

the

uno

in loc5
\

longius
the Rhine
non remanent, tiiey do
longer than a year for the purpose

they

crossed

incolendi causa

in one place

there.

part of a sentence consisting of a group of

lent to a

words equiva-

noun, an adjective or an adverb, and not having

a subject and a predicate of

mllites

its

own,

naves conscendere

is

called a

iubet,

he

phrase

embark (noun phrase, cf. 461).

homines capill5 promisso, men ivitli long
haired

nu'ii

bids the soldiers

hair,

long-

(adjective phrase).

trans Alpes habitant, they divell across

phrase).
Other examples in 259.

the

Alps (adverb

SYNTAX

126
261

part of a sentence consisting of a group of words equiva-

lent to a noun,

ject

an adjective, or an adverb and having a sub-

own

and a predicate of

its

causa transeundl

fuit

is

quod

called a

bello

subordinate clause

premebantur,

the

cause

of their crossing zuas that they ivcre hard pressed by ivar,

or the fad that they luere hard pressed by war was the cause
of their crossing (noun clause).
ea hieme quae secuta est GernianI

non longe a marl quo Rhenus

Rhenum

influit,

/;/

transierunt

the ivinter which

followed the Germans crossed the Rhine not far from the
sea

which

into

(lit.

ivhither)

the

Rhine flows (adjective

clauses).

Caesar,

cum

id

nuntiatum esset, in Galliam Ulteriorem

was reported, Caesar hastened into

contendit, ivhcn this

Further Gaul (adverb clause).

262

sentence containing only one predication

simple sentence

longius anno uno in loco incolendi causa

non

licet,

is

called a

not permitted

it is

to

them

to

remanere

iis

remain longer than

a year in one place for the purpose of residing there}

263

A sentence
called a

consisting of two or more co-ordinate parts

double sentence or a multiple sentence

is

apud eos nihil est, neque longius anno

remanere uno in loco licet, there is no private land

privati agri

among

them, nor are they alloived

a year

in

illi

at

venationibus

'

The

hi in armis sunt,

domi remanent, the latter bear arms, the former remain

home (here the two parts of the double sentence are

not connected by any conjunction)

in

remain longer than

to

one place (double sentence)

hunting:

quae res vires

ivJiich

iv. i.

multum sunt
are

in

much engaged

circumstance increases their strength

instances in this and the

Caesar, B. G.

alit, they

two following

sections arc taken from

THE SENTENCE AND

= el ea

(quae res

of the sentence

ITS

PARTS

127

connecting the two co-ordinate parts

res,

contrast the use of quae in

of the parts of such a sentence

may be

261).

Each

called a co-ordinate

clause.

264

member

Similarly any
multiple

of a sentence

may be double

or

hi atque illi in vicem in armis sunt, Ihc latter and the

former bear arms in turn (double subject) quae res et
vires alit et immani corporum magnitudine homines
;

efficit,

which

circitinstance

both

increases their strength

and makes them tncn of vast bodily size (double predicate)

se atque reHquos alunt, they support themselves and the
gens est maxima et belUcosissima,
and most ivarlike (double predicative
adjective); quae res et cibi genefe et cottidiana exercitatione et libertate vitae vires alit, idiich circumstance
rest (double object);

the tribe is the largest

increases their strength both

and by

their daily exercise

adverbial

(multiple

by the nature of their food

and by

the

qualification)

freedom of their lives

ager privatus ac

separatus, private and separate land (double

265

sentence containing one main predication and one or

more subordinate predications

266

epithet).

is

called a

complex sentence.

All sentences containing a subordinate clause

complex.

261) are

In most complex sentences the part which

subordinate has a subject and a predicate of

main clause

its

is

not

own, and

is

opportiinissima res accidit, quod

called the
German! ad Caesarem sul purgandl causa venerunt, a most
fortunate thing happened, namely that the Germans came to
:

Caesar for the sake of clearing themselves [quod

a noun-clause in apposition to res) ; ii qui trans

non redierant,

those ivho

had gone across

the

vcnerunt

Mosam

is

ierant

Mense had

not

an adjective-clause, qualifying il)

si gravius quid acciderit, abs te ratidnem reposcent, //
anything serious happens they ivill call you to account [si
accident is an adverb-clause, = under certain conditions).
returned

[qici

ierant

is

SYNTAX

128

But

267

some complex sentences containing

in

the rest of the sentence

causa transeundi

is

quod

fuit

a noun-clause

incomplete without the noun-clause

their crossing (subject) ivas

hello premebantur, the cause of

(main verb)

ivar (noun clause, used predicatively)

they were driven by

tliat
;

or the fact that they

by ivar (subject) ivas (main verb) the cause of their

cverc driven

crossing (predicative noun),

268

complex sentence may form one of the co-ordinate parts

opportunissima
( 263)
res accidit, quod Germani ad Caesarem sui purgandi
causa venerunt (complex sentence) quos Caesar retineri
iussit, a most fortunate thing happened, namely that the Germans
came to Caesar for the sake of clearing themselves ; and Caesar
of a double or multiple sentence

ordered them

be detained.

AGREEMENT OF THE PARTS OF THE

SENTENCE WITH ONE ANOTHER

II.

269

to

The parts of the sentence are said

are made like one another in certain

to

'

agree

'

respects.

when they
Agreement

binds them together and shows that they form a unity.

I.

270

Agreement of the verb.

The verb

agrees with the subject in number and person, as

and French

in English

The enemy is running aiuay (sing.).

Hostes fugiunt.
The enemies are running aivay (plur.).
Hostis

Ite,

fugit.

filil,

celebrate exsequias Sclpionis Africanl.

Go,

my

sons, attend the funeral of Scipio Africaniis.

Quem

quaeritis

Troy, ivhom

271

adsum Troius Aeneas.

you are

seeking,

am

Aeneas of

/,

here.

double or multiple subject takes a plural verb

Cicero et Terentia valent.

Cicero

and

Terentia are

ivell

(3rd person).

Tune

et

uxor tua valetis?

Are you and your

(2nd person, because the double subject

ivife ivell?

vbs).

AGREEMENT OF THE

IVVRTS

129

ct uxor niea libcriquc nostri valcnius.

My ivijc and
I and our child) en arc ivcll. (1st person, because the

Ego

= )ius.)

nuiltiple subject

Constructions according to sense.

272

(i)

noun denoting several persons or things niay

singular

take a plural verb

pars so rcccporunt, part (- some of thenij

retired.

273

When

the parts of a double subject are so closely connected

form one idea, the verb may be singular
senatus
populusquc Romanus decrcvit, the senate and Roman people has
(2)

that they

resolved.

274

2.

Agreement

of the predicative adjective and predicative

noun.

The
(as in

noun agree
word of which they are predicated

predicative adjective and the predicative

as far as possible with the

French)'

the pred.

noun

the pred.
in

case

adj. in

gender, number, and case;

Exercitus salvus et incolumis est {or

army

Roma

is (or

returned) safe

Rome

erat caput Italiae.

The

rediit, 255).

and sound.
head

ivas the

[capital)

of

Italy.

Vita rustica magistra parsimoniae

est.

of thrift, {nmgister happens

responding feminine magistra.)

the teacher

Ciceronem populus Romanus consulem

Roman people

safety of the soldiers

sense

is

cf.

life is

have a cor-

creavit.

The

elected Cicero consul.

He

Milites salvos et incolumes praestitit.

sound)

country
to

(lit.

secured the

he secured the soldiers safe and

Cicero, pro leg. Man.

derived from praes and

55.

sto,

'

Praesto

in this

stand surety.'

^ The predicative adj. or noun is only part of what is predicated (see 250).
The agreement of predicative words with the words of which they are

predicated

is

not found in

words unlike

all

languages.

epithets; are uninflected.

In

German,

for

example, predicative

SYNTAX

I30
Licet

iis

incolumibus exire.

unharincd
is

governed by

Administrls ad

than

// is alloivt'd to

here incolumibus

predicated oi

is

to

depart

ils,

which

licet.

ea sacrificia

As

Druidibus utuntur.

agents for those sacrifices they make use of the Druids

here administris is predicated of Druidibus, which is
:

governed by utuntur.
275

So

too with an infinitive

Balbus

civis

Roman

citizen

Cicero dixit

276

Roman

When

cJvis is

civem
be

to

citiwn

Double or multiple
(i)

esse vult.

here

Balbum

declared Balbus

Romanus

Balbus desires

Romanum

= declared

here clvem

to

be

predicated of Balbus.

is

esse.

that

Cicero

Balbus was)

predicated of Balbum.

subject.

a double or a multiple subject consists of words

denoting persons of different sexes^ and the predicate contains

a predicative adjective, the plural adjective is put in the masculine gender, as in

French

mea

Pater mens et mater

salvl sunt.

My father

and

(The double subject = duo homines,

two human beings and homo is always masc.)

mother are
'

well.

',

When

(2)

a double or multiple subject consists of words

of different genders but not denoting persons, and the predicate contains a predicative adjective, the plural adjective either

agrees with the part of the subject which stands nearest to

or

is

put in the neuter gender

Bracchia

modo eorum

it

atque umerl llberl ab aqua erant.

amis and shoulders cvcre free of the water.

somnus similia sunt. Death and sleep are similar

Oiu'y their

Mors

et

(similar things).

277

The

rules given above for predicative adjectives apply also

to verb-adjectives (perfect participles) in

verbs

pater

meus

et

compound

mater mea mortui sunt

tenses of

(capti sunt),

my

AGREEMENT OF THE PARTS

father ivid

iiiy

arc dead [have been taken prisoners)

inollier

Romano consul
Roman people.

Cicero a populo
con SI d by the

278

131

creatus est, Cicero ivas elected

If the subject is a demonstrative, interrogative, or

pronoun, and the predicate contains a predicative noun,
the subject is generally made to agree with the predicative noun,

Peculiarity.

relative

as in French

Hie

This ivas the end of Hannibal's

vitae Hannibalis exitus fuit.

life.

Haec

mea, hac imagines meae.

est nobilitas

my gallery

to nobility, this

of ancestral

This

is

my

title

busts.

Quae est causa ? IVhat is the reason /

Roma, quod caput crat Italiac. Rome, whieh was

the capital

of

Italy.

Sunt item quae appellantur alecs. There are

animals which) are called elks (B. G. vi. 27
agreeing with

279

3.

Agreement

The

is

(/. c.

feni.,

of epithets.

word which

vir bonus,

(jiiae

alces).

epithet adjective agrees in gender,

with the

also ivhat
:

adj.); qui

qualifies

it

a good

man

vir? which

hora est? what o'clock

hie vir, this

man

^'^

is it?

adulescentes quidam, so}ne

man

(demonstrative

(interrogative adj.); quota

(interrogative numeral adj.);

young men

patriam suam relinquit, he

(possessive adj.)

number and case

duo erant

(indefinite adj.);

leaving his native land

is

itinera quibus itineribus

exire posscnt, there were two roads by -which roads they

to march out (relative
camp (verb-adj.).

would have been able

munlta, a fortified

280

If

an epithet adjective qualifies two or

different

genders,

stands nearest to
[a]

signum
seal

it,

et

it

either {a)

or

{b) is

liiore

agrees with the

repeated

manum suam

adj.)

terrae et maria
terrae et maria omnia

r
J

castra

nouns of
noun that

cognovit, he recognized his

and hand ;

omnes

//

(ill

/
j
,,
,, j
aiut
seas.
lands
.

SYNTAX

132

maior

(b)

omnes

The

281

studiumque pugnandi mains, greater

alacritas

keenness

epithet

and

love

of fighting

omnia maria,

terrae et

noun agrees

all

lands and seas.

in case with the

word

to

which

it

belongs

Romam

urbem

pertinet, the forest

Rhine

river

of Rome
Remorum

relinquit, he is leaving the city

Arduenna a flumine Rheno ad

silva

to

of

Ardennes

the

the frontier

of

the

initium

stretches

from

the

Renii [flfimen neut.,

Rlienus masc).

Nouns

in apposition

agrum Helvetiorum,

gentis GalHcae,

vastat, he lays waste the territory of the Helvetii, a Gallic

tribe

Athenas, inventrices artium

et scientiarum, viset,

he will visit Athens, the mother of arts and sciences {inventor happens to have a corresponding feminine inventri.v).

Agreement

4.

of pronouns.^

Pronouns agree in gender and number with the noun or

282
noun-equivalent which denotes the person or thing indicated
in ea (fem. sing.) sunt multa
Silva Hercynia magna est
genera lerarum, quae (neut. plur.) reliquis in locis visa non
sint
ex quibus quae maxime diflferant a ceteris haec sunt.
:

unum

Est bos cervl figura, cuius (masc. sing.) a fronte

exsistit

summo

Eadem
harum est

sicut

diftunduntur.

est

item alces

consimiiis caprls figura.

arbores pro cubllibus

The Hercynian forest

wild beasts, -which

of -which

{i.e.

[i.

c.

is

cornii

palmae ramique
leminae marisque natura. Sunt

ab eius (neut. sing.)

ad eas se applicant
large

in

it

His sunt

(B. G. vi. 25-7).

there are

many

kinds of

kinds) have nut been seen in other places

kinds) those -which differ most

from

the rest

are

There is an ox with the shape of a stag, from

whose forehead springs a single horn : from the top oj this
the following.

The term pronoun

'

',

as used here

indicating adjectives, such as hie in hie

and
vir,

in the
*

this

Accidence, docs not include

man

'

^see

279;.

AGREEMENT OF THE PARTS

Zi'lial

7rsciiib/rs /laiids

and

senr them as beds

283

The appear-

hranc/irs s/nrads out.

ance of the male and of the female

also elks : their shape is like goats (

tliat

they lean against them

There are

same.

the

is

133

(/'.

of goats).
r.

Trees

the trees).

The person or thing indicated by a pronoun is not always

expressed by a noun or noun-equivalent in the sentence or
sometimes the speaker has a person or thing in
context
;

mind without mentioning

Ei qui

it

Those

statione erant interfecti sunt.

in

{i.e.

men) who were on sent?y duty -were killed.

Ea quae acciderant nuntiant. They report the things
had happened.
Caesarl

cum

that fact)

had been

they iverc attempting to

hastens

284

to set

The pronoun

'which

id nuntiatum esset, eos per provinciam iter

IVhcn that

facere conarl, maturat ab urbe proficiscT.

{i. c.

the

out

reported

to

Caesar, namely that

march through

the province, he

from Rome.

ego indicates the person speaking,

be male or female

who may

nos indicates the person speaking and

him/ and you or / and he

and vos indicate the person or persons spoken
The gender of these proto, who may be male or female.
accordingl}'
nouns varies

other persons associated with

{she, they)

tfi

nunc servus sum. Ego te [masc.)

/ have been free ; noiv I am a slave.
/ will guarantee you free.
Ful ego (/c/;/.) libera; nunc serva sum. Ego te {fem.)

Ful ego {masc.) liber

llberum praestabo.

llberam praestabo.

285

number
word of which they are predicated

Predicative pronouns agree not only in gender and

but also in case with the

Tune
did

is es, qui fecistl?

it

Ego

is

sum.

Are you

he -who

/ am he.

Tune ea
who did

es,
it

quae

fecistl?

/ am she.

Ego

ea sum.

Are you

she

SYNTAX

134

286

The relative pronoun agrees, like an}' other pronoun, in

gender and number with the noun or noun-equivalent which
denotes the person or thing indicated. This noun or nounequivalent is generally found in another clause of the sentence,
and is called the antecedent of the relative; see some examples
in 282.
The case of the relative depends on the construction
of the clause in which it stands, just as the case of other pronouns depends on the part which they pla}' as subject, object,
the sentence

&:c., in

/quae ad portum ferebant.

Zi'/iic/i

led to the harbour.

quas hostes sine

ivhicJi the riiniiv

quarum una
Duas

He

vias occupavit

custodils rellquerant.

had hft unguarded.

angusta

erat.

of which one ivas narrozv.

quibus nullae custodiae praesidio re-

seized the two roads

lictae erant.
to

which no sentries had been

left

as a

protection.

quibus hostes exierant.

by ivhich the enemy had marched out.
in quibus nullae custodiae erant.

Haec

me

///

ivhicli tlicre zvere

beneficia habetis,

no

sentries.

quem proditionis insimulatis.

whom you accuse of treachery.

These benefits you have from me,

The

287
as

its

always to be regarded as of the same /'n\w;/

antecedent the person of the relative is shown by the
relative

is

verb of the relative clause,

Ego, qui

tc

when

confirmo, ipse

the relative

is

the subject

me non possum.

/,

ivho

am

reassuring you, cannot reassure myself (Cicero).

luppiter, ingentes qui das adimisque dolores.

who

dost

Sat.

ii.

3.

inflict

288.

and

take

away great

O Jupiter,

sufferings.

lor.

AGREEMENT OF

PARTS

TFIE

135

Obs. If the antecedent is a predicative noun or predicative pronoun, it is generally treated as of the same person as tlie subject
of the main clause:

Sum

pius Aeneas, raptos qui ex hoste penates classe veho

mecum.
fled

Non
is

my

/ am the faithftd Aeneas, ivlio cany

household gods rescued from the enemy

is

sum

to

be

'

one

See other examples

by

id,

'that

';

i.

in

it

who
the

'

my

378.

in 285.

refers

to

the whole statement of

stands in the neuter singular (often preceded

so in French cc qui), or agrees with res inserted

in the relative clause

Ex

me

Aen.

/ am not one
by the danger of death
in Enghsh
is treated as of the 3rd person.

pronoun

relative

If a

another clause,

qui mortis perTculo terrear.

terrified

antecedent

288

ivith

Caesaris dierum quindecim supplicatio dC-creta

quod (or id quod) ante id tempus accidcrat null!. As

litterls

est,

a result of the dispatch of Caesar a public thanksgiving

of fifteen days ivas decreed a thing ivhich had not hap-

pened

to

any one before

that time.

Flumen Axonam exercitum

traduxit
quae res omnia
ab hostibus reddebat. He crossed the riverAisne:
ivhich manoeuvre rendered everything safe from the enemy.
:

tuta

These are double sentences

263).

Relative clauses without any antecedent expressed

289

common
qiiod

in

Latin

qui

is qui,

are

'he who,' French celui qui;

id quod, 'that which' or 'what',

French

ce qui; quJ-

cumque, 'whoever,' French quiconque. Compare in English

Who steals my purse steals trash (Shakespeare).* In such
'

'

cases the relative pronoun agrees in gender and

the antecedent which the speaker has in

Qui ex
'

is

ils

novissimus convenit,

relative clause of this kind

equivalent to a noun

(' //

in

mind

number with

conspectu multitudinis

tnlaeii togetlicrivilli ils iiiie.xfHrsscd

who

steals

my

purse'

aiitecedcut

'a pickpocket')

the relative clause alone should not be spoken of as a noun-clausc.

but

SYNTAX

136

He

necatur.

ivho is the last to present himself, is put to

death in the sight of the multitude.

Feras, non culpes, quod mutarl non potest.^

put up
(=:

ivith,

not find fault

One should

ivhat cannot he altered

ii<ith,

'What can't be cured must be endured

quam petlstis facultatem. You have

').

Habetis

you sought

that

Quos

7vhat chance

(lit.

poterat saucios

secum

you

He

duxit.

zvounded men he could (supply dvicere

men he

took ivith him what

whatever wounded

signis occurrerant se adgregabant.

joined ivhatever standards they happened

The

relative

English

in

Hie non
1

is

pronoun

e.g.
est

century

'This

quem

Piiblilius Syrus,

(first

chance

could take).

Quibuscumque

290

the

sought).

B.C.).

is

is

never omitted
not the

man

to

Hiey

find.

in Latin, as

it

often

is

saw yesterday', Latin

herl vidl.

a writer of mimes, contemporary with Julius Caesar

137

MOODS AND TENSES

III.

THE INDICATIVE MOOD

291

The Indicative mood relates to a matter of fact ( 126).

Examples of the Indicative in the various kinds of sentence
and clause are given

520-33.

in

Tenses of the Indicative

The
292

Present.'

In verbs which denote an act as distinct from a state the

Present marks the act as either going on or

Jiabitiial at

the

time of speaking

librum

scrlbit, liv is

speaking Latin

Latin

wri/ing a booh; Latlne loquitur, he

loquiturne

Latlne

is

he speaking

?.

libros scrlbit, he ivrites books (habitually)

he speaks Latin;

Latin

is

?,

Latlne loquitur,

loquiturne Latlne?, does he speak

?.

In verbs which denote a state as distinct from an act the

Present

is

generally translated by a non-continuous form of

the English Present

est,

he is; habet, he has; amat, he loves;

estne

293

?,

is

he ?

amatne

?,

does he love

scit,

he knoivs;

?.

Special uses.
(!)

In connexion with adverbial expressions of 'time

the Present denotes what has

t)een

going on up

how

long'

to the time of

speaking

muJtos annos librum scrlbit, hr has been ivriling a book for many
years iam diu Romac habito, I have been living at Rome for
demeure a Rome depiiis longtemps.
a long tin\e French
;

'

The

Latin Present

y'l-'

Indicative

has the same meanings as

Present Indicative (Trench Grammar, 292,

293").

tlie

French

SYNTAX

136

He

necatur.

zvho is

tlie

last to

present himself,

is

put

to

death in the sight of the ninltitnde.

Feras, non culpes, quod inutari non potest,^

put up

{= 'What can't
Habetis quam petTstis
you sought

that

Ouos

facultatem.

tvhat chance

(lit.

Yott

you

He

poterat saucios secuni duxit.

ivounded men he could (supply ducere

men he

The

relative

English

Hie non
^

century

'This

is

is

quern heri

Piiblilius Syrus,

(first

chance

took zvith him what

whatever wounded

signls occurrerant se adgregabant.

pronoun

e.g.

is est

the

sought).

joined ivhatever standards they happened

in

have

altered

could take).

Quibuscumque

290

One should

what cannot be
be cured must be endured ').

with, not find fault ivith,

B.C.).

never omitted
not the

man

Hiey

to find.

in Latin, as

it

often

is

saw yesterday', Latin

vidl.

a writer of mimes, contemporary ^vith Julius Caesar

137

MOODS AND TENSES

III.

THE INDICATIVE MOOD

The

291

Indicative

mood

relates to a matter of fact

126).

Examples of the Indicative in the various kinds of sentence

and clause are given in 520-33.

Tenses of the Indicative

The
292

Present.'

In verbs which denote an act as distinct from a state the

Present marks the act as either going on or habitual at the
time of speaking

librum

scrlbit,

he

is ivritiiig

speaking Latin
Latin

a book-, Latlne loquitur, he

loquiturne

Latlne

lie

is

speaking

?.

libros scrlbit, he writes books (habitually)

he speaks Latin;

Latin

is

?,

Latlne loquitur,

loquiturne Latlne?, does he speak

?.

In verbs which denote a state as distinct from an act the

Present

is

generally translated by a non-continuous form of

the English Present

est,

he

293

he has; amat, he loves;

is; habet,

estne

?,

?5 lie

amatne

?,

does he love

scit,

he knoivs;

?.

Special uses.
(i)

In connexion with adverbial expressions of 'time

the Present denotes what has

speaking

l)een

going on up

how

to the

long'
time of

multos annos librum scrlbit, 7/^' has l)een tvn'ting a book for nitinv
years iam diu Romae habito, / have l)ee)i lii'ini^ at Rouw for
a long time French yV' demeiire a Rome depuis loni^temps.
;

Tlie Latin Present Indicative has the same meanings as the French
Present Indicative (French Grammar, 292, 293").
'

SYNTAX

138

The Present

(ii)

is

sometimes used

in vivid

narration of past

events (as in English and French), to represent the actions

picturesquely, as if they were going on at the time of speaking
(Historic Present)
:

Caesar acceptls litterTs statim nuntium ad Crassum mittit

iubet media nocte proficisci celeriterque ad se venire.
Exit

cum nuntid Crassus. Scrlbit Labieno, sT

modo facere possit, cum legione veniat.

rel publicae

com-

After receiving the

dispatch Caesar immediately sends a messenger to Crassus, bids

him

midnight and come

him qitickly. Crassus sets

To Lahicnus he ivrites that if
he be able to do so to the advantage of the state, he is to come ivitli
his legion
B. G. v. 46. In this example the Historic Present
is treated as a tense of present time
but it sometimes takes
the sequence of a past tense.
Thus Caesar might have
start at

to

out together with the messenger.

written posset, 'should be able,' for possit, 'shall be able,'

and

ventret,

'

he was

to come,' instead of veniat,

he

'

is

to

come,'

The Past
The

294

Imperfect.^

Past Imperfect (or Past Continuous) tense

in the past,

i.e. it

is

a Present

has the meanings of the Present tense trans-

Thus in verbs which denote an act, it

marks the act as either going on or habitiial at some time in
the past which the speaker has in mind or which is referred
ferred to past time.

to in the context

librum scrlbebat, he ivas ivritiug a book

batur, he
7i>as

Latlne loquc-

was speaking Latin; loquebaturne Latlne?,

he speaking Latin

Hbros scrlbebat, he
loquebatur,

lie

?.

zvrote

spoke

(= used

to write) books;

used to speak) Latin

baturne Latlne?, did he speak (-used he

Latin

to

Latinc
loque-

speak)

?.

Latin Past Imperfect Indicative has in general the same meanings

French Past Imperfect (French Grammar, 294, 296) but it is not
used like the French Past Imperfect in //"-clauses which refer to present or
future time (French Grammar, 295, 315).
1

The

as the

THE INDICATIVE MOOD

139

In verbs which denote a state the non-continuous form of

the English Past

had; amabat,

//r

generally used

is

/orvr/;

sciebat,

Homines nomen horum

//^'

erat,

he was; habebat,

lie

/v/rrc.

amabant.

People

loved

the

of these )neu: Cicero, pro Sestio, 105; the time

which they loved is expressed in a previous sen-

fianie
at

tence

295

The

illls

temporibus,

///

those days.

Past Imperfect sometimes marks an act as attempted

or begun

BritannI nostros intra munitiones ingredl prohibebant.

The Britons

tried to (or

began

to)

prevent our

men from

entering ivithin the fortifications.

Special use.

296

In connexion with adverbial expressions of time how long' the

Past Imperfect denotes what had been going on up to some point
of time in the past (of. 293 (i))

iam diu librum scrlbebat, he had been tcriting a booh for a long
time: domiciliimi ibi multos iam annos habebat, //^ //a<^/ //rrr/
his home there for many years
French, // demeiirait la depuis
;

plusieiirs ans.

The
297

The Future

Future.'

tense marks the action of the verb as about to

take place after the time of speaking:

librum scrlbam (scribes,

write a book

sciam

scrlbet),
(scies,

/ shall {yon

sciet),

he

will,

shall [yon

ivill)

a'///,

he

will) kno'a'.

298

substitute for the Future, sometimes used with special

meanings,

is

formed by snni with a Future Participle

librum scriptQrus
sure
1

to H'lite,

The Latin Future

est,

he

is

about

to

:i<rite

[likely to ivrite,

bent on ivriling) a book.

Indicative lias the

same meanings

Future Indicative (French Grammar, 297-9).

as the French

SYNTAX

I40

The

Past tense of

sum with

meaning of a Future

the

Hbrum
The

to ivrite,

original

a Future Participle expresses

in the past

scripturus erat,

sure

299

was about

Jie

to ivrite [likely to write,

bent on luriting) a book.

meaning of the Future. Most (or all) Latin Futures

some of their uses show traces

are derived from Subjunctives/ and

of their Subjunctive origin,
be done, as distinct

/. e.

from what

express what

ivill

is to he

done or shall

be done; see Subjunctive,

318

f.

Statements

[a) in

nonam

Post

come)

Compare

reddes.

Hunc

You

venies.

after the ninth

come (= come or you must

Hor. Epist. i. 7. 71 so too 1. 27

shall

hour

Subjunctive,

321, note.

onustum, accipies secura

thou shalt one day welcome
heaven, laden ivith the spoils of the East he
the voice of prayer: Aen. i. 289 f. (a promise).

tu olim caelo, spoliis Orientis

Him

vocabitur hie quoque votls.

light

of heart

to

too shall listen to

Questions

[b) in

Nil ergo optabunt

homines

Shall men then pray for nothing?

Juv. X. 346.

The
300

The
(i)

Perfect tense

used

in

two w^ays

way the

i.e.

as a tense of present time.

When

used in

Perfect describes an action of the past as affecting

the doer at the time of speaking

librum scripsit, he has ivritten

he is in the position of having ivritten a book; servus
have been a slave = I am in the position of having been
:

a book
ful, I

^:

as a Present Perfect, like the English Present Perfect

with 'have',
this

is

Perfect.

a slave.

Vixl

et

quern dederat cursum Fortuna peregl.

On

this

point further information will be found in

Historical Latin

with 'shall'

is

Grammar,

p. 97.

The

/ have

lived

Lindsay's Sliort

English Future Indicative formed

properly an expression of obligation, like the Subjunctive.

Indicative was also originally akin to an expression of

The French Future

obligation

je doinicrai

=--

je donner-ai,

'

have

to give.'

same two uses as tiie French Perfect. The

main difference between Latin and French is that Latin has no separate
Past Historic tense (^French Grammar, 301, 302).
2

The Latin

Perfect has the

THE INDICATIVE MOOD

and have run
Aen.

653.

iv.

141

my destiny had assigned me

Romaiios suis flnibus recipiat

the course wliicli

Ne qua civitas

mc provlsum est. / have taken steps to secure that no state

admit the Romans ivithin their territory B. G. vii. 20. 12.
Mihi quidem Scipio, quamquam est subito ereptus, vivit
a

shall

tamen semperque vivet virtutem enim amavl illlus viii, quae

non est. Although Scipio has been suddenly taken
from me, yet for )nc he lives and will always live ; for I have
loved his noble qualities, and they have not perished Cic. de
Aniic. 102.
Il the speaker had been referring to some past
time at which he loved Scipio, he would have used the Past
;

exstincta

amdbam

Imperfect

Obs.

action of the verb

day =
ended

294).

In special contexts the Perfect

my
;

life is

over and done with

is

may suggest
vixl,

over; dixl, / have spoken

fuimus Trocs,

fuit

that the

/ have had my

= my

speech

is

Ilium et ingcns gloria TeucrOrum,

we are Trojans no more (i.e. our existence as a nation is over),

Ilium is no more and the great glory of the Trojans Aen. ii. 325.
:

301

(2)

more commonly as a Past Historic, i.e. as a tense of

marks the action of the verb as having taken

past time which

place before the time of speaking, without describing

it

as

doer at the time of speaking Hieme annl post

urbem conditam uccii Caesar commentarios suos de bello

alTecting the

Gallico scripsit, Caesar -wrote his notes of the Gallic ivar in the
In this
winter of the year 702 after the foundation of Ronu\

use the Latin Perfect corresponds to the English Past tense.

Observe that scripsit could not here be translated has written ',
'

as in

300

for that

would mean

'

Caesar

time) in the position of having written'.

position

is (at

He

'was

the present

once

in that

but that idea would be expressed not by the Perfect

but by the Past Perfect (scripserat).

The meaning of the Perfect as a Past Historic diflers still

more from the meaning of the Past Imperfect, which marks
the action of the verb as going on or habitual at the time

spoken of

294)

hieme anni post urbem conditam dccii

SYNTAX

142

Caesar commentarios suos scribebat, in the winter of the year

702 Caesar was writing his notes hieme Caesar commentarios
suos scribebat, Caesar used generally to write his notes in the
;

winter

The

302

after the conclusion of a

(i.e.

Perfect as a Past Historic

narrative,

where

it

is

used

campaign

specially

is

to recount a

summer).

in the

number

common

in

of past actions

which took place in succession (one after the other). Here the
Perfect answers the question What happened next?, whereas
the Past Imperfect is used of actions going on at the time
In the Perfect the narrative advances, in the Past

indicated.

stands still Ad extremum agrls expulsi Usipetes

Rhenum pervenerunt, quas regiones Menapil incolebant.

Imperfect

ad

it

Hi ad utramque ripam

fluminis agros

habebant

sed tantae

multitudinis adventu perterriti

ex ils aedificiis quae trans

flumen habuerant demigraverant, et Germanos transire prohibebant. IllI omnia experti, cum transire non possent,
reverti se in suas sedes simulaverunt, et trldul viam progress! rursus reverterunt, atque inoplnantes Menapios oppresserunt. At last the Usipetes, driven from their lands,
arrived at the Rhine, the territory ivhich the Menapii inhabited
[i. e.

at that time).

The

latter

possessed

(at that

time) lands on

both banks of the river ; but having been frightened by the arrival

of so great a nudtitude they had removed from the buildings

ivhich they had had on the east of the Rhine, and ivere trying
to

prevent

the

Germans

{i. e.

the

Usipetes)

from

crossing.

The Germans, having tried every device, as they zuere not able
(Past Subjunctive used like Past Imperfect Indie.) to cross,
thereupon pretended that they were returning to their own homes,

and then, after proceeding a three days' journey, came back again
and took the unsuspecting Menapii by surprise B. G. iv. 4.
:

303

The Perfect Passive

Perfect

is,

according to

Usipetes expulsi sunt,

lit.

its

form, a Present

the Usipetes are driven out

(=are in the position of having been driven out). But it

came to be used also as a Past Historic: expulsi sunt, they
were driven out

(cf.

Accidence,

153).

THE INDICATIVE MOOD

The Past
304

The

143

Perfect.'

Past Perfect tense marks the action of the verb as

some time in the past which the speaker

mind or which is referred to in the context: libnmi
scripserat antecjuam Roma discessit, he had ivrittcn the book
before he left Rome.
alrcad}' completed at

has

in

Ex

iis

quae trans Rhenum habuerant demigraThey had removed from the biiiUiings ivhich

aedificils

verant.
they

had had on

the other side

of the Rhine (quoted

in

302).

The Future
305

The Future

Perfect.'

Perfect tense marks the action of the verb as

already completed at some time in the future which the speaker

has

in

mind or which

is

referred to in the context

librum

ante flnem hiemis scripserit, he will have written the book before
the

306

end of

The

the winter.

Fut. Perf. is found chiefly in subordinate clauses

Quicquid feceris, approbabo. Whatever you do (lit. shall

have done), I shall think right.
De Carthagine vererl non ante desinam quam illam excisam esse cognovero. / shall not cease to be alarmed
about Carthage until I have learned (lit. shall have learned)
that it is razed to the ground
Cic. de Sen. 18.
:

307

Often accompanied by a Fut. Perf.

Praeclare vixero,

si

in

the main clause

quid mihi acciderit priusquam hoc

I shall have lived gloriously

tantum mall videro.

(lit.

if anything shall

(lit.

shall

have seen)

have happened

this

to

if I die

me) before I see

great disaster happen

Cic.

pro

Mil. 99.

The

Latin Past Perfect has the same meanings as the ist Past Perfect

of French.

The

Future Perfect.

Latin Future Perfect has the same meanings as the French

SYNTAX

144

308

Sometimes the

Fut. Perf. denotes the future position which

from a completed action, or what will be found to
have happened
will result

Adulescens senem vicero. /, a young nuin, shall be in

the position of having overcome (or shall be found to have
overcome) an old man Livy xxviii. 44. 18.
:

309

Special uses.

Sometimes the Fut. Perf. expresses no distinct idea of comand may then be translated by the English Future so

(i)

pletion,

especially in Plautus and Terence

(ii)

The

Fut.

Perf

with shall meaning

Quam
be

abierS,

sometimes used,

shall depart.

like the

Future

( 299),

Statements

(a) in

is

Hmu far

id recte faciam, viderint sapientcs.

right in doing so,

it

is

philosophers shall consider)

for philosophers

de Amic,

Cic.

to

I should

consider

(lit.

10.

Questions

{b) in

OcciConiugiumque domumque patris natosque videbit

dent ferro Priamus
Troia arserit igni ? Shall Priam have
And
/alien by the sword
bhall Troy have been burned
shall Helen see her husband and the home of her father and her
children? {i.e. shall Helen return home after Priam has been
slain and Troy burned ?)
Aen. ii. 579, 581.
?

.^

.^

But the Romans did not always distinguish between the Fut.
Perf Indie, and the Perfect Subjunctive (cf 299), except in the
1st person singular.

COMPARISON OF ENGLISH AND LATIN TENSES

IN CERTAIN SUBORDINATE CLAUSES
310

(i)

Where

English uses the Present tense in subordinate

Future

clauses referring to future time, the Future or the

Perfect

is

generally used

in

Latin

Quid animi consanguineis

^
:

nostris

erit, si

cadaveribus decertare cogentur?

1

paene

What

in ipsis

ivdl be

the

Often, however, the Pres. Indie, after antcqiiam and pnusquain (as in
For the use of a prospective
Aen. iv. 27, and frequently in Cicero

Virg.

1.

Subjunctive in subordinate clauses see 339, 340.

ENGLISH AND LATIN TENSES

/tr/iiigs

forced)

145

of our kinsiiicn if they arc forced (lit. sJiall he

over our very corpses? B. G. vii. 77.

to fight

Si gravius quid acciderit, abs te ratidneni reposcciit.

any disaster occurs

(lit.

deiiuvuf a rec/coniug at
311

(2)

The

s/ia//

have occurred), they

your Imnds

B. G.

v.

//
will

30.

tense used in subordinate clauses to denote an

action which had taken place before

some other

action of the

past depends on the subordinating conjunction emplo3'ed

postquaiu, posted(]uaui, ubi, ut, sinuil atquc

Perfect Indicative

The

commonly

take the

cuui the Past Perfect Subjunctive

354).

tenses employed in English are the Past and the Past

Perfect

Quod

ubi Caesar animadvertit, naves longas remls inci-

tari iussit.

When

Caesar observed

ships of ivar to be set in motion by

this,

he ordered the

means of oars.

Hostes, simul atque se ex fuga receperunt, legiltos de

pace miserunt.

As

soon as the eneniy recovered after

their /light, they sent envoys to treat about peace,

Posteaquam equitatus noster in conspectum venit {or Cum

equitatus noster in conspectum vcMiisset), hostes terga
verterunt.
After {When) our cavalry came {had come)
in sight, the enemy fed.
312

(3)

Dum

'while' frequently takes the Present Indicative

(Historic Present, 293.

Dum

ii)

in narrative:

haec geruntur, qui erant in agrls discesserunt.

this ivas going on (lit. is going on), those ivho zvere

Whik'

in the fields departed.

SYNTAX

148

{A)

319

WHAT

SUBJUNCTIVES DENOTING
TO BE DONE

IS

These subjunctives express the meanings of the English

verb 'shall

(obligation

and futurity)/

In Simple Sentences and

I.

The

'

Pres, Subj. denotes what

Question. Quid faciam

^
shall I do ?

is to

W/iaf

Main Clauses.

be done

am I to do?

Answer. Invenias argentum, Yoii

(= you must find the mone}^).

The
done

to

fmd the nwney

is to

camp.

Past and the Past Perf. Subj. denote what ivas to be

Nonne argentum redderem ? Was I not to

money? (= ought I not to have paid back

Question.

pay hack
the

the

money

?)

Non

Answer.

You ought not

redderes.

back (you were not to pay

At

to

Eadem me ad
to

When

it

Albane, maneres.

tu dictis,

have kept

320

arc

or Uliat

Thcfonmi, I suppose,

Cedat, opinor, forum castrls.

(or must) yield to the

thy

word: Aen.

fata vocasses.

share your fate

Aen.

iv.

to

have paid

it

back).

But thou, Alban,

viii.

should' st

643.

You should have

called

me

678.

is to be done by the person addressed

by the speaker, the statement becomes
and in
equivalent to a command, request, entreaty, or wish
these cases the subjunctive, if negatived, is negatived by ne,

the thing that

or spoken of

is

desired

like the imperative

315).

^
The verb 'shall' originally denoted obligation [I shall = I owe or I avi
under an obligation) and in some uses it still expresses this idea, as in Thou
But in other uses it has come to denote merelj' future
shall not steal.
;

time, especially in the ist person.

THE SUBjL'NCTIVK MOOD

The Present Subjunctive in desires
Ne sini salvus, sT aliter scribd ac

321

if

otiicnvisc than

ivritc

149

refers to future time

May

sentio.

I think (Cicero).

I perish,

Sis

felix.

Be prosperous [C?ii\x\\ws). Di tibi praemia digna ferant.

605. These
God grant thee a fitting reward Aen.
i.

compare the English and the French

are wishes;
subjunctive in

God save

RepHblique.

Utinam

la

times added

may

Utinam

day

see that

the

King, Dieii

ilium

originally

(originally

voiis be'nissc,

how ?

'

diem videam.

O
I

to see

am

how, pray,

'

I 'ii'c

somethat I

is

')

'

day ?
Exeant
ne patiantur Catillnam tabescere.
that

Let them

depart
Cat.

hi them not suffer Catiline

ii.

This

6.

is

command

pine aioay

to

Cic.

compare the French

subjunctive in qtiils portent}

Proinde hos latrones interficiamus.

kill these

robbers

B. G.

vii.

38.

Accordingly

Sequamur

Let us follow

ventos et Gnosia regna petamus.

us

let

placemus
let

us

appease the -winds and make for the realms of Crete

Aen. iii. 114 f.
These are requests addressed to

a group of persons in which the speaker

Compare

the English subjunctive in

our marriage

(Shakespeare),

'

perative, ist pers. plur., in tuons

322

Ne

us

kill

commands (cf. 316)

Hiberum nusquam te vestlgio
;

not cross (or

You

move anywhere from

shall not cross) the

the

spot:

Livy

The 2nd person, sing, and plur., of the Pres.

much used in classical Latin, except in poets

not

this use is

very

plur.,

Aen.

common

vi.

406

f.

.Siibj.

moverls.

Ebro

xxi.

do not

This

44.

denoting

command

at

but in Latin of the classical period

commands,

requests, and entreaties in the 2nd person are generally expressed

imperative.

is

ramuni hunc agnoscas,

In old Latin (Plautus and Terence)
:

yet recognise this branch

im-

'.

negative

in

transierls

Do

let

included.

French

and the
'

is

Prepare we for

he Perfect Subjunctive, 2nd person sing, and

sometimes used

is

'

b}-

the

SYNTAX

15

usage

323

is fairly

common

The
ntmam

in

than

actuall}' is or was.^

it

and

Past and the Past Perfect Subjunctive are used with

wishing that something were or had been otherwise

Utinam

adesset.

Utinani adfuisset.

O that he ivcrc here; cf. Aen.

O that he had been there.

575.

i.

In Subordinate Clauses.

2.

324

in Cicero's letters, in Livy,

Seneca.

in

Most of the above uses of the subjunctive in simple sentences

and main clauses cannot occur in historical narrative hence
they are not found in Caesar's Gallic War.
But in sub;

ordinate clauses subjunctives denoting what is (or zvas)

done are exceedingly common in all writers.'^
They
generally be translated

to

be

may

by 'shall' or 'should' with the

infinitive.

In

(rt)

The

325

Noun

conjunction

is

employed

what

is (or

was)

to

is

that in

which no

Complex sentences containing

(i)

to

Clauses.

simplest form of subordination

be done

dependent question as

Quid faciam nescio. JVhat I am to do I dont knoiv.

This sentence is formed out of two simple sentences
quid faciam? ivhat am I to dor' ( 319); nescio, /
don't knoiv.
^ Compare the use
of these tenses in 319 (last two examples). A
sentence denoting what ought to have been easily passes into an expression
of wish that something had been
e. g. manaes (Aen. viii. 643) might in
:

another context mean would that yo\x had remained ', and vocasses (Aen.
In some passages it
678) might mean 'would that you had called'.
'

doubtful which

'

is

Compare
intended (e.g. Aen. x. 854, xi. 162).
My poor father should have been
should in wishes

meaning

in English the use of

iv.

is

'

'

here.'
^

It

was from the frequent use of tlie subjunctive

mood got its name (= subjoining).

that the

in

subordinate clauses

THE

Quid faccrem nesciebani.

knoiv

/ did

nesciebani,

not

I n.'as
mis I

IF/iaf

quid facereni ?

c.

i.

MOOD

SLIBJUNCTI\'E

h'/iaf

151
do, I

to

lo

do

-^

didnt

319)

hiioiv.

Sortibus consultuni est utrum igni statini necaretur an

Lots were cast as to

allud tenipus reservaretur.

sliotild be {ivas to

III'

for another occasion

be)

burned

B. G.

Complex sentences containing

(ii)

Caesar huic imperat adeat

the order he is to

the states ( 321)

are

326

come

to

'

the

]\Iind

Caesar gives him

civitates.

approach

is to

Caesar gives him

subjunctive in

a dependent statement

approach the states

adeat civitates, he

him approach

mediately or reserved

53.

i.

of obligation or a dependent desire

ii 11

in

iv/ict/icr

B. G.

21

you come'

i.

or

e.

let

Caesar huic imperat,

Compare

order.

iv.

the states ( 319)

'

Bear

the
in

English

mind, you

'.

But dependent statements of obligation and

dependent

desires are generally introduced by the subordinating con-

junction ut

'

that'

Caesar huic imperat

ut civitates adeat.

the order that he is to

approach the

Caesar gives him

states.

Hortatur ut popull RomanI fidem sequantur.

them

to

under
It

is

place themselves

(lit.

the protection of the Roman people: B. G. iv. 21.

not true to say that in this construction ut takes

the subjunctive

the real fact

is

that the subjunctive

clause in this construction takes ut 'that

327

He exhorts

that they shall place themselves)

'.

Noun clauses which express that something is not to be

done are introduced by ne not which in English is transnot
lated by that
Inerat ne proelium committeret.
praeceptum
Labicno
not
(hat
he
should
to
Labienns
given
had
been
structions
sometimes
is
An
ut
22.
join
battle
to)
B.
G.
not
{was
'

',

'

'

added

(///

i,

ne for ne).

Litteras misit ne eos fruniento neve alia re iuvarent.

He


SYNTAX

152
scj//

nor

Noun

328

dispatcJi that ilicy

ivitli

anything

else

were not
B. G.

noun-equivalent

com

to assist t/iciii ivit/i

= and not).

26 (neve

clauses denoting that something

done depend either on a verb

329

i.

(or

is

not) to be

is

329-32), or on a

noun or

333).

Depending on verbs of 'asking', 'bidding', 'trying',

and the like.
The corresponding English
verbs more commonly take an infinitive with to
(i)

'

bringing about

',

'

'

Petunt ut Mandubracium defendat.

defend [They ask him

Orabant

to

TJiey ask that

defend) Alanditbraciiis

Jie
:

shall

B. G.

They begged
Labieno
imperat {or dicit or scrlbit) ut quam plurimas naves
instituat.
He gives orders (or says or ivrites) to Labienus

V. 20.

ut sibi auxilium ferret.

that he should bring

tliat

he

build as

is to

them aid: B. G.

16.

iv.

many ships as possible

B. G. v. 11

Senatus censuerat ut Caesar Haeduos defenderet. The

Senate had resolved that Caesar was to protect the
Hacditans B. G. i. 35. Haec ab Ariovisto postulavit

primum ne Germanos amplius trans Rhenum traduceret

deinde obsides Haeduorum redderet, Sequanls;

que permitteret ut obsides redderent neve Haeduls

bellum inferret. This is what he demanded ofAriovistiis:
first, that he should not bring Germans across the Rhine
any more ; secondly, he was to send back the hostages of
the Haedui and give permission to the Sequant that they
;

and

lie 'was not to make

35. Dabat operani {or
Id agebat) ut in officio Dumnorlgem contineret. He ivas
trying to keep Dumnorix to his duty: B. G. v. 7.
NullI

should send back hostages

zvar upon the

Haedui:

cf.

B. G.

that

i.

clvitati

persuader! potuit ut

state could be
1

is

persuaded

The only Latin verbs which

to be

to

Rhenum

cross

(lit.

that

it

should cross)

ordinarily take an infinitive to denote

what

done are verbs of 'willing' (volo, nolo, nialo, cupio), iubeC, 1

bid,

and the similar verbs of negative

veto, I Jorbid, and often ^roh'ibcQ, I prevent see 459, 465.

sino, patior, / permit, cogo, / compel,

meaning

No

transirct.

OplO, / ask, I

desire,

takes cither construction.


Till-:

SL'HjLJNCriVK

Rhine: B. G.

the

IVIOOl)

153

55. Duninorix a Scquanis imDuniSeqnani that they shall allow the

v.

petrat ut per fines suos Helvetios Ire patiantur.

norix prevails on the

Helvetii to pass through their territory

liifficiani

bring

it

quemquam voce

posthac ne

Noun

(ii)

iii.

9.

i.

about that you shall not ehallengc any one

hereafter: Virg. Eel.

330

B. G.

lacessas.

ivill

sing

to

51.

clauses depending on verbs of

'

forbidding', 'pre-

and resisting '. These clauses are introduced by ne,

In English no
because they denote what is not to be done.
negative is required if the clause is translated by a verbnoun
Interdlcit Cassivellauno ne Mandubracio neu Trinoventing

',

He forbids

bantibus noceat.

Mandubracius or
dict

on Cassivellaunus, he shall
V. 22.

B. G.

Cassivellaunus

the Trinobantcs

Plura

lit.

not

)iot (is

not to say more:

325.

Recusabant ne

am

an

to) injure,

inter-

&c.

formed out of

unusomnes

antecederet.

over

/;;/

prevented by grief;

man having precedence

protested against one

injure

to

lays

ne dicani dolore impedior.

prevented by grief from saying more

am

He

'

cf.

They
all.

Compare French: 'la pluie empeche qu'on ne sorte';

You may as
and the following sentence from Shakespeare
well forbid the mountain pines to make no noise.'
:

'

Obs. Oudnu'nus 'by which the less' is often used instead

in this expression minus is a negative:

of^;

Non recusabimus quominus

simus.

authority of the

331

When
originally

Romans:

the main clause

noun clause

is
'

GermanI

sub dicione

Romanorum

shall not protest agai>ist being

Pl^e

is

cf.

B. G.

i.

under

the

31.

negatived or interrogative the

usually introduced by (/uin (derived from qul-ne,

why

not ?

'

retinerl

For some Latin verbs of

a negative; see note to

329.

or

'

how

not ?

non poterant
tliis

class wliicli

')

quin

tela

in

nostros

take an infinitive (without

SYNTAX

154
conicerent.

Germans could not be restrained from

men B. G. i. 47. Non

Tlie

hurling missiles against our

recOsamus quin armis contendamus.

We do not refuse
to fight (originally 'Why should we not fight?
we
have no objection ').
332

Noun

(iii)

clauses depending on verbs of fearing'.

Here
noun clause expresses (from the Latin point of view)

too the

'

a desire that something shall not be done

hence

it

takes ne

where the English uses that or lest

Compare the use
of ne in French je crains que jc ne mcurc = 1 fear that
I shall die
The Latin ne nioriar metub meant originally
'

'

'

',

'

'.

'

may

not die

have

my

fears'.

Veritus ne ab omnibus deseratur, legates ad Caesarem

mittit.
to

Fearing

Caesar:

sustinere
lest

lest

non posset

he sent a dispatch
;/^

non

321)

to

Caesarl remlsit.

litteras

'

ut

ut
'
:

B. G. v. 47.

is

often used

should not be brought up

was originally interrogative

how were

Fearing
enemy

attack of the

to resist the

Caesar

that not

he sends envoys

They feared

res frumentaria supportaretur timebant.

lest supplies

The

'

all,

Veritus ne hostium impetum

he should not be able

Instead of

Ut

he be deserted by

B. G. v. 3.

cf.

cf.

B. G.

(like utinain in

i.

39.

wishes,

the supplies to be brought up ? they

had

their fears.'

333

(i\')

Noun

clauses depending on a noun or noun-equivalent

(pronoun or adjective used as a noun)

lus est belli ut victores victis imperent.
ivar that the victors shall give
cf.

B. G.

ut

omnes

i.

36.

De senatus

law of
vanquished:

// is the

commands to

the

consulto certior factus est

iuniores Italiae coniurarent.

He zvas informed

of the vote of the Senate [to the effect] that all the younger
men of Italy should (were to) take the military oath
:

B. G.

vii. I.

Similarly in dependence on nouns like

sententia,fdtum, mos, potcstds, occdsio.

THE SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD

Suuni

ut adfirmct, tenet

ilkui. nihil

maintains

to the last that

155

He

ad extrenuini.

habit of his 0/ affirming nothing

(that he shall affirm nothing)

Cic.^Tusc.

melius est quani ut nihil adfirmem ?

99.

i.

IVhat

Quid
better

is

than that I should affirm nothing ?

Verum

est

ut

bonos

boni

dlligant.

It

right

is

that

An
love good meti
Cic. de Amic. 50.
Is it
verlsiniile est ut civis Romanus haec fecerit ?
probable that a Roman eitizen should have done this ?

good men should

Cic. Sest. 78.

In adjective

{b)

334

Here

the

and adverb clauses.

^//^//-subjunctive

assumes

various

shades

ol

meaning.
It

(i)

may denote what

or destined

is

obligatory or proper or necessary

He

Circumscrlbit nos terminis quos non excedamus.

confines us icithin limits ivhich

we are not

(= must

to

not)

pass over: Livy xxi. 44. 5. Quam mult! dies reperlrl

possunt qui tall nocti anteponantur ? Hoiv many days
can be found ivhich are to be preferred to such a night
Cic. Tusc.

to the sleep of death) ?

(/. e.

i.

97.

Accipe

quod numquam reddas mihi. Here is a sum of money

ivhich you need never repay me (lit. ivhich you arc not
bound ever to repay me) Hor. Sat. ii. 3. 66. Nascetur Troianus
famam qui terminet astrls. There

shall be born a Trojan ivho shall extoid his glory to the

stars

335

(ii)

It

may

Aen.

i.

286

f.

denote the necessary or natural

Compare
laugh

'

Build

me

at all disaster'

an

eftect of

antecedent: English 'such {or so) as to' with the

infinitive.

which shall
which shall laugh = such

straight a goodly vessel

(Longfellow)

'There was no reason why I should rejoice =

no reason such as to make me rejoice. Such clauses are
often preceded by a word meaning so or such or enough
as to laugh.

'

'

'

'

'

'

',

SYNTAX

156
'worthy',

French

the main

&c., in

'fitting',

compar the

clause;

td que and de sorte que with the subjunctive,

07-clauses.

Neque

ulla tanta vis reperietur quatcon-

Nor wi any

iunctionem vestram labefactare possit.

found

force be

so strong as to be able

your

be able) to weaken
is

sum

alliance

Cic. Cat.

22.-Xon

not a nut of

be terrified [not one

to

ivhichhall

iv.

am

qui mortis perlculo terrear.

such a character as

(h't.

ivlio is

>j

be

by the danger of death: B. G. v, 30.-->atis

erat causae quare Caesar in Dumnorigem advenret.

terrified)

There ivas

{was

reason -why Caesar should pnish

sufficient

punish) Dunmorix:

to

quorum

B. G. i. 19.
They deserve

saluti consulatis.

Digni-unt
the\are

(lit.

worthy) that you should consider their welfare

Man.

leg.

13.

Idonea

Laelil persona vis est

niihi

quae de amicitia dissereret.

able character to discuss

ship

Cic.

Amic,

/ thought Laelius

who should

(lit.

cf.Cic.

uiuit-

discuss) jrnd-

4.

Secutae sunt tempestates quae nostros in castrls cntinerent.

There followed storms ivhich were to keepour
men in camp {= storms so severe as to keep): B G.
iv.

34.

Quid est quod rideas?

should (or have

/ have nothing
Hor. Sat.

i.

laugh at?

to)

to

9.

do

19.

num

Haec

sedetur.

that the civil

currus
habeant.
to

omnia

All

war

That

is there

{= nothing which

Haec

dicerem. / had this much

much which I was to say)
^7-clauses.

sic

say about old age (=:his

agentur, ut bellum

They place

expedltum

Mihi cuiusquam salus

ad

friends

tanti fuisset, ut

ii.

suos

their chariots in such

to their

inistl-

done in such a maner

shall be ended: Cic. Cat.

have a ready retreat

to o)

Cic. Sen. 86.

this shall be

collocant, ut

am

habul de senectute uae

to
:

tlw.ou

Nihil habeo quod aom.

a positiu as

B. G.

meam

28.-Ita

recepum

iv.

neglegerci?

THE SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD

^k^

SJiould anyone's welfare have been

importance

my own

I was to

to 7ne that

Sulla 45.

Cic.

(as to

157

319) of so great

make me)

Quid

me

in

disregard

admisl, ut

What crime have I committed that

loqui non audeam ?
I should not venture to speak ? Plaut. Men. 712. Nee
tantum maerorem senatui mors Clodil afferebat, ut nova

Nor

quaestio constitueretur.

cause the

had

inquiry

to

did the death of Clodius

that a new court of

much grief

senate so

Nemo erat

Cic. Mil. 13.

he constituted:

adeo tardus, quin (= ut non or qui non) statim castrls

occurrendum putaret. No one -was so

to think that he must immediately march
Non
B. C. i. 69.
out of the camp and oppose us
possunt una in civitate multi fortunas amittere, ut non
plures secum in eandem trahant calamitatem. // is not
possible for many men in one and the same state to lose

exeundum

et

sluggish as not

dragging

their property -without

(lit.

in such

number -with them

Man. 19).

not to drag) a greater

misfortune

337

(ii

ma}

An
>e

Cic. leg.

a -way as

into the

same

adjective or adverb clause with a 5//rt//-subjunctive

quam

subordinated to

'than', preceded by a com-

para.ve adjective or adverb in the

laior

sum quam

cui {or

/ am

main clause

quam

ut mihi) possit

Fortuna

great for Fortune to be able {than

that Fortune should be able) to injure me: Ovid, Met.
nocere.

vi.

Longiusaberant quam quo telum

195.

Tiny

too

too

-were

far

Similarly quasi
subj.,

338

(n

Many

343

quam

si

reach

them.

(with a postulative

loqueris quasi nescias.

is

a cluse of purpose)

or b ut

adici posset.

adjective and adverb clauses with a s//a//-subjunc-

tivelenote what

'

for a javelin

off

as if

'

to

that

',

ne

'

desired.
is

The

subordinate clause (called

introduced either by a relative pronoun

that

not

',

or quo

gen rally followed by a comparative).

trar.lated by an English infinitive.

'

whereby [quo being

'

They

ma}^ often be

SYNTAX

158

Exploratores mittit qui locum idoneum castris deligant.

He

sends scouts

to

Labienum

in continenti rellquit ut

Lahiemis on

left

camp

choose a suitable place for a

shall choose, or n^ho are to choose: B. G.

K'/?o

lit.

17.

He

portus tueretur.

order that he should

the continent in

(might) protect the harbours

ii.

B. G. v. 8.

Ne aestatem in Treverls consumere cogeretur, Indutiomarum ad se venire iussit. Lest he should (or In order
that he might not) b& compelled to zoaste the summer in
of the Treveri, he commanded Imhitiomarus

the country

come to him B. G. v.
Mllites manipulos laxare
to

He

possent.

whereby
their

339

quo

iussit,

ordered the soldiers

more

the

swords

4.

should (might) be able

easily they

B. G.

facilius gladils

uti

open up their ranks,

to

use

to

25.

ii.

In some adjective and adverb clauses the 5//rt//-subjunctive

denotes

little

junctives

more than the idea of

may be

Such submark the

the time of speaking or at some
future time.

called 'prospective', because they

action as in prospect either at

point of time in the past which the speaker has in mind.

340

Prospective subjunctives are often found in clauses of time

introduced by words meaning 'until

dum

Exspectare

dementiae

hostium

To wait

est.

'

or

'

'

augeantur

copiae

till

before

summae

of the enemy shall

Non
B. G. iv. 13.

the forces

be increased is the height of folly

quam ab

prius duces ex concilio demittunt

iis sit

con-

cessum ut arma capiant. They do not let the leaders

go out of the council till permission to take up arms has
been

(lit.

Dum

sJiall

have been) gra)itcd by them

spectavit.

He

waited at anchor

should assemble there

B. G.

iv,

till

23.

iii.

18.

the rest

in

Suessiones duxit.

of the Suessiones before

their alarm
B. G. ii. 12.

into the country

enemy should recover from

of the ships

Priusquam se hostes

ex terrore reciperent, exercitum

He led his army

the

B. G.

reliquae naves eo convenlrent in ancoris ex-

:;

THE SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD

34T

Prospective subjunctives are especially

common

and adverb clauses which are subordinated

itself refers to future

Fraus fidem
pretium
trives

profit

he ivorth

ivhile,

xxviii. 42. 7.

ut,

fallat.

cum operae
Fraud con-

small things, in order

itself credibility in

Livy

which

cum mercede magna

a'hen it shall

in adjective

to a clause

parvis sibi praestruit,

in

sit,

for

time

159

it

may

that,

deceive with great

Exspectabat

ut, si forte

hostes

He ivas waiting

elicere posset, citra vallem contenderet.

in order that, if perchance he should be able to lure out the

B. G.
enemy, he might fight on this side of the valley
(Contrast 5; with the Past Subj. in 350. 2.)
:

V. 50.

Imperavit ut sustinerent quoad ipse propius accessisset.

ordered them to hold out till he himself should have

He

come nearer:

B. G.

cf.

versare glebas

taught .to turn

the

the

iv. 11.

sod with Samnite

sun should lengthen

Hor. Od.

iii.

6.

Sabellls docta ligonibus

montium mutaret umbras,

sol ubi

the

mattocks tvhen

shadows of

mountains

the

38-41 {Sabcllus means 'Samnite', not

'Sabine').

342

In

some

adjective

and adverb clauses the

expresses a supposition ('supposing

may

5//rt//-subjunctive

In this use the

that').

because it denotes
what is assumed or demanded for the purpose of argument.
The origin of this use is seen in simple sentences ( 317,
subjunctive

be called

'

postulative

',

321)

Vendat aedes
ignorent

nnm

sell

all other

vir

vitia

a house

men

the defects to

bonus

norit ipse vitia earum, ccterl

; let

him know

its

be ignorant of them

a purchaser

(cf.

defects himself, but

:

Cic.

he ought
Oft',

the sentences with the subjunctive

but they are equivalent to

honest

man sell a house

Compare

in

Let an honest

emptorl dlcere debet.

English

'

to

13).

iii.

let

point out

Here

are conmiands

suppositions

.he ought

to

point out

should an
its defects.

Lot two parallel lines be pro-

SYNTAX

i6o

duced to infinity
or be he dead';

= 'supposing
Modo

'will

On/y

let

our fleet on

he

tertia lux

Be he

classem Cretaels

Jupiter stand by
the shores

its

of Crete

alive

is

iii.

sistet in

dawn

the third

Aen.

postulative subjunctive of the past

like the following

'

';

he'; and in French soil

nill

to be so.'

it

luppiter adsit

oris.

set

they will never meet

ii6

shall

f.

seen in instances

Deciens centena dedisses huic parco, quinque diebus nil

erat in loculls.
Supposing that yon had given a niillion
sesterces to this thrifty man, in five days there was nothing
in his money box
Hor. Sat. i. 3. 15 f.
:

343

But postulative subjunctives are generally introduced by

sJ 'if'/ nt 'supposing that',
dum or ditmmodo 'so long as', qitanwls 'even if, 'although
(literally 'as you will', from quam and the 2nd pers. sing,
a subordinating conjunction

'

pres. indie, of void)

or by a relative pronoun

If an honest man should

Si vendat aedes vir bonus, &c.

For the use of the tenses of the subUt omnia contra

opinionem acciderent, tamen se plurimum navibus

sell

a house,

Szc.

junctive in such ^/'-clauses see 350.^

posse.

[They

Si means literally

'

so

reflected that]

'

times used

in

supposing that everything

same word

the

'in case', sT-c 'in that case').

{si

is

seen with the

suffix c in sTc

In Shakespeare's time 'so'

was some-

No matter whither, so you come not

Latin Non rejert quo eds, si non hue vcnids.
ii. 3. 30)
the subjunctive may be used without the special

the sense of

'

if

You Like It,

But the tenses of
implications which they have

here' (As
2

'

e. g.

'

in the sentences

quoted

oppidt a pldiiitie atqiie initio ascensus rectd regione,

st

in

350

niilltis

e. g.

Muriis

anfrachis inlcr-

MCC passfis aberat, 'The wall of the town was 1,200 paces distant
from the plain and the beginning of the slope in a straight line, supposing
no bend in the road to intervene' (= disregarding bends in the road)

cederet,

46 St in Itolid cousistai, eiiiniis und ; sin ccdct, consilt res est,

but if he yields
Supposing him to make a stand in Italy, we shall meet
cf. Hor.
Cic. ad Att. vii. 10
(lit. shall yield), the matter demands thought'
B. G.

vii.

'

Od.

ii.

14. 6,

ii.

17. 14,

iii.

3. 7.

THE SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD

i6i

shoitliiliappoi coiilrary lo llicir cxpcclalion, tiny zvcir iicirr//ir/css

very strong in ships: B. G.

iii,

9.

Oderint

dum

metuant. Lei thou

{ provided that) they
sit, pars tanicii est
voluptas,
qiiamvls
pcltA'a
Ea
fear.
hate, so

long as

That pleasure, be

vltae.

you

hostis, folix

sit

enemy of
344

it

the state, cannot be

Such clauses often have a

[a\

ever so small

be

(lit.

it

small as

a part of life. Qui rel publicae

IVhoso shall be an
esse non potest.

will) is nevertheless

a happy nian.

limiting or restrictive sense.

Relative clauses limiting a superlative or negative

Omnium

oratOrum, quOs quidem ego cognoverim, acu-

tissimus.
The most keen-voitted of all orators, at any rate
of those zvhom I have known (all, provided that I have
known them): Cic. Brutus i8o. Servus est nemo,

qui

modo

audaciam horum civium perhorrescat.

slave,

of servitude, ivho does

)iot (
:

'

{b)

to

know

(lit.

'

supposing

it ').

preceded by ita =ed condicione Equites vobis

ita concedunt ut vobiscum de amore rei publicae certent.
The knights yield to you [senators) only on the
:

understa/uling that they shall vie with

iv. 15.

Thiy

audiatis.

hearing also

'

^'/-clauses

Cic. Cat.

346

no

is

335) shudder at the crimiOften in the

of these citizens Cic. Cat. iv. 16,

expression quod sciam so far as I know

345

There

provided only that he be in a not unendurable state

nality

me

non

tolerabill condicione sit servitutis, qui

Ita

illl

you

in patriotism

will not be able to

hear without your

cf Cic. Sulla 31.

postulative (//^-clause (especially with quippc or ut

may assume
indeed

',

causal meaning:

hence

'

since

cf.

siquidem, originally

as

if
-'01

am foolish

to

')

'if

'
:

quidem contra eOs tarn diu disputem.

argue so long against them (Cicero) lit.

Insipiens sum, qui

audire poterunt ut vos quoque

I argue, considering that I argue.

L

SYNTAX

162

SUBJUNCTIVES DENOTING WHAT WOULD

HAPPEN UNDER CERTAIN IMAGINED CON-

{B)

DITIONS
347

These subjunctives are translated by 'should' in the ist

would in the 2nd and 3rd persons.
What would happen is what will happen (or is likely to happen)
under certain imagined conditions e.g. What would you do ?
means What are you likely to do in that case {or under those
person and

'

'

'

'

'

circumstances)

The

'

idea

that of a future action, the

is

occurrence of which depends on a condition which the speaker

has in mind.

These subjunctives,

may

then,

be called subjunctives of

The}' express the meanings which

conditioned futurity.^

French by the Futures

are generally expressed in

the

in

past.
I.

348

In Simple Sentences.

The Present and

likely to

the Perfect Subjunctive denote what is

happen under certain imagined conditions of the

present or future

Hoc

Ithacus velit et

Ilhacan

magno mercentur

ivoiild desire

chase at a great price

Atridae.

77//^

t/ic

and the sons of Atreits would purwould desire = is likely under

'

'

'

these circumstances to desire': Aen.

ii,

ii.

not venture

to

104;

cf.

quis tdliafando teniperet a lacrinns ?

Dicere non ausim (= audeam).

say.

Similarly velini

not like

Hoc non
I
^

am

',

nialim

'

'

to

like',

should prefer

ndlim

'I

should

'.

I should not readily assert

facile dixerim.

not likely

/ should

should

Cic. Verr.

Subjunctives of conditioned futurity

iv.

may have

this,

94.

originally denoted

what

ought (logically) to be the case, marking a statement as a necessary inference

from some supposition si hoc verum sit, illud sit falsum^ supposing litis to
:

be true, that tnust be {ought to be) false.

subjunctives denoting

example above

what

If so,

these subjunctives are in origin

Note

isto be (see 318, 319).

qiiis aibilnlretitr

might be translated

that in the fourth

.^''

'

zvlio zcas to lliink

'

THE SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD

The

163

Past and the Past Perfect Subjunctive denote what

happen under certain imagined conditions of

^

tvas likely to

the past

Quis arbitraretur hoc belluni uno anno confici posse?

lllio zvoiild havf thought [under those circumstances]
that this ZiUjr conhi be brought to an end in one year?
Cic. leg. Man. 31.
Crederes victos.
You ivouhi have supposed them eonquercd Liv. ii. 43.
In such sentences 'you' may
mean either the person addressed or an}' one ('one').
Nulla alia gens tanta clade non obruta esset. ylny other
nation would have been ovenvhehned by so great a disaster:
:

Liv.xxii. 54.

Similarly

In the

2.

veUeiii

should have liked

',

nolleni, malleni.

Main Clause of a Complex Sentence.

Ihe combination

349

'

ot

a clause containing a subjunctive of

conditioned futurity with a clause containing a postulative

subjunctive (342) forms a conditional sentence of a particular
kind, in which there is an implication that the speaker does
not vouch for the condition being (or having been) fuUilled.

The

use of the subjunctive in the //-clause marks the con-

mere assumption

dition as a

some

cases implies that

it

is

[if

it

be supposed that),

contrary to

in

the tenses of the sub-

In conditional sentences of this kind

350

and

fact.

junctive are used in special senses by writers of the classical

period.^

When

I.

>

the //-clause refers to future lime,

The same idea

a past tense of bUVH

-

There

open,

i.

dition.
^

In

is

is
:

it

takes the

sometimes expressed by the FuUire Participle

see

wilii

352.

another kind of conditional sentence,

in

which the

//-clause is

which there is no implication as to the lulfihnent of the conSuch //-clauses take the indicative mood see 531.
tiie Old Latin writers the tenses of the subjunctive are somewhat
e. in

dillcrenlly used.

L 2


SYNTAX

i64

Present Subjunctive, and

main

junctive in the

is

accompanied by a Present Subwhat would happen

clause, denoting

'

Si vir bonus habeat banc vim, ut digitorum percussione

nomen suum

in

locupletium testamenta inserere possit,

hac vl non utatur.

man

1/ a good

were

poiver of being able by snapping his fingers

his

name

into the ivills of wealthy persons,

to

have the

to

introduce

he would not

Si habeat 'if he
were to have' or 'if he should have' or 'should he
have' implies I do not say that he ivill have'. The
use the power:

Cic. Off.

cf.

iii.

75.

'

speaker (or writer) guards himself against being sup-

posed

to

mean

that the condition will be fulfilled.

Si per te liceat, perendino die

belli

casum

they ivoitld the

zvar in
2.

When

communem cum

reliquis

If you iverc to permit them,

day after to-morrow face the chances of

sustineant.

common

the others

ivitli

B. G.

v.

30. 3.

the //-clause refers to present time,

it

takes the

accompanied by a Past Subjunctive

the main clause, denoting what loould happen
Si vir bonus banc vim haberet, ea non uteretur. If
a good man had this poivcr, he zvould not use it. Si
haberet if he had implies that he has not the power.

Past Subjunctive, and

in

is

'

The

condition

'

is

contrary to present

fact.

exemplum non habcremus, tamen institui

pulcherrimum iudicarem. Even if noe had no precedent,
I should nevertheless regard it as a fine thing that one

Cuius

rei si

should be established
3.

When

B. G.

vii.

77. 13.

the //-clause refers to past time,

Perfect Subjunctive (or sometimes the

1

it

takes the Past

Past Subjunctive-),

The Perfect Subjunctive is occasional!}' used in this case, but it

The use of the Past Subjunctive with reference to past time

is

very rare.

is tlie

older

nam ni vellent, nOn

usage, often found in Plautus, e.g. deos voluisse credG
fieret, / believe that the gods willed it ; for if they had not willed it, it -wotdd not
;

have happened {AuXulana 742). But, as in English and French, a form which
originally denoted past time, came to be used with reference to present
time: nisi Alexander esscm, Diogenes esse vellem, if I ivere not Alexander,

THE SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD

and

is

accompanied

Subjunctive

b}'

165

a Past Perfect (or sometimes by a Past)

the main clause, denoting what

in

have

'aKUilii

liappoied

M. Crassus banc vim habuisset, eil usus esset.

Marcus Crassus (an unscrupulous man) /lad had

Si

would have used

poivcr, he

had

implies that he

'

dition

is

it.

had

contrary to past

S'i

habuisset

'

he had

if

The

not the power.

IJ
this

con-

fact.

Dares banc vim M. Crasso, in foro saltaret. Had you

given [supposing you to have given) this power to Marcus
Crassus, he -u'oidd have danced for joy i)i the forum
(Cicero, in the continuation of the passage quoted
above.
Crassus was dead when Cicero wrote).
Nisi mllites defessi essent, omnes hostium copiae delerl
potuissent.
the forces

88.

vii.

An

351
a

If

referring to past time

//"-clause

tired out, all

:

mens non
hearts had

'

'

may be accompanied by

to the time of

laeva fuisset

speaking

Troia nunc stares.

If our

now

not been blinded, thou, Troy, would'st

standing: Aen.

54

ii.

be

f.

Instead of the Past Perfect Subjunctive in the main clause

the Future Participle with

Emendaturus,
7.

40

lit.

eram or fuT

si licuisset,

the faults, if
i.

353

had not been

'

main clause referring

Si

352

the soldiers

of the enemy might have been destroyed B. G.

Nisi or nJ means if
not or unless '.

I had been

eram.

is

sometimes used

/ should have

ailoived to do so

li'as likely to

(or

going

to)

Ovid, Tristia

correct the faults.

Instead of the subjunctive of a verb denoting can

'

or 'ought' in the main clause, the indicative

corrected

',

'

must

may be used

',

Quodsl Pompeius privatus esset hoc tempore, tamen ad

/ should wish to be Diogenes.
related to past time, as in

speare)

present.

Grammar,

but

it

'

If

The English were

it were so, it was

Siibj.

of ivas) originally

a grievous fault

'

(Shake-

generally expresses a contrary-to-fact supposition of the

So too the
315).

French Past

Imperfect

Indicative

('see

French

syntax

t66

tantum belliim

is

were a private

citizen at the

is

he ivho ought

a war: Cic.
hat

'

be chosen

to

he chosen

Man.

leg.

he ought

the conduct

for
'

citizen at that time,

Contrast

example of
354

'
;

cum

oporte-

'he might

Past

fuit.

he ought

to

If lie had been

have been chosen.

ought to have been

he might have been chosen '.

oportuit 'he

deligl potuit

the

eum

deligt poterat

'.

Similarly deligl

chosen

it

of so great

Similarly deligl

50.

be chosen

to

even if Ponipey

present time, nevertheless

St privatus turn fuisset, deligendus

a private

But

erat deligendus.

'

Subj. potuissent

Perfect

the

in

last

350.

In conditional sentences with a subjunctive in the

//"-clause,

the subjunctive of conditioned futurity in the main clause

generally assumes a negative shade of meaning,

denotes

i.e.

some degree oi unlikelihood.

But not necessarily; for when
a word meaning 'even is added in the //"-clause, or when si
alone means 'even if (as in some of the examples above), the
speaker means that the action of the main clause is or was
'

likely

to

happen

quoted above

in

350.

any case. For example, the passage

from Cicero goes on as follows

i)

Si vir bonus banc vim habeat, non utatur, ne

si

explora-

tum quidem habeat id omnino neminem umquam susIf a good man ivcre to have this poiver,

picaturum.

he would not use

it,

not even if he zvere

to

a single person would ever suspect him

vise it'

3.

355

= his refusal

to

use

it

be sure that not

'

he would not

is likel3\

In Subordinate Clauses.

Subjunctives of conditioned futurity

to a relative

Nemo

may

bo subordinated

pronoun or a subordinating conjunction

est qui ilium non ad

Their

lienses Tre mTdit.

that he should

Marseilles

go

to

is

no one 7oho

7i'ould not

Manlins rather than

Cic. Cat.

ii.

16.

Manlium quam ad Massito the

prefer

people oj

THE SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD

167

Tluy returned
Maestl redierunt, ut victos eos credcres.
sad at heart, so that one woahMiave supposed them coth
qucred:

cf.

Honestum

348.

tale est, ut vel sT

igndrarent id homines vel

si

obmutuissent, sua tamen pulchritudine esset laudabilc.

Rightcousuess

unacquainted

is

of such a nature that even if men ivere

or had said nothing about it, it ivouhi

ivith it

neverthe/ess be connnendable by reason of

Cic. Fin.

num

Nescio

its

own

beauty:

49.

ii.

si

banc vim haberem ut digitorum per-

cussione heres locupletium scrlbl possem, hac vl uterer.

/ do not know whether, if I had the poivcr of being ab/e

l)y snapping my Jingers to be written doivji as the heir of
wealthy persons, I should use it (cf. 350. 2).
Non dubito quin si homines banc vim habuissent, saepe
usurpata esset.
power,

this

356

/ do

not doubt that if people

had had

ivould often have been used}

it

Rut instead of the Past Perfect Subjunctive denoting conditioned futurity in subordination to a conjunction which
itself

requires the subjunctive,- or in a dependent question,

the Future Participle with fucrim, fuerls, fuerii

employed,
Participle

if

the

meaning

active

is

is

generally

and the verb has a Future

Non dubitabam) quin siM. Crassus banc

vim habuisset, ea usurus fuerit. / do not (or did not)
doubt that if Crassus had had this po-wer, he ivould have

Non

dubito (or

used

it

fucrls,

lit.

si

quidnam facturus
Say 'what you
do), if you had been

'was likely to use //.'Die

eo tempore censor fuisses.

ivould have done

(lit.

censor at that tinw

were
:

coactus est Hannibal,

tdcely to

Livy

ix.

ut, nisi

33.

7.' Adeo

cum fugae

inopia

specie abeun-

in all these subordinate expressions of conditioned futurity no

paid to the rule of sequence of tenses f 365).
By means of the combination
E. g. 11/ or <//// ( 362) or cum ( 358
of the future participle with /(/<;/;;/ Latin is able to express futurity and at the
>

Note that

regard

is

same time

to

maintain the subjunctive construction required by the conjunction.

SYNTAX

i68

dum

Hannibal

timuisset, Galliam repetlturus fuerit.

such straits by ivant, that if he had not

feared that his departure ivould have involved the appear-

was driven

ance of

to

flight,

he would have retreated

Gaul

to

Li vy

xxii. 32. 3.'

For the way in which conditioned futurity is expressed in

dependence on a verb of 'saying' or 'thinl^ing' see 471
[Died M. Crassitni hdc vi usurum fuisse, si earn habiiissct).

SUBJUNCTIVES WITH WEAKENED MEANING

IN SUBORDINATE CLAUSES

[Q

In course of time the subjunctive came to be used in

357

constructions with a weakened meaning,

some

different from

little

These weakened subjunctives are,

of an indicative.
however, found only in certain subordinate constructions
(five in number)
and the origin of most of them can be

that

traced.

In

some cases

it

is

the s////-meaning, in others the

ivouldvi\c?^r^mg, that has been weakened.

The

loss of the

s//(7//-meaning is similar to the loss of the sense of obligation

or necessity in

some constructions of

the gerund adjective

502).

Note the following features which are common

weakened uses of the subjunctive

to all these

The

(i)

tenses of the subjunctive are translated by the

corresponding tenses of the English indicative

the Present Subj. by a Present Indie.
the Past Subj. by a Past Indie, or by

its

continuous form.

the Perfect Subj. by a Perfect or a Past Indie.

the Past Perf. Subj. by a Past Perf. Indie,
(ii)

Where

future time has to be expressed,

by adding the Future Participle

e.g.

/ ask whether he ivill cojne interrogavl

esset, / asked whether lie ivould roiue.

sit,

is

Note that

in

it

interrogo

is

expressed

num
num

venturus

venturus

the subordinate expression of conditioned futurity no regard

paid to the rule of sequence of tenses (

.365).

THE SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD

The

(iii)

negative

the negative of

or tvas

358

to

is

always

169

Jllontrast the use of

iid)i,

7ie

some of the subjunctives which denote what

as
is

be done ( 320, 327, 330, 332, 338).

T. Certain clauses of time, cause, and concession take

a subjunctive with weakened meaning.

[a)

meaning 'when' generally takes the subjunctive

time (/. e. when the time of the main clause is past).

Ciiiii

in past

The

tenses of the subjunctive used in such r;//-clauscs are

the Past and the Past Perfect.

The r//;;;-clause is best translated by a participle without

any conjunction the aim does not mean exactly at the time
when (in which sense it takes the indicative), but rather
'whereas', denoting the circumstances under which the
'

'

main clause takes place'

action of the

Cum

esset Caesar in Gallia Citeriore, certior fiebat Belgas

Being

coniurare.
that the

Caesar,

Belgae

cum

into
(Z)

is

its

Further Gaul

B. G.

i.

7.

origin an accusative of the relative

is,

it

'^when

'

rains),

qui, quae,

pronoun (stem
'Whereas'

therefore, 'as to which,' or 'whereas'.

not very difTerent from the meaning which

when

Galliam Ulteriorem

'because' or 'although', and

is in

ctiiit

root-meaning

esset, in

i.

ii.

This having been reported, Caesar hastened

Cum meaning

The word

quo-);

Hither Gaul, Caesar was infonned

leaguing together: B. G.

nuntiatum

id

contendit.

in

iverc

si

originally 'so') acquired

became a subordinating conjunction cf. 343 note. In English

and 'if are often interchangeable 'when it rains (= whenever it
;

stay at home,'

difficile est iacere

'

if it

ciim doleds,

rains,

'it

stay at home.'

is difficult

to hold one's

Similarly in Latin

peace

when one

is

one is hard hit'): Cic.Sull. 31. It is possible, then,

which is used in circumstantial f//;-clauses is in origin
postulative, like the subjunctive with sJ si Ha esset, 'supposing that it was
so,' cnm Ha esset,
The past
under whatever circumstances it was so.'
hard hit'

{si doleds, 'if

that the subjunctive

'

tense of the postulative subjunctive does not necessarily imply that the
supposition

is

contrary to fact

without this implication

in

Tusc.

see

343, note 2.

si

ita esset

'

(= supposing that it was so), it

The subjunctive in f;>/-clauses of
not become common till the time of Cicero.

2. 84.

Cicero uses

n. 33 cf. Shakespeare's If it were so

was a grievous fault': Julius Caesar iii.

v.

time, cause,

and concession did

SYNTAX

170

meaning 'because he (she, it)', 'although he (she, it)',

take the subjunctive in both present and past time.
Here, too, the r//;//-clause and the (7//r-clause are best transquod,

lated

by a

participle

Quae cum (= Et cum

ea^

ita sint

!
(

being so

this

(i)

^g'-edere ex urbe (Cic. Cat.

i.

tamen pacem faciam (B. G.

i.

because this

is so, (2)

although this

lo)
14^.

is so.

Cum

non amplius octingentos equites haberent, impetum

fecerunt.
Having {= Though they had) not more than

800 horsemen, they charged

B. G.

iv.

12.

Titurius, qui nihil ante provldisset, trepidare.

Titiirins,

Jiaving foreseen nothing, became alarmed: B. G.

359

In translating from English into Latin,

junctive

is

cum

v. 33.

with the sub-

a very useful equivalent for the English participle.

One reason

has no perfect participle

for this is that Latin

with active meaning, except in deponent verbs, and no present

any verb

participle passive of
ticiple

of the verb

5/////.

The

nor has

it

r//;//-clause

any present parto be used as

came

a substitute for these wanting forms.

360

Certain clauses of result introduced by uf, or by qui,

take a subjunctive with weakened meaning

2.

quae, quod,

'

Tanta tempestas coorta

est ut

So great a storm

possent.

able to Jiold their course

cf.

relinquebat,

The

ut

ultrd

B. G.

is

sibi

militum

iv.

28.

tempus ad quietem

vdcibus

sibi

parcere

Cicero did not allow himself even the night

origin of this construction,

Latin language,

naves cursum tenere nun

arose that the ships luere not

Cicero ne nocturnum quidcm

cogeretur.

shown

in

335

cause

which
6.

is

such a curious feature of the

The Romans regarded

a result as

something
come about. The subjunctive mood was very well fitted
to express this idea, which is closely akin to that of the root meaning of the
And the Romans employed this mood in all clauses of result
subjunctive.
not only those in which English often uses the infinitive with 'as to' and
French the subjunctive .nfter cle sorte que and similar expressions, but also
those which are expressed in English and French and other languages as

the iifcessnry
wliich

is

effect

of a

as something

louud

or 2vas to

statements oifact (by the use of the indicative mood).

to liappeii,

THE SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD

for slerp, so

he was actiialh' co)iiprlled by the prolesls

tJiat

B. G. v. 40.

the soldiers to spare Jiiiuself:

of

Tam

171

ad dimicandum animus hostium iit ad

So eager 'were the
galeas induendas tenipus defuerit.
eiie/iiy for fighting that time faih'd our men for putting
on their helmets B. G. ii. 21.
Habctis eum consulem qui parere vestrls dccretls nOn
paratus

fuit

Yon have a consul of such a character that he

Cic. Cat. iv. 24.
to obey your decrees

dubitet.

does not hesitate

may

Obs. Ouln

when

be used for ut non or

quod) non,

qicJ {quae,

main clause is negative or interrogative

Numquam tam male est SiculTs quin aliquid facete
the

dicant.

The Sicilians are never in such trouble that they do not

Cic.
say {as not to say) something ivitty (lit, wittily)
:

Verr.
361

Out of

iv.

95.

grew another

this construction

clause loses

ordinate

all

its

which the sub-

in

sense of result and becomes

purely descriptive.

When

the antecedent

an essential part of the sentence, which

is) is

a relative clause (with or without

cannot be removed without destroying the sense,

takes the subjunctive

it

gencrall}'

No

Nulla navis quae mllites portaret deslderabatur.

ship that carried soldiers tvas missed: B. G. /. 23.

Neque quicquam edrum quae apud hostes agercntur cum

Nor

fallebat.

on

among

did any of the things which were going

enemy escape his notice Livy xxii. 28. t.

the

Sunt qui dicant

There are people ivho say

Erant qui censerent

the opinion
'

like

The

are

Livy

ijtil

dicant,

'

more

may pcrlmps

death

quam

found

I)c

people arc found to say

'
:

e. g.

in

sentences

qiit

sJ

iillid

qui doldrettt palieuler fcraitt, people

readily found to expose themselves

to

.'
.

There were people who r.xpirssed

xxi. 6.^

offcrant faciliits repeniiutitr

unasked

origin of subjunctives of this type

repoiutiliir

morn

who

shall

than to bear pain with fortitude:

expose themselves)

B. G.

vii.

77.

5.-

It

should be noticed that the indicative is sometimes used after su)it qiCi,
e. g. Caesar, B. G. iv. 10 aunl qui ptscibus et ovTs avium vlvere existuuaiilio

Horace, Od.

i.

i.

4.

SYNTAX

172

362

3. Certain noun clauses introduced by

a subjunctive with weakened meaning.'

[a)

67-claiises

Factum
result

qitlii

take

depending on verbs of happening

impetum nostrorum non ferrent.

The

'

'

est ut

was

(lit.

attack of our

a full moon

0?/7-clauses

stand the

// resulted) that they did not

men

B. G.

iii.

Accidit ut luna plena esset.

(Z>)

or

ut

B.

19.

It

happened that there was

29.

G'. iv.

depending on negatived or interrogative

expressions of doubting
'

An

'

dubitamus quin RonianI ad nos interficiendos veniant

Do we

[ventOrl sint, venerint] ?

doubt that the

are coming [wdl come, have cojne]

B. G.

Non

vii.

erat

to

cf

38.

dubium quIn RomanI ad eos

venlrent [venturi essent, venissent].

doubt that the

had come]
363

Romans

nntrder us ?

to

Romans

interficiendos

There was no

were coming [were about

to

come,

murder them.

Dependent questions as to a matter of fact and de4.

pendent exclamations take a subjunctive with weakened
meaning."
The

is of the same origin as that in clauses

compare id ne fie) t posset, obsidioneftebat, that this should
not be possible, was brought about by the siege' (Caesar, B. C. i. 19), where
Q//i;-clauses with the subjunctive
fiebat takes ne and a s/;rt//- subjunctive,
1

of result

subjunctive in these M/-clauses

360)

'

were
I

originally interrogative.

not ask?'

question like qutn rogeni?

'

why

Plautus, Mil. 426), or qiiln qiiod iiivat id semper faciaiit ?

should

'why

should they not always do what pleases them?' (Sallust, Jug. 85. 41) may
be subordinated, like any other question with the subjunctive ( 319, 325)

compare
of

331.

In the following instance qinn preserves

its

original

meaning

why not ? and the subjunctive its 5/;a//- meaning

Dubitandum non existimavit quIn proficisceretur. He thought
'

'

there ought
no hesitation as to setting out B. G. ii. 2 originally why should he
It would be
not set out? He thought there ought to be no hesitation'.
impossible here to translate proficisceretur by an English indicative ('was

to be

setting out

'

').

The use of the

subjunctive in dependent questions as to a matter of fact

(which take the indicative in English, French, and Greek) did not become
3 rule of Latin syntax till the time of Cicero, though it is often found in Old
2

THE SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD

Dependent questions as

(a)

Quid quisque

173

to a fliatter of fact

audierit quaerunt, et cogunt eos pronun-

quibus ex regionibus veniant quasque

tiare

noverint.

them

T/icy inquire zvhat each

to declare

from what

they have learned there

He

country they come

B. G.

ibi

res cog-

has heard, and compel

iv.

5.

Quid

and

ivhat

fieri velit

what he ivishes to be done B. G.

He
Intellegebat qua de causa ea dicerentur.
V. 2.
perceived ivhy those things were said: B. G. v. 4.
I line
intellegl poterat utrum apud eos pudor an timor plus
valeret.
Hence could be seen ivhether honour or fear
Matres
had more injluence with them: B. G. i. 40.
ostendit.

indicates

declarabant utrum

sortibus

faniiliae

proelium

coni-

ex usu asset necne. The matrons used to show by

drawing lots whether it was expedient that a battle should
mittl

be

fought or not

B. G.

i.

50; contrast

325, third ex.

Dependent Exclamations

[b]

Vides ut

candidum Soracte.

alta stet nive

Soracte stands out glistening with

Od.

9. I

i.

Strange

fuerit.

You see how

snow Hor.
:

(dependent form of the exclamation Ut

candidicm

stat nive

deep

it

believed:

Liv^y

viro fides

fu it.').

i.

f).

is,

Mirum
to

quantum

what an

illi

extent that

16 (dependent form of

alta

viro fides

man

Quantum

ivas
illi

Obs. I.
In reported speech dependent questions and
dependent exclamations are sometimes expressed by the
accusative with infinitive construction

Obs.

2.

see

545.

In dependent exclamations the indicative

is

some-

times found in poets

Aspice ut

Look
spoils
Latin.

It

insigiiis spolils

hoii)
:

Aen.

vi.

855,

may be connected

words or thoughts

Marcellus opImTs ingreditur.

Marcellus steps along conspicuous in a general's

cf. viii.

vvitli

192, Georg.

i.

57.

the use of the subjunctive to denote the

of another person ( 364;

sec note below.

SYNTAX

174

364

Adjective and adverb clauses take the subjunctive

the thought of another person or of
the speaker himself on some other occasion.^
5.

when they express

The

adjective or adverb clause

Either

[a]

may be

subordinate to a noun

dependent on a verb of saying

'

'

or

clause which

thinking

itself

is

':

Helveti! dixerunt sibi in aninio esse iter j^er provinciam

facere,

quod aliud

iter

said that they intended

haberent nullum.
to

vinee beeanse ///r\'had no other road

verb clause

ijiiod

aliud

The Hclvetii

niareh throiigli the

iter

B. G.

Roman proi.

haberent niillunt

is

7.

The

ad-

part of the

thought not of Caesar but of the Helvetii, whose speech

Caesar is here reporting. In their original speech they

would have used the indicative Nobis in aninio est iter
per provineiani facere, quod aliud iter habemus nullum.
Caesar dixit haec esse quae ab eo postularet. Caesar
:

said that these iverc the things ichieh he

him

B. G.

postularet

when

The

35.

i.

demanded of

adjective clause quae ab eo

part of the thought of Caesar at the time

is

his speech

was made

Haec sunt quae abs

te

postulo.

Or

[l))

suburdinate to a main clause (without any noun

clause intervening)

Cuttac

ct Titurii calamitateni, qui in

derint, sibi ante oculOs ponunt.

eodem

castello occi-

They picture

to

them-

of Cotta and Titurius ivho (as the}'

said to themselves) fell in the same fort
B. G. vi. 37.

selves the misfortune

^ A use of the English 'should' to denote what was said or tiiought by

another person suggests a possible origin for the Latin subjunctive in this
sense,
hi Elizabethan English instances are found like
I heard a strange
thing reported ... of a raven that slioidd build in a ship of the King's (Bcw
'

'

Jonson, Volpone,
cui vo

tjiil ill

ii.

i),

tulvc ixgid

which might be translated iiiha

ntdijicdict.
And the same usage

He

res nitniidla est dc

still

exists in

some

goes about saying that I slioidd be a thief.'

Compare also the use of the French Future in the Past in the same sense (see
French Grammar, 310. iv^. Thus in the third example above qui iKcidiiiiil
might be translated in Vixnchqui uuiaicitl piii.

dialects of English

e. g.

'

THE SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD

Rcnu dc

175

suls privatis rebus pctcrc cocpcruiit iiuoniani

The

consulere non possent.

civitati

Rcmi began

lo

entreat about their private affairs because (as they said)

they

were

able

iiot

to

take thought for the state

B. G.

V- 3-

This construction
cause preceded by iiou
Obs.

is

I.

sometimes iound

in

clauses ot

Perseverabo, non quod confidam sed quia adhuc spero.

sha/I persevere, not (as

might be supposed) because

still have hopes
French

I have confidence, but because I

je continuerai, non pas

Grammar,

encore (French

Obs.

2.

quefaie

confiaiice, nuiis

fespire

359).

noun
and depending on verbs of
'grieving', and 'wondering^:

There

is

a similar use of the subjunctive in

introduced by quod

clauses

'rejoicing',

conspectum suum hostes

The so/diers ivere iiuiignant that the
In
enemy shouUi be able to face them
B. G. vii. 19.
such clauses English very often uses 'should' and
French the subjunctive (see French Grammar, 362):
compare the following instances from Shakespeare
This I wonder at that he shoidd be in debt (Com. of
indignabantur quod

Milites

ferre

possent.

'

'

Err.

IV.

ii.

481

(Rom. and

!'

'Alas that love shouhi be so tyrannous

Jul.

i.

i.

176).

SEQUENCE OF TENSES
The tenses of the subjunctive used

365

generally correspond
of the main clause.

to

in

subordinate clauses

or follon: front the tense of the verb

The

following rule

is

illustrated

by

all

the examples of 5//rt//-subjunctives in subordinate clauses given

and by all but one of the examples of sub

junctives with weakened meaning in 358-64.
in

'

324

U. G.

ii.

'

46,

21 in

360.

lliis

exception

ib

cxjilaincd bcluw (^Remark 2

SYNTAX

176

Rule

When

i.

the main clause has a tense of present or

future time, the subjunctive of the subordinate clause

either

is

Present or Perfect

Present

to

denote action not completed

He

does

ttot

or what he

is to

do

nescit,

know what
(

e.g.

Quid

doing

lie is

faciat

363)

325)

Perfect to denote completed action: e.g. Quid fecerit

He

nescit,

When

2,

know what he has done

does not

(or

363-

(ii<^)',

the main clause has a tense of past time, the sub-

junctive of the subordinate

clause

is

Past or Past

either

Perfect

Past

denote

to

doing

Past Perfect

363) or

to

He

ivJiat

e.

g.

Quid

did not know what he ivas

he was

do

to

325)

denote completed action: e.g. Quid

fecisset nesciebat,

done

completed

not

action

faceret nesciebat.

He

did not know what he

had

363.

Subordinate clauses with the Present or the Perfect Sub-

366

junctive are said to have 'primary sequence'; those with the

Past or the
'

Past

Subjunctive

Perfect

secondary sequence

are said

to

have

'.

Remarks.
367

(i)
is

The

Perfect Indicative

a tense of

when used

present time and

as a Present Perfect

properly takes

sequence; when used as a Past Historic

it

is

time and properly takes secondary sequence

Ne qua

civitas

Romanes

est.

I have

receive the

Romans

vlsum

suls finibus recipiat a

me

pro-

taken precautions that no state shall

within

tJieir

borders

Dixit mihi quid faceret (fecisset).

was doing {had

primary

a tense of past

He

B. G.

told uic

vii.

20.

what he

done).

But there are exceptions

for

even when the Perfect

is

SEQUENCE OF TENSES
used as a

sequence

Ne

Present

Pcrt'eet

sonietinies

it

secondary

vobis nocere possent ego pruvidi; ne milii noccant

est providere.

Jtave taken precautious that

they shoitld uot be abh' to injure

you

your business

it is

take precautious that they shall not injure nte

Cic. Cat.

27.

iii.

noun clauses introduced

In

takes

vestrum
to

177

b}^ ut

always takes secondar}' sequence

or qulii

362) the Perfect

and the onl}- tense of the

subjunctive used is the Past
see the examples in 362.
Perfects which have become Presents in meaning always
take primary sequence: e.g. Novimus
Meminimus] quid
proxima nocte egerls. IVe know [remember] what you did last
;

night:

i.

r.

In clauses of result {360) the tense of the subjunctive

(2)
is

Cic. Cat.

cf.

often independent of the point of view of the

Tarn parfitus

enemy for fighting

is

marked

ad dlmicandum animus hostium ut ad

fuit

So eager

galeas induendas tempus defuerit.

on their helmets

main clause

that time failed

B. G.

ii.

21.

zvere the

our men for putting

Here the

action o{ defuerit

as having taken place before the time of

speaking, not in relation to/////, which would naturally

have been followed by

Siciliam
nullo
that

Cic.

ita

modd
it

ca>i

possit.

He

ruined Sicily

nowise be restored

Verr.

marked

deesset.

perdidit ut ea restitui in antiquum statum

Act.

I.

12.

to its

Here

to

such an extent

ancient condition

the action of possit

is

as going on at the time of speaking, and not

in relation to perdidit.
(3)

The

Historic Present

a tense of past time,

(this latter

usage

is

the

( 293. ii) is treated sometimes as

sometimes as a tense of present time

commoner

in

Caesar)

Speculatores mittit ut quid agerCtur

901

,,

sclret.

ut quid agatur sciat.

SYNTAX

178

The

(4)

Historic Infinitive

a tense of past time

480)

is

always treated as

Obsecrare ut Caesar certior fierct. Tliey entreated that

Caesar iniglit be informed: B. C. i. 64.
(5) In the course of a long passage of reported speech
depending on a tense of past time, some of the adjective
and adverb clauses may have primary sequence: e.g. in
B. G. i. 14. 6 the Present Subjunctives depend on respondit
(not on consuesse, which is a present in meaning).
This

varied construction

common

in Livy.

follows from the Rule

It

(6)

is

365) that a sentence like

know what he was doing last night cannot be translated

literally into Latin
we must say I know what he did last
'

'

'

night', Scio quid proximo, nocte fecerit.

'

He

did not

know how much

And

twice two

is

lated Nescicbat quot bis bina essent (literally

how much

twice two

a sentence like
'

must be

He

'

did not

trans-

know

was ').

CASES AND PREPOSITIONS

IV.

THE NOMINATIVE CASE

368

The nominative

is

the case of the subject

Haedul, gens valida, Romanis amlci erant.

a powerful

tribe ( 281), ivei-c

Exercitus salvus
safe

and sound

et

incolumis

274).

friends
rediit.

The Haedui,

to the

Romans.

The army returned

Orgetorix dux

deligitur.

Orge-

torix is chosen leader (274).

When

369

verb

the subject

251),

it

say, people say.

is

Pluit.

the sky or the rain

potes.
1

indicated only by the inflexion of the

is

often

^).

in

in

meaning: Dicunt.

It is raining ('it'

Alios

You (= One) can

Compare

vague

effugere saepe, te

often escape

English 'The rajn

it

from

They

= something,

i.e.

numquam

others, but

never

raineth every day' (Siiakespeare).

THE NOMINATIVE CASE

y)'o;//

non

vo/z/'^r//"

(=: oneself).

One

potest.

cannot be altered

s/ioit/(f

EciTis,.

put

without a nominative') and

sonal verbs:

e.g.

pluit (ere),

// is

lucescit (-ere),

The

371

cinocl

not Jhid fault

nnltarl

hu't/i,

ivluit

289).

Verbs which are used only

370

noil cnlprs,

a'////,

///>

179

it

the 3rd person (generally

in

the infuiitive are called imper-

in

ton at (-arc), // is thundering

fulgurat (-are), // /s lightening

raining
is daivjung

following impersonal verbs are either used without

any subject expressed, or take as their subject either the

nominative of a neuter pronoun or more commonly an infinitive or (in a complex sentence) a noun clause
:

372

and

pigct, pudet, paenitct, taedet,

(i)

miscret,

which express

the feelings of vexation, shame, regret, weariness, and distress.

These verbs may take an accusative of the person who has

the feeling and a genitive of that which causes the feeling
(unless this

expressed as the subject)

is

compare

pented the Lord that he had made man, and

him

'

(Genesis

of the evil

'

vi.

(Joel

'

6);
ii.

He

is

slow

to

It zvas

Factorum

me numquam

paenitebit.

to

373

re-

con/ess {To conjess

meorum
/

{or

Haec

fecisse)

shall never repent of

deeds (or of having done these things).

pudet.

It

anger and repenteth him

annoying

was annoying).

me

'

grieved

13)

Faterl pigebat.

miseret.

it

my

Nequitiae tuae

/ atn ashamed of your iviclcedness.Me

/ atn sorry for you, I pity you.

tul

(ii) interest 'it makes a difference' and refert 'it matters'.'

These verbs may take a genitive of the person to whom it
makes a difference or matters but instead of the genitive of
a pronoun of the ist or 2nd person, or of the 3rd person
;

nominative case

(i.e. is

down
is

sending rain);

like rain }

is

sometimes added

luppiter pluit, Jtipikr

saxa pluiint, stones are raining dozun

hoc lucescit,

this is the

thundering.

M 2

dawn coming

is lainiiii^

{i.e.

caelum tonat,

coming
t/ie

sky

'

SYNTAX

i8o

when

reflexive, the ablative singular feminine of the possessive

adjective

Ad

used

is

nostram laudem non multum interest. // does not

viueli difference to our reputatioji. Quid MilOnis

make

intererat interfici Clodium?

IV/iat ( 392) did it concern Milo that Clodins sJionld be killed ?M.e^\ nihil
interest scire, sed

nw

to

392)

77) '^

^^'"'-

multum.

illius

knoiv, hut

to

Quod tua

it

// matters nothing

matters very

nihil refert

much

393,

Do

ne curaverls.

not take thought for ivhat does not concern

you (=Mind

your own business). Illorum magis quam sua retulisse credunt. They think that it concerfted those persons
rather than themselves (Sallust).
Neque cuiusquam
refert.
Nor does it co)icern anyone (Tacitus).

374

(iii)

pleases',

libet 'it

licet

'

is

it

allowed', and liquet

'it is

clear'.

These verbs may take a

something
Licet

pleasing, allowed, or clear

ils

incolumibus discedere.

harmed

274).

Hoc

done, so long as

liquet,

neque

nor has
(iv)

it

was

it

They may depart unThis I have

licuit.

permitted.

Quod

say what he

cogitatum

satis

whom

dum

feci

man

Let each

loquatur.

375

dative of the person to

is

est.

cuique

likes.

This

Hoc

is

libet

non

not clear,

been sufficiently pondered.

oportet 'it is fitting

',

decet

'

it

is

seemly

',

and dedecet

'it

unseemly'

is

Me

ipsum ames oportet, non mea.

should love
Fin.

ii.

[^

85).

325.

me

ii)

Amicitiam

non detriments esse

'

The

origin of this ablative

is

// is fitting \that\you

myself, not

popull

my possessions

Romani mihi

(Cic.

praesidio,

// is fitting that thefriend-

oportet.

uncertain, as

is

also the case of re- in

refert.

comes either from meCi res [nom. ) fert my interest involves ', or
from iiicarit rem fert it tends to my interest {incaiit rem = ad meant rem).
In either case the re- was misunderstood as an ablative, and the possessive

Med

'

refert

'

adj.

made

to agree

with

'

it.

THE NOMINATIVE CASE

of the Roman nation slTould be ( 466) a protection,

not a disadvantage to inc (cf. B. G. i. 44. 5). Perge,

sliip

178

Go

decet.

on,

befits

it

you (Aen.

xii.

men should

all
I

OmnCs

153).

It is seemly that

homines ab odio vacuos esse decet.

176

J77

i8i

be free froni hatred.

he Past Imperfect and the Perfect Indicative of these

to have been done, i. e. what would

\erbs denote what ouglit

have been fitting (see

353)

Amicitiam popull RomanI mihi praesidio esse opoitCbat

{or

Note
ought

that
'

hair been a protection

to

to

the

Roman

me

(implying that

where English has a

perfect

infinitive

with

Latin has a present infinitive with a past tense of

The reason

oportet.

is

that the

EngHsh

'

ought

and so there

except the perfect

'

(originally

come to be used
no means of indicating past

like a present

a past tense of 'owe') has

tense,

nation

had not been a protection).

it

'

The friendship of

oportuit).

ought

is

time

infinitive.

Verbs which are used

intransitively in the active

have an

impersonal passive use, expressing that an action takes place

Itur, there is

was

a going, a journey

is

nuide

pugnatum

est, there

was fought.

fighting, a battle

THE VOCATIVE CASE

The

vocative

addressed

is

the case of the person (or personified thing)

DCsilile,

mllitC-s,

nisi

Leap down, fellow

the

standard

to the

vultis

af[uilani

soldiers,

unless

hostibus prodere.

you

-want to betray

enemy.

THE ACCUSATIVE CASE

J79

(^i)

The

The

Accusativl: wrriiouT a PRiiPosmoN

accusative without a preposition has two main uses

(i)

(ii)

as the direct object of a verb used transitively,

in certain

adverbial expressions.

SYNTAX

i82

380

Accusatives of the direct object:

(i)

Commium, regem Atrebatem,

Coiiuiiius, the

He

reniittit.

Atrcbaiian ki/ig

281).

sends hack

Exercitum

sal-

incolumem reduxit. He brought back the army

Commium regem constituerat
safe and sound ( 274).
Caesar. Caesar had appointed Comniius king {as king,

vum

et

274).

381

Many verbs which are used intransitively in their uncompounded form acquire a transitive use when compounded
with a preposition;
against

'

',

attack

e.g. piigno 'I

oppiigno 'I

fight',

Especially verbs of motion,

'.

pounded with certain prepositions [circum, per,

and some others), may be used transitively
hostem circumvenire,

to

fight

when com-

praeter, trans,

snrroiind an enemy

agros per-

currere, to overrun a country; aliquem praeterire,

some one

overlook {pass by)

a river; civitates adire,

or figuratively)

mortem

obire,

to

flumen transire,

approach

consilium

to

meet death

inire,
;

states (literally

tJie

to

to

cross

to

enter on a plan

perlculum subire,

to

face

danger.

382

Many verbs whose

ordinary use

is

intransitive

verb.

is

'

qualified
{a)

by an epithet, or

\b)

vitam longam vivere,

to

advance a

tivo

life

either {a)

nouns

neuter adjectives or pronouns

to live

a long

of an exile
days' march,

vivere, to live the

may be used

akin in meaning to the

an object which
Such 'cognate objects are generally

transitively with

life;

vltam exsulis

bidui iter progredl,

peregrinum sonare, to have a coarse and

foreign sound {to ring coarse and foreign); illud laetor,
/ a)n glad of that {I have that jo}>).

{b)

383

pingue

et

Verbs of 'teaching' and 'asking' sometimes take two

when one of them is a neuter pronoun or adjective
direct objects, especially

Captlvl

RomanI Nervios haec (= usum

turrium) docue-


THE ACCUSATIVE CASE
rant.

3S4

The Roiiudi

{the use of

fiunientuin

flagitavit.

llaedni (B. G.

i.

Illud te oro.

/ beg

183

had (aught

prii^imcrs

these things

turrets).

Caesar

Multa

E)itreati)ig

many

things of the gods.

(or rogo).

you

as/c

Haeduos

corn of the

th'iiiauded

of you.

Ncrvii

the

Caesar

16; but this construction

that

is

rare).

deos orans.

Hoc

interrogo

tc

this question.

But these verbs more commonly take a phrase formed with

a preposition instead of one of the accusatives

Boios de adventu suo docet.

{= about)

his arrival.

De

te

He

informs the Boii of

/ ask you

ipso te rogo.

about yourself PiUxWixxm a populo

Romano non

im-

IVc shall not ask aid of {from) the Romans.

Haec Caesar ex Lisco quaerit. Caesar asks these

plorabimus.

questions of Liscus.

385

Some

verbs compounded with a preposition (especially

trans) take

two direct objects

Exercitum Ligerim
the

386

Loire (B. G.

traducit.

vii.

passive construction

He

leads his

army

across

11. 9).
is

occasionally found, in which the

accusative denoting the person becomes the subject of the

sentence and the accusative denoting the thing

is

Nervil haec a captlvis Romanis docebantur.

were being taught these things by the

retained

The Nervii

Roman

prisoners

(B. G. V. 42).

Belgae
the

387

Rhenum

Rhine

(cf.

traducti sunt.
B. G.

ii.

The Belgae were led across

4).

The

accusative after some passive verbs (chiefly in poets)

be regarded as due to a reflexive use of the passive, in
which it denotes an action done to oneself. But the Romans
drew no clear line of distinction between this construction
is to

and

that of a passive verb with a retained accusative ( 386)

/ put on a garment {= Induo mihi

Induor vestem.
Exuitur cornua. She
vestem, or Induo me veste).

SYNTAX

i84
s/ic(/s

her horns.

Inutile ferrum cingitur.

sword (= Accingit

the useless

Having

saturata dolorem.

By

388

He girds

sibi ferrum).

sated her ancient grudge.

the omission of the verb of the sentence the accusative

of the object sometimes becomes an exclamation

nugas
nonsense! (from nugds
nonsense ') dl, vestram fidem
!

tion! (supply iniplorb 'I

telis

ye gods, your protecCupldinem Praxi-

entreat').

A Cupid by Praxitelesfor 1,600 sesterces

(Cic. Verr. iv. 12).

Compare 'A horse

kingdom

The

{a)

may

H. S. MDC

'you are talking

agis,

for a horse

'

a horse

my

(Shakespeare).

Adverbial accusatives

(ii)

389

on

Antiquum

accusative of a noun denoting a period of time

be used to express duration, answering the question

'How long?":
Multos annos regnaverat. He had reigned many years
(or for many years).
French // avatt regne beaucoup
d'ans.

390

The accusative of a noun denoting a measure of space

may be used to express extent, answering the question How
(b)

'

far?":

Decem
ten

passuum progress! sunt. They advanced

French lis se sont avance's di.x kilometres.

milia

miles.

So with

abesse

atum, pedes

'

to be distant'.

lxxx altum

Aggerem pedes cccxxx

exstruxerunt.

They constructed

a rampart jjo feet broad and So feet high.

391

[c) The accusative of names of towns and of the words

domus and rus may be used to express 'to' or 'towards',
answering the question Whither ? "'

Lutetiam Parisiorum proficiscitur.

Domum
is

'

In this usage Latin

is

the origin of the supine in

am going

inarches to Paris.
(or

exactly like English and French.

similar use of the accusative of an abstract

spectacle

He

They hastened home

contenderunt.

'

to see.

xitn (

136)

noun of the 4th declension

spectatum eo, /

am

going

to the

IIIK
/loiiii-a'onfa).

ACCUSATIVK CASE

Rus mc

r<*cipiain.

n'l'/l

i85

bcUikc inysclj'

to

the conntry.

392

[d]

The

accusative of neuter pronouns and

used adverbially

be

Quid venls? Why (h you conic? Caesar ea

commovebatur. Caesar ivas not at all moved
moved) by

may

;//'////

re nihil
[nothini^

this.

The accusative singular neuter of many adjectives of quanhas become an adverb see 77.

393

tity

(B)

The Accusative with a Preposition

General rules.

(0 Most prepositions take the accusative. Nine take the

394
ablative (see 452) and four take either the accusative or the
ablative (see 397).

395

(2)

Phrases formed with prepositions are nearly always

adverbial, qualifying a verb or an adjective, not adjectival, as

they often are in English, c.^. 'the camp across the river',
In most instances where

'the soldiers outside the walls'.

this adjectival use

the phrase

is

is

found

by

In other instances the phrase

a noun qualified by an adjective, in which case

to

stands between them, as

authority

qualified

akin in meaning to a verb, as in ascciisus ad

mu)ntiducs, rcditiis in patriam.

belongs

noun

in Latin, the

among

in

magna inter Gallos auctoritas,

the Gauls.'

'

it

great

Apart from the above uses and

a few special uses mentioned below,' English phrases which

are adjectival should be translated into Latin by turning them

adveib phrases:

into

extra

fjiii

mOros

e.g.

castra trans flumen sita

militCs

erant.

396 The following prepositions always take the accusative.

ad

(ij

to

ad oppidum proficisci,

to

march

to

a toivn (cf

391)

ad locum venire or pervenire {= to arrive at); ad

militum salutem pcrtinCre {to relate to) ad decern
;

>

E.g. under erga,

396;

///

^ii),

397

ex

^\j,

453

i>inc,

453.

SYNTAX

i86

hominum

milia

omnes

(/o the

the last

{fo

ad iinum
ad mediam noctem (////

niuiiber of 10,000);

man)

midnight).
to

(ii)

Genavam

at or by, near

(iii)

erat

tmte)

pervenire,

ad portas esse

pons qui ad Genavam

to

ad suum arbitrium imperare

among {= apud)

(vi)

apud:

(i)

(ii)

(iii)

ante portas

among,

quern ad

ad laudem

nomen ad omnes nationes sanctum.

montem progredl iustitia etiam

adversus infimos servanda est

ducere [against the enemy').
ante, before

satis

adversus

as),

for: diem ad deliberandum sumere

et ad utilitatem proficere.

adversus, towards

right

{at the

modum (=
(v)

pervenire (con-

391).

ad solis occasum
ad tempus
ad extremum [at last).

according

(iv)

Genavam

neighbourhood of: ad

the

trast

adversus hostem copias

antepugnam; ante horam sextam.

apud mllites contionari.

apud barbaros multum valere.
house of (French ches)
apud Ciceronem
in the presence of:

in the opinion of:

at the

vivere.

circum, circa, and circiter, around, about: circum urbem

hiemare circum municipia mittere circum se habere
;

circa

secundam horam venire

circiter

citra and cis, this side of: citra flumen

contra

(i)

(ii)

against

opposite to

meridiem.

cis

Alpes.

contra hostem pugnare.

:

regiones contra

opinionem [contrary
erga, toivards

perpetua

GalHam

sitae

contra

to expectation).

erga

populum

Romanum

fides

(adjectival, 395).

extra, outside of: extra munltiones procedere

(=

infra, below

inter

extra ordinem

irregularly).
:

infra

(i)

between

(ii)

among

locum ubi pons

erat.

montem et flumen situs.

omnes constat inter se bellare

inter
inter

se ius iurandum dare [nuitually).

inter

THE ACCUSATIVE CASE

(iii)

the upinion

/'//

0/

apud)

(ci'.

187

plurinumi inter suos

valere.
(iv)

ihtn')ig; inter bcllum.

intra, within

intra portas esse

coniccre)

intra

iuxta, )icar: iuxta

paucos

murum

intra niunitiones ingredl (tela

dies,

castra ponere.

quam ob rem.
penes eos victoria est.
per, through per fines Sequanorum copias ducere per Alpes
iter est
per agros nuntios mittere [over the country) per
per exploratores
tres annos (cf. time how long, 389)
per aetatem in armis
cognoscere [by means of scouts)
ob, on accoiDit of: ob earn

penes, in

power

the

rem

of:

non poterant {owing

esse

to their

age); per vim

oppidum

occupare {by force, forcibly).

post: (i) after: post pugnam post diem tertium.
;

(ii)

praeter

behind: post

montem

beyond, past

(i)

ter

spem

addition
except

(ii)

prope, near, near

to

se occultare

post tergum.

praeter castra copias ducere

(/;/

to hiniself).

nihil praeter pelles.

prope castra esse; castra prope oppidum

Similarly the adverbs propiiis and proxinie

ponere.

prae-

alium praeter se habere nullum

79)

propius tumulum accedere.

propter, on account of because of: propter fertilitatem loci ibi
consldere ; propter gravitatem armorum pugnare non
posse.

secundum:

(i)

(ii)

along: secundum flunicn legiones ducere.

after

{=

secundum
next to that);

nis {according

supra, above

to).

supra pontem {=

trans, across

secundum ea
secundum naturam flumi-

proelium

trans

RhCnum

in the upper part of the river).

colonias mittere; trans Alpes

habitarc.
xiltra.,

beyond

ultra Iliberum

locum deligere

progredi.

versus, towards: oppidum versus

proficiscl.

ultra

modum

SYNTAX

i88

397

The four following prepositions are used

either with

the accusative or with the ablative.

in with the accusative corresponds to the English
'

(i)

in

onto

'

or 'to

',

answering the question

urbem venn-e in Sicilian! iter facere

Treverorum pervenire (/o coDic-ihruugh
arrive at)
in unum locum convenire
;

{on to a
(ii)

assemble

in)

or

'

':

fines

iiitu

to

come-

{to

confugere

in collem

hill).

in a figurative

in

= to

in

together into

into

'

Whither

'

sense

fidem recipere

in

conspectum agminis venire

hostes in fugam conicere

hostes impetum facere {upon the enemy)

in

odium Gal-

lorum in Romanes {against the Romans adjectival)

bono animo in populum Romanum esse {ive/I disposed toivards the Romans).
:

sub,

with

under,

(i)

the

accusative

'Whither?':
sub iugum mittere
urbis mittere {up

(ii)

in a figurative

rum
Sub with
towards,

answers

sub terram

Ire

question

the

milites

sub muros

to the ivalls).

sense

Galliam sub imperium Romano-

redigere.

the
i.

e.

accusative

denoting

also used of time,

is

shortly be/ore

sub occasum solis

sub ves-

perum.
subter, under, and super, over, with the accusative answer the
questions 'Whither?' and

'Where?':

advehl; alios super ahos praecipitare

super ipsum, Porcius infra {N. sat above

him

murum

subter

Nomentanus
the host,

erat

P. be/ow

Horace); super subterque terram pugnare

(Livy).

THE DATIVE CASE

398

The

dative

is

mainly a persona/ case,

persons (nouns and pronouns) stand

/.

e.

words denoting
more

in the dative far

conmionly than words denoting things.

'

THE DATIVE CASE

The

dative

is

189

never used with a preposition

compounded with
commonest of all its uses.

frequently used with verbs

This

indeed, the

is,

The
classes

but

very

is

it

a preposition.

main

be divided into two

(i)

(ii)

those in which
those

in

which

it

is

an object;

it

is

adverbial.

Datives used as objects.

(i)

399

may

uses of the dative

id) as the indirect object of a verb which also takes

a direct object in the accusative

Ilaedui Boils agros dedcrunt.

lands or gave loiuh

to the

T/ic

Hna/i/i gave

They report the ii/attir to

Yon are eaiisiiig your neighhoiir

hibes.
to

your

He

7ieig/ihoitr).~l\5

promised them

They envy me

Trinobantibus

He

frumentumque imperat.
drnt.

Boii

trojiMe [troiiMe

auxilium suum pollicitus

his help.

ha)ilesfor 40 hostages

the

Caesarl rem renuntiant.

Caesar. Alter! negotium cx-

Boii.

and

est.

obsides

xi.

gave orders to the TriiioMihi honorem invi-

corn.

my distinction. Id

iis

suasit (per-

recommended this to them

[persuaded them of this).
Se suaque omnia aliCnisThey trusted themsimls crediderunt (commlserunt).
selves and all their possessions to perfect strangers.
Hoc mihi ignosce. Pardon me this { this offence).
suasitl Orgetorix.

Orgetori.x

Many

400

verbs compounded with prepositions take a dative

and an accusative, the dative being closely connected

with the preposition

legionl aliquem praeficere,

to

head of)
wage war upon the enemy {=

put some one

in hostes)

Many uses of the dative may be regarded as

Where the dative is governed by (or

heads.
object

where

it

the construction

sense

in

charge of

a legion) hostibus bellum inferre, to

{at the

in

falling

hostibus

metum

under either of these

'taken by') a verb

it

is

an

might be removed from the sentence witliout destroying

it is

adverbial.

SYNTAX

I90
inicere, to inspire

duere,

put

to

fear

enemy,

in the

on sonic one

clotliing

vestem

in-

morti aliquem

eri-

alicui

some one from death (= ex morte) mortl

aliquem ofiferre, to expose some one to death magnis
parva conferre, to compare small things ivith great
pere, to rescue

(= cum magnis);
habere),

to

put

voluptati salutem anteponere (post-

ivelfare before {after) pleasinr

voluptatem, post voluptatem

put a

to

401

ivall

round a

Note the verb adimere

'

city {=^

to take

urbl

murum

= ante

circumdare,

circum urbem).

away', which takes a dative

denoting 'from'

(like eripere, 400), though this meaning

not expressed by the preposition ad:

Omnia
us
il

He has

nobis ademit.

(lit.

taken everything aivay

he has robbed us everything)

nous a enleve [arrache)

from

conipare French

tout.

In the passive construction of these verbs

402

is

399-401)

the direct object becomes the subject of the sentence and the
dative remains

AgrI dati sunt Haeduls- a

Haeduibyth

Boii.

thing has been taken

403

away from

Some

to the

Every-

us.

as the sole object of certain verbs

{b)

*
:

of the verbs which have the dative as a sole object

are verbs which

may

also take a direct object

verbs of similar meaning to these

ignoscere,

to

imperare,

to

399),

and

command

indulgere, to be
parcere, to spare
pardon
credere, /o believe; confidere,
to favour
;

indulgent; faxevQ,
to trust

Lands were given

Boils.

Omnia nobis adempta sunt.

Populus Romanus victis imperare consuevit. The Roman

people is wont to give orders to the vanquished.-. parcere

A Dative put remember

With imperare and obey,

pray

Stitdcre, mlbcre, noccre,

Favere, parcere, placere

To

these add

Resist,

eiivy,

trust, forgive,

indulge, persuade, believe.

THE DATIVE CASE

subicctTs ct dC'bellare siipcrbos,

conquered and

war

to

191
be merciful to the

fo

don'/i t/ie defiant

(Acn.

vi.

853).

Orabant ut sibi ignosceret. T/iey begged liini to pardon

them
French pardonner with dat. Dccimae Icgidnl
Caesar had
indulserat Caesar et maxime confidebat.
been indulgent to the tenth legion and he trusted it more

than the others.

envy us

404

Fortuna fortibus

Flnitinil

the brave.

B. G.

(cf.

ii.

favet.

nobis invident.

Fortunefavoms
neighbours

Our

31).

Others are verbs which cannot take two objects

verbs of 'obe3'ing

and

'

'

resisting'

parere and oboedire (a compound of audio,

obey, French obeir; servire and inservire
be a slave

French

405), to

fo

7'esisf,

to

remedy.

fo

oppose,

rc'sister.

verbs of 'pleasing
placere,

405), to

fo serve.

to,

repugnare, adversari,

resistere,

'

and 'displeasing':
French plaire.

to please,

displicere,

to displease.

verbs of 'benefiting' and 'injuring':

prodesse ( 405), to benefit mederi,
;

nocere and obesse ( 405), fo infitre, French nuire

studere, fo pursue zealously
verbs
the

marry (said only of the bride viro

marry a husband; contrast uxoreni
ducere, fo marry a wife).

nubere,

fo

nubere,

Decima

legio Caesarl parebat.

Caesar.
satus

fo

Cicero

est).

The

tenth legion

obeyed

coniurationi Catilinae restitit (adver-

Cicero resisted [opposed) the conspiracy of

Catiline.

Cicero desired fo
Cicero bonis civibus placere cupiebat.
Maiorl parti placuit castra defenplease good citizens.
dere. // seemed good fo the majority to defend the camp.

Id consilium multls displicebat.

many.

That plan displeased

SYNTAX

192

Haec

res alils proderat, aliis oberat (nocebat).

Tin's zvas

advantageous to sojiie and disadvantageous to

Inopiae rei frumentariae mederl conabatur.

remedy

tryfjig to

the lack

Dumnorix novis rebus

lulia,

(lit.

Caesaris,

lulil

filia

Duiniiorix zvas bent on

nezv things).

Pompeio

nupsit.

daughter oj Julhis Caesar, married Pompey.

Pompcius
405

iTdiani in mdtrinidnitim

Many verbs compounded

He was

of provisions.

studebat.

a change of government

others.

Jidia,

the

Contrast

diixif.

with prepositions take a dative as

their sole object, the dative being closely connected in sense

with the preposition

legionl praeesse,

to

be at the head of a legion

venire (succurrere),
alicui succedere, to

well for

some one

against some one

406

The

alicui occurrere, to

alicui praestare (antecellere), to sur-

only passive construction which

passive construction

legionl

luas shoivn

Caesar

had

run up

one.

verbs that take a dative as their sole object

Decimae

alicui sub-

{e.g. nulla res iis successerat, they

not succeeded in anything)

pass some

come to the assistance of some one

come after some one, or to turn out

to

(lit.

the impersonal

377)
a

Caesare indulgebatur.

//

zuas indulged) to the tenth

equivalent in meaning to

was indulged by Caesar'.

invidetur.

possible with

is
is

Nobis

'

The

Indulgence
legion by

tenth legion

a finitimis nostrls

PVe are envied by our neighbours.

vacls persuaderl

non poterat

Bello-

ut diQtius morarentur.

The Bellovaci coidd not be persuaded (lit. it could not be

acceptable to the B.) to zvait any longer ( 329).

made
(ii)

407

Adverbial datives.

{^)

The

With verbs.
dative

may

denote, as in French, the person in

whose

THE DATIVE CASE

interest (or against

the dative

Quid

may

whose

interest) the action

be translated by

sed

ipsi

'

for

toti rel

is

Here

clone.

'

for himself ?

IVIial docs he ivajit

sibi vult ?

tibi

193

publicae vivis.

Non

Yoic live not

yourself but for the idiole state (Cicero).

for

His numerum

obsidum duplicat. He doubles the niDnber of the hostages

for them [i.e. demands twice the number of hostages
from them, B. G. iv. 36). Sibi quemque consulere

He

(cavere, providere) iussit.

thought for himself.

In

\o%

The

el evenit.

take

Pugna

adverse for him

in the action itself:'

me

repente venit ad

tibi

interested to hear that all

(Cicero).

Quid

miiii

'

Esse with the dative

But you

Caninius.

will be

of a sudden Caninius canw to

Celsus agit? IVhat is Celsus

I should like to know ?

Knock me at that door. Sirrah

doing,

Compare

pronoun marks
command, or question

dative of a personal

about an action, rather than

09

legion.

the

to

evenit.

he was defeated).

some instances the

me

man

fellciter

battle fell out

a person as interested in a statement,

At

bade each

res legionl

turned out fortunately for

This

adversa
[z=

Ea

may denote

(Shakespeare).

!
'

possession

They had (lit.

de principatu contentio.
There was for them) a quarrel among themselves about

His erat

inter se

the leadership.

Est mihi

nomen Antonius {or Antonio,

My name is Antony.

attracted into the

case of mihi).

With

\\o
'

to

esse or a

regard

',

verb meaning

or the

like,

'

to

come

',

'

to

send

'

',

to give',

the dative singular of certain

nouns

some one or something is to be

The meaning of the dative in this construc-

(mostly abstract) denotes what

or

'

IS to sef~>e as.

In such cases the dative

901

is

sometimes called
.\'

'

ethical

'

(i.e.

emotional).

SYNTAX

194
tion

clearly in a passage of Lucretius

comes out

the verb iaceo)

a prey and a profit

In this use the dative
tive

noun or adjective

is

v, 44.

dono

generally translatable by a predica-

supporter

14

and rescuer

The one rival

B. G.

411

and

salvation.

aliquid dare, to give something as a present

be a present), to give something

res

other:

the

to

existed to be a support

lit.

for a

(lit.

for

use).

Amicitia popull

RomanI

nobis ornamento et praesidio,

non detrlmento, esse

people ought

not a loss

to

generally accompanied by a dative of the

is

person interested

Roman

{=

gift.

quae usui sunt, things which are useful

This dative

be

to

to others.

Alter alterl inimicus auxilio salutlque erat.

ivas

875, with

They lay there

praedae lucroque iacebant.

Alils

(v.

to

us

to

B. G.

The friendship of

oportet.

and

be a distinction

i.

curae (auxilio, subsidio,

the

protection,

44. 5.

solacio,

temptul, onerl) esse alicui,

to be

consolation, honour, disgrace,

honorl,

probro, con-

a charge

[help, support,

laughing

burden)

stock,

to

any one
auxilio venire (mittere) alicui,

to

come

legionem praesidio relinquere

a protection for

the

send) as an aid

castrls, to leave

an honour

to

a legion as

camp

laudl esse (habere, ducere, &c.) alicui,

412

[to

some one

to

to

be

[to

regard) as

some one

In writing Latin two cautions should be borne in

mind

The

only nouns which can be used in this construcnouns like the above (mostly abstract). Other English
predicative nouns preceded by 'as' agree in case with the
noun of which they are predicated ( 274).
(i)

tion are

(2)

The

dative in this construction

is

never qualified by

::

THE DATIVE CASE

any adjective except one of
disgrace

With

'

quantit}'

inagno solacio, a great

English

the

like

195

'an

everlasting

are not Latin.

the gerund adjective,

participle, the dative

and sometimes with the perfect

may denote

the agent

Sequanis onines cruciatus erant perferendl. The Sequani

had
had

endure

to
to

Quam

kinds of torture

all

all

kinds of torture

Sequani cf. 453 ab (iii).

multa poetae dicunt quae philosophls aut dicenda
be endured by the

sunt aut dicta

either

ought

to

How many

things the poets say which

be said or have been said by philosophers

(Seneca).
[b]

^14

.16

Expressions

coiisolatioji.

^I3

^15

/.

e.

With

adjectives

which

EngHsh take

in

those meaning' necessary', 'useful

'suitable', 'similar', 'equal',

and

',

to

or

'for',

'friendly',

camp

Helve til

hostile to the

nostru exercitui par, equal

',

their opposites

locus castrls idoneus, a place suitable for a

Helve tils inimlcus,

'to'

'pleasant

our army

ceteris similis, like the rest (but with sinu'lis the genitive is

commoner,

The

424).

adjectives propior

'

generally take the dative

nearer

and proximus

'

propius and pro.xime take the accus. or ab with the

prope

'

near

'

when

it

is

'

nearest'

but the corresponding adverbs

a preposition

abl., like

396)

Belgae propiores (proximi) sunt Germanls.

are nearer {the nearest) to the Germans.

The Belgae

propius (proxime) tumulum accedere,

near)

to

drazo nearer {very

mouna

to the

propius abesse ab aliquo,

to

stana neai'cr

to

some one

THE GENITIVE CASE

The
nouns.

genitive

But

is

it is

chiefly

an adjectival

also used adverbially

object of certain verbs

427).

It

is

case,
(

used to qualify

423-6), and as the

never used with a pre-

position (except with letms sometimes, in poets).

N 2

SYNTAX

196

Adjectival Genitives.

I.

Answering the question

(a)

Denoting 'belonging

(i)

4117
(a)

'

What

the sense of possessed by

in

'

Caesaris, Caesar's house, the house of Caesar.

may

This genitive of the possessor

Haec domus

be used predicatively

This house

Caesaris.

est

GalHa popidl RomanI non AriovistI

property of the
(b)

'

to'

'

domus

sort of a

Romans

Gaul

est.

What

is the

special kind

indicated by the genitive depends

is

not of Ariovistus.

sense of 'connected with'.

in the

of connexion

Caesar's.

is

on the

context
expedltio Caesaris, Caesar's expedition

imagines Caesaris

Caesar's images, likenesses of Caesar; statua Phldiae,

a statue of

(i.

made

e.

Phidias

by)

civitates GalHae, the

of {belonging to) Gaul, the Gallic states radii solis,

sun's rays facultas itineris faciendl, the opporhinity

states
the

of making a journey

signum proelT committendi,

the

signal for engaging; speculandl causa {or gratia), /or

the sake

forces of

of scouting
(i.

e.

copiae equitatus peditatusque,

iuria retentorum equitum,

sisted

Used

iri)

the

man and I

liber

sum

belong

to

et llberae civitatis,

a free

state (B.

imperatoris est non minus consilio

rare,
to

418

(ii)

is

it

in-

con-

detaining the cavalry.

predicatively

a free

and infantry
wrong of (i.e. ivhich

consisting of) cavalry

belongs

to

{=

is

quam

G.

am

v. 7. 8)

gladio supe-

the part or duty of) a genera

prevail by strategy as nnich as by the sivord.

Used

objectively

(i.

e.

as the object of a

noun which

akin in meaning to a verb)

interfectores Caesaris, Caesar's murderers, the murderers

of Caesar {=

il

qui

Caesarem interfecerunt)
amor patriae, the

mortis, the fear of death

metus
love

oj

'

THE GENITIVE CASE

coiDi/rv
belli

amor

gerendl,

totlus Galliae,

impetrandi,

suT,

419

(iii)

Used

'

'

to describe a

little

headed beast

is

the sense of

iiiatris (in

the

'

',

the love

threats

by

felt

of Clodius

person or thing.

always qualified by an adjective

staturae, men of small stature (= parvi

men); belua multorum capitum, a many-

homines parvae

Used

amor

in

a mother's love

In this use the genitive

homines,

cupiditas

imperium
of Caul spes

niinac Clodil

101);

eo)}uiiaiid of the ivholc

hope of oblaiin'ng one's reqtiesl.

tateriuis)

mother

(of.

of imaging icar

llie

llie

Contrast the genitives

a))ior

self-love

desire

Ike

197

puer decern annorum, a boy ten years

predicatively

res incerti exitus est, the affair

old.

is

of

uncertain issue.

Denoting partition.

(b)

In this use the genitive denotes the whole of which a part

420

mentioned

it therefore corresponds to the denominator

This meaning is closely connected with theidea of 'from' or 'out of; hence it may generally be expressed in Latin by ex or dc with the abl. unus ex multJs
or unus de multls one of many ; perpaucae ex )idvibus (or ex
numero navium) 'very few of the ships (or out of the number of

is

of a fraction.

'

'

the ships)

The

421

'.

English genitive

Latin genitive
to

when

it

in

6'

cannot be used

denotes partition

employ a genitive-phrase formed with

to translate the

here

it is

necessary

of:

multl Gallorum, t)iany of the Gauls;

doctissimus, the most learned of all

omnium hominum
men

duo nostrum

{or vestrum), two of us (or of you).

422

rhe genitive of

partition

is

very frequently used after the

neuter singular of a pronoun or adjective of quantity used

as a noun, like aliquid,

id,

quid, qtiiequam, nihil, hoc, quod,

'

SYNTAX

198

tantuin, qnantuui, aliqnanlnui, multuni, plus,

sn/is,

quid novl?,

novum

'

ivJiat

lit.

new

thing

uiuch consolation

pain

after

satis

The only

spati, so

the

adjectives

II.

distance

adj.
//;/6-

mul-

summer-, plus doloris, more

parum, plenty of

wisdom.

little

which can stand

whose

nouns of the 2nd decl.,

much

sapientiae

eloquentiae,

construction are those

The

tantum

eloquence, but too

423

and

of neiv F (gen. of the neuter

hoc solaci,
'), = ivhat neivs ?

much of

tuni aestatis,

like

iiiiiiiis,

nimis, paruni (adverbs used as nouns)

in the genitive in this

genitives end in

-J

(adjectives

18).

Adverbial Genitives.

some neuter adjectives of quantity and

some words of similar meaning may denote the price at which
a thing

genitive of

is

valued or bought, sold, hired, &c.

Commii in his regionibus magnl habebatur.

The authority of Comniius was highly regarded (lit. was

Auctoritas

held at a high price) in these quarters.

Quanti equuni emit ? At what price did he buy

TantI quanti voluit.

At

the horse

the price 'which he wished.

Note the comparative and superlative of /a^Fand parvi:

magnl, pluris, plurimi, at a high [higher, very high) price.
parvl, minoris, minimi, at a low {lower, very loiv) price.

424

The

genitive

may be used

with adjectives which in English

take 'of, and a few others of similar meaning: e.g.

plenus fiduciae,

/////

of confidence

(cf.

abl. 437).

cupidus (avidus, studiosus) bellandl, desirous of making

war.

memor (immemor)

praeceptorum, mindful [unmindftd) of

the precepts.

gnarus (ignarus, inscius) omnium rerum, aivare of

[igno-

rant of) everything.

perltus (imperltus) belli, experienced in [ignorant of) war.
^

Compare the

similar use of

tlie

ablative ( 438).

'
:

THE GENITIVE CASE

siinilis

(dissiniilis) nicT,

uses

the dat.

The

425

414),

may

genitive

pudct, pacnitct,
(

dative

tlic

and

like {loilikr)

199

Merc English

i/ic.

and the Latin si)in7is may also take

but less commonly.
;

be used with the impersonal verbs

tacdct to

piij^cf,

denote the cause of the vexation

372).

Piget tacdetque

and

me morum

clvitatis.

am

of the manners of the state (Sallust).

sieic

stultitiae

/ am ashamed of my

meae.

annoyed

Pudet

folly.

at

me

Gallos

consiliorum suorum saepe paenitet.

The Gauls often

Compare French se re-

repent of their resolutions.

pe)itir de.

426

The

genitive of

nouns denoting a charge or accusation may

condemning
acquitting

be used with verbs of accusing

'

'

',

',

'

'

aliquem proditionis accusare (insimulare, arguere, reum

facere, (S:c.), to accuse some one of treachery; aliquem
inertiae ncquitiaeque

on

condemnare,

to

condemn some

otic

charge of idleness and profligacy.

the

These genitives, like tiie corresponding genitive-phrases

formed with of in English, are to be explained as qualifying
a noun in the ablative understood, i.e. as originally adjectival:
crhnine furtl accusatus est he was accused on the charge of
theft'.
The genitive capitis, which is sometimes used with
these verbs, is to be explained in the same way capitis dam'

'

'

tidtusest 'he

was condemned on a charge involving

his caput'

(a capital charge).

III.

427

Genitives used as objects.

Most verbs meaning

'

to pity

',

'

to

remember

',

or

'

to forget

take a genitive as their object

Miserere mel.

Pity me.

Horum hominum me miseret. / pity these people ( 372).

Memini neque umquam obllviscar illius noctis. / remember

and

shall never forget that night.

SYNTAX

200

So

too with the impersonal expression

comes

'it

lit.

But

(i)

uiiserdn

Communem

'

to pity

'

to

me

'

(ist conj.)

'

veiiit uiihi in iiiciitcni,

call to

mind

'.

takes the accusative

Galliae fortunam miserantur.

verbs

with

(ii)

mind

into the

of

'remembering' and 'forgetting' the

may stand in the accusative if it denotes a thing

Hoc memini neque obllvisci possum. Iniurias meminisse

object

nolo.

THE ABLATIVE CASE

428

The

mainly an adverbial case, used to qualify

and adverbs. The particular kind of adverbial meaning which it expresses depends partly on the
meaning of the noun which stands in the ablative, partly on
the meaning of the verb, adjective, or adverb with which it
ablative

is

verbs, adjectives,

is

used.^

The

ablative

used either (A) without a preposition, or

is

{B) with a preposition.

THE ABLATIVE WITHOUT A PREPOSITION

(A)

Adverbial

I.

429

(i)

The
{a)

the

ablative

may denote

ablatives.'^

'from':

answering the question V^hence

'

name

of a town, or doiuits, rus

Roma

(domo, rure)

',

when

the

noun

is

proficisci, to start

from Rome [from

home, from the country).

'

The meanings

of the Latin ablative are derived from three different cases

of the parent language

(i)

an ablative proper, denoting/row

strumental or sociative case, denoting by,

witli

(2)

an

in-

(3) a locative case, denoting

explains how it is that the Latin ablative has such

But it is not alwaj's certain from which of these original
cases a particular Latin usage is derived and it is probable that some Latin
usages have been formed by contributions from more than one of these
at, in, on.

This

fact

different meanings.

sources.
-

The

first

five

of these adverbial ablatives (^

adverb-phrases formed with

rfc

in

429-41) correspond to
French. See French Grammar, 417-28.

THE ABLATIVE CASE

430

when used

[h)

with a verb which

patria cedere, /o ivitlidraw

201

itself denotes

from ones

separation

native land

:'

conatu

from an attempt; ahquein equo deisome one oppidum obsidione llberare,

aHcui aqua atque ignl interto free a town from siege
aliqueni
dicere, to cut some one off' from water and fire
urbe expellere, to drive some one from the city; elves
calamitate prohibere, to keep the citizens out of harm's
way: Cic, pro leg. Man. 18. [For the construction of
adimcre 'to take away' see 401.]
desistere, to licsist

cerc, to nnhorse

431

when used with

{(')

meaning 'deprived

'

a verb of 'depriving' or an adjective

the abl.

is

translated by

'of

armour)
oppidum vacuum defensoribus, a town deprived of de-

armls aliquem spoliare,

to strip

some one of

/lis

fenders.

432

The

(ii)

('from'
so used

ablative

may denote 'owing to', 'because of

The noun whose ablative is

a figurative sense).

in

generally abstract

is

inopia pabull perire,

to

from

perish

{o'wing

to)

-want

of

deorum, ivhcther owing

food;
to accident, or to the design of the gods (B. G. i. 12. 6)
non voluntate sua sed coactu civitatis, not owing to his
free will but through the compulsion of the state (B. G.
v. 27. 3)
temeritate hostium, owing to the rashness of
the enemy; studio pugnandl aut spe praedae, through
sive casu, sive consilio

for fighting or hope of booty.'l'his use of the abl.

found with verbs denoting emotion or the
expression of emotion
delicto dolere, correctione
gaudere, to feel pain at having done ivrong and to rejoice in punish nunt (Cic. Amic. 90J
victoria gloriarl, to
zeal
is

often

boast of a victory.

433

(iii)

The

ablative

may denote

'

by

',

when

the verb

is

passive and the noun denotes something not living

vento
'

tenerl, to be detained

There arc not many verbs of

by the -wind; flumine

this kind.

The verb

tegl, to

scparo itself takes ab.

ti.

SYNTAX

202

be covered by the river; onere armoruni opprimi,

to

be

burdened by a weight of armour; religionibus impediri,

to be hampered by scruples.
[Contrast ab, a with the abl. of nouns denoting hving agents,
453-]
(iv)

434

The

ablative

ing the question

may denote manner

How?

'

'
:

or means, answer-

the English 'with

'

often serves as

a translation.*
[a)

when

noun (generally

the

denotes attendant circumstances

with the body or mind

qualified

by an epithet)

often something connected

magna voce exclamare,

French
manibus pacem petere,
to sue for peace ivith outstretched hands
omnibus cruciatibus aliquem adficere, to visit some one with every
kind of torture
impetum magno animo sustinere, to
resist an attack with great resolution {very resolutely)

crier d'une voix forte

cry with a loud voice,

to

passTs

summo
seal

studio et alacritate

and eagerness

nitl, to

strive with the greatest

{very zealously

and

eagerly)

magna

dlligentia, luith great diligence {very diligently).

435

(^) when the noun denotes an instrument or something

which can be used as an instrument

armis contendere,

to

arms

fight with

castra vallo fos-

saque munire, to fortify a canip luith a rampart and

navibus transire, to cross by ship {by means
a ditch
of ships) sagittarils et fundatoribus hostem terrere, to
frighten the enemy by means of archers and slingcrs magnis prdemiis aliquem adlicere, to attract some one by
means of great rewards se aliorum copils alere, to
;

But when

'

with

'

means

'

together with

'

it

is

expressed by

cum with

453. So too when the noun denotes attendant circumstances and

not quahfied by an epithet; see ex. in 453 cum.

tlie abl.,
is

'

By means of

followed by a noun denoting a person

expressed by per with the accusative

a letter

by a messenger.'

litlcnis

per niiniiitm

is

ordinarily

tiiitlerc,

'

to

send

THE ABLATIVE CASE

203

suppori oneself on the supplies of others (B. G. iv. 4)

to live on fish, to support life

piscibus vesci or vivcre,

means of fish

by

436

when

(t)

(B. G.

iv.

lol.

noun denotes a road or route

the

eodeni itinere revert!,

return by the

to

darios omnibus viis emittere,

same road

esse-

send out charioteers by

to

all routes.

when used with

('^

437

an adjective meaning

a verb of 'filling' or 'equipping' or

'filled

or 'equipped

'

navigia mllitibus complere,

French remplir
present some one ivith
(of.

de)

the

to

man

when

(f)

438

denotes

'

noun denotes

the

buying

ivith

but

',

'

selling

'

',

parvo pretio rediniere,

',

or

gold;

magno detr!mento

French digne

Compare

blood.

With verbs
The other verbs
verbs of

The

'

and the verb

costing

*
'

to

country for

be secured at a great

the use of the genitive

423.

with the adjectives dignus and indignus

"^

de)

memoria dignum, a thing

^

'

multo sanguine constabit (orstabit), victory

much

when used

(/)
(cf.

navis frumento

to sell one's

constare,

of neuter adjectives of quantity,

439

purchase {redeem) at a small

patriam auro vendere,

loss; victoria

abl.

424.

price or cost

cost;

will cost

unique effrontery.

cf.

hiring

to

to

in-

everything; singular!

ivith

sometimes takes an

adj. plcniis

soldiers

audacia praeditus, gifted

The

n.'ith

donare aliquem civitate,

citizenship
omnibus rebus

structus (ornatus), equipped

plena, a ship filled with corn

'

the ships

of 'buying'

w'orthy of mention

vox popul!

is the means of
same construction by

the price paid

of this group took the

acquisition.

imitation of

buying'.

with digitus is perhaps connected with the abl. of price cf.

'worthy' and 'worth' in English sextanie sal Romae erat 'salt cost (was
worth) a sixth of an as at Rome (,Livy xxix. 37. 3). Others connect dignus
with decet corona dignus adorned with a garland ', hence
worthy of
^

abl.

'

a garland

'.

'

'

SYNTAX

204

RomanI

440

unworthy of

indigna, a speech

niaiestate

dignity of the

Roman

the

people.

expressions like the following, in which the abl.

[g] in

answers the question 'In what respect?'

(a

modification of

'How?'):
par virtute, equal in valour; naves numero lx, ships 60
in

number; magnitudine paulo

little

below elephants

judgement

meo

{opinion) a just

infra elephantos,

iyi

size

arbitratu vir iustus, in

my

man

nomine Bibrax, Bibrax

by 7iame.
441

With comparatives

(v)

tinct things

may denote two

the ablative

dis-

the words
')
which stand in the abl. are neuter adjectives of quantity or
pronouns or nouns denoting measurement
[a]

the degree of difference (English

'

by

'

carinae aliquant planiores, keels considerably

siderable
(lit.

amount)

flatter

heavier by much)

magis, none the

facilius,

Britannia, Ireland

and

post,

annis

more

civilized;

eo minus, so

whetrby

the

smaller by a half than Britain

higher by ten feet; multls partiSimilarl}' with ante

times as great.

twenty years

few days
little

(adv.)

before

before (adv.)

viginti

paucis ante

paulo post mediam

after midnight."

by means of ( 435
is connected with the meaning
The meaning 'ago' may be expressed by abhinc, but with the

This meaning

sative

ago'.

(ibliinc

annos

the

used as adverbs or as prepositions

noctem, a

"

is

altior,

many

ante,

diebus, a

little

more easily nihilo

more; Hibernia dimidio minor est quam

decern pedibus

bus maior,

by a con-

hoc {or tanto) angustior, so much

the less;

narrower; quo

(lit.

multo gravior, much heavier

multo gravius, nnich more seriously

paulo humaniores, a

much

quattiiordcciiti

inoitiiiis

est

'

ff.).

accu-

he died fourteen years

THE ABLAT1\'E CASE

442

205

'than':'

(/,)

Ubii ceteris Germaiils paulO liumaniores sunt, the

air a

(= quam

LJhii

Germans

viorc civilized thau the rest of the

little

ceterl GermanI)
Caesar nillitum vTtam laude
sua habcbat cariorem, Caesar held the lives of his soldiers
dearer than his oivn glory (= quam laudem suain) am;

plius horls sex pugnabatur, the fight zuent on

than six hours

how

The

443

{= quam horas

for more

sex, accusative of time

long),

may always be used

ablative

quam

instead of

where

with

would cause
ambiguity), and tnust be used instead of quam with the nom.
or ace. of a relative pronoun
a nominative or accusative (except

it

Misenum Aeoliden, quo non

(Aen.

accusative n'hom, which

is

always used instead

after than, is an imitation of this Latin abl.

ci.'ho

abl.

Misenus

164).

vi.

The English
of

praestantior alter.

than 'whom none other tvas more excellent

the Aeolid,

cannot be used instead of

quam

with other cases

But the
:

e. g. in

quam mihi dedit. Ambiguity would arise if the abl.

were used in Brutum plus amd quam Cassium for Cassio
might mean quatn Cassius amat. But there is no ambiguity
in nl te plus oculis mels amarem 'if I did not love thee more

tibi

plus

than m}' eyes

(vi)

444

The

'

(Catullus).

may denote

ablative

These meanings are

the locative case
[a]

When

may answer

'at', 'on', 'in',

or 'within'.

closely connected with the

meaning of

( 55).

noun denotes a period of

the

the question

'

When ?

vere, in the spring; aestate, in the

the
'

'

autumn

The meaning

'

/';/

its

ablative

summer; autumno,

/;/

the ivinter.

was probably derived from the meaning from ',

Cermdnts more civilized starting
Germans as a standard \

than

starting from' ( 429)

from the rest of the

hieme,

time,

'

'

litlmdniores ceteris

'

:
;

SYNTAX

2o6

The

words

ablative of the

tempus

is

liora,

annus,

iiox, inensis,

dies,

generally accompanied by an epithet

h5ra sexta, at the sixth hour; die quarto, on the fourth

day; Idibus Martils, on the Ides of March proximo
anno, iii the next year; eo tempore, at that time.
;

445

The

of words which

ablative

do not properly denote

a period of time, such as pucritia 'boyhood', beUnni 'war',

.

arrival
are sometimes used to
answer the question 'When?', but only when accompanied
by an epithet or preceded by the preposition in

proelium

battle

'

adventus

',

'

',

'

extrema

Man.

pueritia, at the

28)

in pueritia,

equestribus proelils, in cavalry battles

in this battle;

G.

(B.

on

446

(b)

iv. 2)

in bello, in time

the arrival

The

'

ablative of

nouns denoting a period of time and

meaning may answer the ques-

similar

Within how long a time

XXV

of war; Luculli adventu,

of Lucullus,

some other nouns of

tion

end of his boyhood (Cic. pro leg.

i)i boyhood (Cic.) ; hoc proelio,

'

diebus aggerem exstruere,

within 2^ days

(=

intra

within the last ten days

xxv

to

construct a rampart

dies); his

eo biduo,

decem

ivithin ttvo

then
patrum nostrorum memoria, within
our fathers.
;

447

(^)

The

ablative of the

others of less importance

terra

marlque

nouns

terra,

may answer

pollere, to be poiverful on land

venient {favourable,

to

to

scrlbae loco aliquem habere,

in place

at sea

fight in a con;

hoc

(eo,

the same,

have some one as

So

too

secre-

nouns denoting

tota urbe, throughout the

tota Italia, throughout Italy.

^

and

':

be in one's proper place

to

of a secretary).

place with the epithet totus

city;

to

be in this [that,

which) place; suo loco esse,

(lit.

'Where ?

unfavourable) position

eodem, quo) loco esse,

memory of

marc, locus and a few

the question

idoneo (aequo, inlquo) loco pugnare,

tary

the

diebus,

days from

Exceptions are rare.

THE ABLATIVE CASE

148

With verbs

[(/)

ablative of

of rel3'ing and the adjective fretus the

any noun may answer the question On what ?'
'

'

'

virtute sua

rely

niti, to

confldere,

bus

207

on

to rely

on one's own valour; natfira loci

the

nature of the ground ; superiOri-

victorils fretus, relying 0)i prei'ions victories.

For the ablative absolute construction see

494-7-

The

II.

449

Participles,

The

adjectival ablative.

The

adjectival ablative describes a person or thing.

noun which stands in the ablative generally denotes a feature

of body or mind, and (as in the corresponding use of the
genitive, 419) is always qualified by an adjective
:

homines magna statiira, men of great stature {=^tall men)

homines capillo promisso, men luith long hair {= longhaired men) summa virtute adulescens, a young man
ofgreat courage; simulacra immani magnitudine, /;;/(7_-t'5
;

of vast

Used

sice.

predicatively

BritannI capillo promisso erant, the

Britons zvere long-haired ; bono animo esse videbantur,

they

seemed

good disposition {=

ivell

disposed).

Ablatives used as objects.

III.

450

be oj

to

The ablative is used as an object

With the deponent verbs Utor,

fruor, fungor, potior

'enjoying,' 'getting
kindred
ideas,
verbs which express the
\a)

possession of

'

:^

navibus (iumentls,
burden,

(S:c.)

stltu utl, to

wear

the comforts

>

the

same

life

(Horace).

With

o^f.)

suo iure

of

task

these verbs the

to serve oneself with slxips^

to

utl,

to exercise

commodls
eodem munere

clothing

life

ter

employ ships [beasts oJ

utl,

one's right

ve-

vitae frul, to enjoy

fungi, to perform
aevo functus, having enjoyed a triple

abl. originally

French

denoted means ( 434)

se servir de.

utl

navibus,

SYNTAX

2o8
451

With

verbs of lacking or needing' (the opposite ideas to those of 450) and the impersonal
expressions opus rs/ and fisus est there is need
[b)

the verbs cared, eged

'

'

'

'

'

cibo carere,

/o

lack food, to be zvi/houl

rebus necessariis egere,

auxilio nobis opus est,

to be destitute

we need aid

food

of

(lit.

omnibus

all necessities

tJiere is

need

to

us of aid) ; navibus consull non usus erat, the consul had

no need of ships (lit. there was not use of ships to the
consul).

THE ABLATIVE WITH A PREPOSITION

[B)

452

ab, cum, sine, ex (or e),

coram, tenus, prae, pro,

I.

de.

formed with these, as with other prepositions

always adverbial. Exceptional instances
(
of adjectival phrases formed with cum, sine, and ex are given
Phrases

395)> ^^^ nearly

below.

453 ab, or (only before a consonant)

(\)

a, or (only before

a marl

aliquid ab aliquo accipere

abs

te

rationem

prima luce ad vesperum.

a Septenon the side of (i. e. regarded from
.)
ab hac parte (French de ce
trionibus {on the north)
reposcent (B. G.

(ii)

abs

te)

octo milia passuum a cafro}}i: ab Haeduls venire

ab oriente ad occidentem non longe
strls abesse

v.

30)

cote)
(iii)

by,

a fronte

a tergo.

with passive verbs, the ablative denoting a living

ab equitibus {or equiagent (person or animal)

ab duce et a Fortuna deserl {Fortnna
a lupa nutrlrl {to be fed by
is here personified)
:

tatu) repelh

a she-wolf; contrast the

abl.

without a prep.

433).
'

For the origin of the abl. with these verbs see verbs of depriving
DsHs est followed the construction of fitor ( 450), from the stem
( 431).
of which the noun usus is derived.
1

'

; :

THE ABLATIVE CASE

coram, ///
cum, a'////
(i)

209

coram populo.'

Ihc presence of-,

cum omnibus copiis exirc

quam secum habcbat legates cum mandatis
mittere cum hostibus bellum gerere (or pugnare)
pacem facere cum HelvetiTs; cum dignitate otium,

denoting accompaniment

legio

peace
(ii)

citin

de

(i)

ivitJi

honour

denoting manner

(adjectival),

cum

cruciatu necari {with torture)]

used here because there

is

is

no epithet

cf-

434about, coucerm'ug:

de aliquii re dicere (or loqul, or

de aliqua re audire {or cognoscere or cerdesperare
tiorem fieri) legates de pace mittere
de salute {0/ deliverance) cf. French dc with verbs

docere)

of 'speaking
(ii)

doivn

'

and 'thinking'.^
de muro iacere

from or from

de navibus

desillre.
(iii)

(iv)

denoting partition

(f,

pauci de nostris {few of our

men; cf. genitive, 421).

owing to, according to qua de causa {for luhich
de more cf. ex (iv), below.
:

reason)

ex or (only before consonants) e

(i) out of, from
ex navl (or e navT) desillre ex omnibus partibus venire ex equls conloqui {from horse;

ex captlvis quaererc {or comperire or invenire)

quidam ex Hispania {a person front Spain,
ferventes ex argilla glandes {red-hot
adjectival)

back)

baits
1

Coram

is

made

out of day, adjectival

often an adverb

of kindred meaning, palani

used as prepositions
ledge

'

palam

'

face to face

openly
popiilo

'

',.

B. G. v. 43).

Conversely the adverbs

and clam secretly ', are sometimes

(Livy), clam me without my know'

'

'.

2 A phrase formed with de is sometimes nearly equivalent to an object

iniquum est de stipendio recusare, // is unreasonable io irjuse about the tribute
Compare
(B. G. i. 44. 4) is almost -- it is unreasonable to refuse tlic tribute.
significdre de Juga, nearly = signiftcdre fugaui (vii. 26. );; addiint dc Sab'uii

utorte ^v, 41. 4)

801

;;

SYNTAX

210
ajicf

(iij

ex terrore ac fuga se recipere

their
(iii)

alarm and flight, B. G.

equitibus (B. G.

iv.

bus human issimi

dl

(iii),

(i)

421,

(i)

(ii)

pro

quattuor

to
ex communi consensu {by common conex consuetudine sua.
in comparison zvith
Gallis prae magnitOdine corporum suorum brevitas nostra contemptui est.
for = owing to (in negative sentences) colHs prae
multitijdine hostium vix cerni poterat.
in front of: pro portis castrorum in statione esse
pro oppido conlocare.

sent)

prae

12);

above, and the genitive,

according

(iv)

recover after

et septuaginta ex
unus ex captlvis ex omnipaucae ex numero navium cf.

denoting partition

ofy

(/o

12).

ii.

= instead of: innocentes pro nocentibus.

= on behalf of: pro patria morl.
= in return for: pro beneficiis gratiam referre.
= as pro amico habere {to regard as a friend).

for

(ii)

according

(iii)

sine

without

spe

to

pro tempore

et

pro

re.

sine ullo labore et periculo

non sine aUqua

gladius sine mucrone {pointless, adjectival).

tenus (placed

after

its

noun) ^5 far as

pectore tenus

Aethiopia tenus.
in,

2.

sub, super, subter.

[For the accusative with these prepositions see

454 in with the ablative corresponds to the English

answering the question

'

Where

'

(cf.

397.]
///

or on,

the locative,

55):
(i)

in

urbe esse

the country

(ii)

in

in

hill);

ponere

in Sicilia habitare

in

Treverls esse

{in

in colle consistere {o)i

of the Trcveri)
ponte turrim constituere praesidiumque

sua

in silvls

a figurative sense

deponere.
in

celeritate posita est salus

{deliverance depends on swiftness)

in

repentino hos-

THE ABLATIVE CASE

211

tium adventu multuni fortuna potest

tin-

(///

sudden arrival of the enemy).

sub, under, with the ablative answers the question

case of

the

sub aqua esse

(i)

sub terra habitare

sub monte consldere

a figurative sense

in

(ii)

esse

omnium pugnare

about, concerning

sometimes means

over, above;

cui

Aen.

In poets

it

Horace).
the question

subter densa testudine {beneath a close shed of shields

ix. 514).

VERB-NOUNS AND VERB-ADJECTIVES

V.

55

the ablative (rare) answers

subter, under, with

'

ensis super cervlce

pendet {over whose neck hangs a sivord

?

latere.

super aliqua re dicere (scrlbere, rogare).

Where

'

sub umbra amicitiae

super with the ablative generally means

'

Where ?

foot of a mountain).

sub oculis

Romanorum

sub imperio

Romanae

{at the

'

sub muro stare

Verb-nouns and verb-adjectives are nouns and adjectives

formed from the stems of verbs. They therefore denote acts

some other nouns and adjectives connected

Compare jnorJ 'to die and mortuus -dead with

or states, like
with verbs.

mors

'

'

'

death

'.

But verb-nouns and verb-adjectives are

like

verbs

in

three

respects

(i)They have tenses and

(2)

They

are formed

take the

voices.

same case as

the verb from which they

legibus parere,

to

obey the laws

legibus parendo, by obeying the laws

legibus parens, obeying the laws

{3)

They
legibus
{by

are qualified by adverbs (not adjectives)

semper parere (parendo, parens), always

always obeying, always obeying)

o 2

the laws.

to

obey

SYNTAX

212

USES OF THE INFINTHVE

The

I.

The

456

Infinitive as an Object

chief use of the infinitive

is

as an object

as the sole object of certain verbs

(i)

(chiefly

denoting some activity of the mind).

The same kind of verbs take an object-infinitive
in

English

Latin as

verbs of

[a)

in

verbs

'

desiring

'

',

resolving

',

'

striving

',

and the

like:

volo,

lut'll

desire

/ ivi7/ not; malo, I prefer;

/ am eager audeo, / dare

nolo,

studeo,

cupio, /

statuo, constituo, decerno,

animum

induce, / resolve

Conor, contends, intendo, / strive

cogito, in

animo habeo, / intend

mature, propero, I hasten

festino,

cunctor, moror,
dubito, vereor,

non
[b)

euro,

I do

I delay
/ hesitate

not care

non recuso, / do not

refuse

verbs of being able and being bound

possum, / can nequeo, / cannot
scio, I know how {= I have the ability); nescio, I knoiv
'

'

'

'

not
disco,

Jioiv

learn

dedisco,

/ unlearn

debeo, / ought
[c) verbs of 'beginning', 'ceasing',
accustomed and the like

'continuing', 'being

',

coepi, incipio, instituo,

/ begin

desino, desisto, mitto (intermitto, praetermitto),

neglego, /

cease

neglect

pergo, persevere, 1 go on, I persevere

consuevi, / am accustomed, assuesco, consuesco,
/ accustom myself

soleo,

57

USES OF THE INFINITIVE

213

Examples.
/

Sciibere volo.

[n)

Scrlbere

wrifr or / wis/i to

ri'///

JVill-jiof

nOlI,

writt'.

{= Please do

n'rite

to

not

write, 316).

Sapere aude.

Resolve [Dare)

to

E5s longius prosequi non potuCrunt.

(b)

man.

be a 7uise

T/irv could not

pursue them further B. G. iv. 26.

\'incere scTs, Hannibal, victoria utl nescls.
\

stand how

to

win a

understand how

to

victory,

use

it

Livy

xxii. 51. 4.

They began

Nostros lacessere coeperunt.

{c)

You under-

Hannibal, but you do not

attack

to

our

men.

Fugere

They ceased

destiterunt.

run

to

a-a'ay.

For the agreement of predicative adjectives and nouns

(e. g. with esse) see
275
/ desire to be a Roman^
Civis Romanus esse cupio,

attached to an object-infinitive

<j

citizen.

58 Cautions.
1.

This use of the

infinitive as

an object must be carefully

distinguished from the adverbial uses of the infinitive

which are

common

in

English and French but which are

Thus

not found in classical Latin prose.

like

me

'

He

'

'

(infin.

sentences

in

of purpose, French viens

The Latin

'

is

other construction
2.

me

see

to

worthy to be loved (infin. qualifying the

'worthy*, French digne d'etre aime), 'It is easy to
[Yvench facile a faire), Latin generally employs some

voir),

adj.

do

'Come

see

484, 485.

infinitive is not often

used alone as the object

of verbs of 'hoping' and 'promising', as in the English

'

to

hope

come

to see
'.

him

'

(P'rench j'cspere

Here Latin uses

the

accusative with the future infinitive

vlsumm

esse

pronn'tto

me

le voir),

'

promise

construction

of the

spero

me cum

470)

venttlrum esse.

SYNTAX

214

459

^s one of two objects after certain verbs (verbs

which denote some activit}' of the mind)
('0

(a)

verbs of teaching
doceo, I

{b)

tcacli

and

'

'

accustoming

'

'

I accustom

assuefacio,

forbidding and permitting

some verbs of bidding
/ bid (but not impero, which takes a clause with
prohibeo, /
the subjunctive, 329); veto, I forbid
forbid, or / prevent
',

'

'

'

'

',

iubeo,

I pertiiit

sino, patior,
(c)

verbs of perceiving
'

video, I see; audio,

'

I hear

460 Examples.
Doceo

{a)

te

Latlne scire.

am

teacJting yon to

nnderstand

Latin.

Equos eodem remanere

have accustomed
spot
(b)

B. G.

vestigio assuefecerunt.

their horses

to

remain on

the

Tliey

same

iv. 2.

He fn'ds the so/diers

Mllites conscendere naves iubet.
Teutonos intra fines suos
embark'. B. G. v. 7.

ingredl prohibuerunt.

TJiey forbade the

Teutons

to

enter {or prevented the T. from entering) their territory

B. G.
(c)

ii.

4.

Ubi praeter spem quos fugere credebant infestis signis

ad se Ire viderunt, impetum nostrorum ferre non
potuerunt. When contrary to expectation they saw those

whom

they believed

to

be retreating advance in battle

array, they could not zuithstand the attack of our

B. G.

heard

8.

vi.

the

6.

Classica

canere audierunt.

men

They

trumpets sound.'

Other verbs of preventing generally take a clause with the subjunctive

and that construction is also found with proliibcd, though less
330'
commonly' than the infinitive.
1

'

(see

'^

'

Cf.

Necdum etiam

audierant

inflari classica,

necdum

crepilare enses,


USES OF

461

462

463

INFINITIVK

Tin-:

215

The above

are simple sentences containing two objects

an accusative, the second an infinitive (or a phrase
formed with the infinitive), denoting the action which is taught,

the

first

bidden, or perceived

docco /
'

frac/i\^^'

^^'^^^^

Latine scire,

iubet

-^'^" ^^^^

fo

undrrs/and Lnfiii (2nd object)

soldurs (ist object)

i^^il^^^s,
bids
Iconscendere naves, embark {2nd object)
f/ie

'

/ir

l''^^^^'''''' ^'''

audierunt, they heard

^;';'''M<^(ist object)

(canere, sound (2nd object)

-^

'

Out of this construction there grew a usage of great imporThe accusative and the infinitive, instead of
being two separate objects of the main verb grew together so
as to form a single object, in which the infinitive acquired
a predicative meaning and the accusative played the part of
its subject.
This usage is rightly called the accusative with
tance in Latin.

infinitive construction

the infinitive as

its

for the accusative

goes

strictly with

subject and not with the main verb as

its

object.

He bids

Iubet naves deducT.

He

the

launching of the ships

(The sentence

bids that the ships be launched.

does not mean that he gave an order to the ships.)

Hostes castra movere ex perfugTs audit. He hears from
deserters about the enemy striking their camp = He hears
that the enemy are striking their camp.
(He did not
hear the enemy striking their camp.)
In the course of time,

had come
sentence,

it

when

the accusative with infinitive

regarded as a separate clause of a complex

to be

began

to

be used

in

dependence on verbs which

could not take an accusative alone,

constat

'

it

is

well

French has
accusative

Nor as yet
anvils
'

is

liad

known

'

this construction

a relative pronoun.^
tliey

Virg. Georg.

e. g.

oportct

but

it is

539

See Frencli Grammar,

f.

it

only used

English has

lieard the si'i^unl given on Iti.uiprts

ii.

'

is fitting

',

(see 466, 472).

463.

it

when

also

the

though

nor swords ling on

SYNTAX

2i6
there are not

English

many

e.g.

When

beheved them

it

to

bean honest man

clared himself to

464

verbs on which

He

'

can depend

modern

in

be retreating',

'

He

de-

'.^

a predicative adjective or predicative noun is attached

it always agrees with the accusative-subject

to the infinitive
(cf.

275)

Romanum

Cicero dixit Balbum clvem

Balbus ivas a Ronton citizen.

Oportet Balbum clvem Romanum esse.
Balbus should be a Roman citizen.

Cicero said

esse.

that

465

The

It is fitting that

construction of the accusative with infinitive

with two different meanings

used

is

as equivalent to an English

that '-clause with the

subjunctive or the equivalent of a subjunctive (denoting
that something is to be done or was to be done).^ In this usage
the only tense of the infinitive which is emplo3^ed is the
(i)

'

Present.
as object, depending on certain verbs of:

{a)

'willing'

bidding

'

volo, nolo, malo, cupio

and

'permitting'

compelling

'

and the

The

'

sino, patior

'

forbidding

'

( 456)
iubeo, veto, prohibeo

459)

459)

cogo

like.

infinitive

may

be either active or passive

pontem rescindere.

imilites
that the soldiers shall cut doivn the bridge.
pontem a militibus rescindl.
that tlir bridge be cut down l)y the soldiers.^
^
There is no sufficient reason for regarding this Enghsh construction as
an imitation of the Latin. It was well-estabHshed in Old Fnglish.
Instead of the ace. with infin. a clause with the subjunctive (as in
Cogo generally
329, 330) is occasionally used with some of these verbs.
'-'

with the subjunctive

when

the verb of the subordinate clause

is

Note the subjunctive be in tlie translation. It would be impossible

by an indicative (' that the bridge is cut down ').

to

takes

Ji(

active.
''

translate

'

'

USES OF THE INFINITIVE

Pluribus praescntibus
zvilliiig iliat

eiis

217

He

res iactari iioluit.

khis iin-

that matter should be discussed in the presence

0/ several persons

B. G.

18.

i.

Leges duo ex

magistratus crearl vetabant.

una faniilia
The laws/orbade that tn'o of

same family should be appointed magistrates B. G. vii.

Civem Romanum capitis condemnari coegit.
He caused a Roman citizen to be condemned to death

the

33. 3.

(Cicero).

466

as subject of certain impersonal expressions

[b]

oportet,

is fitting;

it

decet,

seemly;

is

//

licet,

//

is

//

is

alloK'ed

placet,

est,

//

;'/

is

interest,

approved

// /is

aequum

is fair

displicet,

iniquum

important;

is

it

est,

disapproved
//

necesse

is

est,

unfair

opus

est,

necessary

and the

like.

Amlcitiam popull Roman! mihi praesidio esse oportet.

// is fitting that the friendship

friendship of the
to

nw:

necesse

B.
est.

G.

i.

of

the

Romans ought
44.

5.

Rotnans be
to

'

Consiliorum

the

eos paenitere

(= they

It is necessary that they repent

must necessarily repent) of

(=

be) a protection

their resolutions

B. G.

'V- 5- 3-

467

as equivalent to an English that '-clause with the

indicative (denoting that something is being done or teas done
In this usage all the three tenses of the
ov will be done).
infinitive are used, marking the action as going on (Pres.
'

(ii)

Infin.)

or completed {Per[. Infin.) or in prospect (Fut. Infin.) at

the time denoted by the verb of main clause, which

present, past, or future.

may be

For the use of the Future Participle

wiihfuisse to denote what tvould have happened see

471.

Note the subjunctive 'be' active voice) = -should be*. The translation
would be impossible. Similarly repent in the next example is a subjunctive, though it does not differ in form from an indicative.
'

'

is'

'

'

SYNTAX

2i8

468

This construction

some

activity of the

verbs of

found

is

depending on certain verbs which denote

as object,

(a)

mind

'perceiving':

sentio,

animadverts, / obsen>e
cognosco, disco, I /earn

I perceive;

intellego,

video,

see

audio,

existimo, / judge, I
/ reflect opinor, puto, Ifancy
credo, I believe confldo, I am confident

arbitror, iudico,

Iienr

t/iink;

cogito,

spero,

I hope

I suspect
novl, scio, / knoiv
/ remember

suspicor,

and the

nescio,

/ do not knoiv

nieminl,

like,

verbs of 'saying

dico, / say
nego, / deny respondeo,
I answer doceo, / show, fateor, I confess nuntio,
trado, / report
glorior, / boast
queror, / complain
'

simulo, / pretend

promitto, polliceor, I promise

and the
as scrlbo,

verbs of

'

/ grieve

minor, I threaten

like (including equivalent expressions

'

write to say', certiorem facio

feeling

'

^
:

indignor,

gaudeo,

am

laetor,

indignant

'

rejoice
;

such

inform
;

miror,

')

doleo,

am

surprised

and the

like (including

aegre

fero,

I am

annoyed).

469 Examples.
I

Credunt
They believe

nos copias deducere us to be u'ithdra wing {that we

are withdrawing) our forces.
nos copias deduxisse 71s to have zvithdrawn (that
we have withdrawn) our forces.
nos copias deducturos esse us to be about to ivithdraiv (that we shall withdraw) our forces.

These verbs may

also take a y;/o(i'-clause, corresponding to a ///^/-clause

Gaudent qiiod copias dedficimus

French
Tliey rejoice iliat zve ore wif/idrawiiig
(deduximus, dCductrirl suinus, &c.^.
(Jiave ivitlidrauni, are about to withdraiv, &c.) our forces.

in English or

a (/?/(?-clause in

USES OF THE INFINITIVE

nos copias deducere us

lo

be

219

mthdraKHu^

(that

we were withdrawing) our forces.

Credebant nos copias deduxissc us to have -ivilluh'OKni (that

They helicvra]
we had withdrawn) our forces.
nos copias deducturos esse us to l>e about to u<it/i\
draw (that we should withdraw) our forces.

Se

fines angustos habere arbitrabantur.

theuiselves to

B. G.

i.

2.

have (that

Dixit

it

was

true)

They considered

had) a narroiv

se scire illud esse verum.

clared himself to k)ioiv

that

the}^

it

to be true

B. G.

i.

20.

{We

territory

He

said that he

Nostros

de-

knew

indlligentius

They had believed ourmeu

our men would keep) a less

servaturos esse crediderant.

to

be likely to keep (that

carejul watch: B. G.

470

ii.

33.

The Future Infinitive is the tense generally required

dependence on verbs of hoping and promising
'

'

'

in

'

Sperabant (Promlsimus) nos copias deducturos esse.

They hoped {Jf^e prniuised) that rtv should withdrari' the
forces.

471

To

express that something -would have happened under

certain imagined conditions the Future Participle with the

Perfect Infinitive fuisse

is

emplo3'ed

Credebant nos proelio victos copias deducturos fuisse.

They believed that we having been defeated (= if we had
been defeated, cf. 487) in a battle should have withdrawn
our forces: deducturos fuisse, lit. to have been likely to
withdraw (cf 352).

Caesarem profectum in Italiam

Carnutes interficiendl TasgetiT consilium
fuisse capturos, neque Eburones, sT ille adesset, tanta
contemptione Romanorum ad castra venturos. Titurius
said that he considered that Caesar had started for Italy ;
that other-wise the Carnutes -would not have adopted the
measure of putting Tasgetius to death, nor ivould the
Eburones have come to the camp -with such contempt for

Titurius dixit se arbitrarl

neque

aliter

SYNTAX

220
the

Romans, if Caesar had been tlm-c. B.G.

veteres hac re usiiros fuisse,

the ancients

known

been

472

si

would have made

Cic. Orator 169.

Credo
I believe that
thing, if it had
v.29,

nota esset.

ttse

of

this

as subject of certain impersonal expressions:

{b)

constat,

well

it is

known

apparet,

it is

apparent

manifestum est, it is man fest

and the like (including equivalent expressions such as
fama est, there is a report spes est, there is hope).
Multa genera ferarum in ea silva nasci constat. // is an
;

many

established fact that

duced in that forest

473

When
with

a clause of comparison

infinitive,

struction

kinds of

B. G.
is

vi.

ivild beasts

are pro-

25.

subordinated to an accusative
infinitive con-

also takes the accusative with

it

esse dlccbat quam amicitiam usque ad

diem permanere. Scipio used to say that
nothing zvas more difficult than that friendship should endure
right on to the last day of life Cic. Amic. 33.

ScTpio nihil

difificilius

extremum

vTtae

When
(as in

'

[can]'),

subject

same verb belongs to both of the subordinate clauses

don't believe that you can stand on one leg as long as I

the

I
it

generally omitted in the clause of comparison

is

still

stands

Non credo

in

te

the accusative

tantum

but

its

temporis

in

uno pede stare posse

quantum me.
Decet cariorem esse patriam nobis quam nSsniet ips5s. // is
seemly that our country should be dearer to us than lue ourselves [are].
in which the comparative clause has
Quis credit tantum esse solem quantus videtur ?
the sun is only just as big as it appears ?

Contrast the following,

a different verb

Who
474

l}elieves

that

Nominative with

infinitive.

accusative with infinitive

form.

The

sentence

in

may

Sentences containing an
thrown into passive

often be

accusative then becomes the subject of a simple

which the

infinitive is retained

(cf.

the retained

USES OF THE INFINITIVE

accusative in

those in

469

Compare

386).

221

the following sentences with

Credimur (Dicimur) copias deducere (deduxisse, deduc'

/Fr are believed

turi esse).

have ivithdraivn,

The

(cf.

{said) to be n'ithdran'ing {to

n' it/idraw)

be about to

predicative adjective

native

our forces.

or noun then stands

in the

nomi-

275)

Homerus caecus
have been

475

to

Homer

fuisse traditur.

is

reported to

blind.

This construction (called 'nominative with

infinitive')

is

generally preferred in Latin to that of a complex sentence

is believed (It is saidi that we are withdrawing our
though that construction is sometimes found {e.g. with
vere dicitur and with compound forms like imutiatum est,
dtcendum est)

like

It

'

forces',

Vere
that

476

An

nos copias deducere.

dicitur

common

exceedingly

use of the nominative with

tive construction is with the

a kind of passive of video

Videmur

\'idebamur

Videbimur
II.

477

'

verb videor

see

seem

',

Civitatibus

'

it is

better

maxima

accusative

'

When

credo

means

'

take

',

'

it

is

it

licet

'

may

stand as the

and a few im-

important

it is

quam

laus est

solitudines habere.

is

copias deducturi esse.

personal verbs, such as interest

praestat

infini-

which

'

subject of a sentence, chiefly with the verb est

seemly

',

and as Predicative Noun

without an

infinitive

copias deduxisse.

'

copias deducere.

Infinitive as Subject

The

// is said with truth

we are ivithdrawing our forces.

allowed

',

decet

'

it

is

'

latissime circum se

// is the greatest glory to the states

on trust

',

a.^

distinct

from

'

trust',

it

does

not take a dative ;as in 399 and 403, ; hence the personal passive
construction is used, not the iin{>ersonal passive construction ^ 406J.

::

SYNTAX

222

have uninhabited country around them to as great

a distance as possible
B. G. vi. 23,
Magnl interest
oppido potlrl.
To get possession of the town is very

to

important: B. G.
praestat.

Cic. Tusc. V. 56.

manere
is

21.

i.

Accipere quam facere iniuriam

// is better to suffer than to injlict

licet.

Non

To stay longer than a year

not permitted: B. G,

an injury

longius anno uno in loco re-

iv.

in one place

i.

noun
Loquor de homine docto, cui vivere est cogitare. / speak
of an educated mail, to ivhom to live is to think (= life is

Infinitive as predicative

thought): Cic. Tusc.

478

When

v. 11 1.

noun

is

infinitive (e.g. to esse ov fieri or viderl),

it

a predicative adjective or

attached to the subjectstands in the accusative

The explanation is that it agrees with an accusative (subject

of the infinitive, 462) understood epithets, too, of this unexpressed
subject may stand in the accusative
case.

Est aliquid, fatoque suo ferroque cadentem in solida nioriens

ponere corpus humo, et mandare suls ahqua, et sperare
sepulcrum, et non aequorels piscibus esse cibum. It is
|

something, ivhen falling

l)y

decree of fate

lay one's dying body on solid earth,

and

and by

to i^ive

the

some

sword to
com-

last

missions to one's"friends, and to hope for a tomb, and not to be

food (predicative noun) for the fshes of the sea Ovid, Trist.
i. 2. 53-6.
Supply aliquem some one
:

'.

'

479

But after

licet

with a dative the predicative

to the infinitive generally

Licet vobis incolumibus discedere.

B. G.

or noun attached
274):

You may depart unharmed'.

V. 41. 6.

III.

480

adj.

stands in the dative (cf

The Present

The Historic

Infinitive

may

Infinitive
used

be

in

lively

narrative as

equivalent to a finite verb in a simple sentence (Historic Infinitive)

Caesar frumentum flagitare

diem ex die ducere
Haedul. Caesar kept demanding the corn daily : the Haedui kept
putting him off day by day B. G. i. 16. In origin the historic
infinitive may have been adverbial, with the verb understood
(cf. 252)
they were for demanding
flagitiire [erant],

Cottidie

'

'

USES OF THE INFINITIVE

223

to demand' or 'they kept demandcompare ctrc a with the infinitive in French, and the
EngUsh idiom What are you at
Or the usage may have
originated in a verb-less sentence of which the infinitive was

hence 'they proceeded

ing'

'

'

the subject.

The

IV.

The

^.Si

infinitive is

Infinitive in Exclamations

sometimes used

exclamations and indignant

in

questions (depending on a verb of emotion understood)

Te nunc, mea

Terentia, sic vexarl

think that you,

my

'

and that

Understand doled

To

this is

'I grieve' or

'.

?
/ desist from my purpose
Equivalent to egone desistam? 'Am
adverbial,
( 319.) Here the infinitive is probably
English has the same
desistere 'for desisting'.

(Aen.

to desist

as in 480

use

:^

culpa

incepto desistere victam

baffled?
I

mea

fieri

Tcnnfio, are thus troubled /

due to my fault.' (Cicero.)

indignor I am indignant

Mene

idque

'

i.

37.)

sentences

for

like

'

desist

'
'

honour thee

?
'

contain

infinitives, not indicatives.

The

original

In origin the infinitive

482

regere

ruling

to rule

'

'

meaning of the

formed from the stem

is

dative or locative reges-i or

;
'

Compare gener-1,
became geiter- (

-e

lit.

was added

Many

483
In

'

for {or in) the act of ruling

'.

the stem genes-, which

passive infinitives show the original

more clearly dart to be given from
giving'.
The passive meaning was acquired
'

directly to the root

',

uses

some

to a locative.
;

{reg-i).

show traces of its original meaning.

stands nearer in meaning to a dative, in

of the infinitive

most constructions

poets

The

37).^^

'for the

for example
meaning the act of

In the passive infinitive of the 3rd conjugation the inflexion

later.
7

'

reges-,

dative of genus, from

dative or locative ending

das-J,

infinitive.

a dative or locative case

is

it

The

following instances

come mainly from

meaning
where some other

for infinitives with their original datival or locatival

are for the most part avoided in classical prose,

construction

is

generally substituted (especially ut or qui with the

ad with the accusative ot

subjunctive, the genitive of the gerund,

the gerund, or in a few cases the supine in

'

Compare

By

u).

the accusative of exclamation,

the change of

s into

388.

between two vowels.

SYNTAX

224
484

The
(i)

original

meaning of the

with verbs

adverbial

infinitive is

Libycos populare penates non venimus. We have not come to

lay waste the Libyan homes Aen. i. 527 f. (of. Hor. Od. i. 2. 7
iii. 8. ii).
Populare here denotes purpose, which would be
expressed in classical prose by ut popnlemus or ut popiilcinur
:

(deponent).

magnum dat ferre talentum. He gives them a great

of silver to carry away Aen. v. 248. Ferre for carrying
away
classical prose quod ferant.
Interea soror alma monet succedere Lauso Turnum. Mean-

Argent!
talent

'

while his kindly sister ivarns Turnits to take the place (classical

prose ut siiccedat) of Lausus

Flectere iter socils imperat.

Aen.

change (classical prose idflectant)

Hortamur
loquatur)

We

farl.
:

Aen.

exhort

x. 439.

He commands

him

comrades to
Aen. vii. 35.
speak (classical prose lit

their course

to

his
:

74.

ii.

Quid habes dicere? What have you to say? (classical prose

quod dicas): Cic. Balb. 33. From this usage of the infinitive
with habed comes the French Future diras from dire as,
Lat. diccrc habrs, you have to say', hence you will say'.

'

485

(ii)

with adjectives

'

avidus committere pugnani, eager

Ovid, Met.

v. 75.

to

join (for joining) the fray

pugnac committcndac.
:

Classical prose avidus

bonus dicere versus, good at composing verses (locatival meaning

of infin.)

Virg. Eel.

v. 2.

Classical prose peritus with gen.

dignus amarl, ivorthy to be loved:

qui amctur.
paratus decertare, ready to fght

ibid. 89.

(for

Classical prose

fighting),

is

found

in

44 but would more commonly be expressed

by paratus ad decertandum.
vultus liibricus aspici, a countenance hazardous to behold (in the
beholding, locatival meaning) Hor. Od. i. 19. 8. Classical
Caesar, B. G.

i.

prose irdn'icus visu (supine).- Constructions

( = facilis facta) arc common in Propertius,

like facilisfacrre

^86

^87

[.88

225

USES OF THE PARTICIPLES

The

participles are used

as epithets

(i)

256):

gladiator moriens, a

(fyiiig ij^Iaih'ator

gladiator mortuus, a dead gladiator.

The

may

epithet participle

be appositive

258)

(cf.

Orgetorix, regnl cupiditate inductus, coniurationem

Orgcton'x, proDipted hv the desire of being king,

a conspn-aey

B. G.

i.

fecit.

formed

2.

phrase containing an appositive participle

may

often be

translated by a clause of time, cause, condition, or concession,

thus indnctns in the above example

might be translated 'when he had been prompted or because
he had been prompted
and in other contexts by if he had

according to the context

'

'

been prompted

Hanc

though he had been prompted

'

',

'

'.

adept! victoriam, in perpetuum se fore victores con-

If they gained this victory, they felt sure that

for ever: B. G. v. 39. 4 [adeptl

fldebant.

they zvould he victorious

for adeptos

cf. vii.

56.

2).

In conloquium venire invltatus gravaris.

co))ie to

a conference, though invited

cf.

You
B. G.

refuse to
i.

35. 2.

But more commonly the participle denotes attendant

cumstances
Flens

cir-

:^

me

obsecravit.

entreated

me

Weeping he

entreated

with tears in his eyes.

me

Aquilifer

= He
fortis-

The eagle-bearer falls, fighting

Centuriones armati Mettium
bravely: B. G. v. 37.
circumsistunt. The centurions in arms surround Mettius

simo pugnans occlditur.

Livy
1

i.

28.

This meaning

is

often expressed

358, 359901

by cunt with the subjunctive

see

SYNTAX

226

489

;;

(2)

as predicative adjectives

254)

eum morientem. / found Jiiui dying.

InvenI eum mortuum. I found him dead.

InvenI

490

Often with verbs of perceiving

'

'

Sedentem in saxo cruore oppletum consulem vidit. He

saw the consul sitting on a rock covered with blood Livy
xxii. 49. 6.
Tiblcinem cantantem audio. / hrar the
:

piper playing.

Here

the participle

the use mentioned in

The nominative

491

nearly equivalent to the infinitive in

is

459

(<:),

of the Perfect Participle Passive, used pre-

dicatively with a tense of esse, forms the tenses of completed

action of the passive voice

or

'

was called

vocatus ero,

'

'

shall

The nominative

492

153)

vocatus sunt,

vocatus erani,

have been called

'

'

I
I

have been called

had been called

'

'

'.

of the Future Participle Active, used pre-

dicatively with a tense of esse, forms an equivalent for three

active tenses

Moriturus sum.

am

likely to

{about

to)

die

shall die

(Future Indie),

Moriturus eram {or

ful).

/ was

likely to

{about

to)

die

equivalent to a Future in the Past of French or English

when used to denote futurity from a past point of view
*je mourrais,' I should die.'

'

Moriturus ero.

493

shall be likely to {about

to) die.

The nominative of the Present Participle Active is never

used predicatively with a tense of esse, except when the participle has acquired the character of an ordinary adjective or
noun { 498): dJligens est 'he is diligent', sapiens erat 'he
was wise

{or a philosopher)

dicto audiens

French
is

//

reading

'

sum

est

'

savant

am
'

he

e.xcellens erit

',

obedient to
is

(French Gram.

learned

481).

',

'

he

will

command
but not

//

be eminent
'.

So

'

too in

est lisant

'

he

USES OF
194

Tlir:

participles

227

very important use of the partieiple as a preilicative

is that which is foiind in the construction called the

ablative absolute,' which corresponds to the Enghsh nomina-

adjective

tive absolute construction

Ponuntque

ferocia PoenI corda, volente deo.

And

tlie

haughty temper, a god

Zi'i//i>ig it (= because a
god willed it): Aen. i. 303.
Compare the English nom. abs. in 'God willing (= if
lay aside

Cartliagi)iia)is

God

wills

shall

it),

do

tlwir

it '.

Paucis defendentibus, oppidum

He

expugniire non potuit.

few defending it
(= though few defended it) B. G. ii. 12.
Omnibus rebus comparatis diem dicunt. Everything
could not take the town by storm,
:

havi)ig been got ready {=^

wX'xo.w

got ready), they appoint a day

Signis in

unum locum

ments esse
bus

vidit,

everything had been

B. G.

i.

6.

impedi-

collatis mllites sibi ipsos

quartae cohortis omnibus centurioni-

He saw

signo amisso.

occIsTs, signifero interfecto,

an impediment to themselves, the

standards having been crowded together in one place
(= because the standards had been crowded together),
all the centurions of the fourth cohort having been killed
a)id the standard -bearer having been slain and his
that the soldiers were

standard

495

lost

B. G.

25.

ii.

In this construction the ablative

and the

participle

is

predicated of

it,

is

an adverbial ablative

so that the ablative and

form an equivalent of an adverb-clause

by the translations given in brackets above).
On the predicative character of the participle depends the
difference between the ablative absolute construction and
its

participle together

(as is indicated

other ablatives with adjectives attached to them.

signis collatis 'the standards having been

(=

in battle

'dissociated ablative'

so called

(494) with infestis signis 'with hostile standards

'

Ablalivtis absolutus

because the ablative and

'

.iblative set free

its

participle

',

Contrast

crowded together'
'

form a group by themselves.

P2

SYNTAX

228
array
is

see example in

an epithet

volcntc deb in

'owing

496

'

god willing

to a

The

460 r). In the latter case the adjective

former it is predicative. Similarly
494 means not owing to a willing god but
it

'

'.

ablative in this construction denotes attendant circum-

stances

(cf.

434)

fending

'

'

rapture of the fight

his horse

on a

little

scribbled a dozen lines to his wife to

event.''

'

The

latter

But

leisure.'''

ivith this

time

(i)

comes
cause

(ii)

Thus

stands.

= when

the signal

crescunt loca decrescentibus undls, the laud

into vieiv as the

(cf. the abl.

water subsides

of cause,

condition or concession

(iii)

various shades

444)

signo dato, the signal having been given

was given

it

be equivalent to a clause of

the abl. of time when,

(cf.

Lord Roberts

Pretoria at his

east of

may assume

this construction

may

in

her of the great

of meaning according to the context in which

the abl. abs.

daueiug

bridge and

rustic

tell

accqiuplished

the Transvaalers

deal with

still

plan would relieve the British communi-

cations from danger, and

could

few de-

would leave an absolute construction

zvHli the

up

his blood pulled

by the

translated

rebus coniparatls 'with everything got

with

But Marlborough

generall}^ be

panels dcfcndciitihus 'with

the following sentences in English, where

Compare

the omission of

may

'Y\-\\\?,

ojiiuibiis

it',

ready'.

it

English 'with'.'

'

the

in

432)

Ovid, Met.

see examples

i.

345.

494.

Prohibentibus nostris hostes sine periculo vitae flumen

adire non possent.
If our men made opposition the
enemy zvould not be able to approach the river without
risking their lives
1

The

preposition

cum

is

B. G.

viii.

40. 4.

sometimes added

in

Latin

cum

dts bene

yourselves, with the gods graciously assisting

Livy xxi. 43. 7 (so the MSS.). There are several examples in
you
Old Latin.
iiivantibus

anna

capite

'

arm

'

Fights for the Flag (Blenheim), by

W.

Biniiingliam Daily Post, June

1900.

15,

H.

Fitchett, p. 16.

'

USES OF THE rARTICIPLES

Obs. In writing Latin the

229

abl. abs. construction slioukl

be

avoided when the subject of the English subordinate clause

repeated

is

'When

b}'

noun or pronoun

close custody',

'As he was saying

obsi'dcs acci'ptds ciisfocfivit

he expired

this,

'

in

such

487) should be used

In
hacc (liccns, intain cxsplrdvit.

sentences an appositive participle

;

would be as awkward in Latin

this, he expired.'

this last instance the abl. abs.

as the noni. abs. in English

197

main clause: e.g.

llicin under

in the

the hostages had been received, he put

he saying

'
:

Instead of the participle in the abl. abs. construction a predicative

noun or adjective ma}^ be used

Cicerone

et

as consuls

me

invito, ivifh

Some

^98

Antonio consulibus,

participles

adjectives or

nouns

and .Intony

Cicero

consulship of Cicero and Antony.

in the

me

iviih

mtii'illing

against

my

will.

have acquired the character of ordinary

:

absens absent

praesens

'

g.

e.

',

'

present

',

which are present participles of esse 'to be (see other

examples in 493); anians 'a lover'; adiilescens 'a young
'

man

[or

young woman)

'

quam in
command of

In improbi praesentis imperio maior est vis

bonorum absentium
a ivicked
in

the

man

In

patrocinio.

the

-who is on the spot there is

protection

of honest

praesens tempus,

the

men

H'ho

present time

more force than

are far away;
in

praesenti,

at

present (Cicero).

So too some
'a

deed

',

perfect participles,

impensa

(sc.

pecunia)

Facto non consulto opus

of deliberation.
Participles so used

may

'

est.

'certain

e. g. certiis

expense

',

factum

'

There

be compared

need of action, not

is

anuins, anmntior,

amantissinins ; optdtus, optatior, optdtissinuis.

1

There arc some examples

in

of the abl. abs in sentences like

put them into close custody
tind an abl. abs. in

';

'

Latin writers (Caesar, Cicero, and others)

When

see B. G.

sentences like

'

He

the hostages had been received, ho

vi. 4.

saying

but

this,

it

would be

he expired

'.

dillicult to

SYNTAX

230

Many words

499

really such

that look at first sight

Hke participles are not

and formed

for participles are z'^r^-adjectives

from the stems of verbs. But adjectives like the following

are formed (by means of the same suffix as is used in verbadjectives ') from the stems of nouns or adjectives
barbd-tus
:

'

beard-ed

hares

aun-tiis

',

'

ear-ed

'

'long-eared

(e.g. Icporcs aitrltl

dressed in a toga \ tiuiicd-tus dressed in

candidd-tus 'dressed in a Candida {toga)\ &c.

togd-tus

'),

a tunic

',

'

'

USES OF THE GERUND ADJECTIVE

500

The gerund adjective

which has two uses

is

a passive verb- adjective

133),

denoting what

(i)
is

is to

Here

be done.

the gerund adjective

a passive participle with the sense of obligation or neces-

sity

as an epithet

(a)

laudandus, a man
homo contemnendus,

man

to-be-praised, a laudable

vir

a person to-be-despised, a contemptible

person
(b)

as a predicative adjective

Hie

vir laudandus est.

Acies erat instruenda.

(had to be formed)

Urbem inflammandam

This

The
B. G.

See note on the

The name given

was

sutfix

to the

ii.

Cassio

the city to Cassiiis to be set

man

line

is to

of

be praised.

battle ivas to be formed

20.
attribuit.

on fire

He

handed over

Cic. Cat.

iv. 13.

in 148.

gerund adjective by the

Roman grammarians

parlicipittm fultni passivi 'future participle passive'.

This term

is

applicable to the usages treated in 500 and 501 above, though the idea of
but
obligation or necessity is more prominent in them than that of futurity
;

is not
future participle passive
to the usage treated in 502 the name
Here the gerund adjective (like the subjunctive in certain of its
applicable.
'

'

usages) loses the sense of obligation and becomes equivalent to a present

participle passive

USES OF THE GERUND ADJECTIVE

He

Ponteni in Ararl faciendum curat.

made on

be

the

Arar:

B. G.

i.

231

orders a bridge

to

13.

nominative neuter of the gerund adjective, with the

is often used with a tense of esse in the

riic

sense of obhgation,

The person by

impersonal passive construction

377).

whom

is

generally denoted by

the action

a dative

is to

be done

Pugnandum

IVe must fight

est nobis.

(lit.

fighting

is to-

be-done by ns).

de navibus desiliendum

Rlilitibus
to

Uap doivnfroin

luveni parandum,

ought

to get,

xxxvi.

4.

to

seni

utendum

est

to

The

erat.

B. G.

an o/d man

Obhviscendum
ought

the ships

iv.

A
:

sulendum.

nobis iniuriarum acceptarum.

The property of many

ivhose interests you ought to consult

Here a

vobis

is

interests

used side by side

est
ive

free step
(2)

est a vobis con-

Cic. pro leg.

Man.

quibus vobis consulenduni

to

consult your

'.

The personal and

Now

IVe

citizens is at stake,

might have meant 'who ought

Nunc

Epist.

substituted for the dative vobts in

order to avoid ambiguity

est

young man

Seneca,

Jorget injuries received.

Aguntur bona multorum civium, quibus

6.

had

24.

est.

employ

sohiicrs

the

impersonal constructions

may be

bibendum, nunc pede libero pulsanda teilus.

must drink, noiu the earth nntst be struck ivith
Hor. Od. i. 37. i.

without the sense of obligation or necessity.

In this use the gerund adjective

passive

is like

a present participle

Facultatem

itineris

per provinciam laciendi dare nolebat.

He

was unwilling to grant an opportunity of a Journey

B. G. i. 7.
being made through the Roman province
:

SYNTAX

232

This passive construction

is

equivalent in meaning to that

of an active verb-noun with an

facicndl

'

the opportunity of

cupiditas belli gerendl,

= the

object

facultatem itineris

making a journey

lit.

Thus

'.

desire of ivar being ivagcd

//le

desire of waging war: B. G.

i.

41.

Sul muniendl, non Galliae oppugnandae causa id facit.

lit. He does so for the sake of himself being protected

(= of protecting himself), not of Ganl being

[= of attacking Gaul) B. G. 44.
Legatos suT purgandl gratia mittunt.
for

of clearing themselves

the sake

attacked

i.

T/iey

B. G.

send envoys

vii.

43.

Obs. Note that in the last instance stfi is plural, in the

one before it is singular yet the gerund adjective is singular
The reason is that the gerund adjective always
in both cases.
agrees with the form of this pronoun, whether its meaning be
:

singular or plural.

USES OF THE GERUND

Tiie gerund

503

is

an active verb-noun, corresponding to the

English verb-noun

noun

but

its

'

for

ing

accusative

'

is

is

used only after certain prepositions

much

used, because the

usually expressed by

The gerund has no

Gen.

like the genitive

Its dative is not

(chiefly ad).

and ablative cases

and ablativeof any other

Its genitive

in -ing.^

much

are used very

ad with the

nominative.

studium pugnandl, a desire of fighting: B. G.

difficultas navigandl, the difficulty
iii.

12.

B. G.

I.

to

war: B. G.

Vencrunt ut de
came in order

that they
:

might get

B. G.

iv.

Ihe gerund (verb-noun) probably grew

gerund

adjective,

which

is to

46.

men

desirous

2.

indutils fallendo impetrarent.

truce by deceiving
'

i.

i.

of sailing: B. G.
sake of ivinteritig

hiemandl causa, for the

homines bellandl cupidi,

iii.

of going
Abl.

meaning

accusative.

They

their ivay about the

13.
out of certain usages f the

be regarded as the older form.

USES OF THE GERUND

233

lie found in the course of

18. Malignitatis auctorcs quaerendo rem arbitrii sui ad senatum reiecerat. While
(lit. ///) seeking for supporters of his meanness he had

Reperiebat

quaereiido.

in

B, G.

inquiry:

i.

senate a nmttcr which lay in his OiVn dis-

referred

to the

cretion:

Livy V.22.

1.

Compare

fdliafando, Aen.ii.6.'

Accus. Diem ad deliberandum sumam.

deliberating

B. G.

i.

zvill

fake a

They had

Nostros alacriores ad pugnandum fecerant.

made our men more keen for fighting

504

day for

7.

B. G.

24.

iii.

cases of the gerund supply a genitive and an ablative

to the infinitive (which is also equivalent to an English verbnoun in -ifig): thus the infinitive might be declined as

The

follows

NoM.

discere,

learn

to

ingenuas didicisse

artes

fideliter

emollit mores, to have studied the liberal arts conscientiously refines the character (Ovid).

Ace.
Gen.

discere, to learn

discendl,

discere cupio,

/ desire

to learn.

of learning: discendl cupidus sum, /

am

desirous of learning.

Dat. discendo,

learning:

to

discendo operam do, / devote

myself to learning.

Abl.

discendo, by learning
character

As

505

is

discendo emolliuntur mores, the

refined by learning.

a verb-noun the gerund

case as the verb from which

may
it

is

same
Thus causa par-

take an object in the

formed.

cendJ victis 'for the sake of sparing the conquered'

parcendo

But the gerund with an

by sparing the conquered
object in the accusative case is for the most part avoided in
victls

'.

'

the best prose.^

'

cit

From
e. g.

these uses (with and without in) comes

tlie

French gerund with

en dcntaitdani, en chcrcliant.

The gerund with an

accusative-object begins to be fairly

later prose (e.g. in Livy, sec ex. quoted in 503, Abl.,

the Augustan age.

It

is

chiefly'

and

in

common

in

the poets of

the genitive and the dative of the gerund

that taivcs an accusative-object in these writers

c. g.

spcs

urban

eapicndi

SYNTAX

234

Instead of this construction the passive construction of the

gerund adjective is generally employed (see above, 502), and

must be employed after a preposition, such as ad or ///

Non modo

ad insignia accommodanda sed etiam

ad

galeas induendas tempus defuit.

only for fitting on their
their helmets:

B. G.

ii.

Time failed them not

badges but even for putting on
21 (not ad insignia accommo-

dandum, ad galeas induendiun).

506

But in some cases the gerund with an accusative object

almost necessary

when

(i)

the

object

other case than

from a masculine

the

is

a neuter pronoun

any

agendl)

the desire

talia fando, in

(not tdlibiis fandJs), see ex. in

(ii)

for here

accusative would be indistinguishable

studium aliquid agendl,

aliciiius

is

of doing something (not

speaking of such things
503.

order to avoid the repetition of the clumsy endings

in

drum, arum:

neque

habendi neque

consilii

arma

capiendi facultate

data, no opportunity

having been given either of holding

counsel (passive construction with gerund adjective)
or of taking arz/zs (active constr. with gerund, instead of
armornm capiendorum) cf. B. G. iv. 14.
;

USES OF THE SUPINES

The supine

507

in -Unix's, the accusative of a

verb-noun of the

4th declension in -tus or -sns, used adverbially to answer the

question
it

'

Whither

'

(cf 391), chiefly with

thus denotes the end in view or purpose

LegatT gratulatum venerunt.

'

the hope of capturing the city '(instead of

discendo

'the mind

discendis]

is

verbs of motion

136):

The envoys came

iirbis capiciulae),

mens

to

offer

alitur aiics

nurtured by studying the arts' (instead vi aiiibus

The curious name supine cliosen by the Roman grammarians to describe

these forms means literally lying on its back. ', c. out of action.
^

'

'

i.

USES OF THE
B. G.

their congralidatioiis'.

laugh at your master

spectatuni eo.

supine with eo

is

i.

Now you

inrlsum doniiiuini.

Ludos

SL*

PINES
30.

Nunc

Plaut. Aniph. 587.

ani goi)ig

see the

to

The

games.

(not always) equivalent to

sum ( 492) spcctdtum co =

Compare the French /f vais with the

a Future Participle with

am

venls ultro

actually coiite in order to

sometimes

speetdturus sum.

denoting immediate futurity

infinitive,

235

just going to see

'

(French Gram.,

je vais voir

'

298).

Out of the last-mentioned usage grew the most important

508

use of the supine in -um, viz. that in which

7/7

to

form the Future Infinitive Passive

struction Jri

is

it is

joined with

137).

In this con-

He

answered that

impersonal

Titurio ipsi nihil nocitum

Irl

respondit.

no harm -would be dune

to

there was-a-going

do no harni (nihil nocitum)

to

(irl)

Titurius himself;

that

lit,

to

Titurius himself: B. G. v. 36.

The

509

supine in u

is

the ablative or dative or locative of

But very few

a verb-noun of the 4th decl. in -tus or -sus.

verbs form a supine

in

-ii'.

the most important are those

which denote 'saying', 'perceiving', or 'doing

The supine

in

meaning 'easy',
It

may

is

'.

used chiefly with certain adjectives

'difficult',

'wonderful', 'best', and the

like.

generally be translated by the English infinitive (some-

times active, sometimes passive)

an easy thing

facile facto,

to

do: B. G.

factu, the best thing to do or to be

mirabile dictu, strange

visu,

a thing aiiful

Difficile dictu est.

Hoc

to

say: Aen.

to behold:

titioned:

look upon

B. G. v.
Macedonia is easy
Livy xlv. 30. 2.

to

facilis est.

i.

i.

3. optimum

B. G.

439.

iv.

30.

resnefaria

Cic. Plane. 99.

Cic. Tusc. ii. 19.

They are all the more

It is difficult to say

horridiores sunt aspectu.

dreadful

done

14.
to

-Macedonia

divlsul

partition or to be par-

SYNTAX

236

PRONOUNS AND INDICATING

VI.

ADJECTIVES
The
The

pronoun and

reflexive

pronoun

adjective.

and the reflexive

have two chief uses
(i) referring to the subject of the clause in which they stand
Cato se pugione suo occldit. Cato slew himself ivith his
dagger.
Deserebantur ab amicis suls. They ivcrc being

510

reflexive

se, sui, sibi, se

possessive adjective suus, a,

um

deserted by their friends.

Caesar temeritatem mlHtum reprehendit quod sibi ipsi

iOdicavissent quid agendum esset.
Caesar blamed the
rashness of the soldiers, on the ground that they had
to be done

themselves judged for themselves what ivas

B. G.
ivell

52.

vii.

known

infinitive

Constat Dioclem

that

clause)

Cic. Verr. v. 129.

graviter angi se ipsum amantis

seriously troubled by one's

own misfortunes

of one who loves himse{f {ama.nt\s

Amic.

With

511

Suis in-

est.
is the

eius qui amat)

To be

mark
:

Cic.

10.

certain impersonal verbs the accusative denotes the

logical subject

Paenitet eos consiliorum suoruni.

them (= They repent) of their plans

(ii)

// is

Diodes hanged himself (accusative with

= noun

commodls

se suspendisse.

B. G.

// repents

iv. 5.

referring to the subject of a diff"erent clause of a com-

plex sentence, as in

an

English example like 'God

has

man into being in order that he may know Himself.

Rule. The reflexive pronoun and the reflexive adjective,

brought

standing in a clause of purpose, or in a dependent statement, dependent question, or dependent clause of desire,
may refer to the subject of the main clause :'

Caesar castella constituit ne hostes suos circumvenire

1

For the exact meaning of the term 'dependent' in this rule see
and Clauses, 523, 524. A dependent clause is

Classification of Sentences

one particular kind of subordinate clause.

PRONOUNS AND
Caesar

possent.

built forts

might not be abh'

G.

Caesar

ii.

ADJl-XTIX'KS
in

surround

to

order that the cniiny

his

Caesar's)

(i.e.

statuit sibi

16

(sibi

Caesaii).

B. G.

Contrast constat Dioclem se

suspendisse, 510.
sul consilil sit osteiidit.
:

RhCiuim esse transeundum. Caesar

him B. G.

He

Quid
is

nwn

8.

deeided that the Rhine must be crossed by

iv.

237

indicates

what his phvi

21.

i.

Germani petebant ut sibi trldui spatiuni daret. 7'he

Germans asked that he shouhi grant them a period of
days

three

512

B. G.

= Germanis).

11 (sibi

iv.

But such sentences are sometimes ambiguous for a pronoun or adjective referring to the subject of the subordinate
clause is also expressed by sc or suus see 510
Ariovistus dixit neminem secum sine sua pernicic contenAriovistus said that no one had fought zvit/i him
disse.
;

(Ariovistus) without disaster

B. G.

i.

to

himself {i. e. to the fighter)

36.

Such ambiguity is sometimes unavoidable sometimes,

though avoidable, it is not avoided sometimes it is avoided
by using ipse to indicate the subject of the main clause
;

Cur de sua

virtute aut de ipsTus dlligentia desperarent ?

[Caesar asked the centurions] n^hy they despaired of
their oivn valour or of his [Caesar's] zeal
B. G, i. 40.
:

513

The

um

sometimes used
with reference to a noun which is not the subject of any clause
of the sentence, especially when the possessive adjective has
emphasizing force (= 'his own ', their own ')
possessive adjective suus, a,

is

'

Gallls prae magnitudine

contemptui

Romans
of their

is

est.

To

corporum suorum brevitas nostra

the

Gauls

O'a'n

bodies

B. G.

ii.

ivith the

of the
great size

// 'was his

own men

30.

Hirtium suT mllites interfecerunt.

who

the short stature

contemptible in comparison

hilled Ilirtius

SYNTAX

238
514

One another is expressed in Latin either b}' a phrase

formed with inter or by alter
n/tenini, when two persons
are spoken of, or alnis
aliit))!, when more than two persons
are spoken of:
'

'

AmTcos inter se prodesse oportet.

_
fAmicos alterum alterl ^(or ahum ahi)
.

-'

prodesse oportet.

z-

, ,

rrieiias oii^lit to
,

,^

.,

help one another.

Demonstrative pronouns and adjectives.

The

515

Latin demonstratives are never used like the Enghsh

demonstratives in expressions Hke

my

that of

neighbour

'

My

'

'the house of

before a participle in expressions like

'

the bystanders

were)
is

'

',

Rome'.

in

Rome '=

those in

is

larger than

neighbour', nor

those standing by

the people

who

'

are (or

In these usages the English demonstrative

equivalent to the definite article

never used with

tives are

'

'

house

my

but the Latin demonstra-

weakened meaning

this

Domus mea maior est quam viclnl. My house is larger

than my neighbour' s=i\\?ii of (the one of) my neighbour,
il

qui adstant (adstabant)l

^j^^

or adstantes
il

(w///!o///

Romae

qui

bystanders

sunt (erant), those in

Rome

The following sentence is no exception to this

eorum fngientium does not mean of those fleeing
them as they fled

for

rule,

'

',

but

'

of

'

Hi novissimos

adorti

magnam

gientium conclderunt.

multitudinem eorum

fn-

These, attacking the rearguard,

number of them as they /led: B. G.

8 (eos/ugientes), vi. 27. 4 [earuni stan-

cut to pieces a great

II.

ii.

tium

4;

cf. v. 9,

= arborum

stantium).

Interrogative pronouns and adjectives.

516

The

interrogatives are sometimes strengthened

(juisnam

'

who

in the

world

'

by

na))i

PRONOUNS AND ADjEC riVES

an interrogative form of the
anything ( in):

E(//in)^,rc(/iii(/\s

quid any one

'

Ecquis

'

',

indcfiiiite y///s,

'

IFas

quin lacrimaret?

fuit

239

not ivecp? (quIn

qui nOn,

any one

f/inr

w/io did

360, Obs.)

pronouns and adjectives.

Indefinite

For the distinctions in meaning between the indefinite

517
pronouns and adjectives see 1 12-18.
A good example to iUustratc the meaning of qiuvls and
qullibet ( 114) is

CuiusvTs est errare, nulllus nisi insipientis in errore perseverare. Every one makes mistakes, but no one excepting

a fool persists

Ouisquam

115)

in

is

a mistake (Cicero),

sometimes used

neither negative nor interrogative

in

sentences which are

CuivTs potest accidere quod cuiquam potest.

happen

to

any one

happen

at all can

to

IVIiat can

every one

Pub-

liHus Syrus.

Indignor quicquam reprehendl quia nuper compositum

/ am indignant

sit.

merely because
ii.

I.

76.

Ouisque 'each
and ordinals

it

Similarly with si
'

l)e blamed
Hor. Epist.

anything should

that

has been recently written.

117)

is

'

if and quam

'

than

*.

sometimes used with superlatives

Optimus quisque confitctur. Every good man (lit. each

best man) confesses = All good men confess.
Decimus quisque interfectus est. Every tenth man was
killed.

Quotas quisque

iuris pcrltus est

//oa'

few

are skilled in

the laiv !

Relative pronouns.
518

Latin has two generalizing relative pronouns and adjectives,

corresponding

to the

French quiconque 'whoever':

qulcumque m., quaecumque

quisquis

ni.,

f.,

quicquid

n.

{.,

quodcumque

n.


SYNTAX

240

Both of them ordinarily take the indicative mood

Coercere quibuscumque rebus poterat Dumnorlgem conaHe tried to keep Dnuinorix hi check by ivhaievcr
tus est.
means he coidd.
Quicquid circuitus ad molHendum cllvum accesserat, id
Whatever amount of detour
spatium itineris augebat.
easier,
( 422) ivas added with a vieiv to making the ascent
:

increased the h'ngth of the journey

Oulcitmque

519

adjective,

is

vii.

46.

also used in certain phrases as an indefinite

without a verb

i.e.

B, G.

the French quehonque):

(like

Qui quacumque de causa ad eos venerunt, ab iniuria proThose zvJio have come to them for any reason,
hibent.
they protect

from

injury: B. G.

vi.

23.

CLASSIFICATION OF SENTENCES AND

VII.

CLAUSES
Sentences are of the following kinds

520

Statements:

(i)

Sic
(2)

No

Vera dico.

/ speak

the truth.

Questions:
[a]

'

// is so.

est.

Questions which

may

be answered with

'

Yes

'

or

These questions are generally introduced in Latin by

'.

the interrogative

Num
ing

words 7ium^ or
Is

sic est ?
tJie

it

so ?

-ne

Dicisne vera

Are you

speak-

truth ?

But sometimes no interrogative word

Vis pugnare

Do you

is

used

tvant to fight ?

or You ivant

to

fight?
In negative questions of this class the word -ne is attached
which is put first in the sentence
Nonne vera dicebam ? Was I not speaking the truth ?

to the negative,

Nonne argentum redderem

money ?
I

When

nuui

Was I not to pay

back

319).
is

used the answer

'

No'

is

generally expected.

the

CLASSIFICATION OF SENTENCES, ETC.

answer Yes is expressed in Latin by ctiaiit or
or by repeating the question in the form of a

riie

'

'

ita

ita vcro,

ment
Vera

241
or

state-

'

No

by a repetition

You were not speaking

No

(he Initli

{=

no).

319).

Questions which cannot be answered with

(/;)

No

yes).

vera dicebas.

Non redderes.
'

{=

generally expressed by luiininc or niiuinic vcro, or

is

Non

Yoii arc speaking ihc Incth

dicis.

'

Yes

'

or

are introduced, as in English, by interrogative pronouns,

'

interrogative adjectives, or interrogative adverbs:

Who

Quis dixit?

What
say

it

Quid faciam

When

dixit ?

How

often did

lie

eius ?

did he
say

The

etiam

'

or
Sis

'

no

am

Wiiat

',

aut

Be

negative of
transierls

do ?

to

319).

Two

undone

or

Ansivcr

either 'yes

is

Do

Hiberum.

nc

321).

not cross the Ebro.

What

Hoiu handsome he is!

Ut peril
it will be !

a joy

more coordinate

parts of a sentence

Quae

erit

How I

ivas

may

be con-

nected by one of the following coordinating conjunctions

et,

-que, atque, ac,

sed,

at,

and

autem, verum, but

nam, namque, enim, fur

aut, vel, -ve, or;

'

313.

desires

all

pulciier est

laetitia

responde.

'

thou fortunate

Exclamations

Quam

non

'

(Cicero)

'

fellx.

Ne

neque, neve, nor

or by a coordinating relative.
901

it

Hoiv do you do ?

Aut

21

FQwa.c erant verba

it

Quando

Desires (iiickiding commands, requests, entreaties, and

wishes)

(4)

Ouani saepe dixit ?

Ut vales
(3)

said

cvcre his ivonis

SYNTAX

242

The words auton and

cuiin stand after the first

sentence, though they are not attached to

Two

'

may

sentence-adverb)

(a

follow scd,

ct,

in the

and

tlie

or

-vc.

sense

at.

Double questions may be introduced by

utrum

)
'

-ne

Utrum verum

Utrum verum
silence?

... an or

or Verunine est an falsum ?

true or false ?

est

an non

an sileam

]'^loquar

,;

ivlietlicr

an falsum

est

[ J'VlictJui-] is it

523

word

like -que

conjunctions cannot stand together, but eniin in

of 'indeed

522

it

Aen.

Is

Am

it

to

true or

not?

speak or

am

Subordinate clauses are of the following kinds

Noun Clauses

(i)

[a]

to

keep

39.

iii.

Dependent Statements

Opportunissima res accidit, quod GermanI ad Caesarem

most fortunate thing
sul purgandl causa venerunt.
happened, namely that the Germans came to Caesar for

the sake of clearing themselves ( 266).

Diviciacus dixit se scire illud esse verum.

said that he kneiv that

(/>)

Dependent Questions

Quid

fieri velit

to be

Utrum

done

ivas true

it

Diviciacus

469).

He

ostendit.

363

points out

ivliat

he ivishes

a).

vera an falsa diceres (Utrum vera diceres necne),

nesciebam.

/ did

not

know ivhelhcr you iverc speaking

you ivere speaking the truth

truth or falsehood {ivhcthcr

or

not).

Nccnc

is

used

in

dependent questions

in place

of an non.

Ncscio an mirabilior adversis quam secundis rCbusfuerit.

I knoiv not ivhether [

more admirable

xvas

am

inclined to think that)

in adversity than

/;^

in prosperity

CLASSIFICATION OF SFNTFNCFS, FTC.

Livy xxviii. 12.
or perhaps
'

325-

'

[nobably

'

am

IVIiat

nesciO.

lo

do 1 don't know

i)-

Dependent Desires

[c)

*.

Quid taciam
(

Similarly liaud scio an

2.

243

Hortatur ut popull Roniani lidem sequantur. lie exhorts

them to place themselves under the protection of the Roman
people

326).

Dependent Exclamations

[d)

Vidcs

ut alta stet nive

candidum Soracte.

Soraclc stands glistening with deep snow

Mirum quantum

ill!

virO fides fuerit.

nnich people trusted that

363

363

// is

sec

how

b).

strange

how

b).

Irom adby a relative pronoun without an ante289), and tVom adverb clauses introduced by a subordinating

Dependent questions must be

124

man

You

earet'ully distinguished

jective clauses introduced

cedent

conjunction.

Observe

--

The verb

(i)

other wordj in the main clause on which

(or

some activity of the

main clause to which an adjective or adverb clause
belongs may contain any kind of verb Die inihi quae enieris Tell
me what you have bought (dep. quest.), Ddmihi (juacanistl ^G'wc
me what you have bought' (adj. cl.) Oitid velini sciis 'You
shall know what I want
(dep. quest.), Ouod quaeris \scire\ scies
You shall know what you want [to know] adj. cl.
(ii) An adjective clause may be replaced by a noun denoting a
person or thing quae cniisti = ea quae emistl, e. g. punm, vlnuni, Sec.
A dependent question cannot be so replaced the answer to it
must always be a sentence, containing a subject and a predicate:
Die nnhi quae cniens Tell me [the answer to the question] What
have you bought
The answer would be I have bought apples,

a dependent question depends always denotes

mind

the

'

'

'

'

',

'

'

'

wine,

(Sic'

(iii)

The English 'whether' may be

a subordinating conjunction

meaning

intni nicciicuni aithibilurus sis necne,

'

to call in a doctor or not' (dep. quest.)

(I

citiicr

interrogative or

on the one hand': Ouacro

ask whether you are going

'if

Srve nudicuin ad/ubueris,

SYNTAX

244

nun convalesces Whether you

sive noil adhibueris,

'

or not, you will not recover

'

call in a

doctor

(adverb clause).

Dependent exclamations, which are introduced by an exclamatory word, difter in meaning from dependent questions, which are
introduced by an interrogative word. But the subjunctive mood
is

525

used

in both

see

363.

Adjective Clauses

(2)

Duas

vias occupavit quae ad

the tivo

Quid

roads ivhich led

Omnes

(Contrast

qui turn eos agros ubi hodie haec urbs est incolO-

bant

illl

ivhere

{= on which)

All zvho then occupied

parebant.

(Romulus)

this city iioiv

Cicero de Rep.

ii.

Circuniscrlbit nos terminis quos

laud

the

stands submitted

to hi/n

4.

non excedanius.

confines us within limits which ive are not

(

He seized

fercbant.

quod rides ? What is it that yon are laughing

Quid est quod rldeds ?, 335.)

est

at ?

portum

to the liarbour.

to

He

pass over

334)-

For other

^^/F-clauses with the subjunctive see 335, 337,

338, 341. 343. 344, 346, 355- 360, 361, 364.

526

(3)

Adverb Clauses

Clauses of Time, introduced by the subordinating

ubi, uf, 'when', pos/quam, poslcdquam, 'after',
before
anfrquam, priusquam,
sinnil atquc,
as soon as
cum, when
donee, dum, quoad, 'while ', 'until
{a)

conjunctions

'

',

'

',

'

',

'

Quod ubi Caesar animadvertit, naves remover! iussit.

When Caesar observed this, he ordered the ships to be
withdrawn
Postea vero

B. G.

quam

iv.

hostes terga vertcrunt.

sight, the

For tense see

25.

311.

cquitatus noster in conspectum venit,

enemy Jlcd

But

B. G.

after

iv.

our cavalry came

in

37.

tlostcs simul atque se ex fuga recepCrunt, statim Icgatos

miserunt.

As

soon as the enemy recovered

fight, they immediately sent envoys: B. G.

iv.

from
27.

their

CLASSIFICATION OF SENTKNCFS, ETC.

Neque

lYor did tiny stop

reached the Rhiue

Dum

B. G.

i.

tlirir Jliglit

in

agiis rcliqiiT disces-

Uliile these events -were taking place

others ivho xvere in the fiehh went azvay

quoad

Ipse,

B. G.

B. G.

He

potuit, fortissimC- restitit.

bravely, as long as he could

before they

53.

haec gcnintur, qui crant

sC-riint.

Rhrnmn

ad flunKii

priiis fiigere dCstitr-runt, qiiani

pcrvC'iiGrunt.

245

312), the

iv.

34.

resisted

most

12.

iv.

De

comitils, dunce rediit

Marcellus, silentiiini fuit.
Nothing was said about the elections until Marcellus retunu'd Livy xxiii. 31.
Cum in spem venero aliquid nic eonficere, statim vos
certidrcs faciam. When I beconw (lit. shall have beco>ne,
310) hope/id that I ant producing some effect, I -will let
:

you hno'w

Cum

Cacs. ap. Cic. ad Att.

ix. 13.

equitatus noster so in agros Ciccerat, essedarids e

JVhenever our cavalry had sallied out

silvls CniittCbat.

into the fields,

he sent the charioteers out of the woods

B. G. V. 19.

nunc

Infclix Dido,

cum

tC-

noiv

come home

time

li'hen

to thee

Unhappy Dido, does

?

For antequam, priusquam,

{b)

taule,

'

Other ships
ivhich they
[c]

have done so at

the

Aen. iv. 596.

quoad with the

donee, dum,
For cum with the subjunctive

',

profectae, referebantur.

ivere being carried

had

stai'ted:

',

',

AHae naves eodem, unde erant

528

dccuit,

thy disloyalty

Clauses of Place, introduced by the subordinating

where qua 'by what route quo, 'whither
whence':

conjunctions ubi
'

It should

thou ivast offering thy sceptre

subjunctive see 339, 340.

see 358^7.

527

Tuni

facta impia tangunt ?

sceptra dabas.

B. G.

iv.

bach

to

the place

from

28.

Clauses of Cause, introduced by the subordinating

conjunctions quia, quod, quoniam,

'

because.'

Reliquos secum ducere decreverat, quod mOtuni GaUiae

SYNTAX

246

He had

verebatur.

decided

take the rest

to

because he feared a rising in Caul: B. G.

For cuju
529

'

since

'

with the subjunctive see

gud 'whereby

7ic

not',

338)

portus tueretur.

in continent! rehquit, ut

Clauses of Result, introduced by the subordinating

(e)

conjunction ut 'that

habeant
(/)

'

with the subjunctive:

currOs coliocant ut expedltum

Ita

suos

ad

receptum

360).

Clauses of Condition, introduced by the subordinat-

ing conjunctions 57
with the subjunctive

with

'if, uisi 'unless',

dunmiodo

or the subjunctive, or by dum,

b.

order that

'in

with the subjunctiv^e

',

Labienum

531

358

liim,

zvitli

v. 5.

Clauses of Purpose, introduced by the subordinating

{d}

conjunctions ut 'in order that',

530

'

'

the

indicative

provided that

343).

complex sentence containing

clause of condition

is

called a 'conditional sentence'.

The

mood

indicative

is

used

in

the //-clause in instances

like the following

Si peccat,

poenam meret.

//"//r is

doing ivroug {=

if

it is

doing wrong), he deserves punishment.

St peccaverit, poenam mercbit.
If he docs {\\i. shall have
done, 310) ivrong, he will deso've punishment
a fact that he

is

Si peccavit (or peccabat),

poenam meruit

{or merebat).

If he did ivrong, he deserved punishment.

// he has done wrong,
Si peccavit, puniatur.

let

him

be

punished.

These clauses of condition may be

called

'open as
'

distinct

from the clauses of condition which take the subjunctive

^^ peccat means simply If it is a fact that he
( 349; 35)the speaker does not imply that it is a fact
is doing wrong
'

'

or that

it

is

not.

Rule. Open

clauses of condition take the indicative mood,

and the main clause

is

free in regard to tense

and mood.

CLASSIFICATION OF SENTENCES, ETC.

532

Clauses of Concession,

i^)

ordinating conjunctions

c/sJ

'

by

introduced

the

247
sub-

e\en if, 'although', with the

indicative or the subjunctive, qiiaiiitjiiain

'

ahhough

'

witli tlie

indicative

tamen

EtsT in his locTs niaturae sunt hieuiEs,

niam contendit.

AlthougJi the

iviiifcrs

parts, yet he hastily crossed to Britain

For

343

533

qiiann'is,

with the subjunctive see

'

(//)

Clauses of Comparison

20.

i\'.

with the subjunctive,

'although',

iit,

'although

for cinn

B. G.

in Britan-

are early in these

358

see
Z>.

denoting inaniwr, introduced by the subordinating con-

(i)

junctions

'as

ut, sJciit, qitcniadniodinii, qitani,

Valeant preces apud

May my

te

meae, sicut pro

prayers be as effectual

'

te

zvith

hodie valuerunt.

you, as they have

been for you to-day.' Livy xxiii. 8.

For
though
(ii)

quasi,
',

velut

tanquani

tanquain,

si,

with the subjunctive, see

'as

si,

'as

if,'

337.

denoting degree, introduced by the subordinating con-

junction quain

than

'

',

or by words meaning 'as

Est Hibernia dimidio minor

quam

'

Ireland

Britannia.

is

smaller than Britain by half.

For quam

ut

'

than that

'

with the subjunctive see

Obs. After adjectives and adverbs

337.

that denote likeness or

difference (par,pariter; similis, similiter; aeqiie, perinde; alius,

aliter ; contrdrius, contra, secus)

introduced by

atqiie

the clause of comparison

is

or dc:

Simill ratione (or Alia ratione) ac ipse feci iniurias vestras

persequiminl.

Avenge your wrongs

in the

as (or otherwise than) I have done: B. G.

vii.

same
38.

zvay

REPORTED SPEECH

VIII.

Instead of quoting the words used by a speaker, an historian

534

may

report what was said.

Reported speech takes the form of subordinate clauses
depending on a verb of 'saying' (called the leading verb),

expressed or understood.

Original Speech
Desillte,

mllites,

Reported Speech

nisi

meum

cae atque

imperatorl

(=

suum

se

rel publicae at-

imperatorl
officium
que
They
praestaturum esse.

offi-

prae-

Leap down, soldiers,

you ivant to betray ilie
to the enemy : I at any

stabo).

loere to leap doivn ( 325,

ii)

U7iless

unless they ivanted

to

eagle

l)etray the eagle to the

my

rate sJiall do

duty

and to the
Quoted by Caesar,

comnwim<eaIth

duty

and

iv.

363)

enemy

he at any rate ivould do his

to the

general.
B. G.

535

certe

rei publi-

cium praestitero

aqui-

lam hostibus prodere

aquilam hostibus prodere

ego certe

Desilirent, nisi vellent

vultis

25.

to

the

to the

commonu'ealth

general

(^

467).

Simple sentences and main clauses of the original speech

become noun clauses in the reported speech ( 523).

Statements

536

in the indicative

in the accusative

Egocerteofficium

become dependent statements

with infinitive construction

meum

stabo.

467)

se certe officium suuni prae.

praeI

statu rum esse.

Desires become dependent desires with the sul)junctive

537
{

329)

Desillte, milites,

hostibus

neve aquilam.

prodiderltis

[or

nollte aquilam hostibus prodere).

Desilirent, neve aquilam hos-

tibus proderent.

'

REPORTED SPEECH
The

is

gcnerall}' omitted

tlie

lepoiteti speech,

if

vocative

a nominative in

but

249

may

it

ai-)pear as

necessary for the sake

of drawing a distinction between one section of the persons

addressed and another:

cctcn

i)i

e. g.

dcsillroit inJ/i/rs drriiiinr /ri^ionis;

udvr maiicroit.

Questions generally become dependent questions with the

538

subjunctive

Num

363, 325)

aquilam hostibus

dere vultis

but see below,

pru-

541

aquilam hostibus pro-

dere vellcnt

His barbarls cedamus? Ho-

rum condiciones audifimus?

Cum his pacem fieri posse
credamus

Num

Cederentne illls barbarls ?

Audlrentne eorum condicioncs ?

fieri

Pacemne cum

posse credcrent

ils

Exclamations,

539

if immediately dependent on a verb like

or reputarent let them
them remember
become dependent exclamations with the subjunctive
otherwise they are expressed by the accusative with

Dioniiiissciit

reflect
(

363)

',

let

'

*,

infinitive (see below, 545):

Quanto dedecorl
hostibus

est

prodere

great a disgrace
tray the eagle

aquilam
is to

it

to the

(Meminissentj quanto

How

dede-

corl esset aquilam hostibus

{Let them remem-

prodere.

be-

enemy !

ber)

how great a

disgrace

it

ivas to betray the eagh' to the

enemy.

540

Adjective and adverb clauses of the original speech

remain adjective and adverb clauses in the reported speech
but they always take the subjunctive mood, whatever the mood

of the original speech

nisi

vultis

prodere,

qui

stant, nnh-ss

'

xiii,

surround

to

16,

betray the eagle

ivho

.s

to be

done

aquilam hostibus

starent, unless they wished to

enemy

ns.

Questions as to what

364),

prodcre,quIsc(5Ti) circum-

zuish to be-

the

nisi vellent

nos circum-

you

tray the eagle

li'ho

may have been

aquilam hostibus

{^%

325).

to the

enemy

surrounded them.
Compare

Cicero, Philippic

SYNTAX

250
541

Noun clauses
in the

Ego

of the original speech remain noun clauses

reported speech

e. g.

certe promittomeofficium

meum

turum esse. /
promise that I
duty

se certe promittere se officium

suum

publicae praesta-

rel

at

any

zuill

do luy

commonwealth.

to the

rel publicae praesta-

turum esse, that he at any

rate promised that he ivould

rate

do his duty

common-

to the

ivealth.

But the indicative of a quod-c\^\\se becomes a subjunctive

Haec

quod

suum

officium

This

banc

causa victoriarum

est

nostrarum
the

is

praestitit.

victories, that each

of our

that this

man has

the

Zi'as

tJieir victories,

had done

done his duty.

542

causam

victoria-

rum suarum quod quisque

officium suum praestitisset,

quisque

r'eason

esse

reason of

that each

man

his diiiv.

In dependence on a tense of past time (such as dixit 'he

said

')

all

the subjunctives of the reported speech are, as a

general rule, in the Past or the Past Perfect tense

Past

when

the action

the Past Perfect

Note

when

to

is

is

the action

to

is

1am

dedecori

represented

erit, si

aqui-

hostibus prodetis {or

prodideritis).

// will be a

great disgrace, if you betray

the eagle to the enemy.

For the use of tenses of the

When

the leading verb

is

in

the
in

be marked as completed.

Perfect Indicative of the

reported speech by a

in the

prospective subjunctive (Past or Past Perfect,

Magno

be marked as not completed,

that a Future or a Future

original speech

543

341)

magno dedecori

fore si aqui-

1am hostibus proderent

prodidissent), that

{or

ivould

it

be a great disgrace, if they be

trayed the eagle

infinitive see

to the

enemy.

467-9.

of the 3rd person, pronouns and

possessive adjectives referring to the subject of the leading

verb, or denoting a person addressed

leading verb, are of the 3rd person

in

by the subject of the

reported speech:

REPORTED SPEECH
J

sr and suns ( 511)

sometimes used in order

become

ego and nirns

251

biguity

but ipse

to avoid

is

am-

512).

(^

and fni/s become is and eius, or I'/lr and ///7//s.

7'05 and 7'f.<;/<7' become ;7and corinii, or I'/li and illd7'mn.
//7

544

Wlien the leading verb is in a tense of past time, the

Iiic 'this' and such adverbs as nunc 'now',

demonstrative

/iodic 'to-day',

become

'yesterday',

licrl

reported speech

in

illc

cms 'to-morrow',

'that',

generally

'then', co die 'on

//////

day prldic on the day before postcro die on the next

day'.
But Caesar often retains hie and nnne of the original

that

'

'

',

',

speech.^

Notes.

Rhetorical questions

545

(/.

e.

questions which are equivalent

to

statements expressing surprise or indignation) occurring

in

the middle of a passage of reported speech are generally

expressed by the accusative with the

the verb

Num

quando

dedecus

too

exclamations occurring

Ouanto dedecorl

A command
may

in

the middle of a passage

in

Ouanti) dedecorl esse aquilani

aquilam

est

hostibus prodere

546

disiionour

sustained

army ?

Caesar's

of reported speech

Had

been

ever

Caesar's

annv ?
So

quando in exercitu
admissum esse

Caesaris

Has dishonour ever

been sustained in

when

Nuni

exercitu

in

Caesaris admissum est de-

decus

infinitive, especially

of the ist or 3rd person

is

prodere

hostib.us

standing immediately after the leading verb

be introduced by ut 'that':

e.g. iniperavit nt mllites

he commanded that the soldiers should leap down

but commands in the middle of reported speech have no
conjunction (see example above, 537l-

desitirent

'

vii.

'

'

For example, B. G.
20. 6

vii.

14. 10

i.

vii.

14.

14. 5.

i-

3'- 5;

'

3^

^'-

27.

v.

--9.

SYNTAX

252

Relative clauses which are coordinate [qui

547
or

nam

is,

infinitive

for

example the sentence quoted

reported as follows

ct is

or sed

is

Morinos

ductls se

in

120 might be

Magnum numerum obsidum

548

120) generally* stand in the accusative with the

in

se imperavisse: quibus ad-

fidem recepisse.

The Present and the Perfect Subjunctive are sometimes

used for the sake of variety in the course of a long passage of
reported speech depending on a leading verb in a tense of
past time (see

366)

(Respondit) non sese Gallis sed Gallos

sibi

bellum

in-

Si iterum experlri velint, se iterum paratum

tulisse ...

esse decertare

pace

si

velint,

uti

inlquum esse de

quod sua voluntate ad id tempus

pependerint. He answered that it was not he who had
made war upon the Gauls, but tliey upon hiuu ... If
stipendio recusare,

they

wanted

to try

again,

-was ready to fight to

lie

if they desired to enjoy peace,

difficulties

about the

up

gruiiibliiig

549

Comments

tribute,

to that

of the

time

reporter

it

a finish

ivas unreasonable to

make

which they had paid without

B. G.

added

i.

44. 3, 4.

and

parenthetically

forming no part of the report do not come under the above

rules

Interim Caesarl nuntiatur Sulmonenses, quod oppidum a

Corfinio vii milium intervallo abest, cupere ea facere

quae

Meanwhile

vellet.

it is

reported

people of Siilmo, a town which

is

comment

is

to

Caesar that

the

seven miles aivay (this

of Caesar, not part of what was reported to

Www), ivere desirous of doing what he wanted: B. C.

i.

18.

For the forms which conditional sentences take in dependence on a verb which requires the accusative with infinitive
construction see
1

471.

For exceptions sec Prof, Reid's note on Cicero, Amic.

45.

REPORTED SPEECH

253

Conversion of Reported Speech into the speech which

550

it

represents.
(i) Rcpoii of proposals iiiade
by Ambiorix la Sabi)ius ami

Spetc/i irpresentfd.

Colta.

Apud quos Ambiorix

modum

locutus est

Apud quos Ambiorix

ad hunc

Scsc pro

Caesaris in se beneficiis pluri-

ris in ;r beneficiis

muni

coufihor

el conjitrrj dcbcre,^

quod

eius

opera

esse/,

quod Aduatucis, flnitimls

penderc consuessei, quod-

suis,

que eP

stipend io Uberatits

et fllius et fratris fllius

a Caesare

rcntissi essoif, quos

AduatucI obsiduni numcro misS(3s

apud sc

nls

in servitute et cate-

neque id quod
de oppugnatione castro-

icttiiissent

fecerit

rum

aut iudicio aut voluntate

sudfecisse,^ sed coactii civitatis

'

Ego

{or Equideni)' inquit 'pro Caesa-

me

plurimum

ci

dcbcre, quod eius

opera stipendio I'lberatns sum,

quod Aduatucis, finitimis mels,

penderc

coiisuevi,

quodque

;//////

Caesare
remissi sunt, quos AduatucI obsiduni numcro missos apud sc
et fllius et fratris fllius a

'

in servitute et catcnis tciiucraiit

neque

(\uo6fed dc oppugnatione castrorum aut iudicio aut

id

voluntate

sed coactu
sunt eius modi

iiied feci,

civitatis: meaqxxe.
;

siiac\\XG:

imperia, ut non minus liabeat

ut

iuris in

esse eius modi imperia,

non minus haberet iuris in se

me multitudo quam ef^o

multitudinem. Civitatl porro

multilLido quani ipse in multitu-

in

dinem. Civitatl porro /lonc/nisse

haec fuit belli causa, quod repentlnae Gallorum coniurationl

belli

quod repentlnae

catisam,

Gallorum coniurationl resistere

non poluerit.
Id sc facile ex
humilitate sua probarc posse,
quod n5n adco sit impcrltus
rcrum, ut suis copils populum
Romanum supcrari posse coiifidat.

Sod

esse Galliae coniuiuiie

resistere

nun

legionl subsidio venire /os5f/.

Moneo, oro

Monete,^ orare
hospitio,

ut

'

Tiluriitiii

suae

ac

'

pro

militum

saluti coiisidat. Ma^iuiiiiinanuiii

GcrmanOrum cunductam Rhc-

facile

Caesaris

Id

omnibus hibcrnls
oppugnandls tiic ett
dies, nc qua Icgio altcrl

consilium

omnibus hibcrnls
Caesaris oppugnandFs Imiic esse
dicliim diem, nc qua Icgio alter!
consiliuni

potuit.

ex luimilitalc med probarc possum, quud non adeo sum impcrltus rcrum, ut ;//tV6 copils populum
Romanum supcrari posse confidam. Sed est Galliae commune

dictus

legionl subsidio

vcwrc possit.

pro hospitio, ut
tuae ac militum salfitl consulds.
Ma_^na munus Gcrnian<irum
conducta Rlicnum transiit haec
aderit bid iio.
Ve ^trum ipsurum
te

''

;:

SYNTAX

254
nuiu

bernls militcs aut ad Ciceronem

sentiant.

flnitimT

aut ad

eductos ex hlbernls mllites aut

ad Ciceronem aut ad Labienum
deducere.

The

Referring to the subject o( (eniu-

accusative-subject

ic

is

understood.

For

Caesar

5/6/,

as

B. G.

cf.

(cf.

512).

Possessive adjective

of you

'

',

emphasized by ipsoruin.

For

For datrinim

(2)

(or nostrbs) fines daturum.'

miii

iurando

iiire

confirmb, tutum waiter T^er mebs

tutum

(B. G. V. 27.)
1

et

per suds fines daturum.*

iter

.s^"

Labienum deducere.

Illud polliceor

Illud se po/liceri et

iure iurando conjinnare,

prius quam

finitinn sentiant,^ eductos ex hl-

esse consiliitin, velinfne,

quam

prius

est consilium, velitisnc,

lianc adforeh\<\\\o.

/rd/is'issc;

Ipsbnim

illiiin

times

several
i.

6.

i.

in

Prospective subjunctive

340)

11.3.

or euin.

Report of
camp.

esse.

the debate in the

Speech represented.

Roman

Contra ea Titurius sero factuclamitabat, cum maiores

manus hostium adiunctls Gcr-

ros^

manis

convcnissent, aut

quid

calamitatis

hlbernls esset acceptitm.

consulendl

esse

cum

ali-

proximis

in

Brevem

occasioiieni.

profectum
nequealiterCarnutes
interficiendl Tasgetii consilium

Caesarem
in Italian!

se arbitrdrl

fitisse capturbs,
sT

ille

neque Eburones,

adesset, tanta contemp-

tione nostri^ ad castra ventiirbs?

Sese

non hostem auctorem, scd

sitbesse Rheniim
Germanis dolori
mortem et siiperibres

rem spectdre
magno esse
Ariovisti

nostras victorias; ardere Galliam

lot

acceptis

sub

RomanI impcrium

reda-

contumcliis

popull

6Va;,superiorc gloria rei militaris

exstincta.

Postrcmo quis hoc

Sero
faciemu-i' inquit 'cum maiores
manus hostium adiunctls Germanis convenerint, aut cum aliquid calamitatis in proximis
Contra

hlbernls

ea

erit

consulendl

Titurius

Brevis

acceptwn.

est occdsib.

arbitror profectvim

neque

'

in

Caesarem
Italian!

Carnutcs interficiendl Tasgetii consilium cepissent, neque

Eburones, si ille
contemptione
tanta
adesset,
aliter

Non

nostrl ad castra venisscnt.

hostem auctorem, sed rem spectb

subest Rhenus magno est Gern!anls dolori Ariovisti mors ct
;

superibres tiostrae victbriae

Gallia tot

sub popull

ardet

contumcliis acceptis

RomanI imperium

redacta, supcriore gloria rel militaris exstincta.

hoc

Postrcmo quis

sibi persuddeat^

sine ccrta

REPORTED SPEECH

Suaiii sen-

spc Ambiorlgcm ad cius modi

consilium descendisse
Men
scntentia in utramque partem est

utranique partem c^sc

tuta: si nihil erit durius, nullo

spc

sibi pcrsiiadnrt, sine

ccrta

Ambiorlgcm ad

modi con-

eius

silium descendisse
kntiivii in

255

.'

si nihil t'ssft diirius,

nullo

cum perlculo ad proximam

cum perlculo ad proximam

legio-

nemperiienieiiiiis; si Gallia

lutant

nem/>ervi'ittnrds

cum Germanis

'

si

Gallia

omnis

consiiitJref, niiani

in celeritatc/o^/'/f//// salFdcin.

I'sse

Cottae quidcm atque eorum, qui

tiisscittiirnt coiii,iliiiiit

quem

ha-

exitum ? in quo si non

praesens periculum, at certc
longinqua obsidione fames esi^et

bere

timenda.

'

The

(B. G. v. 29.)

accusative-subject

^c

is

understood.
2

nostri

reporter

here used because the

is

i^Caesar)

is

writing as a

Romans. He might have

used stii, which would have expressed the meaning from the point
of view of Titurius. So, too, nostras
below might have been reported by

Roman

suas.

to

Suppl3'///('>if.

cum Germanis
in celeritate

conseiitit,

/>oi'//rt'

salfis.

quidem atque eorum qui

titint

tum

quem

consilium
in

quo

si

Cottae
disseii-

fiabet exi-

non praesens

periculum, at certc
obsidione fames

legio-

omnis
una est

longinqua

est tintenda \

SYNTAX

256

ORDER OF WORDS

IX.

Rules of Normal Order.

551

Rules i and 2. The two most important rules of normal order

have already been given ( 3). In the following sentence the
position of every

word except populus and the conjunctions

rules, which apply to phrases

determined by these two

is

260) as well as to single words.^

Populus Romanus
The nation

Roman

imperio suo infestas, aut

to rule

redegit

its

reduced
i.

by

e.

its

or by siege

to

sivay

nation reduced

to its sivay, eitJicr

by force or

siege, the cities of its allies hostile to its rule.

But there

552

of alliis

vl aut obsidione in potestatem

Roman

The

sociorum suoruni,

tlic ciliis

either by force

Jiostik,

its

suam

urbes

one exception

is

Demonstrative, interrogative, and numeral (cardinal and

adjectives, together with adjectives denoting quantity

ordinal

^)

or size

(i.e.

words meaning

words denoting 'big',

before their nouns

'all',

'little',

'some', 'many', 'few', and

and the

like)

generally stand

alia res,

quae res?, utra

hie
1

homo,

is

homo, tanta

res,

comes after tubes and in

/w/tno ao (414) comes before iiifcstds.
and in potcsldkiu suain are both adverbial

adjective plirase imperio suo infcslds

Tims the

that phrase the adverbial dative

The phrases aut

vi

aut

obsiilioite

and therefore precede it.

The ordinal numerals generally stand a/kr the words dies, horn, and
annus, e. g. ante diem (juarlum Kaleiuids Maids, the fourth day before the
Calends of May = April sStli annus millcnsimus nongcntensimus nanus
'the year 1909'; otherwise they precede their nouns, e.g. prtnm it
the head of
sec uncla aacs ihe first and the second \mc\ prliniim agnien
to rccicgit,
'^

'

'

'

'

the column'; dccima Icgio 'the tenth legion', quarla pars copidniiii 'the
fourth part of the forces

'.

OKHKR OF WORDS

257

purs?, quanta nuiltitudo ?, quota hoia

viginti nillia

duac naves,

hominum.

omnes (non null!, niultl, paucT) hominr'S, niagnus lunnerus,

magno animo, parva res, parvum spatium.
553

Rule

Relative pronouns, relative adjectives, and relative

3,

adverbs stand
introduce

Hae

at

the beginning of the clause which they

sunt arbores quarum in umbra iacebat.

These are

shade of ivhich (or /';/ ivhose shade) he zvas

Not in umbra, qtidnini nor /;/ qiiariiiii umbra.

the Irccs in the

lying.

Thus

a co-ordinating relative takes precedence of a sub-

ordinating conjunction

Quod

ubi Caesar animadvertit, naves longas remis incitarl

JVhoi Caesar observed

iussit.

The

this,

he ordered the ships

means 0/ oars

of-a'ar to be set in motion by

B. G.

iv.

25.

only words which can stand before a relative are preand even a preposition may be placed after the

positions

relative, especially

cum

ProximI sunt Germanis, quibuscum continenter bellum

gerunt.
They are the nearest to the Germans, with whom
they continually wage ivar: B. G. i. 4.

qua de causa, for ii'hich reason quapropter, quocirca,

wherefore (compounds of a preposition with an ad;

verbial ablative of the relative pronoun).

554

Rule

Five exceedingly

4.

common

co-ordinating con-

junctions
-que,
-ve,

and

autem, vero,

ho-a'ever.

emm, for

or

always stand immediately after the word, or the

the group, which they connect

first

word of

populusqueRomanus; terram
omnesque incolumes naves perduxit (B. G. v. 23,6;
here -que connects the two parts of the double sentence)

pedites equitesque; senatus

attigit

prospera adversave fortuna

01

a nulio videbatur,

ipse

SYNTAX

258
auLein

uiniiiii viclcbat

timere non debeo

eo tempore tini5bani, nunc vero

civis

enim Romanus

erat.

Obs. Several sentence-adverbs/ like quoque 'too', 'also',

and -;/^ (used in asking questions) stand
after the word, or the first word of the group, to which they
belong
igitur 'therefore','

to

quoque aderas quid

fertis an arma ?

respondeam

igitur

pacemne

hue
555

Rule 5. Most adverbs stand immediately before the word

which they qualify (and therefore come after objects, cf.
Rule 2)

Hoc

saepe

dixl.

Especially the adverb nbn

Hoc non
dixT.

Hoc

dixl.

Non omnes hoc

Order of clauses

(i)

in

Adjective clauses usually

they are adjectival

557

(2)

The

see

following

complex sentences.
to

some

extent, to adjective

come after

the

word

to

which

525.

kinds of adverb clause usually come

before the clause whose verb they

(temporal

r?/;//-clauses

saepe

dicunt.

Rules I and 2 are applicable,

and adverb clauses.
556

Hoc non

dicere non possum.

or

qualif}^

causal

or

concessive)

and

clauses of time introduced by postqiiaui, postcaqnam,

nbi, ut, simiil

atque

clauses of condition

see 358 and 526.

and concession
see
;

350

antl

531, 532.

So, too, the ablative absolute construction (equivalent to an

adverb clause)
'

see

494.

Sentence-adverbs are adverbs whicli

qiialily the

sentence as a whole,

and not any particular word in it. But they sometimes linve the effect
of emphasizing a particular word in the sentence.
* Igitur,
however, gcncrall}' stands at the beginning ol its clause in
Sallust and Tacitus.

ORDKK OF WORDS

259

But prospectiNc clauses and clauses of purpose and result

usually

come after

338, 340, 360,

558

the clause

and

whose verb

the}' quality

see

529, 530.

As

to noun clauses, the only generally applicable rule is

noun clauses introduced by ut, ne, qiioniiiius or qiiin
usually stand after the clause on whose verb they depend
(whether as subject or object) see 326-33 and 523.

that

559

Complication of clauses. The Latin writers sometimes

go ver}' far in putting one clause inside another, like Chinese
boxes
Qui cum ex cquitum fuga (ji/o in loco irs rssd cognovissent,
nihil ad celeritatem sibi reliqui fecerunt. Lit. J J 710,
ivlicn from the flight of the eavalry what was the position
of affairs they had learned, left tiothiiig ttndone in the

way of speed B. G. ii. 26. 5.

Si quis, qui, quid again, forte requlret, erit, vivere
:

dices.

Lit.

If

there shall be

any

one, 'who,

doing, perchanee shall inquire, say that

Trist.

i.

am

me
am

what I
alive

Ovid,

18.

I.

In these instances each clause comes exactly in the position

which would be expected from Rules i and 2 but such senIn writing Latin
tences are complicated and rather obscure.
the beginner will do well, as a rule, to finish off one clause
before beginning another.
It is not necessary that the relative pronoun should come immediately after its antecedent.
For instance, I know the man whom you say you saw
;

'

yesterday'

may

I'ldisse diets

as well as

be translated

and the simpler order

Hominem

Hominem
is

quern

te

nov'i

quern

te

herJ

herl vldisse din's novl,

often clearer.

Departures from normal order.

560

In no language

Latin the order

is

is

the order of

more

elastic

wealth of inflected forms.

order

is

words

than

in

Thus we

rigidly fixed

find that the

frequently changed for various reasons.

R 2

and

English, owing to

in
its

normal

SYNTAX

26o

To

(i)

put a word in an unexpected position often makes

it

prominent and emphatic

Romanum
tum

imperium vestra

fide,

vestris viribus reten-

It is by yotir loyalty, by

est.

your might,

that the

empire of Rojne herself lias been upheld: Livy

(epithets placed before their nouns).

xxiii.

group of words is often divided by putting comparaunimportant words in the middle of it. The effect of
this arrangement is to make the divided phrase, or one part
of it, emphatic
(2)

tively

Magnus

numerus pecoris repertus est.

number of sheep were found there B. G.
between magnus and numerus).
ibi

Omnis

accusatoris oratio in duas divlsa est partes.

zuhole speech

of

Cic. Cluent.

i.

Aliud

great
21

v.

Words

i.

The

was divided into two paiis

Other road they had none

i.

habebant nullum.

iter

B. G.

the prosectttor

{ibi

7.

as it were by an afterThis may be called tagFor instance, instead of I am always glad to see
order.
you we may say in English I am glad to see you always':
(3)

are sometimes thrown

in,

thought, at the end of a sentence.

'

'

'

Zenonem, cum Athenis essem, audiebam frequenter.

When I was in Athens I used to attend the lectures of
Zeno constantly Cic. Nat. Deor.
59.
i.

The verb

(4)

est,

in the

beginning of a sentence
Erant

may

is

',

often stands at the

duo virl
two veiy brave men

fortissiml.
:

There were

est longe

maxima

Imperatives are often put

in that

B. G. v. 44.

also be put before a predicative adjective or

Haec gens
(5)

there

'

in ea legione

legion
It

sense

et bellicosissima

at the

noun

B. G.

iv.

i.

beginning of the sen-

ORPKR OF WORDS
tence or clause, as
objects after

them

261

French and English, with adverbs

in

anil

Egredere aliquando ex urbe

Fduc tecum etiam omnes
tuos
Purga urbem Cic. Cat. i. 10.
.

(6) In a group of words consisthig of a noun + adjective +

adverb phrase, the adverb phrase stands between the adjective

and the noun, and the adjective often comes

magna

Gaids

395)
cium, his duty
;

suum
to the

among

publicae atque imperatorl

rel

commonwealth and

to

the

otTi-

the general

534)-

The order

(7)

first

inter Gallos auctoritas, greai injlncnce

of words in a sentence or clause

is

to a con-

siderable extent influenced by the sentence or clause which

precedes and by that which follows.

The speaker

{a)

phrase which
thing which
clause

is

or writer often

has been said

or

meaning with some-

the preceding sentence

in

thus after a description

begins with a word

closely connected in

or

of a battle, ending with

Hominum

enim multithdine reccptus impcdiebalnr, Caesar goes

on as follows (B. C. iii. 64. 3)
:

In e5 proelid

cum

gravl vulnerc esset adtectus aquilifer

iam viribus deficeretur, conspicatus equites nostros

Hanc ego' inquit et vivus multos per annos magna

et

'

'

nunc moriens eadem fide Caesarl

committere, quod ante in
exercitu Caesaris non accidit, ut rel mllitaris dedecus
admittatur, incolumemque ad eum deferte.
Hoc casu

dlligentia defendl et
rcstituo.

Nollte, obsecro,

aquila conservatur.

Here

tn eb proelid

and hoc

casii

tions or co-ordinating relatives

have the

effect of

for they connect

conjunc-

what follows

with what precedes.

(b)

The speaker or writer often ends with

way for something that is to be

prepares the

lowing sentence or clause

Gallic

War

thus in the

Caesar writes Gallia

first

word which

said in the

fol-

sentence of the

fst oiiinis divJsa in

partes

SYNTAX

262
ires (not

/;/

ires partes dtiusa),

because he

is

going to describe

these three parts in detail in the next sentence

of Gaul are three

as

And

follows.'

in

'
:

The

divisions

5 of the same

chapter he writes inithun capit ajliiniinc Rhodanb, because he

is going to speak of other boundaries of this part of Gaul.

This principle will explain man}' instances in which an

adverb phrase or an object is placed after the verb. In many
examples the effect of the transposition is to bring a noun
into immediate contact with a relative pronoun, as in the first
instance above

and

{in

partes trcs immediately before

in the following

Relinquo haec omnia; quae

Verr.
(8)

si

velim persequi,

etc.:

Cic.

v. 21.

The normal

the sentence

qiiariiin),

order

is

often

more rhythmical or

changed
in

in

order to make

other ways more pleasing

This is true of prose as well as verse, though in

to the ear.
verse (English as well as Latin) the normal order is often

changed more than would be permissible in prose. But it

must not be supposed that the words can stand in any order,
even in verse.

INDEX
The

nrr (o

rrjcrfiices

sections

tlif

abbreviations, App. XI.

(lid

abhitic 441, note

ablative 12: adverbial

a/i'/iiis 1

429-448; ad
;

'

'

(retained, in the passive construction 386)

adverbial 389-393
with a preposition 394, 395 with
;

462-473

analysis of sentences 250-268, 520-

533
anicquain 340, 526
apposition 258, 281
audio, conjugated 149-151, 156-158

speech 536, 545, 547

18-21.
31-33. 46-50
numeral 80-95
comparison of
66-72
possessive 103
demonstrative 104-109, 124. 515; interrogative 110, 516; indefinite ui"8, 517, 519; relative 119 121.
124; reflexive 103, 51 1-514
adjective clauses 525
with subjunc;

*06

App. XIII

reported

'^in

adjectives

tive 334, 335, 337, 338, 341, 343,

in re344. 346, 355. 360, 361
;

ported speech 364

adverbs, formation of 73-77
comparison of 78, 79
numeral 84
demonstrative 124 relative 124,
525
adverb clauses 526-533
with subjunctive 335-346, 358 360, 364
of time 339, 340, 358 a, 526
of
place 527
of cause 358 i, 528; of
purpose 338, 529
of result 360,
530; of condition 343, 349, 350,
of concession 343. 358 b,
531
;

532; of comparison 337, 533; in

reported speech 364, 540
agreement, of verb 270-273 of predicative adjective and predicative
noun 274-276; of verb adjectives
of pro277 of epithets 279-281
nouns 382-289
;

alUr 91

an 522

infinitive

12

alius 109

449; as object 450. 451

with a preposition 452-454 ablative absolute 494-497
ac than 533, obs.
accent 10
accusative 11; as object 379-388
jectival

248

calendar, App.

XXXVIII

App. IX

laitis

conjugated 159-163

capio.

card App. XIII

cases, general

meanings of 10-12;
nominative 368-377; vocative 378
accusative 379-397
dative 398genitive 416-427
ablative
415
428-454
;

cf/er

A pp. XVII

iJvitds

App. XII

subordinate 261, 523-533;

See adjective clauses,
adverb clauses, noun clauses

clause,

main 266.
coepi

249

commands 313-316, 320-322

de-

pendent 326-329, 523

subordicomparative clauses 533
nate to accus. with infin. 473
comparison of Latin with modern
languages 2
ol
comparison of adjectives 66-72
adverbs 78, 79
complex sentences 265-268
;

compound
App.

XL

verbs, principal parts

of,

conditional .sentences 531, 350

in
subordination 355, 471
conditioned futurity, subjunctives of
:

347-356

INDEX

264

conjugations, the four 1)4-151, 156

158 mixed conjugation 159-163
principal parts in all conjugations
;

gender of nouns 56-65; exceptions

to

170237

rules of gender,

App. XXIII-

XXVII
genitive II adjectival 417-422; adverbial 423 426; as object 427
;

conjunctions, co-ordinating 521 subordinating 526-533

co-ordinating relatives 120. 521, 547
;

rorApp. XIII

gerund 135. 503 506

gerund-adjective 133, 500 502
gradior 166

corresponding words 122-124

ciiw-clauses 358, 359, 526

Imbed, conjugation of 149-151, 156-

158
dative 11, 398; as object 399-405;
adverbial 407-415
dccef

375
demonstratives in

hand scto an 523

hie 104 ;
historic
of,

Engl, and Lat.

515
dependent clauses 523 distinguished
from other subordinate clauses

and

hic 124, 544

infinitive 480 ;

367. 4

sequence

sequence
293 ii

historic present

of,

367. 3

511, note

dep. questions distinguished from adjective and adverb

clauses 524
deponent verbs 164-169
desires 313 316, 320-323
subordinate 325 lii 1-332, 338, 523 (c
;

App. IV
App. XVI

deits 22,
(/tves

(A)

domus 54
donee 340, 526
double or multiple sentences 263
members of a sentence 264, 521
dttbito {non d. qutn) 362 (6)
dinn 312, 340. 343, 526

duo

89.

App. IV

idem 108
-iens App. XXI
ignis App. VII
illc 105
itnbcr App. XI
imperative mood 129. 313-316 in
suppositions 317
impersonal verbs 370-376
impersonal
passive
construction
125. 2, 133, 137 note, 377. 406
indicative mood 126 128. 290; tenses
of 291 309
infinitive 131.
as object 456-461
:

and predicative noun

477-479; historic 480; in exclamations 481 original meaning of,
482-485 accusative with infinitive 462-473
tenses of infinitive
nominative with in134,467-471
finitive 474 476
inqitant 248
interest 373
ipse 102, 512
irregular verbs 238-249
ita restrictive 345
yes 520
iter App. XIII
I uppitcr App. XIII
ifis iiiranduni App. XIII
invents App. IX
as

subject

y_Cj

ccqnis 516
edo 247

English words not expressed

separate words in Latin 4
eo 243, 244
epithets 256-258

by

agreement of 279-

281

'

-esimiis, -eitsimits

App.

XXI

etiam yes 520

532
exclamations 388, 520 (4)
ent 363, 523 {d)
'

'

cfsT

depend-

Itber'i

fiiri Zi^^

faux App. XI
/axiin,fnxd Ajjp.
fero 241
fid 246
frdtcr App. VIII

21,

App. IV

{b)

libct

XXXV

374
licet 374
liquet 374
lis

App. XI

locative case 13, 55

locus App. I

'

INDEX
mdlo 2^2

166
pauper App. X\'I
patiiir

II

HUiuinl 249

A pp. IX

phrases 260

'

possum

abi. 452,

XXIII-XXVII
noun clauses 261, 523; with sub-

App. XLI, XLII

priusquani 340, 526
pronouns personal 96-101
:

)ium 520 2 rt\ 523 {b\ 355, 363

numeral adjectives 80-95
numeral adverbs 84, 85

App. IV

111-118,

516;

278,

517;

124, 378, 290,

loi, 510-514
direct
;
indirect

in

543
pronunciation of Latin 5-7
prospective subjunctive 339-34
prosuui 239
puppis App. V (rt)
qiuili's

qtieo

of depo-

8,

245
;

nents 164
passive voice 125 ; formation of 152
uses of 386, 387, 402 impersonal
377, 406

with
double 521
questions 520
subjunctive 319; dependentsas '^^i),

X
;

533
i

accus. with infin. 473

486-499

quasi
(ii) ; quant ut 337
'yM"'-clauses subordinate to

quantity of syllables
quail tus 21, 124

337

100,

46, 124

(jrder of clauses 556-559

Order of words 3, 551-560
orior 167
OS 37
OS App. XIII

participles 132,

reflexive

reported speech

qttarii

parens App.

119-121.
519; agree-

518,

another' 109, 514

oportet 375, 353
^
oplim Cites App. XI
.

indefinite

relative

ment of 286-289

380-388 (^cognate
other
399-402
382)
dative objects 403-405
genitive
ablative objects 450,
objects 427

object 253

no,

tive

544

demon-

strative

iiiillus 86.

104-109, 124, 278, 515

agreement of 282-285 interroga-

junctive 325 333

451
odt 349
'one

453

priuceps App. XVI

principal parts of verbs, classified
alphabetical list,
list
170-237

240. 353. 456 {b^

with Perfect tense

postquain 526
311
postulative use of moods 31 7, 342-346
predicate 250-255
predicative adjective, noun, and pronoun 254, 255 agreement of 274
278, 457, 464
prepositions 4, 394, 395 with accus.
396 with accus. or abl. 397 with

171;

Perfect Participle Passive, formation

of 17a
;

tniiic

of

compounds, App. XLI

not 520 \^l>), 315, 316, 320 322.

327 330, 332, 338 ucvf 321
-tie 520 art
522, 523 ^b
363
negative commands 315. 316, 520(A)
uf(jiia'i 2^5
nesciCi an 523 b
neuter 9
nix App. XI
)wlO 242
nominative 11, 368. 369; with infinitive 474-476
iiotnte 520 ^aa)
2nd decl.
nouns 14
ist dec). 15
16, 17, ai, 22; 3rd decl. 23 30,
34-45 4th decl. 51. 52 5th decl.
gender of 56 65 App.
53' 54

iiiintntus

Active, formation

Perfect

166

App. XI

pcniilcs

mixed conjugation 159-163

money. App. XXXIX
ttioiior

App. VI II

/ater

/^rApi'. VI
tuinsis

265

363- 523. 524

quae, quod 119: co-ordinating

qui,

120, 521, 547

quicunique =,18. 519
quidant 1 13
quUibet 114

INDEX

>66
331, 336,
note, 362 (/>'

<] Ill's

360

356

</"^"

obs.,

362

516

qiiisqiiis

17

127, 294-296; Future 127, 297209; Perfect 128, 300-303; Past

Future Perfect
Perfect 128. 304
128, 305 309

517

518

T14, 517

^/;'j-A-

quoad 340, 526

quoiuiuiis 330 (lbs

App. V (a)
86
App. XIX

Tiberis

iotus

338

iribus
'-^yj>-/

{d\

qinspiant i r8
quisqnaiii 115. 517
qitisquc

App. IV

124
t antus 21, 124
tenses of the indicative
Present
Past Imperfect
127, 292, 293
talis 46,

no

qttisiiain

talent inn

373

pronouns 98, 100, 510-513

;t^o, conjugation of 149- 15 t, 156 158
reflexive

reported speech 534-550

idlus 86, X16

-undiis, 167 App.
units 86

'that' 326, 336,

lit

seat ris

A pp. V

'how' 363

{a)

senex App. XIII

'

sentence adverbs 521. 554 obs.

sentences simple 262. double 263.
multiple 263, complex 265-268;
classification of 520
sequence of tenses 365 367. 548
:

App. IV (a)
sMs App. V (rt), VI

XXII
338,

520
when '311, 526

liter

(/>;,

(2 b

360 362
and 4~>

gi

iitinaiH 321.

323

utriiin

522

\'erbs,

conjugated 125-249 (deponent

164, semi-deponent 236, 237) ; as

part of the predicate 252 ; imper-

seste)iins

solus 86

dependent
statements
520 (i
use of reflex523 (rt), 467-473
ives in 511
subject 250, 251
of infinitive 462
denoting
subjunctive mood 130, 131
wliat is to be done 319-346 (of
purpose 338, prospeciive 339-341.
denoting
postulative
342 346
conditioned futurity 347-356 with
weakened meaning 357 304 with
cum 358, with ut, qui or quln
360 362, in dependent questions
and exclamations 363, expressing
the thought of another 364)
in
reported speech 537 542. 548
subordinate clauses 261, 523 533
tenses in, 310-312; conjunctions
introducing, 526 533
sittu, conjugation of I-|T, 142
compounds of 239, 240
sunt qui 367
supines 136-138. 507 509
sus App. XIII
,

sonal 370 376

verbs taking a dative object 399406 genitive object 427 ablative
infinitive
as
object 450. 451
infin. as one of
object 456, 457
;

two objects 459-461

participles
verb-adjectives 132, 455
in ns (stem /-), declined App.
XV; syntax of participles 486;

499
verb-nouns 134-138, 455 infinitive
456-485; gerund 503506; supines 507-509
vetus App. XVI
vidcor 476
;

vir 17,

App, IV

(6)

wsApp. V(rt\

VI, XI, XIII

vocative 11, 378
voco, conjugation of 139, 140, I-19151, 154-158
void 242

vulgus App.

I!

wishes 313, 320, 323

OXFORD

HORACE HART,

M.A.

PRINTER TO THE UNIVERSITY

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