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Unit 3: Political institutions

1. Introduction
- Political history in Britain and Ireland over the past 800 years illustrates the growth of
what is now the UK and modern changes in its composition.
- Changing social conditions resulted in the growth of political parties, the extension of
the vote to adults, the development of local government and a 20th century devolution
(transfer) of some political power to Wales, Scotland and Northern Ireland.
- The political structures are still vigorously debated. Public disillusionment.

2. Political history
Early political history in the islands is the story of four geographical areas, now known
as England, Wales, Scotland and Northern Ireland and their turbulent struggles for
independent nationhood.
2.1 Decline of the monarchy and the rise of Parliament
- Early monarchs: lot of power but advice from feudal lords
- However, King John (1199-1216) ignored limitations and powerful French-Norman
barons opposed his dictatorial rule by forcing him to sign the Magna Carta in 1215.
Importance of this document.
- Embryonic Parliamentary structures. Simon de Montfort summoned a broader
Parliament in 1264. The Model Parliament (1275) of Edward I (1272-1307): the first
representative English Parliament. Two houses (as now).
- As the English Parliament was too large to rule the country, a small Privy Council
(royal government outside Parliament) comprising the monarch and court advisers
developed.
- Tudor England (1485-1603): a return to the power by the monarch. Tudor monarchs
(of Wales ancestry) united Wales and England administratively, politically and legally
in the 16th century.
- James VI of Scotland - James I of England: The Stuarts.
- Charles I (Stuart dynasty) was forced by Parliament to sign the Petition of Rights in
1628. The Petition prevented him from raising taxes without Parliaments consent
- 1642: Civil War. Charles I was beheaded in 1649 and the monarchy was abolished.
- Cromwells Protectorate and his son Richard
- Peoples discontent with the Protectorate. Charles II restores the monarchy.

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2.2 The growth of political parties and constitutional structures

- The growing power of the English Parliament against the monarch in the 17th century
saw the development of more organized political parties, derived from the conflicts of
the Civil War. The Whigs and the Tories became dominant.
- The Whigs: mainly Cromwellian Protestants and gentry, who did not accept the
Catholic James II as successor to Charles II and wanted religion freedom for Protestants.
- The Tories: generally supported royalist beliefs and helped Charles II to secure
Jamess right to succeed him.
- 1688. Both Tories and Whigs united to invite the Dutch Protestant William of Orange
to intervene. James fled to France and William succeeded to the throne of Britains first
constitutional monarch. The Bloodless or Glorious Revolution.
- Parliaments influence grew in the early 18th century. Robert Walpole: Britains first
Prime Minister. But it was under William Pitt the Younger that the office of Prime
Minister really develop.
- Some monarchs tried to restore royal power (George III) BUT loss of American
colonies.
- 1801: Ireland united to Great Britain by the Act of the Union.

2.3 The expansion of voting rights

- Parliamentary control but no widespread democracy in Britain. Political power in the
hands of landowners, merchants and aristrocrats.
- Both Tories and Whigs against electoral reform. But increasing changes in population
First Reform Act 1832. Later acts extended the vote to
and industrial development
men with properties. Working class men were allowed to vote in the late 19th century.
All males over 21 and limited categories of women over 30: 1918.
- 1928 all men and women over 21
- 1969 all men and women over 18

Role of women. Emmeline Pankhurst

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2.4 The growth of government structures

-

Prime ministership: first among equals

Central force of government: Parliamentary Cabinet (grown from the Privy
Council). The government was formed from the majority party in the House of
Commons. The largest minority party became the Oppositon.
The Tories: conservatives as of 1830s. They believed in established values and
the preservation of traditions, supported business and commerce, had strong
links with the Church of England and the professions and were opposed to
radical ideas.
The Whigs were becoming more progressive and wanted social reform and
economic freedom without government restrictions - Liberal Party - Labour
Party, created in its present form in 1906.

3. The contemporary British political framework (see Figure 4.1)

4. Constitution and monarchy
4.1 The constitution
- Significant changes due to entry to the EU in 1973 and devolution in 1998-9:
implications. Executive, legislative and judicial powers. No clear separation between
the executive and the legislative.
- Executive power: The House of Commons governs by passing its policies through
Parliament as Acts of Parliament.
- Judicial power: judges, Supreme Court (2009)
- Britain as constitutional monarchy but Britain has no constitution contained in one
document. Instead, the constitution consists of distinctive elements, most of which are
in written form. These are the Statute law (Acts of Parliament), common law or judgemade case law conventions, certain ancient documents (the Magna Carta) and EU law.
- The Westminster Parliament is no longer the sole legislative body in Britain. British
membership of the European Union means that EU law is now superior to British
national law.
4.2 Criticisms of the constitutional system
- Features seen as potentially dangerous in the system: few effective parliamentary
restraints upon a strong government and few legal definitions of civil liberties or human
rights.
- Labour Government: Freedom of Information Act (2000).
- Despite changes, critics still think that the British Parliamentary system is out of date,
consider that a written constitution is needed to control executive and administrative
bodies and claim that the UK political system no longer works satisfactorily. See also
last paragraph in this section (page 94).

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4.3 The monarchy

- The state and government business is carried out in the name of the monarch by the
politicians and officials of the system.
- The monarchy is the oldest institution in Britain and there is hereditary succession to
the throne, which is reserved only for Protestants. The monarchy in the UK was only
interrupted by Cromwellian rule (1653-60).
- The monarch is expected to be politically neutral, to reign but not rule (p. 95).
- A central power still possessed by the monarch is the choice and appointment of the
UK prime minister.
- For and against the monarchy.

4.4 The Privy Council

-

It is tied to the monarchy. It developed from a small group of royal advisers into
the executive branch of the monarchs government. Today its members (such as
Cabinet Ministers) advise the monarch on the approval of government business
which does not need to pass through Parliament.
There are 400 Privy Councillors.

5. The UK Parliament: role, legislation and elections

5.1 Role and composition
-

Where: Londons Palace of Westminster

Who: non-elected House of Lords and elected House of Commons
Members from England, Wales, Scotland and Northern Ireland
Functions: the implementation of the sitting governments policies in reserved
matters.
Law (see Figure 4.3)
Bill Act of Parliament
Satisfaction with Parliament? MORI poll (expenses scandal)
A parliament has a maximum duration of five years, except in emergency
situations.
The House of Lords: Lords Temporal( 92 peers and peeresses with hereditary
titles + 577 life peers and peeresses) + Lords Spiritual (Archbishops of York and
Canterbury and 24 senior bishops of the Church of England) // Attendance. The
Lord Speaker // Positive and negative aspects of the House of Lords.
The House of Commons 650 members of Parliament (MP) who are chosen
from all parts of the UK. Elected by voters (> 18). MPs are paid expenses and a
salary, which is relatively low in comparison with similar jobs outside politics.

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5.2 Legislation and procedure

- Custom, convention, precedent and detailed rules (standing orders). The House of
Commons meets every week in the afternoon. On the weekend each MP spends time in
their constituency.
- Parliament as a male club?
- The Speaker in the House of Commons.
- The proceedings of both Houses are open to the public and may be viewed from the
public and visitors galleries. Transactions are published daily in the Hansard.
- Creation of a UK law (see figure 4.3).
5.3 UK Parliament elections
- 650 constituencies (geographical areas of the country each containing at least 66,000
voters).
- General election by secret ballot. Voting is not compulsory. Polling stations. Turnout
of voters about 70% at general elections
6. The party political system
-

The British political system has existed since the 17th century.
The Labour Party: left-of-centre. Its ideas and geographical/social support.
The Conservative Party: right-of-centre. Its ideas and geographical/social
support
The Liberal Democrats (Lib/Dem) formed in 1988.
Small parties are also represented in the House of Commons.
Tactical voting/ hung Parliament/ coalition deal
Sitting arrangements in the House of Commons. The backbenchers.
The Whips: Whips are MPs or Lords appointed by each party in Parliament to
help organise their party's contribution to parliamentary business. One of their
responsibilities is making sure the maximum number of their party members
vote, and vote the way their party wants. Party discipline.
Etimology: The use of the word 'whip' within Parliament has its roots in the 18th
century hunting terminology 'whipper-in'. It refers to a huntsman's assistant who
drives straying hounds back to the main pack using a whip.

7. The UK government
- The UK government is the executive arm of the political system. It is centred on
Whitehall in London, where its ministries and the primer ministers official residence,
10 Downing Street, are located.
- The prime minister is appointed by the monarch and is usually the leader of the
majority party in the Commons. Weekly audience with the monarch. The prime minister
is accountable for government actions.
- The Cabinet is a small executive body in the government and usually comprises about
20 senior ministers, who are chosen and presided over the primer minister.
- Decisions at Cabinet meetings/ primer ministers personality and his/her decision to
control each of the cabinet members duties.
- Civil servants and their duties.

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8. UK parliamentary control of government

-

British governments have historically tended to govern pragmatically. Emphasis

on politics that work and were acceptable.
Constitutional theory suggested that Parliament should control the executive.
However, unless there is a small majority government, rebellion by government
MPs or significant public protest, a government or coalition with an overall
majority in the Commons is able to carry its policies through Parliament
irrespective of parliamentary attempts to restrain it.
1967: attempts to restrain the executive with the creation of the Parliamentary
Commissioner for Administration (Ombudsman). Not really successful.

9. Devolved structures
-

Small political units: devolved structures and local government

Devolution = self-government or transfer of some political powers short of
complete independence from the Westminster Parliament. Devolution is a tier of
decentralized government and allows countries to decide more of their own
affairs in devolved matters such as education, health, transport, environment,
home affairs and local government.
Devolved Parliament in Northern Ireland (1971-72) while remaining part of the
UK
Elected Parliament with legislative and tax-varying powers in Scotland
Non-legislative, non-tax-raising elected Assembly in Wales
Northern Ireland achieved an elected Assembly in 1998 with significant
legislative and executive authority.
The Westminster Parliament still has reserved powers over UK matters such as
defence, foreign affairs, social security, broad economic policy and immigration.
Devolution had a shaky start and still needs to settle down and justify its
existence. England has not intermediate devolved tier but an unelected appointed
Regional Development Agencies (RDA).
Devolution does not mean independence or separation of Scotland, Wales and
Northern Ireland nor a British federal system, although it is argued that a form of
quasi-federalism has been created.
Since July 2000 London has been run by an elected, devolved Greater London
Authority with its elected mayor (currently Boris Johnson) with different
executive and financial authority of American city mayors- and assembly.

10. Attitudes to politics

-

Polls consistently reveal that British politicians and political parties do not rate
highly in public opinion. Respondents say that politicians are the least admired
group of professionals (apart from journalists) and that they never answer the
questions people put to them.
Cronyism = favouring political supporters for public and official positions
The 2008-2009 scandal (parliamentarians claims of expenses for a range of
dubious and often excessive expenses.
Increasing political apathy, particularly among the young.

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However, MORI opinion research in 2001 showed that interest in politics had
actually remained stable in Britain for thirty years and that people had positive
attitudes to voting. People appear to be more interested in the political process
and issues than is popularly assumed.
What seems is that there is a disconnection between voters and politicians.

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QUESTIONNAIRE

1.

When was the first representative parliament formed in England?

2.

What has the British government NOT been accused of recently?

3.

Define the term 'quango'

4.

Which document first restricted the powers of the monarch

5.

The British monarch must always be a Protestant

6.

When did all women over 21 first get the vote in England?

7.

What percentage of women MPs are there in the new parliament of 2010?

8.

Which political party/parties held continuous power from 1979 to 1987?

9.

Roughly, how many civil servants are there in Great Britain?

10.

Which power has not been devolved to Scotland & Wales?

11.

The UK Parliament could withdraw from the European Community

12.

What is a 'three-line whip'?

13.

What is a 'marginal constituency'?

14.

How does the public find out what has happened in the Cabinet?

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