Hlarvest Security and Intraspecific Diversity

in Traditional Tropical Agriculture'

DAVHI)

L. CIAWS }N2

1ItI' hor'tiulturalr A ,rt, ''iS of t ditr l (1 f Propica/

a l grPh'lt/tttrits '(CltCroil 1hw

preservation t / larv.l't
uritI. /C
hi addlition 10 C'iltjvaing, vimltalncolls/i lilir
oli.Species (57'crCp
c
rop,
ltir
mo
,
tropaf/llIIrI UP (1/Sfo p/lit
ia/tifph varicieS of'
ca, 'h cor
Pp. 1Iii
' u/:t a ao re''qtte
'tt/V C/~iA tifl sC,'iC/f(
all thw Ibasis C ot{or. ratnc,',ine

/i'mii Whii,' to vc
l.IU.

and

' ,,,cd
'wto pittl,.Ill
a(i/titin to valYiI'll (1/ptllce alld

ill ,'\'vAsleaP

t1,p'll iol

Iu(?Ph
' IIIl/

;IIPCA'S. lhl'Color- USi'd varirtcp

l ,ift

di/hir ill
't/ffl'rrmti/t/j'
a' A' a . By
I)'v
Pr'f
PrP itio
" ,' u"
OIcl
rAZ
pe', "j
P/I'
cti/I
IIIc, t/t triathttp((
ie/
1,o
P ii prctIc
cit/li'rprvt .
hit'lsclP vecri,/ 'p'Ptltll/ I'S
Po c'clp'
P o Ptiph f' AIt'/'
]lprvt I tIU/
PrC/[ilt,vA /15 /i.
' t/rlPvcs
lh
/,']llt
I/ic
1t011,

(0'/d O/tto,
tt'p/ipl

ill cit/UP c

o[/lP' I'Ali /

iA

/'

,PC A'

IlIV

/phh''.

lt'.

A I,

tpilAo/

iti,/itlOPl1/
t1I(1j2C'Ii
/1 '1P1l'rs tAoild apC'e' ir,'

Ultih',/i
h /i'ih-.ic
ilt V,

( fivpu i p hui
i,'u
l' it crctC'red

ti ' ,!C/q
Stal/h'
l .fo(crP/Ps ,avaryi.i, (A,,l,,r
and

piati'

rcil/ot pe'riods.

It is generally recogniied that traditional tropical fa rnIers

cultivate a great
varietv or diversity of' crops in order to maximize harvest
security within the
confilnes of the limited space available to them (Anderson.
1952: Chang. 1977;
lgho/urike, 1971; ('Olson, I1079). In the Congo Bas;in. for
instance. "it is not
tLn'oimmon fo0r a 1b Ft'ir to grow thirty or more diflPLrent crops-and
as many as
si:ty are recorded' (NIliracl, 1967, p. 283). Nearly 9()0cultivalCd
species of edible
plants weire idcnt ified inthe garden of' one horn e near Tuxtepec,
Oaxaca, Mexico
([well and Polemnan, 19)79, p. 61). A typica! plot \,ill include
a mix of' grains,

tuobers, legumes, cucurbits, and even "trel'

crops such as pallava
and bananas all
blnding together ina secinigly chaotic exph,,sion oil grovth."l
This type of agri
cuIt ure, patterned in1its structure and coinp)osition afher the
tropical rain fhrest
CnvirontDll, focuses Oil OutTAICc ific( diversity.
is less understood, however, that tlhe traditional, small-scale
tropical f'armer
generally practices it ra.*b C.,'i p}1l ycti I ture in addition
to interspecific multiple
cropping. This is accomplished by cultivating numerous
cultivars of the same

staple crop in the sare plol or in nci'h boring fields.

Fhe purpose of thiS sluld, is to illustrate the Utiliiation bv
traditional tropical
fhr'mzners of' the varying IlatuiIio}n pcriods of' itiulticolorcd et
lti
\ars of staple ft,od
crops as a harvest securi nechar
cV isill. The practice of intraspecilic polvyculture
coustitells anl in Valtale, practical sUpplenCen t to current
eflorts to preserve in
gene banks the dwindling gerniplasm resources of'the world's
flood crops (Plucknett
el al., 1983; Brown, 1983: Fischbeck, 1981: National Academv
of'Sciences. 1972).
It also suggests alternate strategies f'or the development and
diffusion of Green
Revolution technologic-s aniong traditional Third World fhrmers.

Rscccived 19 August 1983. accepted 5 July 1984.

I epartmcnt ofAnthropohpga Gceo
;,graphv, t ni t:rsity of New Orleans. New Orleans. LA 70148.

Economic Botany, 39(I), I985. pp. )6-67

,e1985, by the New York Iotanical Garden, Bronx, NY 10458

19851

CLAWSON: SECURITY & DIV:RII y

(_OLOR AND INTRASI'E(CIFI

57

VARIATION

Varietal differences frequently manifest themselves in varying

maturation pe
riods. By cultivating as many varieties as possible of a given
crop, the traditional
farmer can either provide additional opportunities to reap
a respectable single
harvest, or he can extend, in eliect, the growing and harvest
periods, or do both,
and in either case hopefully insure that if some oit' the varieties
produce poorly,
the others will be less aflcted and the overall harvest
will prove adequate to
sustain lifie.
Varietal variation is preserved in nature through a wide array
of slight physical
diflrences. Tile majority of these, while recognizabtle to
the naked eye, are not
visually obvious. To the uneducated, yet intelligent and creative
traditional trop
ical agriculturisi, color dillerences constitute one of the
most distinctive and
readily observable indicalors of variation in food plan ts
(llarlan, 1975). Patifio
1963, p. 105) concluded that color was formerly so dominant
in varietal diLfkr
entiation among Latin American peasants that "'it is lm11ost
exclusively b\ color
that some varieties can be identified in the colonial literature.'
I Exven today, he
continued, "'in the language of superstitious natives, the
names of the varieties
are merely the word used to express the corresponding coior."

The existence of plant color variation withini

tropical agriculture
has been stud
ied from numerous perspectives. Botanists, biologists, and
members of related
disciplines have analyzed the chemical cycles and finctions
of'plant pignients

w\'hile stressing their ,alue in attracting seasonal insects and

other animal ageits

of pollination and dispersal (1-ill,

1952; ('ox et al., 1973).
C'onversely, social

scientists, including anthropologists, CItltural geographers,

and r'tirral
sociologists,
have em phasized the utili"Iation of plant )roducts ov'\'arying
co)lors in the 'rligiois,

mythological, dietary, and medicinal customs oftraiditional

pcoples (Spicer, 1967;

Stone, 1975; Malinowski, 1965). Both vi.'points, however,

have largely filed

to focus on perhaps the most

fundamental function of intraspecific
diversity in
small-scale tropical agriculture -the assurance of human
survival through the
cultivation of multiple varieties of staple food crops of varying
color and matu
ration periods.
'lic remainder of this study, organized by
broad crop categories,
provides a selective analysis of this practice among traiditional
agriculturists.
GRIlN CRt)IS

Maize

The selective cultivation of multicolored cultivars of maize

from anlong tile
estimated 200-300 varieties (Beadle, 1980) extant in tihe New
World at the time
of the Iberian conquest was amply documented by early
Spanish chroniclers.
Columbus himself recorded finding, upon his arrival atl
the Venezuelan coast in
1498, "ainong the natives white. violet, and red maize" (Pati.,o,
1963. p. 1I12
113). The uti!iL/ation of' tie color varieties for their Var ing
maturation periods
was
suggestud by the Spanish historian Arellano Moreno who
described 2 varieties
cultivated in tile vicinity of Barquisi rneto, Venezuela. in 1579,
''one which yields
in forty days and the other more or less in three months"
(Patiiio. 1963, p. 111).
Early colonial accounts of maize culture in Popayim,. Colombia,
noted that lhe

prel erred variety required the better part of a year to mattre

(because of the

58

ECONOMIC 1OTANY

I'T-I
1 .I.

Jsi" IO

(I)WO

\\U11. IIItS
Of

[VOL. 39

MAttE, NIEAt.II'AN, mitxI').

Applox
let'
'h of
Kcrilel t'oltm

Yellow
White
Itie-ptrple
Red

Waislll 11,111o)

6/2
6
5
42,

JPr'lIl. , cdd

hi gtiest
high
Inoderate
low

1t1ML'
and In, t re

lowest
high
highest
low

%Imos('omlnon uwe

aniimal
human
h,nan
reserve

feed
food
food
human food

re!atively high elevation) and was called (and still is known as) maiz de aio, or
year-long maize. There was also a second variety that matured in 3-4 mo and
was given the name mtawhamhre,which translates as "hunger or Camine killer,"
owing tn its ability to produce a quick harvest and stave olt'hunger (Patifio. 1963,
p. 123--128).
In previous research, I have analyzed the role of multicolored Indian maize
(Zca mays L.) within current Mexican traditional agricultural systems (Clawson
and Hoy, 1979). hi the highland Puebla village of San Buenaventura Nealtican,
4 strains or vaicties of maize are cultivated extensively. These cultivars are
distinguished Iv yellow, white, blue-purplk and red kernel color. Yellow maize
is perceived by the local farners as the highest-yielding variety but is also con
sidered to have a bad taste and, consequently. lo be fit only for animal feed ('Table
I). Poverty, however, and the attendant emphasis on human rather than animal
food production, has led most farmers to feed their fiew animals dried cornstalks
and wild herbs rather than grain. T]his practice, in turn. has resulted in very little
yellow maize being cultivated by the villagers.
White maize is considered good tasting and constitutes tile basis for human
diets in the region. It is sown around the middle of April, about a month before
tile expected arrival of the first summer rains. It is a slow-maturing variety and
is not ready for harvest until approximately 6 mo have elapsed and the OctoberApril dry season has begun.
The peasant farmer will inspect his field 2-4 wk after he has sown his white
mai/e, when the Y,oung plants are 4-6 cm high. lie often finds that, for varying
reasons including poor seed. inicroclinmatic and soil factors, and insect, bird, or
rodent damae, the ia ize is germinated unevenly. Rather than allowing part
of' his land to remain un prodtuctive, the farmer will replant the barren sections
with blue-colored maize. lhe blue is considered superior in taste to the white but
its yields are lower. Its greatest asset, however, is that it has a maturation period
2-4 wk shorter than that of the white maize. The blue maize wvill thus mature
fully in a shorter growing season and will be ready to harvest at the same time
as the white maize -with which it shares a field. It'by some serious misfortune,
part of the blue maize also fails to germinate, the peasant will turn its a last resort
to his red maize, which is considered infierior in both taste and yield to all other
varieties but which also has the shortest maturation period. It. too, will ripen
before the aridity and cold of flll bring an end to the growing season. Multicolored
maize in Nealtican thus functions, in a very literal sense, as a crop insurance and
life-protection mechanism.

31

19851

CLAWSON: SECURITY & I)IVERSI

rN

59

The use ofcolored maize varieties

cf varying maturation periods remains
wide
spread throughout rural I-atin America.
Wassen (I 949) stated that the Cuna
of
Panama cultivated close to a halI f-do'.en
varieties identified by color. Stone
(1975)
noted 12 cultivars among the Bloruca
of Costa Rica. Parsons (1968) and
Portal
(1970) have reported similar findings
in ,olombia, as have Johannessen
(1982),
0. Horst (pers. comm.), and Anderson
(1952) for Gunateinala. In all instances,
light-colored varieties were generally
associated with long growing seasons
and
dark-toned cultivars utiliied fr their
short growing seasons. Faced with
potential
hUngr or starvationl, the self-reliaot
Latin American pcasan, has devised
an
ingenious system, based on the
genetic variation of his staple subsistence
crop,
to maximize his chances for survival.
Mil'et

In addition to reliance on multicolored

cultivars of a single grain crop, such
as
maize in Lalin America, small-scale
tropical agriculturists often cultivate
together
multiple cultivars of varying maturation
periods of two or more grain crops
in
their ellbrts to achieve the greatest
possible degree ofl harvest security.
This strategy
is well-documented among millet
farmi-'s of trol)ical Afr'ica. l)avid
(I976) has
noted that the Ma ;s:a of northern
( anieroon cultivate 5 varicties of
pearl
millet,
IellliSI'lllI aluu'rjt'tlI
([L.) K..ScI
in., and 4 varietics of tile crop
are
sown
among the neighboring Ma!aknm
tribe. He f u rther observed that millets
"have
long been cultivated with sorghwl
r lbr variety and an insurance
against a poor
rainy season" (p. 249). Scudder
( 1976) reported the same practice
of mixed in
traspecific and interspecific grin-crop
diversity among tile subsistence
fainmers
of Zambia.
Porteres (1976, p. 428) desci-ibed
what lie termed "ithe common and
rather
curious practice"
in the Mali region
of Africa of sowing, br human consumlption,

multiple varieties of fonio or fundi

millet (Digilaria e.i/is Stapf.). Those
are
followed, in turn, by plantings in
the same fields of Iast-growing "'animal"
millet
(BIrachiariadi/hfi.v, C. E. Hubbard
var. sativa R. Port.), which requires,
depending
upon the variety, from 90-130
days to mature. The result is that
"everything
arrives at maturity at tle same lime.'"
Harvest security tor both man and
beast
is thus maaxi ii ,cd through si mu)ltaneous
reliance on both tile interspecilic
and
intraspecific genetic resources of
the larmers.
Rice
The piactice ofcultivating multiple
rice varieties of varying maturation
periods
is widespread among small-scale tropical
agriculturists. Harris (1976) has oberved
subsistence farmers of West Africa
cultivating both white Ora
iwit'a IL. rices
of Asian origin and the reddish-brown
0. ,i,'elabrtI11 StCud. A rican varieties
in
the same plots. The Kotoko of northern
Cameroon citt)i\ate numerous varieties
of wild African

rice, O(-za harthii cx bre'vihi,/uhaa, with

Asiatic stra ins (David,

1976). The so-called 'black rice"
that is grown and harvested together
in fields
with true rices Irom Guinea to Indonesia
is actually a millet, Pasvpl,m wrol,,i
culatum L. (de Wet et al., 1983;
1larlan et all., 19 70). There are, however,
docu
mented cases
of black-colored rice varieties. Itickey's
analysis (1964) of Victnam

60

ECONOMIC BOTANY

[VOL. 39

ese agriculture. for example, noted that in one village 5 cultivars of "hasty,"
or
early-naturing 0.sativa var. indica were cultivated along with 9 late-maturing
in(ica cultivars as well as 6 cultivars of O. sativa var. japonica of which one
was
yellow-colored and another lack. Some 20 cuitivars of rice wvere thus harvested
annually by the farmers of the 'ill:ge. In general, native varieties of rice
in the
tropics are highly photosensitive and vary from 5-9 mo in their maturation
periods
(Webster and Wilson, 1966).
A strategy, called decru', is practiced along i, Niger River, varticularl' in
the
"inland delta" of Mall where the rising and falling of the river provide
rhythm
to the agricultural cycle. Prior to the flood, varietie, of lowland or wet rice
"are
sclected according to the anticipated depth of the flood waters, the shorter stemmed
forms being planted in the higher fields and the 'floating' varieties... in the
lower
fields subject to deeper flooding" (Harris, 1976. p. 327-328). Each variety matures
at a distinct time and is harvested as the flood waters gradually recede. Once
the
rice has been harvested, sorghum and millet are sown in the fields as dry-weather
crops (Harlan and Pasquereau, 1969).
TUIiER CROPS

'olatocs

When the Spanish conquistadors invaded the Andean highlands of tile

Inca
empire, they found the natives dependent upon 2 species of potato, Solantum
lulk'rosunt L. and Solanum,: andigc1nun Juz. et Buk. (Salaman. 1949). The
former
is a long-day species while the latter requires short days for normal development
and is thus ideally suited to high altitu(es of the loV latitudes.
Many ofthe early Spanish chroniclers recorded the cultivation of white.
yellow,

red, and purple varieties of S. andi,,num at the time of the Conquest (Patifio,
1963). That these \"ere utilized flr their different maturation periods is suggested
by the report of Vicente de Oviedo of the cultivation of 2 types of potatoes
in
the mid-18th centuin v'creole, which "are faster to produce and taste better,"
and
"others called 'tutrmas de afio,'' or year-long potatoes (Patifio. 1963, p. 79).
Thousands of clones of seemingly every color and shape continue to be
culti
va^cd on miniscule patches of rocky, steeply sloped Andean land (Parsons.
1968:
Correll, 1962: Basile. 1974). 1lawkes (1947) identified over 1,000 potato
names
in use among traditional Andean fairmers The lowest taxonomic level in
native
classification is the subvarietv that is based principally on variations in
tuber
color. 'The preference of the highland cultivators lor heavily pigmented
potato
varieties may ,eflect a greater resistance of the dark-skinned tubers to
turning
green and bitter in the intense mountain sunlight (Brush et al.. 1981).
Traditional potato farmers of highland Mexico cultivate tubers ranging in
color
from white to purple and, in order to retard the spread of fungal pathogens,.
often
sow 2 or 3 cultivars in a given hi1 Planting takes place froi January
through
March with harvesting occurring from September through January (Ulgent,
1968).
Farmers of U.1chucmarca, Peru, identify roughly 35 varieties of potatoes.
These
are distinguished on the basis of yield, color of ski:. relative number of
eyes,
color of flesh, dry or moist texture of the meal, speed of cooking, resistance
to
frost and late blight, storage properties, altitude for optimnum growth, and
length

1985)

CLAWSON: SECURITY & DIVERSHt

y

of growing season, the latter varying

roughly from 4-8 mo. "Most villagers
seem
to be able to pull out somewhat

over twenty-five varieties from

the potato storage
piles in the lofts above their houses"
(13rush, 1977, p. 171).
Sweet potato
The exiwtence and utilization of
multicolored variet,es of varying
maturation
periods of'l; nowa haa.v (1..)
l.ain. is widCIly documented. Over
580
varieties
have been classilied with hoth the
external and internal root colors
occurring
in
varying shades of white, yellow,
orange, red and purple (Yen, 1974,
p.
174,
213).
Massal and Barrau (1956) cited
low altitude matural ion periods
in the sotI. rn
Pacific basin of 3-7 [1o.

Tie Ifgao of Lu/on "'claimi more

than
200 varieties by name" (Yen,
1974, p.
235). 13arra (1958, 1p.89) descrihed
the sillilltanteous cultivation of'
a 3-mio,
white-tleshcd "Oki nava" variety
with a yellow-fleshed, -111mo cutivar
in Nlela
nesia. A detaiied account of tile
use of color varieies in Latin
America
was
provided by Pedro Martin de Angleria
who, In 19414, described an area
America wvhere 1, vairit'lis were
ol'South
cultivaled, iridUdin
\hite skin
with while flesh,
whiwe skin with purple flesh, pur'ple
skin with white flesh, purple skill
with purple
flesh and yellow skin with yellow
flesh (Pat iio. 1903. 1p.63).
In a Vietnamese village, 2 culor
varieties are cUlli\ atd, purple skill
with purlple
flesh and white skin withi white
flesh. The purple s%\eet polatoes
are
piefe'red
both for their flavor and for their
shorter MlatLriitiOn l)CriOds. The
quality
of broth
color varieties al ;o varies according
to the season hen grown. Those
produced
during the dry season from October
to March i' C coIsidered sweeter
and of' higher
overall quality than those grown
duriig the sutmcir nioii ,o iion
ionths (IM. Ngu
yen, pers. comm.).
The shallow-rooting habit of' sweet
potatoes is particularly conducive
to the
employment of' partial harvesting
as an additional har\vest-security
mechanism.
Subsistence farmers frequently dig
only a ew tubers at a time from
a plant, thereby
al lowinrg for the Conliliiue! growtli
of the rena iniing iti
hers arid file de velopmien
of new ones. Partial harvesting, combined
with tile voluilicer growth of new
plants

from old or overlooked tubers,

per'l
its tle sna1l -scale agrfictullrUist
to harvest
contin uaIlly a gi 'en patelih for 2
yr or more (Yen, 1974, p. 72-73).
"assa-a
,Alani/hotescilde'ta Craritz is the
only domesticated species of' its
genus and
is
believed to have been domesticated

in tile lowlands of'northeastern Sonuth

America
or of, Mexico and (illatenllala.
]'le tubherous roots contain varying
amllOunLs Of
toxic cyanogcnetic glycoside, or prussic
acid. Those plints that have little
or where
it is concent rated in the rind, which
is rcllo vcd in peeling, are teriiied
"sweet,"
while those with higloer amounts
(generally 100 mg 'kg and over) are
called "hitter"
and require special processing prior
to coilsoImptioll (NI orall, 1975).
The acid is
freed and released harmlcssly into
the air by soaking the r;tls in water
and then
heating them to 15 0 (' or higher.
Varietal di fierentiation was formerly
made on the basis of the exent of"tuber"
toxicity. Sweet varieties were called
Al. atpt, A. dd,,, or Al. palmata
and bitter

62

ECONOMIC BOTANY

[VOL. 39

ones Jl. utilissilma. It i's now recognied that toxicity is not correlated with mor
phological plant features :trd that it often varies with soil and climatic conditions
and tile age ofthe plant. All varieties are now considered to belong to Ml. CS'4uh/nta.

Color variation in cassava occurs in each of tile 3 basic plant organs. ('as.ava
sterns vary from silver-gre\ to greenish-yellow to shades of green and red as well
as dark brown and plrple-stre,,kCd. Leaves are found in .;rlid and variegated
green, yellow, and red. The core of' the "tubers" is usually while but also occurs
in yellow and thint red while the color of the outer cork varies greatly friom white
to pink and red to light and da,-k brown and purple (PNre-Arbelaez, 1956: Purse
P!ove, 1968).

The earliest varieties produce a crop within 4-8 mo after planting out most
cultivars are not dug until 10--12 mo (.[ones, 1959: l'Nre/-Arbclac,. 1956). One
oflthe greatest assets of manioc in small-scale tropical agticultlure is its ability to
continue to grow and store well in tile ground following the initial harvest of some
of the "tubers." Niany \ aridties keep without serious deterioration and even
continue to grow, for up t 3-4 yr. Generally, however, tile older the roots, the
more woody and acidic they become (National Acadeny of'Sciences, 1975: Purse
glove. 1968). Ironicallv. the roots keel) very poorly once dug and generally begin
to rot within 48 Ii of harvesting.
Cassava is thus, perhaps, su ited more than any other staple tropical crop to the
security needs of the traditional fiarmer. This attribute, w\hen coriihined with its
superb ecological ruggedness, including tolrance to drought, weeds. pests, and
soils ranging from a p[I factor as low as 5.A to as high as 9.0. accounts for its
eniergence in tile 20th ccIIIerv as the d[(linant "tuber' crop oft he tropical world.
By cutltivating ni tilt iph' varieties of cassava, the agriculturist virtually assures
his survival. The islanders of Yap raise 20-25 varieties of ianioc (Barrau. 196 1).
The 1ivaros of'South America cultivate 15 varieties of' the root, which they call
IaMna (IPatifio, 1963). Manioc harvlesting in Melanesia occurs at between 5 and
12 or more monthlis a her planting. deperiding upon tile variety (Barrau. IN58). In
Nigeria. traditioral farmers distiniguish cassava varieties on the basis of the color
of tihe plant stem, plant gro\th habit, expected yield, ease of root preparation,
and tfie supposed sex of the plant (.Jones, 1959). lut vale tribesmen of the ('ongo
Basin plant their most highly pried cultivars in October. a second group in April.
and those varieties o least alire in late May or early.littne (Miracle, 1967). A
qurote ['rum G. Sautter concerning the Niari Valle\ lakamba tribe of tie ('ongo
Basin provides an excellent summary of cassava cultivation among traditional
African farmers:
It is ilnmpossible to detil mll tile sacil duhration of its gro%Ill. (erlil \ arietics. planted ill
October-Novenher. are reaLd\11. oit s.Oh
iip1io ill Ma, or June al the beginning of tie long dry
season. Others planted at eaintl tile same ime can he harsesled only after a year and some
Imollths, al tile end othlie I1,it li i little tir seasonl nt ilwa'. or almost alwa s lnians v arieties
are mixed in tile same fi'ld and hecause of this tile !ar .est is staggered over a long period of
line (Jones. 159, p. 135-1.6).

The yati, DIOsco'a,. is a tuber primarily ol' Af'rican origin, with some varieties
itdiL,'ncous to Asia and America. It is noted as a staple carbohydrate source
throughout the humid tropics but is least dominant in America and is gradually

1985]

CLAWSON: SECURITY & DIVERSITY

giving way to cassava in Africa, Asia, and the Pacific Islands. Six hundred species
of yams have been identitied but the buk of human consullption conies from
ten: 1). roltinlduita Poir., 0. cayttenelsis lam., 1). dlun forlum Pax., I). hispida
Dennst., 1). alcta L., 1). esctc'nta (Lour.) Burk., D. h/
li'ra L., 1). opJJOsita
Thunb., I). .jcquricU Thun b., and 1). ri/cd 1. f.(Courscy, 1967, p.2-3).
1). alata, tile so-called gr'eater vain, is also knowin as tile 10-o1 yan and
sometimcs incorrectly as the while yarn. It is native to Solheast Asia and presently
is the most widely grown yam species in tile world. In some cultivars, the flesh
oflhe tubers is colored purple by anthocyanin, which, depending upon the amount
present, protuces anything horn pink- Lo purple-colored
). tri/ida is the
cush-cusli yarn, or India arin, native to northern South AnlCrica and is in wide
use throughout the ('aribbCan. lhe color of its nuILIerous cul Iivars rIllay le whiite,
yellow, pink or purple (Snole, 1976: ('oursey, 1967). The I0 sh of I). piuq'ai rWIU
rain et Burk. is red vhereas that of I). .sti
awsrrIlire is violet. ('uhhi ars
of I). r-olundata and I). 'YCII'11cI0i , lie dol0iralit species of west A frica. both
include vellow and white varieties although tile foruicr is frecuently described as
white arid le latter is yellow (('
(ursCy, 1967, 1975).
Yarn tubers furiction as organs of' doirllC in tile plant, suriviing but not
growing during stressful dry periods. 'iari growlh is thus highly seasonal and tile
maturation period of' the various cirhidars is closely linked to tile length of tire
rainy season. This, perhaps, is one of the principal rCasons for the increasing
preference of tropical farmers for the 1 iorCe lexihie
hC aSSa\z Vhosc prirductiori is
nor seasonal. cecaluse' yarsr
re a.huraiundarit riroisture to grov \well and ale not
produced under Irrigation. Selection ol \,am
\arIetres is lxicd On their \a.ler
recuirerll
erits and relatie drought tolerance, with those requiring the longest
maturation periods being gro\\ ii ini regims of shlortest tl- season s. Beyond lhis
regional variation:

ilsh.

Slim

espread

o: lhc1 'rc1Ip11

Illir. ti .IL'kly
lh1ii
rlhc"
I'S. l h
d

hc Zltuht1
11 \ cI y .LJ hg schr
;crwrccycral
iiN
s i',
s;m
io.c(l'w

hch c jmmic
h11s
bce d lmt j
utkuull
in
c ,\licf
l, clt

s,\, llshort'i
. ds11ic'0

, m)IC iilan ca.niP,' hi lt0iii'c \\lh

cl C';ll\ ;MicdIinlc' 1;itlll

( , c, , I((
1 7.p. S7).

This same practice, con mmon in Africa, is als followed itW

smtheast Asia. Ilickey
(1964) observed the inicircropping ()Ibot i ired-colored 1) 11/1(a arid rin red I)
('M.StLidn'11m. Rappaport (I 967, p. 2(0) 1iotLd 'at least Ihlill
-cight \lli
varis
or li)1o.'ha
in live ciltf'reril spccies gro\ inmu l'sernrih a girdenis.
odrirngor
1969) idntifiecd 8) varietics onl the Nelarnesian island (il' Moila.
Farmers of the villaLge of -rec I lill,
SiturlaleC in the riin', highlands of'St. Ann
Parish illnortheastern JamliCal. cltialte .vcIlIv. \\lite. and pUrI-le-lleshcd va
rieties of the cush-cish ani (I). ( 'lawsm. unpuhl. ) lie value and frrtion o
each color cultivar is hased prinarily tiuponi
the t)CRL'Ci *ir:irdriess'
11C thlber's
rather than om dilflirernccs in Icld
or t1a.stc. l'e \eClhc\ cUli\ar is .itldgecL the
hardest and its 9t-rmr matturation periold is fhe longest of lhe 3 \aridlies. 'Ihe \ rile
fleshcd cUItivar nlatures at 8-1 r:
io aid is also class~id as Mard. In CorILrtnst to
the light-colored cultivars. the dark-flesled pur'ple (callld hloe h\ tile local farmc's)
yans are valued for tlher ability to) procc a cr1p inonl\' 6 Ino. They arc
perceive,. io\\vr, as inior
in overall curlt, hccusc of tir
soRltness. Softness
is ad'a irageous inr ccoking because less tie
and fuel aC eeLcired to prepare tile
food. NI ore imlportantly. mxwe vr, the soter purple cutmi ars deteriorate rmich

64

E(ONONI( Iio rAN

[VOL. 39
sooner in ground storage
than do their harder
yellow and white counterparts
are therefore iess valualble
and
for subsistence survival
purposes.

Coco 1anls
The cocoyamn, .a uh/llovomi,,
was introduced during
tie Anericar to the
the colonial period
()d World tropics
from
where it achieved ecxtcnsive
ticularly in West Africa.
usage, par
belbre declining il
recent tiles in the
Pansion of cassa\va
wake of tile ex
CuliVation. Today.
sone 30-40 species
marily in the low to
'
are culivated pri
ium ailtiudes of the

('aribbean islands
American Mainland
and the neighboring
regions. Varieties
range in maturation
period
(National Acldeniv
from 3-10 mo
The Free I fill, Jamaot-'S iciees, 1975).

ica, tarniers, refierred

to previously, culivate
fleshed cultivars of
red- and white
V..usI/lifidiu (L.)
Sch
m
ott (1). ('la%,son, uinpi
based varieties require
hl.).
6 lllo
Both color
to matLre but tihe
black) is rcgarded
red (which is frequently
iore highly owing
called
to its superior hardness
grorid-storage 1lifand resultant longer
lh% kIiCte-Ileshed
coco\anis prodiuce
con sequentlv perceived
larger tubers and
as higher yieldirig
are
than tie red. 13 uti
al
he \vi ite- leshed
iig hoth tle red
cltilhrPers
'ars thl
e
acliie\c an acceptable
security arid yield.
loth cLli 'ars will
balance of
generate new plants
left from tile previous
from tile tndug cm-rnS
gr vinrg Season,
thereby assuring
a co0t1i611011S, or
continuous, food
near
supply Ihroughout
tile year.

'Fhe genus l'

j
consisLs of'aproximatel
vli]'ars I., tile conlnli
150 species of wilich
heall, anrd P).
two, p.

'
1 L1 .%
widely by traditional
, tile liila bean, are
tropical agi-iculturists
cultivated
L,t llspecies occur
conceivable color,
in nearly every
size, and lergth of
growing season. Color
sced testa, but also
varies rot only 1y
bv pod when ripe.
lea\cs, steni, and
Vavilov, 1951 ). Th
flowers (Smartt, 19'69;
roLighotit n lucli of
tle tropics, ')alis
fruit rather than
arc

gro 1 for tie

to
caten
sown~~~
dried

~ be1uenltleen
~ arinlfttoe-N
theoytl
tender pod stage.
sown are let to dryL
"'orveq
a varieti
uerit lv. all
llaites
iti the crnd of the
growinrig season and
di i.rences are utilized,
maturation period

nflich as maize arid

other grains,
as a
means efensuring

a Ciaiiplete harvest.
In cooler, highlan
d
/ones, one advanitage
of Sowing n ilt
LI.ieven gerrllinalion
icolored beans is
rates of (iflerent
tie
seeds. SiliCt
the arrival
the early S Illier
and frdluiency of

rains is gCneralli
erratic,
ofdillering color, can
traditional Ih rmers.
beiter assure the survival
plaItlg seeds

of some olte varieties

increase ie level
ard thus

of harvest security.
Kaplan 1198 1) found
gerrilation periods
little difkrence in
aili!n color varieties
at 31 0C, but at boti
that \white, bav, and
160 alrd 2 ITC noted
black aricties coysistertly
colored cultivars.
germinated faster
The conil tUnd popularity
than red or tanofhblack or dark-coated
OLIt lalin Anerica
nlay be,al t!ihbLlable
l -Iris through
ifr part Io higher gerniination
greater resistanceto
bean weevil (elrglund-lricher
rat's and to
arid fnificher, 1976),
as to taste and aestlietic
as well
considerations.
\Vli,C not dilririg
in seed characters,
clinibhing beaus tend
maturation period
to have a longer
and sig.i-ificantly higher
yields t1han bush lforms
Gentry, 1969). Owing,
(Kaplan, 1981;
perhaps, to tile greater
yields of tile climbing
forms and

19851

('LAWSON: SECURITY & )IVERSITY

65

also to the adequate supply of cmpland prior to the conversion of much of itinto
pasture by the Spaniards and Portuguese, pre-(olunibian American Indians cul
tivated mostly vining bean foirms ((lawson and (Crist, I182; Patifio, 1963). Bush
forms have become increasingly dominant in recent times owing to their shorter,
more Uniform Ma Ituration periods anl reduced space requirements, qualities well
suited to plow agricultUme.
Parsons (1968) collected 40 bean varieties in Antioq uia and ('aldas and noted
that tihe bush forms were called cuarcnianos from the belief that they maltnrc ill
40 days (actual average was 60-90 days) and that the climbing forms, called
tjui'os, requi -edas long as 6 mo to mature. It flrt her observed that the rapidly
maturing bush forms tended to be dark colored, especially red, while the later
m'Ituring, cli mltilng beans Were lighter toned with yellows predominating. By
utiliing both the early, dark-colored bush cultivars and the light-colored climhing
beans, a farler can distribute more evcnly his harvest labor requireriIlmets as well
as provide increased security for his family. Si ilar advantages are reali,'ed by
farimers of the high comntry around Lake Kivu, Africa. who cultivate as many as
(onies, 1959, p. 92), and the
10 varieties of It.vul'arv -in one small plot)'
of beans ... in the same
varieties
"several
plant
Zinancantecos of Mexico who
holes with the maize" (Vogt, 1970. p. 54).
( ()N('lI JS( )NS

Faced with the necessity of assuring his survival, the traditional agriculturist

utilizes a wide array of both the interspecific and the intraspecilic genetic resources
1) Law of Homologous Variation suggests that color
at his disposal. Vaviloy's ()195
variation is a characteristic of all staple lod crops. ('utivars of varying color
often have distinct maturation periods and ar,.vwidel y used in traditional tropical
agriculture as harvest-security nechanismns.
Illa time of rapidly increasing population. recent attempts to expand world
food output have focusecd on tile diflusion of so-called "'GrCreen Rcvolulion'' tech
nologies to tile peasan t f;armers of the t 'opics.. ni integraIl lemrnt of these de
veiopment packages is seeds or cuttings of an allegedly high-yielding variety of
he staple fRn mccrop of the region. AIthough nulmerus test varieties are developed
by the project plant breeders, we all too often oler a very limited selection (Ire
uuirlvl onll one \ allie ) of'rilllo\ ctlsccds to tlhe polcillial ilnovator raIher than
a collection of many varieties of varying colors and maturation periods. This
approach is necessitated by the pressures for quick results. Often, however, the
actual results are rejection by the intended beneficiaries of the efl'ort. In addition
to the fact that the so-called, high-yielding variety is not in frequentv lower yielcing
than the native \aricties (InsliluLt tiC ('iCncia y lechinologia Agricolas. 1980;
Clawson arid i10y,

179). the single-cultivar approach fails to adapt well to the

plethora of inicroenvironments in which it is sujeccCd (Miracle, 196. p. 23 1).

Nost importantly, the small-scale innovator is left without his all-important sur
vival nechanisl. Ile is left \\itlh fcwer illealls to t\ cenlille 1g,trrlinatiOnr falure
or to provide a constant supply ofr find throughout the )ear. AIthough more
expensive and tire consuming to develop initiall,. greater long lerm acceptance
of Green Revolution technologies is nit'e likely to be achieved through oll'ring
the tropical farmer a selection of ILnIrerouS iiiprO Cd \ arietios of his staple crop,

66
ECONONII(' BOTANY
AOL.
39
each difliering in color and
in maturation period. This
goal
can best be achieved
through the conlinued ;'nllysIs
and preservation

sources of tropical agricilture.

of tile intraspecific genetic

re

I III .i II RI- ' t)

Alldcrson
.
952.
laits
ile. little, Ilrovn. Ilosto.
Barrau, J. 1958. Subsistenc. lai ant
MA.
Agriculture in
Belansi
lernice P. Ilisliop Nus.
lulu, I If.
Ilull.
B l.2 219,
9 lono
i r
223 III1. Suhsistlntc
"iiutlure, in
e
ant Microl sia. Ilernice
1). Hishop Mus. B3ull.
I1ash.,. I). G. I17.
I "" ilN t
At let' larnlrsind
Farming i the Quit()
Ilasin. tUniv. North
(arolina Studie, ii (
aj;1lih No. 8. ('hapel
,ill. NC(.
B3eadle. (;.
I.980. Ill( ;iiicttrN ofleir
lh
Scn. Ani r. 242: 112-I
I
h-ii. hi . (. anid II. lliici'cr.
9.
I(7,,
I
South Allrican wild
.I
1 S.an
(
l' o l..i a/s',rclct
Itllrk.) ;IN;liictsi (if
lit(e
coulini
le(M
ltriisso. W I . 1()S..
ail Fcon. Ht
3):
(;
257-272.
tii
lis sits anid gJnclic
\, uihler bil,, -an apprai,;il
hlrusl. S. I. lQ77.
henri. lol. 17: .1-12.
Nloulttalj I icldl. and
lals
I ni,I pe
,i ,,ls;aIa h'rlife%Philadelphia.
PA.
1..I . ( arner , an d 1 I lum in . 1 8 1 .
n
i s f A nd ea n p (la( agricu ltu re. Eco n.
35: 7(-88.
3o l.
Chang. .1. If. 1977.
1 ropical a;ricultirt,: crol)
diversitr and
intl
op%
$) ' il.
'lawvsin, ). I .. , antI I). R. i
( eogl. 53: 24 1-254.
I07(). NtIjIiijNle.
" clc i:; itartl
'or ili t hat rejected fle
'(ireern lesvilutiin 'me.
J. [con. Soc 38: 7 1-387,
- -. and R. F:.( rist.
Hi82 . s\nltiu
n o" lard-ust palletl ,
aIlI agriculltur l s\stenrmI
. M ount ,in
Res. De)v'elopm 2: 2(5-271.
(io ri'illi.
R. II. I9()9.
he , clris.i' ii,,. .)\f'Ir
Colson. E. IH7u. In
lI IrI .
Irss I ( oni .
good \car,, aid il hatd:
fooid strategits of|self
reliant socitics. . Anthropol,
Res.
35: 18-20.

Correll. 1). S. I1962.

ie Iloi~iio aiitl1 Its \\'ultl I<elaItises.

l-e\as Researcit Vouotlation,

I). (; . i
N r;111.
"7
Renter, TN.
1975. I h., origins anudI ui man. london.
dlominiicalijio l's;lls
ill
Africa
it M. I.. :Arnolt. ed. (kastronomy:
Ihe ,Anthrpliig
of Foodl and FootlI I
hits p. 187-212. ,, hutonl
C'v U. It., I. N. I htale.
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and I'. I). ,\lioore. Ii9
lligeographv: ,At I:ctOlnrgi.al
73 .
and EvoLtionar
Approracl.
Nut%
David. N. 1076. W1 ilest.
N) .
istrV Of 'ork
OI)pN
idpe
oples in North (Cameror
l
(I
J M. .1.dc, \Vet. and
to
t.\.). I m)(), It J. R. Harlan,
A It I.. Slenrltr. ed,
rigins of.African Plant
t)omestication, p. 223-267.
dV Wvet, W..lutir I..Press,,
I l;igiue.
K. F. lie
l'rasada
Rao,.I. if. \thngesli
and I). F. Brink. 1983.
h)i\crsitv i koc'o
m illt t. ra Vpatiu
lp
m
,,
nu
u/'h
['\%,ell. 1 I.. arll I.
n|lt
.
lnt.
37: I s9-1 (
I. l'ol(erIii I
7I . ( spaiiap7 Re"etlemnt
and agrcultiural developml,{
tilt' Neicani trol)ic,
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l:itchlrck (.
StlI lP;u)tlr No. 79)(
H 1l. I lit. Isc ol (
. Ithaca. NY.
ntiuccsorc, Ite
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Intrt icionale
po ur la
tec tioin t +e,(I)htt
iitm. II, S. Pro
it ,, V cgela h.. (jCties
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a
gi ii of Il it t' lllnit n SIea,
bll|+
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tt i
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['( l i t. 23: 55-01)

juIu %I;ii \icr

Sit. .\)ii'nmio ,. Madisil.
- -, J. M. .1. it Wtl, and
W I,

.\. P I . Slcirlc
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19
l7lairt dmelictio
agriculture lit I. R. I
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% . .. 'en er. ed. (Oriins
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1
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')
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I arris. I). R.
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I I planitl (Iuit l ridu)cltiri
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wtst Africalt. R. 1larlan.
in
I.
t e Wet. antI ..\. I. 1..
Stemler, ed.,Origins olAlican
Domesticati n. p. 31
Plant
1-35
i
Ilaiss s ., (1. 1917.
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Hi.'ke

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Aill.
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19851

(LAWSON: SEC(URITY & )IVERSIly

67

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2.
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P~trc/'-Arhlltlit./,
I111i'clli 1:I e~r~
Il'Oh.l H I'irLl%
Cttl(ali.
( -,
iilonlihia.
I llllt
(IC('010111niil. I Ib~~ICiM
glla, ('olltlnibla.

IPluckntii, I). L.,N J II.Smith,

J. I'.'illiai,

( tl)il im~i~ -(':inicht)

t/L~lll,

I10.

and N, I. Aihtll,

1983. (t)
gtrinilaisim
Ctll
iIIIl lrid t L'itlop)i
Il'lill,
N|. S'rVa
I
S;ifi)
19t7().
oi,
tl ll rii'S. S iell. 220: I(6
1-1Nl:i
i,': a nlirt
-I
(1C',\ilk lt'cic

Ii
i Fd (ltl)
[it.S

( 'kIIIrIIII '1I)ii'l l,Ildr-id,

SlIli
I.

'
Plorilies. R. 1976. At'Caii C'ii.ilSli'Ullt..
lollio. blWili Iton il If. l/nt1,1,
hi
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ctoi,
'
and Africaii jce. Iii .1 R. I illl
lii. J.N 1I. ti WrC. i Vt.
.
Ir.
Stez er , ,()rlinls ol"
AIri i 'inI lt lli iil'ilIlni,
11..11)')- 152. 1 , iit(II less I
I
Pursegloe. J XW. I
igit
v.
lo.
lol)l Il ('0 1)S:I )icotsICd,,ii
0 .Wil k-. c . Yoi k, N Y.
Rappailport, R..\
t,7 ligs IM the Aniestor..
\al I li.i%.
h c Ne\ IlsCII, ("T.
Salal ian. R. N. I 14
I lit,
tIistork iilid
S iil lhlliC* of i W
l
lil,, I i ltlRV t,I i ,.PIeSS,

I modull.
Scuddel.
I.
I '97h.* Socill aliililuutl)
iold Ih th'lnHilSiiiil0,ll

ll1mlm i
tinir :lii use

tlopical AIrica : a iLtii

'sltslll,
Ill

iiais
(';1sIdotl\
Irtil
/;
ia./it
J.R I lalan. .1 N J. (itIt. I.. Steltilr d. ( )rigilS 01'
V
et.
and A.
Alrl iil)
Plit l)il 'Ciil i ) 57-3,1
Mnlo i Pihiss. I lie
mlml, I lagi
I
,c.
100
liJ
k luhlt i ll
of
lllt'llt;Iln

Pt/IS,10ll/11

ICIt.ll illetl(101llC11Il
0tl./11 1. J, Iitkkl 'Indt
(i \\ D lIIIhIL'h,
, i'd. lIII 1)0 111 C ' il
Ioniallitl

I- \pIllh
l~ l~it
II
II*
P IaII ,slit IAII
.I
I I I ,1), -1 )1 -.
46l]
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