Define growth in terms of a permanent increase in size and dry mass by an increase in cell number or cell size or both

Define development in terms of increase in complexity, including the specialization of cells

The conditions needed for the germination of seeds are:
1. Water, needed to activate the seeds enzymes. expands the vacuoles of cells so that roots and shoots grow. Transports food
from the cotyledons to growing regions.
2. Oxygen, used in aerobic respiration to supply the embryo with required energy.
3. Suitable temperature, around 35-40C, as this is when enzymes are most active.

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Determining the gender of a human are the last pair of chromosomes, the sex chromosomes. Since the last pair for females
contains the chromosomes X and X, all eggs produced will contain one of the Xs. This means that males, with the XY pair,
determine the gender of the baby. When meiosis occurs, some sperm have X and some Y. the one that joins up with the egg in the
end will decide the gender, if it is a Y, the baby will be male, with XY, and if it is an X, the baby will be female with XX.
Define mitosis as nuclear division giving rise to genetically identical cells in which the chromosome number is maintained by the
exact duplication of chromosomes
Mitosis is used in growth, the repair of damaged tissues, the replacement of worn out cells and asexual reproduction.
Define meiosis as reduction division in which the chromosome number is halved from diploid to haploid.
Gametes are a result of meiosis. Meiosis results in genetic variation, meaning not all cells produced are genetically identical.
Define the terms:
genotype as genetic makeup of an organism in terms of the alleles present (e.g. Tt or GG)
phenotype as the physical or other features of an organism due to both its genotype and its environment (e.g. tall plant or green
seed)

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Define inheritance as the transmission of genetic information from generation to generation

Define the terms:
chromosome as a thread of DNA, made up of a string of genes
gene as a length of DNA that is the unit of heredity and codes for a specific protein. A gene may be copied and passed on to the
next generation
allele as any of two or more alternative forms of a gene
haploid nucleus as a nucleus containing a single set of unpaired chromosomes (e.g. sperm and egg)
diploid nucleus as a nucleus containing two sets of chromosomes (e.g. in body cells)

 homozygous as having two identical alleles of a particular gene (e.g. TT or gg). Two identical homozygous individuals that breed
together will be pure-breeding
heterozygous as having two different alleles of a particular gene (e.g. Tt or Gg), not pure-breeding
dominant as an allele that is expressed if it is present (e.g. T or G)
recessive as an allele that is only expressed when there is no dominant allele of the gene present (e.g. t or g)
Monohybrid Crosses:
Suppose there are two genes for tongue rolling, the allele for tongue rolling is R and the allele which stops it is r
Example where the two mating plants have the genes Rr and Rr
R
r
This shows the ratio 3:1, three of the offspring
R
RR Rr
will be able to tongue roll while one wont
r
Rr rr
Example where the two mating plants have the genes RR and rr
R
r
This shows the ratio 2:2, or 1:1 where half of
r
Rr rr
the offspring can tongue roll
r
Rr rr

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Continuous variation is influenced by genes and environment, resulting in a range of phenotypes between two extremes, e.g. height
in humans.
Discontinuous variation is caused by genes alone and results in a limited number of distinct phenotypes with no intermediates e.g.
A, B, AB and O blood groups in humans
Define mutation as a change in a gene or chromosome.
Mutation can cause variation, like Downs syndrome does.

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Co-dominance is shown when two dominant alleles are present in the same person. Both of them will affect this individual. It can be
shown in blood groups. There are four blood groups, O, A, B, and AB. The ones that are dominant are A and B, while O is
recessive. The allele for A is shown by IA and for B by IB and so on.
This means someone with blood group A can have the genotype I OIA or IAIA and to have a blood group of O one must have the
genotype IOIO. When the two dominant alleles IA and IB appear, it forms the group AB, as both traits show. This is co-dominance. It
is represented by the genotype IAIB.

Ionizing radiation and some chemicals are known to speed up and increase the rate of mutation.
Sickle cell anaemia is a gene mutation, a disease caused in humans, in which there is a disorder in the sequence of amino acids in
the haemoglobin molecule. It results in red blood cells being shaped like sickles. Malaria is caused by a parasite which lives in red
blood cells. Therefore, if red blood cells are sickle shaped, the person is immune to malaria. This is why sickle cell anaemia is more
common in tropical regions where malaria is common. People with sickle cell anaemia, however, die at a much earlier age.

Artificial selection helps produce varieties of animals and plants with increased economic importance.
Define natural selection as the greater chance of passing on of genes by the best adapted organisms.
After organisms vary, they compete with each other, and only the most capable ones reach the age of reproduction, producing
more capable offspring who are best fitted to the environment.
Natural selection can be a means for organisms to evolve, because, since only those that are most adapted will live long enough to
reproduce, the offspring are always getting better adapted to the environment, and they evolve into more adapted organisms over
time, as all negative traits die off.
An example of natural selection could be when bacteria survive an antibiotic. Suppose a new antibiotic is made to kill off the strain
of bacteria, Q. most of the bacteria, Q, die off, but there are some that are able to survive, and since these are the only ones left to
reproduce, the entire next generation would have developed immunity against the antibiotic.

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52

Define genetic engineering as taking a gene from one species and putting it into another species.
Genetic engineering was used to put the human insulin genes inside bacteria so that they produce insulin which can be taken,
purified, and used to cure diabetes. How: all bacteria have plasmids, circular pieces of DNA, inside them. These are extracted and
cut using an enzyme. At the same time, a section of human DNA is cut using an enzyme as well. The plastids then take up this
human DNA to complete them, and now contain the insulin gene. This causes them to produce insulin. This bacterium is then
cloned.

The Sun is the principal source of energy input to biological systems.

Energy flow is non-cyclical, meaning it does not repeat itself, as the energy is consumed and used.
Define the terms:
food chain as a chart showing the flow of energy (food) from one organism to the next beginning with a producer (e.g. mahogany
tree caterpillar song bird hawk)
food web as a network of interconnected food chains showing the energy flow through part of an ecosystem
producer as an organism that makes its own organic nutrients, usually using energy from sunlight, through photosynthesis
consumer as an organism that gets its energy by feeding on other organisms
herbivore as an animal that gets its energy by eating plants
carnivore as an animal that gets its energy by eating other animals
decomposer as an organism that gets its energy from dead or waste organic matter
ecosystem as a unit containing all of the organisms and their environment, interacting together, in a given area e.g. decomposing
log or a lake
trophic level as the position of an organism in a food chain, food web or pyramid of biomass, numbers or energy

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Food chains usually have less than 5 trophic levels because each trophic level consumes some of the energy, leaving less for the
next level.
If plants are fed to animals, and the animals are then eaten, it is less efficient than directly eating the plants, because the animal
hasnt used up some of the plants energy, allowing plants to feed more people.
Energy is lost between trophic levels, as each level uses up some of this energy for the processes of life.

Biomass pyramid examples:

As you go higher, there is less energy

available, and so less organisms higher up
on the pyramids. (Lower biomass)
You should be able to interpret, draw, and
describe these.

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Pyramids of number: represent the number of each type of organism.

Pyramids of biomass: represent the biomass of the type of organism

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Carbon Cycle:
1. Carbon is absorbed by plants in the form of CO2 to form glucose.
2. This glucose is then converted into proteins, fats, and simple carbohydrates (saccharides)
3. The carbon then flows from plants to other organisms in the form of food
4. These organisms break down the food during respiration, producing CO 2 , or they die, and, when decomposed, CO2 is
released.
5. Dead organisms also fossilize, and form fossil fuels.
6. These fossil fuels are burnt to produce CO 2.
Water Cycle:
1. Some of the water contained in seas, lakes and oceans evaporates.
2. This vapour rises and forms clouds. The particles in these clouds may condense to form rain, or precipitate to form snow.
3. Some water is taken in by plants, and lost by transpiration. All remaining water is lost after death and decay.
4. Some water is taken by humans/animals and returns by respiration, excretion, defecation, and the remainder is returned
after death and decay.
5. This water then forms underground water and streams, which are returned to lakes/seas/oceans and the cycle repeats.
Nitrogen Cycle:
1. Microorganisms provide usable nitrogen containing substances by decomposition and nitrogen fixation in roots.
2. Plants absorb these substances and convert them into proteins.
3. The plants are then eaten, and the proteins are passed through the food chain. If not, the plant will die and the protein is
returned by death and decay. The organisms which ate other organisms who had nitrogen will also eventually die.
4. Some bacteria can nitrify, or convert nitrogen into nitrates, which is then absorbed by plants.
5. Other bacteria can denitrify, converting nitrates into nitrogen which is released into the atmosphere.