Documente Academic
Documente Profesional
Documente Cultură
discussions, stats, and author profiles for this publication at: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/287799881
CITATION
READS
151
4 authors, including:
Aditya Chauhan
Satyanarayan Patel
University of Cambridge
SEE PROFILE
SEE PROFILE
Chris R Bowen
University of Bath
275 PUBLICATIONS 2,991 CITATIONS
SEE PROFILE
REVIEW
A review and analysis of the
elasto-caloric effect for solidstate refrigeration devices:
Challenges and opportunities
ABSTRACT
This review article deals with the current state-of-art research and developments in the eld of elasto-caloric effect as applicable for
solid-state refrigeration devices. Furthermore, the current challenges and future prospects in the eld of elasto-caloric refrigeration
technology have also been discussed.
Solid-state refrigeration is of interest since it has the potential to be a light-weight and environmentally-friendly alternative for small scale
cooling. Much research is currently being undertaken to develop solid-state cooling technologies which is primarily achieved by utilizing the
signicant caloric effect exhibited by particular classes of materials. A variety of caloric effects exist including: electro-caloric, magnetocaloric, baro-caloric, and elasto-caloric. Among these, the elasto-caloric effect has shown potential within the eld of mechanical refrigeration
with shape-memory alloys being potential materials for producing signicant levels of elasto-caloric cooling. This article explains the elasto-caloric effect in shape memory alloys, polymers, and ferroelectric materials. Technical parameters associated with the elasto-caloric performance of these materials are discussed. A discussion regarding existing functional shortcomings and future prospects in the eld of mechanical
refrigeration is covered. Aspects related to the long term environmental impact of solid-state cooling technology are also discussed. This study
is aimed at promoting the understanding and commercial investigation of the elasto-caloric effect in the eld of solid state refrigeration.
Keywords: elasto-caloric; solid-state refrigeration; shape memory alloy; ferroelectric
DISCUSSION QUESTIONS
Solid-state caloric effects propose to offer a high efficiency and
cleaner alternative to conventional vapor-compression
technology for electronic cooling applications.
Large entropy change associated with phase transformation in
ferroic materials can be exploited for giant caloric effects.
Elasto-caloric effect offers a bulk, high refrigeration capacity
alternative for efficient cooling under low load conditions.
Introduction
Solid-state refrigeration is generally associated with small
scale cooling applications. For example, it is often necessary
to install an on-board refrigeration system to maintain the
temperature of electronic systems,1 where it is essential to
remove unwanted heat which is generated during operation.
With modern advances in solid-state technologies, electronic
Elasto-caloric effect
It has been widely observed that specific materials undergo a
change in temperature when subjected to a sudden change of an
external field (such as electric, magnetic or mechanical stress
fields). This effect is known as the caloric effect6 and is demonstrated by most materials to some extent. In materials systems
where this effect is prominent it has the potential to be successfully utilised for solid-state refrigeration. The caloric effect
involves either a change in entropy of the material when the
change in the external field is isothermal or a change in temperature if the material is excited under adiabatic conditions. The
adiabatic change in the material attribute leads to an increase or
decrease of temperature depending upon the nature of change
induced. The resulting temperature difference (T) with applied
field is an indicator of the extent of the caloric effect. Consequently, the larger the change in the entropy with applied field
the greater will be the change in temperature. The nature of
external field required to produce an apparent caloric effect
varies for different classes of materials. For the electro-caloric
effect, the polarization of the material changes upon application
of an electric field, and this effect is confined to ferroelectric
materials. In the magneto-caloric effect, the magnetization of
the material changes due to a change in magnetic field applied
(ferromagnetic material). However, in case of elasto-caloric
effect, a change in strain of the material is observed upon application of suitable compressive/tensile or hydrostatic stress; the
details of which shall now be discussed.
(1)
SF SB SH
(4)
SH 7 S [
(5)
(6)
(7)
(2)
(3)
(8)
SB
(9)
equations and kinetics governing transformation pseudoelasticity for uniaxial stress states.49 A study expanding upon the
thermodynamic theory of pseudoelasticity to include the
observed effects in isotropic materials has also been undertaken.50 Theoretical and experimental results have been
compared and these properties can be effectively utilized to
achieve refrigeration.6,2023,36,52,53
Based on the previously described applied theory for elastomers, the change in entropy of an SMA can be described by:
S D S.
{ E
(10)
(11)
Here, 0 is the initial strain outside the (pseudoelastic) transition zone. F is a shape dependent function and T is the range of
temperature over which the transition is spread. Under the
assumption that and 0 are constant and using Eq. (11) in
Eq. (10) we arrive at:
E Ec {
Ec
D {
=
0 E Ec {
Ec
(12)
Ferroelectric materials
Figure 5. (a) Martensite and austenite crystal structures for NiTi SMA and (b) pseudoelastic behavior as observed in NiTi SMAs.
magnetization states are perfectly ordered. However, throughout the material the domains exist in random orientations
within the total volume of the material and are separated by
domain walls. Therefore, on a macroscopic level, a state of
disorder is maintained and a high entropy level is exhibited
in the virgin material.
When these materials are subjected to an adiabatic application of electric or magnetic field, for ferroelectric and ferromagnetic materials respectively, the moments are aligned along
the direction of the externally applied field. Consequently, the
domains are rotated simultaneously in a unidirectional manner
and a higher state of order is established within the material.
Since the application of field is of an adiabatic nature, the reduction of entropy is followed by an increase in the temperature
of the material. These phenomena are known as the electrocaloric12 and magneto-caloric59 effects for ferroelectric and
ferromagnetic materials, respectively. It has been reported40
that a coupling may exist between ordered states which can
predict and explain many giant multi-caloric phenomena
which have been reported.9,13,14,22,5356,58
Recent developments have been made with regards to quantifying stress-driven caloric effects in ferroelectric materials.
Relations developed in Ref. 40 can be used to explain the underlying theory of the origin of elasto-caloric effect in ferroelectric
materials. Due to the coupling that exists between moment order
in ferroelectric materials and mechanical load, when these materials are subjected to mechanical stress, they undergo a reversible
transition between a lower entropy state (alignment) to a higher
entropy state (randomization/dispersion). This can be explained
by considering ferroelectric materials as an example. Ferroelectric materials, being a sub-class of piezoelectric materials, are
able to exhibit a change in their polarization when subjected to an
external stress. This effect is easily observed for poled/activated
ferroelectric materials in the form of the conventional piezoelectric effect. However, it has also been established that an entropy
change in ferroelectric materials is primarily governed by polarization ordering. Thus, a simple deduction points to the fact that
ferroelectric materials should possess some form of stress-driven
caloric component. This has long been speculated and has been
the subject of many theoretical (first principle) investigations,
where predictions were made for large stress-driven caloric effects
in ferroelectric materials.21,54,60 Recent developments in this
regard have been able to successfully confirm this effect using a
variety of lead-free ferroelectric ceramics of different compositions and morphologies.61,62 Most notably, Liu et al. recently
demonstrated a giant room-temperature (300 K) elasto-caloric
effect in ultra-thin films of barium titanate (BaTiO3).61 Liu et al.
achieved a maximum temperature change of 5.5 K upon application of a uniaxial compressive stress in thin-films with a thickness
of 6 nm. In addition, they also successfully demonstrated that
depending upon loading conditions both positive and negative
elasto-caloric effects can be obtained within the same material. A
continuing study by Liu et al. further confirmed the baro-caloric
potential in BaTiO3 single crystals where the application of a
hydrostatic pressure was reported to produce a maximum temperature change of 3 K63; this phenomenon was corroborated
using mean-field theory. However, in both studies the authors
used the polarization change as a function of temperature to
interpret the net change in entropy of the system and this formed
the basis of predicting the elasto-caloric effect. However, it is
thought that such an approach cannot help to quantify the true
elasto-caloric potential of ferroelectric materials.
Figure 6. (a) Stressstrain behavior of bulk BCZTO polycrystalline (poled) ceramic under uniaxial compressive loading and (b) corresponding elasto-caloric
effect observed in the material, represented as a function of operating temperature.
rotation that is associated with ferroelastic switching.6469 Consequently, the resulting effect is an overall decrease of temperature to compensate for the entropy increase, resulting in a
negative caloric effect.
However, if the direction and magnitude of the applied stress
is appropriately selected, it can result in an overall decrease in
the entropy of the system. Upon the application of radial stress,
additional domains are aligned along the material's net moment
due to ferroelastic domain rotation.70,71 This increases the
overall polarization of the system and consequently, the state of
order is increased, as shown in Fig. 7(b). Hence, the effective
decrease in entropy can result in a positive caloric effect. Thus,
both positive and inverse caloric effects can be obtained13 and
an attempt in this direction has been recently reported where
ultra-thin ferroelectric films have been reportedly used to
obtain both negative and positive giant elasto-caloric effect
near room temperature.61
Performance parameters
During the selection of a suitable elasto-caloric material, such
as the NRs, SMAs or ferroelectrics for a solid-state refrigeration
system, several parameters have to be considered. These enable
us to compare the performance of the potential materials when
used as coolants for employing the elasto-caloric effect.
(13)
(14)
Figure 7. Ferroelastic domain switching in poled ferroelectric materials under the application of (a)uni-axial stress and (b) radial stress.
a desired phase change can be achieved. This is often accompanied by a large strain and polarization change. Hence, the adiabatic temperature change in ferroelectric materials is dependent
on the quality and quantity of entropy change that is exhibited
by the material.
The upper and lower limits of the elasto-caloric effect also
define the range of working temperatures of the refrigeration
cycle.39 Essentially, a higher elasto-caloric effect means that the
cycle can be operated between wider ranges of operating temperatures, being able to extract heat from lower temperature
sources and rejecting it at a higher temperature sink; thus
becoming more efficient in terms of the Carnot parameters.
Previously, theoretical predictions have been made for an
achievable elasto-caloric T for ferroelectric materials. A maximum T of 9 K obtained for a Ba0.5Sr0.5TiO3 ferroelectric material near its Curie temperature has been reported.21 Additional
data showing the dependence of T on initial temperature have
also been provided. The study reports that a T of 4 K can be
obtained in the vicinity (50 K) of the Curie temperature which
is attributed to a stress induced ferroelectricparaelectric phase
change near the Curie point. Additionally, a recent study54
details the possibility of a giant elasto-caloric effect, for example in PbTiO3 ferroelectric material, through a first principle
approach. For ferro-magnetic materials, a elasto-caloric T of
5.17 K has been reported in a Fe49Rh51 alloy when exposed to a
tensile stress of 529 MN/m2.22 The observed negative caloric
effect was attributed to a stress induced antiferromagnetic to
ferromagnetic phase transformation.
Endurance limit
The performance of a material often degrades as the number
of working cycles is increased. This effect is known as fatigue
and can eventually lead to degradation of properties and material failure. In this regard, the endurance limit is defined as the
maximum magnitude of load which can be applied repeatedly
for a sufficiently large number of cycles without any appreciable
reduction in the performance of the materials. Clearly a high
endurance limit is vital for the materials as they are expected to
go under a large number of loading cycles to achieve long term
cooling. Elasto-caloric materials suffer from two major types of
fatigue, namely structural and functional. Structural (mechanical)
fatigue is a result of cyclic loading and functional fatigue is due
to reversible thermal stresses. A literature survey regarding
the fatigue analysis approaches for rubber has been reported81
where two approaches, namely crack nucleation and crack
propagation, have been discussed for fatigue life analysis of rubber components. The failure of polymers due to the application
of alternating loads has been discussed82 such as the effects
of important material parameters including polymer structure,
molecular weight, and crosslinking; and the effect of external
parameters such as stress intensity, frequency, temperature, and
environment. The study also included a description of methods
to improve the fatigue life of polymers. The addition of fillers,
such as short glass fibers, has shown to significantly increase the
fatigue life of polymers. Shorter fibers were shown to inhibit
fatigue crack initiation and micro-voids introduced during the
kneading process help to inhibit crack growth. Additionally,
it was also observed that reducing the amount of diluents or
plasticizers during the polymerization process decreases the
fatigue crack growth rate. For SMA materials, thermo-mechanical
fatigue has been reviewed83 with a discussion of thermo-mechanical treatments to improve the endurance limit. Another
study discussing structural and functional fatigue of NiTi SMA
reports that satisfactory performance can be achieved for up
to 106 loading cycles84 with a small change in performance. The
material can be subjected to a high number of recoverable cycles
provided the stress required for pseudoelastic phase change
is smaller than the yield stress of the austenite phase.84 A recent
study by Xu et al. reported that dual phase alloys are expected to
exhibit a better endurance limit as opposed to single phase alloys.85
Their study demonstrated that while mechanical fatigue in
NiFeGa alloys begins at only 10 cycles for single phase samples while a dual phase sample can readily remain insensitive to
fatigue after 100 cycles. This makes a valuable contribution
toward considering the material phase while evaluating its suitability for elasto-caloric applications. A recent study by Tuek
et al. established the functional integrity of NiTi wires for over
400 cycles,73 while a study by Schmidt et al. discussed in detail
the effect of thermal training on the functional and mechanical
fatigue in NiTiCuV magnetic SMA ribbons.86 It was observed
Transition/inversion temperature
The transition temperature in the context of SMA materials,
the inversion temperature for elastomers such as NR and the
Curie or Nel temperature for ferroic materials will now be
described. In SMAs, the entropy change originates from the
phase change between the austenite (A) and martensite (M)
phases. This change is not sharply defined and occurs over a
range of temperature (as in Fig. 4) and there are two temperatures, namely start (s) and finish (f), associated with each phase
which represent the start and completion of the phase formation respectively. A reference temperature known as the transition temperature is used to indicate a point in the phase diagram
that represents a 50% concentration of austenite and martensite phases. This is important since if the transition temperature
of the material is too high with respect to the working temperature, then the heat extracted would be low. Ideally, the transition temperature should be close to the working temperature so
that maximum heat can be extracted. If the heat input is not able
r + s {E
Tg_ t { EX E{
r {EX
(15)
here, 0 = L/L0(T0) represents the strain of the elastomer associated with its original length at a reference temperature; 0
is the coefficient of linear expansion of an elastomer in
unloaded condition; T0 is the reference temperature, and Ti is
the inversion temperature. Using Eq. (15) we can observe that
for 0 = 2.2 104 K1 (NR) and T0 = 298.15 K = Ti (isothermal
stretching) the required value of 0 = 1.067. This signifies that a
thermo-elastic inversion can be obtained at room temperature
with a strain of 6.7% or higher. Therefore, such a level of strain
is required for cooling to the desired inversion temperature,
and this represents a lower limit. Thus, the inversion temperature and the corresponding strain are to be considered carefully.
The inversion temperature for ferroic materials is their Curie or
Nel temperatures, for ferroelectric, ferromagnetic, and antiferromagnetic, ferrimagnetic materials, respectively. Beyond
this temperature, the ferroelectric/ferromagnetic property disappears completely due to induction of a paraelectric/paramagnetic phase. Since beyond this point there is no possibility to
attain entropy ordered state, this forms the upper working limit
(temperature) for ferroic materials. The Curie or Nel temperature differs with material composition, structure,95 and applied
external impetus.96 However, relaxor ferroelectric materials
have been reported which display a broad transition temperature range due to presence of nano-domains.97 Recent advances
in ferroelectric elasto-caloric phenomenon have also revealed
that stress driven adiabatic temperature change in ferroelectric
materials is also a function of material temperature.29,30,32 A
maximum caloric effect is observed in the vicinity of phase transition temperature, whether ferroelectricferroelectric or ferroelectricparaelectric29,30,32; as observed from reported studies on
PMN32PT single crystals29,30 and Ba0.85Ca0.15Zr0.1Ti0.9O3 bulk
ceramics.32
BR
ER^[S
=
H EW^c ER^[S
(16)
11
4@ARhR[T
4@ARPa]^c
(17)
In this case the material is mechanically loaded up to its elastic limit; if the unloading part of the cycle can be used to recover
mechanical work, such as pumping, the COP can potentially be
improved to a value of 11.8 which corresponds to a COPrelative =
83.7%.20 Thus, if care can be taken to utilize the unloading
energy to do mechanical work for the refrigeration system, high
efficiencies can be achieved. The only disadvantage of this route
would be an increase of the lower temperature reached upon
unloading. This would arise due to the finite amount of time
required for the material to do mechanical work and could
result in the unloading curve deviating from the adiabatic path
and a finite amount of heat being exchanged with the surrounding environment. Moya et al. have recently published an excellent article discussing the fundamental principle of the required
and recoverable work for caloric effects in ferroic materials.98
Information relating to the magnitude and nature of the actual
work required to drive the material parameter/phase transition
has been discussed. To assess the relative efficiency of materials
with respect to different caloric effects and within the same
caloric effect, a (dimensionless) figure of merit was used termed
H
a comparison was made for the situation involving similar
amount of heat flow/extraction (Q). Even though it was concluded that the relative efficiency of stress driven caloric effects
is low, this statement was made on the assumption that high
grade electric work is recoverable for re-use in electro-caloric
materials. However, when this assumption is ignored it is
observable that elasto-caloric effects have the ability to reach
efficiencies higher than electro-caloric effect. Further, this data
is only limited to conventional ferroelastic shape-memory alloys
requiring high strains and fails to consider the recently reported
values for elasto-caloric effects in ferroelectric materials. In addition, the generation of high intensity electric fields and magnetic fields require special apparatus while mechanical strains,
if need be, can also be driven manually. This theory has been
corroborated by Tuek et al.99 who describes in detail the working mechanism and performance evaluation of a practical solid
state refrigeration system employing elasto-caloric effects. Two
different SMAs, NiTi and CuZnAl, were evaluated for their
cooling capacity using a novel regenerative cycle. The performance was evaluated with respect to various operational parameters such as frequency of operation, loading conditions, and
operating temperatures. Further, the performance was evaluated
with respect to a magneto-caloric cooler employing Gd. It was
observed that not only do the SMAs provide the necessary progressive temperature change capacity required for room temperature
cooling applications (30 K or more); but the cooling performance
12
|T | (K)
|Q | (kJ/kg)
|| (GPa)
References
22
6.8
0.15
100DM
15
21
6.2
0.13
36DSC
296
12
15
4.5
0.20
101DM
NiTi
295
17
32
9.3
0.65
20DM
Ni50.1Ti49.9
343
28
45
15
0.90
102DM
Ni50.2Ti49.8
296
40
74
22
0.80
103DM
Ni50.7Ti49.3
295
11
Fe68.8 Pd31.2
240
Fe49Rh51
Material
T (K)
Cu69.6Al27.7Ni2.7
308
14
Cu68.1Zn15.8Al16.1
300
Cu64.6Zn33.7Sn1.7
|S | (J/K kg)
8.5
2.5
0.03
104DM
1.5
2.18
0.10
105DM
311
5.2
7.8
2.4
0.53
106DM
NiTiCuV
280
0.5
86
Ni50.375Ti49.625
245.5
14.2
50.96
107DSC
Ni54Fe19Ga27
281
8.4
16.05
107DSC
Co40Ni33.17Al26.83
303.5
3.1
8.84
107DSC
Ni54Fe19Ga27
298
0.17
85DM
Ni48.4Mn34.8In16.8
313
5.9
0.3
108DM
Ni50Fe19Ga27Co4
348
10.2
0.3
72IM
Ni45.7Mn36.6In13.3Co5.1
300
3.5
5.4
0.1
63TA
Ni46Mn38Sb12Co4
296
15
0.1
109
Ba0.5 Sr0.5TiO3
250
21TA
Ba0.85Ca0.15Zr0.1Ti0.9O3
340
1.55
0.25
32IM
Ba0.865Ca0.135Zr0.1089
298
1.4
0.20
32IM
298
1.17
0.20
31IM
0.5
60TA
21
Ti0.8811Fe0.01O3
Ba0.865Ca0.135Zr0.1078
Ti0.8722Fe0.01Nb0.01O3
PbTiO3
640
25
Continued
13
Table 1. Continued
Material
T (K)
PbTiO3
640
PMN32PT
323
BaTiO3
401
PbTiO3
750
|T | (K)
|S | (J/K kg)
|Q | (kJ/kg)
60TA
0.36
0.028
29IM
3.2
0.2
61TA
55TA
44
20
|| (GPa)
References
systems would be realized within the next decade that are ready
for mass deployment.
Conclusions
This paper has explained the underlying characteristics
responsible for the elasto-caloric effect in SMAs, polymeric
materials, and ferroic materials. The two types of elasticity,
namely force-elasticity and entropy-elasticity have been discussed
with the underlying mechanisms explained. The thermodynamic
equations governing the behavior of entropy-elastic materials
were used to derive the respective expressions for the elastocaloric effect. Parameters associated with the performance of
the materials for elasto-caloric cooling were discussed. These
parameters include the elasto-caloric magnitude, specific heat
capacity, endurance limit, transition temperature, and COP.
Some additional background relating to coupled caloric effects
in multi-ferroic materials and its potential applicability to practical realization of mechanical refrigeration has been discussed.
A brief insight has also been provided into the current technological limitations to the successful application of elasto-caloric
effect for commercial applications. Additionally, the long term
sustainability and environmental impact of solid-state cooling
technologies has also been discussed. The presented study is
expected to promote interest and research in the field for efficient and practical use of the elasto-caloric effect for environmentally-friendly solid state refrigeration.
Acknowledgments
One of the authors (Rahul Vaish) acknowledges support
from the Indian National Science Academy (INSA), New Delhi,
India, through a grant by the Department of Science and Technology (DST), New Delhi, under INSPIRE faculty award-2011
(ENG-01). Bowen acknowledges funding from the European
Research Council under the European Union's Seventh Framework Program (FP/20072013)/ERC Grant Agreement No.
320963 on Novel Energy Materials, Engineering Science and
Integrated Systems (NEMESIS).
REFERENCES :
1.
2.
3.
4.
15
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
21.
22.
23.
24.
25.
16
26. Holzapfel G.A. and Simo J.C.: Entropy elasticity of isotropic rubber-like
solids at finite strains. Comput. Methods Appl. Mech. Eng. 132(12), 1744
(1996).
27. Kim H.Y., Satoru H., Kim J.I., Hosoda H., and Miyazaki S.: Mechanical
properties and shape memory behavior of Ti-Nb alloys. Mater. Trans.
45(7), 24432448 (2004).
28. Melton K.N. and Mercier O.: The mechanical properties of NiTi-based
shape memory alloys. Acta Metall. 29(2), 393398 (1981).
29. Chauhan A., Patel S., and Vaish R.: Multicaloric effect in Pb(Mn1/3Nb2/3)
O3-32PbTiO3 single crystals. Acta Mater. 89, 384395 (2015).
30. Chauhan A., Patel S., and Vaish R.: Multicaloric effect in Pb(Mn1/3Nb2/3)
O3-32PbTiO3 single crystals: Modes of measurement. Acta Mater. 97,
1728 (2015).
31. Patel S., Chauhan A., and Vaish R.: Caloric effects in bulk lead-free
ferroelectric ceramics for solid-state refrigeration. Energy Technol.
(2015). doi: 10.1002/ente.201500205.
32. Patel S., Chauhan A., and Vaish R.: Multiple caloric effects in
(Ba0.865Ca0.135Zr0.1089Ti0.8811Fe0.01)O3 ferroelectric ceramic. Appl. Phys.
Lett. 107(4), 042902 (2015).
33. Chauhan A., Patel S., and Vaish R.: Elastocaloric effect in ferroelectric
ceramics. Appl. Phys. Lett. 106(17), 172901 (2015).
34. Guyomar D., Li Y., Sebald G., Cottinet P-J., Ducharne B., and Capsal
J-F.: Elastocaloric modeling of natural rubber. Appl. Therm. Eng.
57(12), 3338 (2013).
35. Pellicer J., Manzanares J.A., Ziga J., Utrillas P., and Fernndez J.:
Thermodynamics of rubber elasticity. J. Chem. Educ. 78(2), 263 (2001).
36. Bonnot E., Romero R., Maosa L., Vives E., and Planes A.: Elastocaloric
effect associated with the martensitic transition in shape-memory alloys.
Phys. Rev. Lett. 100(12), 125901 (2008).
37. Huang W.: On the selection of shape memory alloys for actuators. Mater. Des.
23(1), 1119 (2002).
38. Schetky L.M.: Shape-memory alloys. In Kirk-Othmer Encyclopedia of
Chemical Technology, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.: New York, USA , 2000.
doi: 10.1002/0471238961.1908011619030805.a01.
39. Schmidt M., Schtze A., and Seelecke S.: Cooling efficiencies of a NiTi-based
cooling process. In Conference on Smart Materials, Adaptive Structures
and Intelligent Systems, 2013, ASME: Snowbird, Utah, USA , September
1618, 2013; p. V001T04A014.
40. Melvin M.V.: Theory of giant-caloric effects in multiferroic materials.
J. Phys. D: Appl. Phys. 46(34), 345304 (2013).
41. Boonstra B.B.S.T.: Stress-strain properties of natural rubber under biaxial
strain. J. Appl. Phys. 21(11), 10981104 (1950).
42. Cottinet P-J., Guyomar D., Galineau J., and Sebald G.: Electro-thermoelastomers for artificial muscles. Sens. Actuators, A 180, 105112 (2012).
43. Otubo J., Rigo O.D., Coelho A.A., Neto C.M., and Mei P.R.: The influence
of carbon and oxygen content on the martensitic transformation temperatures
and enthalpies of NiTi shape memory alloy. Mater. Sci. Eng., A 481482,
639642 (2008).
44. Wu S.K. and Wayman C.M.: Martensitic transformations and the shape
memory effect in Ti50Ni10Au40 and Ti50Au50 alloys. Metallography 20(3),
359376 (1987).
45. Otsuka K. and Shimizu K.: Pseudoelasticity and shape memory effects in
alloys. Int. Met. Rev. 31(1), 93114 (1986).
46. Manosa L., Planes A., Vives E., Bonnot E., and Romero R.: The use of
shape-memory alloys for mechanical refrigeration. Funct. Mater. Lett.
02(02), 7378 (2009).
47. Orgas L. and Favier D.: Stress-induced martensitic transformation of a
NiTi alloy in isothermal shear, tension and compression. Acta Mater.
46(15), 55795591 (1998).
48. Boyd J.G. and Lagoudas D.C.: A thermodynamical constitutive model
for shape memory materials. Part I. The monolithic shape memory
alloy. Int. J. Plast. 12(6), 805842 (1996).
49. Tanaka K., Kobayashi S., and Sato Y.: Thermomechanics of transformation
pseudoelasticity and shape memory effect in alloys. Int. J. Plast. 2(1),
5972 (1986).
50. Raniecki B. and Lexcellent C.: Thermodynamics of isotropic pseudoelasticity
in shape memory alloys. Eur. J. Mech. A-Solid 17(2), 185205 (1998).
51.
52.
53.
54.
55.
56.
57.
58.
59.
60.
61.
62.
63.
64.
65.
66.
67.
68.
69.
70.
71.
72.
73.
74.
75.
76.
77.
78.
79.
80.
81.
82.
83.
84.
85.
86.
87.
88.
89.
90.
91.
92.
93.
94.
95.
96.
97.
98.
Ossmer H., Chluba C., Krevet B., Quandt E., Rohde M., and Kohl M.:
Elastocaloric cooling using shape memory alloy films. J. Phys.: Conf. Ser.
476(1), 012138 (2013).
McLaughlin E.A., Liu T., and Lynch C.S.: Relaxor ferroelectric PMN32%PT crystals under stress, electric field and temperature loading:
II-33-mode measurements. Acta Mater. 53(14), 40014008 (2005).
McLaughlin E.A., Liu T., and Lynch C.S.: Relaxor ferroelectric PMN32%PT crystals under stress and electric field loading: I-32 mode
measurements. Acta Materialia 52(13), 38493857 (2004).
Thacher P.: Electrocaloric effects in some ferroelectric and
antiferroelectric Pb(Zr,Ti)O3 compounds. J. Appl. Phys. 39(4),
19962002 (1968).
Wunderlich B. and Baur H.: Heat Capacities of Linear High Polymers
(Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg, Germany, 1970).
Alam K.A., Saha B., Kang Y., Akisawa A., and Kashiwagi T.: Heat exchanger
design effect on the system performance of silica gel adsorption refrigeration
systems. Int. J. Heat Mass Transfer 43(24), 44194431 (2000).
Valant M.: Electrocaloric materials for future solid-state refrigeration
technologies. Prog. Mater. Sci. 57(6), 9801009 (2012).
Mars W.V. and Fatemi A.: A literature survey on fatigue analysis approaches
for rubber. Int. J. Fatigue 24(9), 949961 (2002).
Sauer J.A. and Richardson G.C.: Fatigue of polymers. Int. J. Fract. 16(6),
499532 (1980).
Hornbogen E.: Review thermo-mechanical fatigue of shape memory alloys.
J. Mater. Sci. 39(2), 385399 (2004).
Eggeler G., Hornbogen E., Yawny A., Heckmann A., and Wagner M.:
Structural and functional fatigue of NiTi shape memory alloys. Mater. Sci.
Eng., A 378(12), 2433 (2004).
Xu Y., Lu B., Sun W., Yan A., and Liu J.: Large and reversible elastocaloric
effect in dual-phase Ni54Fe19Ga27 superelastic alloys. Appl. Phys. Lett.
106(20), 201903 (2015).
Schmidt M., Ullrich J., Wieczorek A., Frenzel J., Schtze A., Eggeler G.,
and Seelecke S.: Thermal stabilization of NiTiCuV shape memory alloys:
Observations during elastocaloric training. Shap. Mem. Superelasticity 1,
132141 (2015).
Chon U., Kim K-B., Jang H.M., and Yi G-C.: Fatigue-free samariummodified bismuth titanate (Bi4xSmxTi3O12) film capacitors having large
spontaneous polarizations. Appl. Phys. Lett. 79(19), 31373139 (2001).
Schufele A.B. and Heinz Hrdtl K.: Ferroelastic properties of lead
zirconate titanate ceramics. J. Am. Ceram. Soc. 79(10), 26372640
(1996).
Moazzami R., Hu C., and Shepherd W.H.: Endurance properties of
ferroelectric PZT thin films. In International Technical Digest on Electron
Devices Meeting, 1990. IEDM90, 1990; pp. 417420.
Warren W.L., Tuttle B.A., and Dimos D.: Ferroelectric fatigue in perovskite
oxides. Appl. Phys. Lett. 67(10), 14261428 (1995).
Brennan C.: Model of ferroelectric fatigue due to defect/domain
interactions. Ferroelectrics 150(1), 199208 (1993).
Pan W., Yue C-F., and Tosyali O.: Fatigue of ferroelectric polarization and
the electric field induced strain in lead lanthanum zirconate titanate
ceramics. J. Am. Ceram. Soc. 75(6), 15341540 (1992).
Gerber P., Kgeler C., Ellerkmann U., Schorn P., Bttger U., and Waser R.:
Effects of ferroelectric fatigue on the piezoelectric properties (d33) of
tetragonal lead zirconate titanate thin films. Appl. Phys. Lett. 86(11),
112908 (2005).
Chen J., Harmer M.P., and Smyth D.M.: Compositional control of
ferroelectric fatigue in perovskite ferroelectric ceramics and thin films.
J. Appl. Phys. 76(9), 53945398 (1994).
Tang Z.X., Sorensen C.M., Klabunde K.J., and Hadjipanayis G.C.:
Size-dependent curie temperature in nanoscale MnFe2O4 particles.
Phys. Rev. Lett. 67(25), 36023605 (1991).
Brouha M. and Buschow K.: Pressure dependence of the Curie temperature
of intermetallic compounds of iron and rare-earth elements, Th, and Zr.
J. Appl. Phys. 44(4), 18131816 (1973).
Cross L.E.: Relaxor ferroelectrics. Ferroelectrics 76(1), 241267 (1987).
Moya X., Defay E., Heine V., and Mathur N.D.: Too cool to work. Nat. Phys.
11(3), 202205 (2015).
17
99. Tuek J., Engelbrecht K., Milln-Solsona R., Maosa L., Vives E.,
Mikkelsen L.P., and Pryds N.: The elastocaloric effect: A way to cool
efficiently. Adv. Energy Mater. 5(13), 1500361 (2015).
100. Rodriguez C. and Brown L.: The thermal effect due to stress-induced
martensite formation in -CuAlNi single crystals. Metall. Mater. Trans. A
11(1), 147150 (1980).
101. Brown L.: The thermal effect in pseudoelastic single crystals of -CuZnSn.
Metall. Trans. A 12(8), 14911494 (1981).
102. Shaw J.A. and Kyriakides S.: Thermomechanical aspects of NiTi. J. Mech.
Phys. Solids 43(8), 12431281 (1995).
103. Pieczyska E., Gadaj S., Nowacki W., and Tobushi H.: Phase-transformation
fronts evolution for stress-and strain-controlled tension tests in TiNi shape
memory alloy. Exp. Mech. 46(4), 531542 (2006).
104. Quarini J. and Prince A.: Solid state refrigeration: Cooling and refrigeration
using crystalline phase changes in metal alloys. Proc. Inst. Mech. Eng., Part C
218(10), 11751179 (2004).
105. Xiao F., Takashi F., Tomoyuki K., and Xuejun J.: Elastocaloric effect by a
weak first-order transformation associated with lattice softening in an
Fe-31.2 Pd (at.%) alloy. Acta Materialia 87, 814 (2015).
106. Annaorazov M., Nikitin S., Tyurin A., Asatryan K., and Dovletov A.K.:
Anomalously high entropy change in FeRh alloy. J. Appl. Phys. 79(3),
16891695 (1996).
107. Pataky G.J., Ertekin E., and Sehitoglu H.: Elastocaloric cooling potential of
NiTi, Ni2FeGa, and CoNiAl. Acta Mater. 96, 420427 (2015).
108. Huang Y.J., Hu Q.D., Bruno N.M., Chen J-H., Karaman I., Ross J.H. Jr., and
Li J.G.: Giant elastocaloric effect in directionally solidified NiMnIn
magnetic shape memory alloy. Scr. Mater. 105, 4245 (2015).
109. Milln-Solsona R., Stern-Taulats E., Vives E., Planes A., Sharma J., Nayak
A.K., Suresh K.G., and Maosa L.: Large entropy change associated with
the elastocaloric effect in polycrystalline Ni-Mn-Sb-Co magnetic shape
memory alloys. Appl. Phys. Lett. 105(24), 241901 (2014).
110. Li B., Wang L., and Casati G.: Thermal diode: Rectification of heat flux.
Phys. Rev. Lett. 93(18), 184301 (2004).
111. Mathur N. and Mishchenko A.: Solid state electrocaloric cooling devices
and methods. U.S. Patent No. WO2006056809A1, 2006.
18
112. Hwalek J. and Carr E.: A liquid crystal heat switch. Heat Transfer Eng.
8(1), 3638 (1987).
113. Schmidt M., Schtze A., and Seelecke S.: Scientific test setup for investigation
of shape memory alloy based elastocaloric cooling processes. Int. J. Refrig.
54, 8897 (2015).
114. Houghton J.T., Ding Y., Griggs D.J., Noguer M., van der Linden P.J., Dai X.,
Maskell K., and Johnson C.: Climate Change 2001: The Scientific Basis,
Vol. 881 (Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 2001).
115. Root T.L., Price J.T., Hall K.R., Schneider S.H., Rosenzweig C., and
Pounds J.A.: Fingerprints of global warming on wild animals and plants.
Nature 421(6918), 5760 (2003).
116. Mendelsohn R., Nordhaus W.D., and Shaw D.: The impact of global warming
on agriculture: A Ricardian analysis. Am. Econ. Rev. 84, 753771 (1994).
117. Collins M., An S.-I., Cai W., Ganachaud A., Guilyardi E., Jin F.-F., Jochum M.,
Lengaigne M., Power S., and Timmermann A.: The impact of global
warming on the tropical Pacific Ocean and El Nio. Nat. Geosci. 3(6),
391397 (2010).
118. Miller J.R. and Russell G.L.: The impact of global warming on river runoff.
J. Geophys. Res.: Atmos. 97(D3), 27572764 (1992).
119. Kyoto Protocol: United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change
(Kyoto Protocol, Kyoto, 1997).
120. U.N.E.P.O. Secretariat: Handbook for the Montreal Protocol on Substances
that Deplete the Ozone Layer (UNEP/Earthprint: Nairobi, Kenya, 2006).
121. Ashare Handbook: HVAC Systems and Equipment (ASHRAE Eng.:
American Society of Heating Atlanta, Georgia, USA, 1996).
122. Powell R.L., Poole J.E., Capper J.D., and Thomas J.V.: R 22 replacement
refrigerant. U.S. Patent No. 6606868 B1, 2003.
123. Wong K.K., Yudin B., Bonaquist D.P., and Rashad M.A-A.: Multicomponent
refrigeration fluid refrigeration system with auxiliary ammonia cascade
circuit. U.S. Patent No. 6494054, 2002.
124. Dingquan X.: Environmentally conscious ferroelectrics researchpresent
and prospect. Ferroelectrics 231(1), 133141 (1999).
125. Saito Y., Takao H., Tani T., Nonoyama T., Takatori K., Homma T.,
Nagaya T., and Nakamura M.: Lead-free piezoceramics. Nature
432(7013), 8487 (2004).