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Role of tip injection in desensitizing the

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Article in Aerospace Science and Technology February 2016
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Aerospace Science and Technology 52 (2016) 1017

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Aerospace Science and Technology

www.elsevier.com/locate/aescte

Role of tip injection in desensitizing the compressor to the tip

clearance size
Hossein Khaleghi , Mohammad-Amin Sheikhshahrokh Dehkordi, Abolghasem M. Tousi
Department of Aerospace Engineering, Center of Excellence in Computational Aerospace Engineering, Amirkabir University of Technology, 15875-4413, Tehran,
Iran

a r t i c l e

i n f o

Article history:
Received 3 September 2015
Received in revised form 23 January 2016
Accepted 5 February 2016
Available online 17 February 2016
Keywords:
Tip clearance size
Leakage ow
Endwall injection
Stability enhancement
Transonic compressor

a b s t r a c t
Numerical simulations are performed to investigate the role of tip injection in desensitizing a transonic
compressor rotor to the detrimental effects of tip leakage ow. First, the effects of tip clearance size on
the compressor stability and performance are investigated. Endwall injection of high-speed uid upstream
of the blade is then applied to the compressor with different tip clearance sizes. Results reveal that
tip injection can effectively desensitize the compressor stability to the tip clearance size and improve
the total pressure ratio, at the expense of some eciency loss. It is further found that the larger the
tip clearance size, the greater the stability enhancement and the smaller the eciency penalty due
to injection. The near-stall endwall ow structures for different tip clearance sizes, with and without
injection, are also investigated in the current study. Results suggest that tip clearance size does not
inuence the compressor stalling mode, whereas endwall injection has the potential to change it (i.e.,
from wall-stall to blade-stall with the injection applied in the current study).
2016 Elsevier Masson SAS. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction
The leakage ow from the tip of the blades is known to have
detrimental effects on both the operability and performance of
aero-compressors [1]. In transonic compressors, the interaction between the shock and the leakage vortex is known to create large
zones of low momentum uid immediately downstream of the interaction [24]. Beheshti et al. [5] investigated the effect of tip
clearance size on the stability and performance of a NASA Rotor-37
by conducting steady numerical simulations. Results revealed that
a large tip clearance is detrimental to the compressor stability and
performance due to the formation of a strong tip leakage vortex.
The effect of circumferential groove casing treatment on controlling the tip leakage vortex was further investigated in [5]. Results
showed that endwall treatment is more ecient at a large tip
clearance due to the better capability of circumferential grooves
in controlling the tip leakage vortex. Zhang et al. [6] numerically
investigated the effects of different upstream boundary layer thicknesses and tip clearance sizes on the endwall ow of a low-speed
compressor rotor. They showed that the increased tip clearance
size causes the total pressure ratio and eciency to reduce for the
whole annulus mass ow range. The effect of tip clearance varia-

Corresponding author.
E-mail address: khaleghi@aut.ac.ir.

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ast.2016.02.003
1270-9638/ 2016 Elsevier Masson SAS. All rights reserved.

tion has been investigated by Guinet et al. [7]. It was found that
casing treatment is more benecial for an increased tip clearance,
as compared to a small one. Tip injection is found to be the most
effective approach in providing range extension and is investigated
by a large number of researchers (e.g., [825]): Weigl et al. [11]
studied steady and unsteady injection on a transonic compressor
rotor. They found that range extension obtained by tip injection
is mostly due to steady injection (i.e., the stability enhancement
obtained with unsteady injection was only slightly higher than
that achieved by steady injection). Suder et al. [14] studied the
effects of injection velocity and circumferential conguration of
discrete injectors on the stability of a transonic compressor rotor. The casing mounted injectors which penetrated 5.1 mm from
the casing into the ow eld were located 200 percent of rotor tip axial chord upstream of the rotor. Stability improvement
was investigated at 70 and 100 percent speeds. The maximum
range extension achieved at 100 percent speed was found to be
signicantly lower than that measured at 70 percent. Their results further showed that range extension is related to the total
extent of injection but not related to the circumferential arrangement of injection locations. Numerical simulations of tip injection
have been conducted by a number of researchers to uncover the
physical mechanisms that postpone stall inception and to investigate some of the parameters that affect the injector effectiveness
(e.g., [1521]). Kim et al. [22] and [23] investigated tip injection

H. Khaleghi et al. / Aerospace Science and Technology 52 (2016) 1017

11

Nomenclature
P0
T0
y+

Subscripts

total pressure
total temperature
non-dimensional wall distance
eciency

adb
amb
j

adiabatic
ambient
jet

Table 1
NASA Rotor-67 representative values.
Characteristic

Value

Number of blades
Design rotational speed (RPM)
Tip speed (m/s)
Inlet tip relative Mach number
Design mass ow rate (kg/s)
Design pressure ratio
Design tip clearance (mm)
Average aspect ratio
Tip solidity
Hub solidity
Inlet hub/tip radius ratio
Exit hub/tip radius ratio

22
16 043
429
1.38
33.25
1.63
1.01
1.56
1.29
3.11
0.375
0.478

Table 2
Rotor congurations.
Conguration

Tip clearance gap (mm)

A
B
C
D

0 (zero tip clearance)

1.01 (nominal tip gap)
2.02
3.03

combined with groove casing treatment on a transonic compressor and showed that it is benecial to both the compressor stall
margin and its peak adiabatic eciency. The effect of tip water
injection on the stability of a high speed compressor rotor was
studied by Luo et al. [25]. It was found that water injection can
be competitive to tip air injection in stability enhancement. Although tip injection has been extensively studied, investigations
concerning its role in eliminating the effects of tip clearance size
are seldom reported in the open literature.
The main objective of the current study is to understand the
impact of endwall injection in desensitizing a high-speed compressor to the detrimental effects of tip clearance ow. The three dimensional CFD code, CFX, has been employed to numerically solve
the compressible NavierStokes equations around a NASA Rotor-67.
2. Conguration
The test case is a NASA Rotor-67, designed and tested at NASA
Lewis Research Center. Table 1 gives the characteristic values for
this high-speed rotor [26]. In order to study the effect of tip clearance size on the stability of the test case, four rotor geometries
having different tip clearance sizes were generated which are listed
in Table 2. Furthermore, an annular casing mounted injector was
placed upstream of the blade in each conguration. The injection
port is roughly 15.5 mm in width and is designed to inject high
speed air with a radial angle equivalent to 20 degrees relative to
the casing wall, as shown in Fig. 1. Finally, it should be noted that
the center of the injection port is located at roughly 25% tip axial
chord upstream of the blade leading-edge.
3. Numerical details
The computational grid, which is generated by using AnsysTurboGrid and ICEM-CFD, is shown in Fig. 2. It consists of three

Fig. 1. Injector conguration.

main domains: inlet, rotor, and outlet. The inlet domain (which includes the injection port) is simulated in the stationary frame of
reference. The ow region close to the blade has been discretized
using an O-type grid, which includes 153 19 nodes (around the
blade). For the outer part, however, the H-type mesh has been
used. For Congurations A and B, this H-type mesh consists of
187 59 101 nodes in the streamwise, circumferential and spanwise, respectively. 40 nodes are used in the radial direction to
describe the tip clearance gap. The grids generated for Congurations C and D are the same as Conguration B, except in that
the number of nodes in the radial direction in the tip region is
increased to 56 and 72, respectively. At the injection face in each
conguration, 40 nodes are used in the axial direction. The grid
clustering is applied near solid surfaces to keep the value of y +
less than or equal to 1 (e.g., near the injection port, which is located closed to the blade, y + varied from roughly 0.1 to 0.9 in
different cases). The governing equations are the 3-D compressible
unsteady Reynolds-averaged NavierStokes. The convection terms
in the equations have been discretized by using a High-Resolution
scheme. The ow eld was assumed to be fully turbulent and the
turbulence model was chosen to be k shear stress transport. As
reported by Huang et al. [27] and [28], SST k can accurately
model transverse injection in supersonic ows. The working uid
passing through the rotor was assumed to an ideal gas. For timeaccurate calculations, an implicit second-order Euler method was
used to discretize the equations in time. Furthermore, the time
step was chosen to be 2.833e6 s and four internal iterations were
performed at each time step. The boundary conditions applied for
the single blade passage simulations are as follows: At the inlet

12

H. Khaleghi et al. / Aerospace Science and Technology 52 (2016) 1017

Fig. 3. Rotor characteristics (nominal tip clearance).

Fig. 4. Contours of relative Mach number at 90 percent span and the peak eciency
point (nominal tip clearance).

Fig. 2. Computational grid (Conguration D).

boundary the total pressure, total temperature and ow angle are

specied. These properties are assumed to have uniform distribution at the inlet. The solid surfaces are set to be smooth and
adiabatic. Average static pressure integrated over the whole boundary is prescribed at the outlet. At the injection face, the velocity
components and total temperature are specied. It is assumed that
the injector exit Mach number is 0.8. Finally, periodic conditions
are used for single passage simulations.
4. Results and discussion
In order to validate the numerical results, steady and timeaccurate calculations were performed with nominal tip clearance
at 100 percent speed. Furthermore, a mesh renement was carried out to ensure the grid independence of the computations.
The rened mesh included 221 73 151 nodes in the stream-

wise, circumferential and spanwise directions and the tip clearance gap was described by using 61 nodes. Similar to the main
mesh, calculations were conducted for the rened case. In either
case, the rotor was throttled from choke toward stall by gradually increasing the rotor back pressure. In order to ensure that
stable operation was achieved at each operating point, the time
histories of the inlet and exit mass ows together with the casing wall static pressure were monitored. The near-stall operating
point was computed as the last point for which fully-developed
periodically-repeated condition was achieved. The time-averaged
rotor characteristics obtained for the nominal tip clearance (Conguration B) are compared to the experimental data in Fig. 3. The
experimental and computed mass ows are normalized by using
their respective choking mass ow rates. As seen in this gure,
the computed characteristic curves for both the main and rened
grids agree fairly well with the experiment. A comparison between
the time-averaged relative Mach number contours and the experimental laser data at 90 percent span and at the peak-eciency
condition is presented in Fig. 4. As observed, fairly good prediction
of Mach number and shock structure has been obtained for both
the main and rened grids.
Similar to the nominal tip clearance, steady and time-accurate
choke to near-stall computations were conducted for other tip
clearances. Fig. 5 shows the time-averaged characteristic curves
(the total pressure ratio and adiabatic eciency) for the noninjection cases. For each conguration, the corresponding choking
mass ow has been used to normalize the annulus mass ow rates.

H. Khaleghi et al. / Aerospace Science and Technology 52 (2016) 1017

Fig. 5. Rotor characteristics (non-injection).

As demonstrated in Fig. 5, increasing the tip clearance size causes

both the rotor pressure rise and adiabatic eciency to reduce over
the entire operating range. Furthermore, tip clearance is detrimental to the rotor stability: Congurations C and D appear to have
smaller stable operating ranges as compared to the nominal tip
clearance (by roughly 19 and 49.5 percent, respectively).
Time-averaged contours of static pressure (and time-averaged
relative velocity vectors) are shown at the tip of the blade and at
the corresponding near-stall point of each conguration in Fig. 6.
The solid bold lines in these contour plots identify the reverse
ow regions. It is important to note that Fig. 6(a) (the zero tip
clearance case) is taken at roughly 99.3 percent span, which corresponds to the tip of the blade in Conguration B (the nominal tip
clearance). Comparing the static pressure contours in Fig. 6 reveals
that increasing the tip clearance size causes the passage shock to
move downstream, which is due to the greater stalling mass ow
rate. As observed in Fig. 6(a), a large zone of reverse ow lives
at 99.3 percent span in the zero tip clearance rotor, which is due
to the boundary layer separation from both the casing wall and
the blade suction surface. In the non-zero tip clearance congurations (Figs. 6(b) to 6(d)), large regions of negative axial velocity are
also observed, which is due to the leakage ow and its interaction
with the passage shock wave. Furthermore, the upstream faces of
these reverse ow regions tend to touch the blade leading-edge
plane. This is one of the two criteria proposed by Vo et al. [29]:

13

the interface between the leakage and oncoming ows tends to

become parallel to the leading-edge plane, leading to the occurrence of the leading-edge vortex spillage at an in-stall condition.
The occurrence of this condition has been reported by a number
of researchers at the near-stall point of NASA Rotor-67 (e.g., [20]
and [30]). It can be concluded that the above cases have the same
stalling mechanism (i.e., increasing the tip clearance size does not
inuence the compressor stalling mode).
Fig. 7 shows the time-averaged contours of axial velocity on
a surface at about 75 percent tip axial chord downstream of the
blade leading-edge. The axial velocities are normalized by using
the blade tip speed. Similar to Fig. 6, all of the congurations
shown in Fig. 7 are at their respective near-stall condition. Similar contour plots are shown in Fig. 8 on a surface downstream
of the blade tip trailing-edge. Comparing the axial velocity contours in Figs. 7 and 8 reveals that in Congurations B, C and D,
ow blockage is collected near the pressure surfaceendwall corner of the blade. It was shown by Greitzer et al. [31] that ow
blockage is collected near the pressure surfaceendwall corner in
a wall-stall rotor and near the suction surfaceendwall corner
in a blade-stall one. Therefore, the above congurations can be
regarded as wall-stall. However, no leakage ow occurs in Conguration A, and therefore, ow blockage is mostly collected near
the suction-surface of the blade.
Injection is activated by changing the boundary condition at the
injection face from smooth wall to inlet. Unsteady computations
from choke to near-stall were then conducted for the injection
cases, similar to the smooth casing. Fig. 9 shows the compressor characteristic curves for the injection cases. The characteristic
curves for the non-injection congurations are also added to Fig. 9
(the solid bold lines). Note that the mass ow rates in Fig. 9 have
been calculated at the outlet (i.e., for the injection cases, the sum
of the inlet and injected mass ow rates has been used). Furthermore, it should be noted that in order to include the additional
work done on the injected air, the eciencies have been calculated by using Equation (1) [17]. Comparing the rotor characteristic
curves with and without injection reveals some interesting results:
In Congurations A and B, the injection applied has not changed
the rotor total pressure ratio (only a small increase is observed).
However, considerable enhancement in the compressor total pressure rise is observed in Congurations C and D with injection. This
enhancement is greater for Conguration D which has a larger tip
clearance size. The adiabatic eciencies appear to have a similar
trend. The eciency loss (due to injection) in Conguration C is
smaller than B. In Conguration D, almost no eciency loss is observed. It can be concluded that the injector capability in the rotor
performance improvement is greater for a larger tip clearance size
(i.e., the compressor pressure rise is greater and the eciency loss
is smaller for a larger tip clearance). Another interesting nding in

Fig. 6. Time-averaged contours of static pressure at the tip of the blade and at the near-stall point of each case.

14

H. Khaleghi et al. / Aerospace Science and Technology 52 (2016) 1017

Fig. 7. Time-averaged contours of normalized axial velocity at the near-stall point of each case (75% tip axial chord downstream of the leading-edge). (For interpretation of
the colors in this gure, the reader is referred to the web version of this article.)

Fig. 8. Time-averaged contours of normalized axial velocity at the near-stall point of each case (downstream of the trailing-edge). (For interpretation of the colors in this
gure, the reader is referred to the web version of this article.)

Fig. 9 is that all of the injection congurations appear to be more

stable, as compared to Conguration A with the smooth casing.
This shows that the injection applied has been able to desensitize
the compressor stability to the tip clearance size.

adb =

( P 02 / P 01 )( 1)/ 1
(( T 02 / T 01 ) 1) +

j
m
( 1)/
out (( P 0 j / P amb )
m

1)

(1)

The rotor range extension (the percent of the increase in the

stable operating range) is illustrated in Fig. 10 for each conguration. As demonstrated, the larger the tip clearance size the more
range extension. This reveals that the injector capability in providing range extension is greater for larger tip clearance sizes. Obviously, the reason is the stronger leakage vortex accompanied by a
larger tip clearance size, which increases the injector effectiveness.
Fig. 11 illustrates the injected mass ow rates (percent of the
annulus mass ow) at various operating points from choke to nearstall. As observed, the amount of injection increases by throttling
toward stall in all of the congurations. The reason is the boundary
condition prescribed at the injection face. As mentioned earlier, at
the injection port the total temperature and velocity components
are specied, which causes the static temperature of the injected
uid to be constant. As the compressor is throttled toward stall,
the static pressure near the injector increases, part of which is
due to the injectorshock interaction. This increase in the static
pressure causes the density (hence the injected mass ow rate)
to increase. In a real compressor the injected air is taken from
the rear stages, and therefore, the injected mass ow increases by

Fig. 9. Rotor characteristics (with injection).

throttling toward stall (due to the increase in the compressor total

pressure ratio).
Like Fig. 6, the time-averaged contours of static pressure are
shown at the near-stall point of the injection cases in Fig. 12. Each

H. Khaleghi et al. / Aerospace Science and Technology 52 (2016) 1017

Fig. 10. Range extension for each conguration due to injection.

15

Fig. 11. Normalized injected mass ow.

Fig. 12. Time-averaged contours of static pressure at the tip of the blade and at the near-stall point of each case.

Fig. 13. Time-averaged contours of normalized axial velocity at the near-stall point of each case (75% tip axial chord downstream of the leading-edge). (For interpretation of
the colors in this gure, the reader is referred to the web version of this article.)

plot in Fig. 6 is taken at the corresponding tip of the blade, except

Fig. 6(a) which is taken at about 99.3 percent span. No reverse
ow is observed in Conguration A which is shown in Fig. 12(a).
Comparing other congurations in Fig. 12 to Fig. 6 shows that the
reverse ow regions are pushed downstream due to injection (note
that each conguration is shown at its corresponding near-stall
condition).
Figs. 13 and 14 show the time-averaged axial velocity contours
at the near-stall point of each injection conguration and on two
streamwise surfaces (like Figs. 7 and 8). Again, the axial velocities are normalized by using the blade tip speed. As observed in
Fig. 13(a), the tip injection applied has removed the ow blockage
near the casing wall, and instead, low axial velocity zones near
the suction surface of the blade are increased in size as compared
to Fig. 7(a). In Congurations B and C (which have almost the
same stalling mass ow rates), the ow blockage near the pressure

surfaceendwall corner has been removed effectively. Instead, low

axial velocity regions are observed on the blade suction surface below the tip. Based on Greitzer et al. [31], this is the characteristic
of a blade-stall rotor. In Conguration D, however, the low axial
velocity zones on the blade suction surface are slightly smaller, as
compared to Congurations B and C. Furthermore, ow blockage
is being collected on the casing wall, especially near the pressure
surface (see Fig. 14(d)). This nding, together with the fact that
the stalling mass ow rate in Conguration D is larger than those
of the other injection congurations, imply that this conguration
might have a different stalling mode (i.e., Conguration D might be
wall-stall). Nonetheless, because stall is not periodic in nature, a
nal conclusion cannot be drawn before conducting multiple blade
passage simulations at in-stall conditions, which is not the focus
of the current study.

16

H. Khaleghi et al. / Aerospace Science and Technology 52 (2016) 1017

Fig. 14. Time-averaged contours of normalized axial velocity at the near-stall point of the injection cases (downstream of the trailing-edge). (For interpretation of the colors
in this gure, the reader is referred to the web version of this article.)

5. Conclusions
The impact of tip injection on eliminating the detrimental effects of tip leakage ow has been investigated numerically. Results
revealed that increasing the tip clearance size causes the rotor
pressure rise, adiabatic eciency and stability to reduce over the
entire range of mass ow. It was also found that tip injection can
effectively desensitize the compressor stability to the tip clearance
size and improve the total pressure rise, at the expense of some
eciency penalty. Furthermore, it was found that the larger the
tip clearance size, the greater the stability enhancement and the
smaller the eciency loss due to injection.
The near-stall endwall ow structure was investigated for different congurations with and without injection. It was shown
that the non-injection congurations are similar in that the front
of the reverse ow region at the tip of the blade tends to touch
the leading-edge plane and also in that ow blockage is accumulated near the blade pressure surfaceendwall corner. This suggests
that tip clearance size does not inuence the compressor stalling
mode by itself. However, having a tip gap size not being very large
(Congurations B and C in the current study), the tip injection applied was found to effectively remove the ow blockage near the
pressure surface at the near-stall point. Instead, low axial velocity zones were found to grow on the blade suction surface below
the tip. It is concluded that endwall injection has the potential
to change the compressor stalling mode (i.e., from wall-stall to
blade-stall).
Conict of interest statement
I declare that I have no conict of interest.
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