Zoology 141

Chapter 4

Dr. Bob Moeng

The Tissue Level of Organization

Tissues
A groups of similar cells, usually having similar embryonic origin and
specialized function
Histology: the study of tissues
Four general types
Epithelial
Connective
Muscle
Nervous
Tissues develop from separation of germinal layers in early development
Germinal Layers
Three layers
Ectoderm
Mesoderm
Endoderm
Epithelia develop from all three layers
Connective and muscle tissue from mesoderm
Nervous tissue from ectoderm
Cell Junctions
Most cells are stationary - anchored to other cells, basement membranes, and
connective tissue
With some exceptions: phagocytes and some embryonic cells
Three primary types
Tight junctions
Fluid-tight seals between cells
Epithelial cells that line stomach, intestines and urinary bladder
More Cell Junctions
Anchoring junctions
Fasten cells to each other or extracellular material
Tissues subjected to friction and stretching (outer layer of skin, heart
muscle, uterus, and lining of gastrointestinal tract
Adherens junctions - microfilament attachment on interior of plaques
(e.g. epithelia cells)
Plaques composed of proteins just inside cell membrane
Transmembrane glycoproteins
Frequently with adhesion belt
Even More Cell Junctions
Desmosomes - Similar to adherens but also have intermediate filaments
that connect plaques within cells (e.g. in epidermis and heart muscle)
Hemidesmosomes - connects cells to extracellular material with
transmembrane glycoprotein (e.g. basement membrane)
Gap junctions
Allow spread of excitability in some nerve cells, and muscle of heart and
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gastrointestinal tract
Connexons - protein tubes that allow movement of small cytosol
molecules between cells
Epithelial Tissue
Forms superficial layer of skin & some internal organs, inner lining of blood
vessels, duct, & body cavities, and interiors of respiratory, digestive, urinary
and reproductive organs
Characteristics:
Closely packed together
Arranged in continuous sheets of one or more layers
Many cell junctions
More Epithelial Tissue
Organized with apical and basal surfaces
apical exposed to interior of body cavity or organ
basal attached to basement membrane which is composed of basal
lamina secreted by epithelial cells and reticular lamina secreted by
underlying connective tissue
Avascular (exchange dependent on diffusion)
Innervated
Capacity for regeneration
Even More Epithelial Tissue
Epithelial functions include: protection, filtration, lubrication, secretion,
digestion, absorption, transportation, excretion, sensory reception,
reproduction
Two general types
Covering and lining epithelium
Glandular epithelium
Covering and Lining Epithelium
Classified based on arrangement of layers and shape
Layers: simple, stratified, pseudostratified
Shapes: squamous, cuboidal, columnar, transitional
Glandular Epithelium
Mass of cells adapted for secretion into ducts, onto a surface or into blood
Two types
Endocrine (ductless) - secretory products released to extracellular space
(unicellular and multicellular)
Exocrine: - secrete products directly into ducts
Holocrine: product released when cell dies (e.g. oil glands)
Merocrine: exocytosis (e.g. salivary glands, pancreas, and mammary
glands (previously thought to be apocrine)
Epithelial Tissue Types
Study Exhibit 4.1
Connective Tissue
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Zoology 141

Chapter 4

Dr. Bob Moeng

Most widespread tissue in body

Binds together, supports and strengthens other tissues, protects & insulates
internal organs and compartmentalizes structures (e.g. skeletal muscles)
Blood & lymph responsible for transport
Adipose tissue stores energy and insulates
More Connective Tissue
Characteristics:
Made up of three partscells, ground substance, and fibers, the last two
filling substantial extracellular space
Do not occur on free surfaces
Highly vascular (except cartilage and tendons)
Innervated (except cartilage)
Extracellular matrix determines tissue type (fluid, gelatinous, fibrous,
calcified)
Ground substance varies
Different fiber types
Connective Tissue Cells
Fibroblasts - most abundant type and found in all connective tissues
Important contributors to ground substance and fibers
Macrophages - fixed or wandering, phagocytic
Plasma cells - mature B-lymphocytes producing antibodies
Mast cells - histamine producing cells near blood vessels
Adipocytes - lipid storage
WBCs
Ground Substance
Hyaluronic - viscous substance that binds cells and lubricates joints
Chondroitin sulfate - jelly-like substance that supports and adheres in
cartilage, bone, skin, and blood vessels
Dermatan sulfate - skin, tendons, blood vessels, and heart valves
Keratan sulfate - bone, cartilage, and cornea
Adhesion proteins - stabilizes cells
Fibers
Three types
Collagen - thick bundles of protein (25% of all protein), resistant to
stretching yet flexible, found in bone, cartilage, tendons, & ligaments
Elastic - thin branching network of elastin & fibrillin, stretches up to 150%,
found in skin, blood vessels, and lungs
Reticular - thin, branched collagen coated with glycoprotein, support for
blood vessels, fat deposits, nerves, muscle fibers, basement membranes
and organ structure - stroma
Connective Tissue Types
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Dr. Bob Moeng

Study Exhibit 4.2

Mesenchyme - semifluid ground substance and reticular fibers
Precursor to other types of connective tissue
Loose connective tissue
Areolar - semifluid ground substance and all three types of fibers
Adipose
Reticular
More Connective Tissue Types
Dense connective tissue
Dense regular
Dense irregular
Elastic
Cartilage
Hyaline - most abundant, usually surrounded by perichondrium (ex.
articular cartilage)
Fibrocartilage - lacks perichondrium (e.g. intervertebral discs)
Elastic
Bone, blood & lymph
Epithelial Membranes
Combination of epithelia and connective tissue
Include:
Mucous: line cavities that open to exterior (gastrointestinal, respiratory,
urinary, & reproductive), mucous produced by goblet cells lubricate
surfaces in tracts
Serous: line body cavities (parietal) and cover organs (visceral), serous
fluid reduces friction
Cutaneous: later
Synovial Membranes
Only connective tissue - areolar
Line joint cavities, bursae and tendon sheaths
Synovial fluid reduces friction
Muscle Tissue
Provides motion, maintenance of posture, and heat production
Three types
Skeletal: attached to bones, striated, numerous nuclei, voluntary
Cardiac: heart wall, striated, branched, one nucleus, involuntary
Smooth: walls of hollow structures, not striated, one nucleus, involuntary
Study Exhibit 4.3
Nervous Tissue
Quickly communicate between parts of the body, sensitive to stimuli, interpret

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information, coordinate action

Two types
Neurons: generate and conduct electrical impulses
Neuroglia: provide protection and support for neurons
Tissue Repair
Replacement of damaged or dead cells (not possible for nervous, skeletal and
cardiac muscle tissues and slow for smooth muscle)
Mitosis of undifferentiated stem cells frequently source of new cells
Parenchymal (functional) vs. stromal (support - fibroblast) repair
fibrosis
More Tissue Repair
Importance of Vitamins A, B, C, D, E , & K and adequate protein
Blood supply
Effect of aging (metabolic and cell division rates)

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