Lead Paint Removal Guides

SSPC-PS4.
02
62&Z
ADOPTION NOTICE
SSPC-PS4.02, "Vinyl Painting System, Three-And Four-Coatrn
was adopted on October 3, 1994 for use by the Department of
Defense (DoD). Proposed changes by DoD activities must be
submitted to the DoD Adopting Activity: Commanding Officer,
Naval Construction Battalion Center, Code 156, 1000 23rd
Avenue, Port Hueneme, CA 93043-4301. DoD activities may
obtain copies of this standard from the Standardization
Document Order Desk, 700 Robbins Avenue, Building 4D,
Philadelphia, PA 19111-5094. The private sector and other
Government agencies may purchase copies from the Steel
Structures Painting Council, 4516 Henry Street, Suite 301,
Pittsburgh, PA 15213.
Adopting Activity
Navy - YD-1
Custodians:
Army - ME
Navy - YD-1
Air Force - 99
FSC 8010
DISTRIBUTION STATEMENT A. Approved for public release;
distribution is unlimited.
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Copyright The Society for Protective Coatings

Provided by IHS under license with SSPC
No reproduction or networking permitted without license from IHS
Not for Resale
SSPC-PAINT25
ADOPTION NOTICE
SSPC-PAINT25, "Primer, Raw Linseed Oil and Aleyd, Red Iron
Oxide, Zinc Oxide," was adopted on October 3, 1994 f o r use
by the Department of Defense (DoD). Proposed changes by DoD
activities must be submitted to the DoD Adopting Activity:
Commanding Officer, Naval Construction Battalion Center,
Code 156, 1000 23rd Avenue, Port Hueneme, CA 93043-4301.
DoD activities may obtain copies of this standard from the
Standardization Document Order Desk, 700 Robbins Avenue,
Building 4D, Philadelphia, PA 19111-5094. The private
sector and other Government agencies may purchase copies
from the Steel Structures Painting Council, 4516 Henry
Street, Suite 301, Pittsburgh, PA 15213.
Custodians:
Army-ME
Navy - YD-1
Air Force - 99
Adopting Activity
Navy - YD-1
FSC 8010
DISTRIBUTION STATEMENT A. Approved for public release;
distribution is unlimited.
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

Not for Resale
SSPC-PAINT 1
ADOPTION NOTICE
SSPC-PAINT 1, "Red Lead And Raw Linseed Oil Primer," was adopted on April 11,
1995 for use by the Department of Defense (DoD). Proposed changes by DoD
activities must be submitted to the DoD Adopting Activity: Naval Construction
Battalion Center, 1000 23rd Avenue, Code 156, Port Hueneme, CA 93043-4301. DoD
activities may obtain copies of this standard from the Defense Printing Service
Detachment Office, Bldg. 4D (Customer Service), 700 Robbins Avenue,
Philadelphia, PA 19111-5094. The private sector and other Government agencies
may purchase copies from Steel Structures Painting Council, 4516 Henry Street,
Suite 301, Pittsburgh, PA 15213-3728.
Adopting Activity:
Navy - YD1
(Project 8010-N998)
Custodians:
Navy - YD1
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
FSC 8010
DISTRIBUTION STATEMENT A. Approved for public release; distribution is
unlimited.

Not for Resale
W 2 5 9 5 5 3 2 0079382 T30 B
SSPC-PAINT 2
ADOPTION NOTICE
SSPC-PAINT 2 , "Red Lead, Iron Oxide, Raw Linseed Oil And Alkyd Primer," was
adopted on April 11, 1995 for use by the Department of Defense (DoD). Proposed
changes by DoD activities must be submitted to the DoD Adopting Activity: Naval
Construction Battalion Center, 1000 23rd Avenue, Code 156, Port Hueneme, CA
93043-4301. DoD activities may obtain copies of this standard from the Defense
Printing Service Detachment Office, Bldg. 4D (Customer Service), 700 Robbins
Avenue, Philadelphia, PA 19111-5094. The private sector and other Government
agencies may purchase copies from Steel Structures Painting Council, 4516 Henry
Street, Suite 301, Pittsburgh, PA 15213-3728.
Adopting Activity:
Navy - YD1
(Project 8010-N997)
Custodians:
Navy - YD1
FSC 8010
un1imited.
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

Not for Resale
M 2575532 0079383 977
SSPC-PAINT 13
ADOPTION NOTICE
SSPC-PAINT 13, "Red Or Brown One-Coat Shop Paint," was adopted on April 11,
1995 for use by the Department of Defense (DoD). Proposed changes by DoD
activities must be submitted to the DoD Adopting Activity: Naval Construction
Battalion Center, 1000 23rd Avenue, Code 156, Port Hueneme, CA 93043-4301. DoD
activities may obtain copies of this standard from the Defense Printing Service
Detachment Office, Bldg. 4D (Customer Service), 700 Robbins Avenue,
Philadelphia, PA 19111-5094. The private sector and other Government agencies
may purchase copies from Steel Structures Painting Council, 4516 Henry Street,
Suite 301, Pittsburgh, PA 15213-3728.
Adopting Activity:
Navy - YD1
(Project 8010-N996)
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Custodians:
Navy - YD1
FSC 8010
unlimited.

Not for Resale
LEAD PAINT REMOVAL GUIDES:

SUPPLEMENT TO VOLUME 2
SSPC
GUIDE 61 (CON)
Guide for Containing Debris Generated

During Paint Removal Operations
and
SSPC
GUIDE 71 (DIS)
Guide for the Disposai of Lead-Contaminated Surface

Preparation Debris
STEEL STRUCTURES
SSPC 92-07
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Not for Resale
SSPC T I T L E S S Y S T E M 91 W 8b79LiO 0003359 T82

~
~~
DISCLAIMER
These specifications, guides and recommendations
have been developed in accordance with voluntary consensus procedures by SSPC Advisory Committees and
are believed to present good current practice. They are
monitored and revised as practices improve, and suggestions for revision are welcome. Other methods,
materials, and specifications may be equally effective or
superior. SSPC is not responsible for the application,
interpretation, or administration of these specifications,
guides and recommendations. Moreover, SSPC does
not issue interpretations of its specifications, guides or
recommendations; and no person is authorized to issue
an interpretation of an SSPC specification, guide, or recommendation on behalf of the SSPC. SSPC specifically
disclaims responsibility for the use or misuse of these
specifications, guides and recommendations. The supplying of details about the patented formulations, treatments, or processes is not to be regarded as conveying
any right or permitting the user of this manual to use or
sell any patented invention.
When it is known that the subject matter of the text is
covered by patent, such patents are reflected in the text.
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Copyright 1992 by Steel Sructures Painting Council

Ali Right Reserved
This book or any pati thereof must not be reproduced in

any form without the written permission of the publisher.
First Edition
March 1 , 1992
S T E E L S T R U C T U R E S PAINTING COUNCIL
4400 Fifth Avenue

Pittsburgh, PA 15213-2683
Not for Resale
SSPC T I T L E * A
**
= 8627940 00034L 2 8 7 '1
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Not for Resale
SSPC T I T L E X A
STEEL
XX
8627940 0003420 T T 9
STRUCTURES
PAINTING
MANUAL
Volume 1
GOOD PAINTING PRACTICE

Third Edition
Executive Editor
John D. Keane
Editors
Dean Berger, Harold Hower, Bernard R. Appleman
Assistant Editors
Joseph Bruno, Kitti Condiff, Mark ODonneII,
Janet Rex, Aimee Beggs, Vilma Macura,
Terry Sowers, Monica Madaus
STEEL STRUCTURES PAINTING COUNCIL

4516 HENRY STREET, SUITE 301
PITTSBURGH, PA 15213-3728
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I
Not for Resale
SSPC T I T L E * A
YS
b2794O 0003421 935
Copyright, 1993, by Steel Structures Painting Council
All Rights Reserved

This book or any pari thereof must not be reproduced
in
any form without the written permission of the publisher.

Third Edition
First Printing, January 1994
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IBSN 0-938477-81-1

II
Not for Resale
SSPC T I T L E S A * Y
= 8627740
0003422 87%
DISCLAIMER
The techniques, procedures, regulations and other information presented in this volume have been reviewed by
experts in each field and are believed to represent good current practice. They are monitored and revised as practices
improve, and suggestions for revision are welcome.
SSPC is not responsible for the application, interpretation, or administration of the information outlined here. SSPC
specifically disclaims responsibility for the use or misuse of
any product, procedure or technology or misinterpretations
of any regulations referred to in this manual. The supplying
of details about patented formulations, treatments, or
processes is not to be regarded as conveying any right or
permitting the user of this manual to use or sell any patented invention.
When it is known that the subject matter of the text is
covered by patent, such patents are reflected in the text.
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Ill
Not for Resale
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IV
Not for Resale
SSPC T I T L E X A X X
Ab27940 0003424 b4V
Table of Contents
Page
Chapter 1.O
Chapter 1.1
Chapter 1.2
Chapter 2.0
Chapter 2.1
Chapter 2.2
Chapter 2.3
Chapter 2.4
Chapter 2.5
Chapter 2.6
Chapter 2.7
Chapter 2.8
Chapter 2.9
Chapter 3.1
Chapter 3.2
Chapter 4.1
Chapter 4.2
Chapter 4.3
Chapter 5.1
Chapter 5.2
Chapter 5.3
Chapter 6.0
INTRODUCTION
SSPC Staff . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
CORROSION O F STEEL - SIMPLIFIED THEORY

byF.L.LaQue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
PAINTS FOR ANTI-CORROSION SERVICE

byCliveH.Hare . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10
SU RFAC E PREPARATION
b y H . W i l l i a m Hitzrot . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
19
MECHANICAL SURFACE PREPARATION

byA.W.Mallory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
22
M ETALLI C ABRASIVES
byEinarA.Borch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
32
NO N - METALLIC ABRASIVES
by H. William H i t z r o t . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
45
ABRASIVE AIR BLAST CLEANING

b y J i m Bennett . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
52
WATER BLAST CLEANING

b y J i m Bennett . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
64
H A N D A N D POWER TOOL CLEANING

b y Preston S. Hollister and R. Stanford Short
68
...................................
FIELD SURFACE PREPARATION COSTS

byRobertB.Roth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
75
OTHER METHODS AND FACTORS I N SURFACE PREPARATION

by Bernard R. Appleman a n d John D. Keane . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
78
CHEMICAL CLEANING
b y Melvin H. Sandler and Sam S p r i n g .
.........................................
90
SPECIAL PRE-PAINT TREATMENTS: PHOSPHATING

bySamspring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
98
PICKLING STEEL SURFACES

by D. W. Christofferson . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
104
PAINT MATERIALS
by Sidney B. Levinson and Saul S p i n d e l .
117
ZINC-RICH PRIMERS
byCharlesG.Munger
.......................................
.......................................................
125
CORROSION INHIBITIVE PIGMENTS AND HOW THEY FUNCTION

byArnoldJ.Eickhoff . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
138
PAI NT APPLICATION
by Sidney B. Levinson and Saul S p i n d e l . .
......................................
150
SCAFFOLD ING
.......................................
168
SAFETY IN PAINT APPLICATION

.......................................
176
INSPECTION
by Kenneth B. Tator and Kenneth A. Trimber

....................................
V
Not for Resale
181
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Foreword
SSPC T I T L E X A
Chapter 7.2
Chapter 8.0
Chapter 9.0
Chapter 10.0
Chapter 11.O
Chapter 12.0
Chapter 13.0
Chapter 14.1
Chapter 14.2
Chapter 15.0
Chapter 16.1
Chapter 16.2
Chapter 17.0
Chapter 17.1
Chapter 17.2
Chapter 17.3
Chapter 17.4
Chapter 17.5
Chapter 17.6
Chapter 17.7
Chapter 18.0
Chapter 19.0
Chapter 20.0
8627940 0003425 580
QUALITY CONTROL O F PAINTS - AS MANUFACTURED

by J o h n F. M o n t l e a n d Mary A n n Stephens . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
207
QUALITY ACCEPTANCE O F PAINTS - AS RECEIVED BY THE USER

by John R. OLeary and Garland W. Steele . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
213
COMPARATIVE PAINTING COSTS

by M. R. Sline, G. H. Brevoort, R. B. Feinberg,and S. J. Oechsle
....................
222
SHOP PAINTING O F STEEL I N FABRICATING PLANTS

byW.J.Wallace,Jr. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
242
PAINTING O F RAILROAD BRIDGES A N D STRUCTURES

byRayeA.Fraser . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
263
PAINTING O F HIGHWAY BRIDGES AND STRUCTURES

by R. R. Ramsey and Bernard R. Appleman . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
280
PAINTING O F STEEL VESSELS FOR SALT WATER SERVICE

by David T. Bloodgood . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
293
PAINTING O F STEEL VESSELS FOR FRESH WATER SERVICE

byJ.R.Foster . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
307
PAINTING STEEL TANKS

byW.J.Wallace,Jr. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
315
THE LINING O F STEEL TANKS

by Wallace P. Cathcart and Albert L. Hendricks
.................................
320
PAINTING HYDRAULIC STRUCTURES

byJ.L.Kiewit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
330
COATINGS FOR PIPELINES A N D OTHER UNDERGROUND STRUCTURES

by R. N. Sloan a n d A. W. Peabody . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
349
CATH ODIC PROTECTION

byA.W.Peabody . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
363
PAINTING O F INDUSTRIAL PLANTS

by W i l l i a m F. C h a n d l e r . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
377
WASTE TREATMENT PLANTS

byThomasP.Delany . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
379
PAINTING O F COKE A N D STEEL PLANTS

by Arthur R. Thompson and S. C. Frye . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
390
PETROLEUM REFINERY COATINGS

byW.E.Stanford . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
396
PAINTING CHEMICAL PLANTS

by J. Roy Allen and David M. M e t z g e r .
412
.........................................
PAINTING PULP AND PAPER MILLS

by C. Edwin Wilkins and W i l l i a m F. Chandler
...................................
420
PAINTING FOOD PLANTS

bySteven L.Schmidt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
429
POWER GENERATION FACILITIES

b y R o n a l d R.Skabo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
442
GOVERNMENT PAINTING PRACTICES

by Richard W. Drisko and H o w a r d G. Lasser
....................................
448
TRAINING PROGRAMS FOR PAINTING

byJayl.Leanse . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
452
THERMAL SPRAYED COATINGS

by S. J. Oechsle and J. N. Childs, Jr.
456

...........................................
VI
Not for Resale
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Chapter 7.1
X t
SSPC T I T L E t A t t
Chapter 21 .O
Chapter 22.0
Chapter 23.0
Chapter 24.0
Chapter 25.0
Chapter 26.0
Chapter 27.0
8 b 2 7 9 4 0 000342b 417
HOT DIP GALVANIZING

byErnestW.Horvick . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
465
PAINTING GALVANIZED STEEL

by Richard W. Drisko . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
481
CAUSES AND PREVENTION OF PAINT FAILURE

by Charles G. Munger . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
486
PAINTING NAVY SHIPS

by Stephen D. Rodgers, Richard W. Drisko and John Tock . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
516
DESIGN OF CORROSION-SAFE STRUCTURES

byV.RogerPludek . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
528
SAFETY AND HEALTH IN THE PROTECTIVE COATINGS INDUSTRY

by Dan Adley, D. Brian Shuttleworth, Scott Ecoff, Sidney Levinson and Saul Spindel
..
538
ENVI RON MENTAL REG U LATIONS AFFECTING PROTECTIVE COATINGS

by Bernard R. Appleman . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
556
AIR QUALITY REGULATIONS

by Bernard R. Appleman and Karen A. Kapsanis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
560
WASTE HANDLING AND DISPOSAL

by Bernard R. Appleman . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
573
OTHER REGULATIONS AFFECTING PROTECTIVE COATINGS

by Bernard R. Appleman and Monica Madaus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
580
Appendix A
ABBREVIATIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
595
Appendix B
DEFINITIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
596
Appendix C
STANDARDS AND SPECIFICATIONS REFERENCED IN VOLUME 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 619
Appendix D
UNITS CONVERSION CHART . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
629
Index . . . . . . .
............................................................................
630
Chapter 27.1
Chapter 27.2
Chapter 27.3
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Not for Resale
SSPC T I T L E S A t X 9 8627940 0003427 353
FOREWORD
new realities. Because the list of specifications in the back
of Volume 2, Systems and Specifications has been enthusiastically received, we have added such a list to Volume 1.
Coatings for structural steel have been called the principal means of protecting our principal construction
material-steel-from
its principal weakness-corrosion.
This technology has been the subject of an intensive program by the Steel Structures Painting Council since 1950.
The purposes of the SSPC are to assess and advance the
technology of surface preparation and coating of industrial
structures by conducting research, developing standards,
and disseminating information: More specifically:
Like its predecessors, the third edition is written from the

coating end users point of view and not that of the paint technologist or scientist. Volume 1 should be considered a companion to Volume 2. Volume 1 was intentionally designed
to include some duplication between chapters. This tends
to make each chapter as complete as possible for the industry being covered, to present shades of opinion with regard
to various controversial matters, and to spare the reader the
necessity of large amounts of cross-referencing. When such
cross-referencing is necessary, however, it is expedited by
the detailed Index, Glossary, Table of Contents and Specification list. Each chapter attempts to be a balanced presentation in which each author has been given the benefit of the
viewpoints of the outstanding leaders in his particular
specialty, usually representing buyer, supplier, applicator,
manufacturer, contractor, maintenance engineer and
engineer-architect. The focus, of course, has been on coatings for structural steel rather than factory-applied enamels.
1. To instigate and carry on laboratory and field investigations of techniques to mitigate corrosion through the use of
protective coatings;
2. To develop standards, specifications, and guides covering techniques and materials of surface preparation and coating of structures; and
3. To organize and communicate information intended to further improve and make more effective the protection of industrial structures.
I. THE THIRD EDITION

The first undertaking of the Council was the preparation
of Volume 1 of the Steel Structures Painting Manual. It has
been revised since then to incorporate new information. This
third edition of Volume 1, Good Painting Practice is primarily an editorial revision and update. A complete technical revision of the volume will take several years. In the interim,
several chapters have been added and several have been
revised to reflect changes in the industrial painting industry
since 1982.
II. ABOUT THE SSPC

The SSPC is a professional technical society whose
primary objective remains to improve the technology and
practice of protecting structures through the application of
coatings. Headquarters and laboratories of the SSPC are located in Pittsburgh. SSPC membership is open to both individuals and organizations, but SSPC services are not
restricted to its membership. These services include consensus standards developed by technical committees, to help
industry define and use good painting practice, a wide range
of publications, and annual national conference and specialty
conferences and tutorials offered throughout the year.
SSPCs laboratory evaluates new materials and application
techniques and develops procedures for coating performance
evaluation and surface characterization. SSPCs Painting
Contractor Certification Program (PCCP) is a national, prequalification service developed for facility owners who hire
contractors. The PCCP confirms that an industrial painting
contractor has met the standards for quality set forth in
SSPC-QP-1, Standard Procedure for Evaluating Qualifications of Painting Contractors: Field Application to Complex
Structures.
One of the most important changes since that time has

been the increased attention health and safety and environmental regulators have focused on the industry. In addition
to their other duties, specifiers and users must now be
familiar with hazardous waste, air pollution control and other
regulations. Worker safety has also become a concern. In
recognition of the increased importance of these issues to
painting concerns, an environmental chapter and a health
and safety chapter have been added to the third edition.
Concern about environmental and health effects has also
led to major changes in the kinds of paint the industry uses.
Lead- and chromate-based paints, once a mainstay of the
industry, are being rejected in favor of less toxic paints. Most
military and federal specifications for lead- and chromatebased paints have been canceled. SSPC has recently proposed to withdraw its specifications for lead-based paint and
is re-examining specifications for paints containing chromate
pigments. At the same time, paints are being reformulated
to meet air pollution control requirements, and the recent
amendments to the Clean Air Act will accelerate this process.
The tables in this volume have been revised in light of these
111. ORGANIZATION
The affairs of the Steel Structures Painting Council are
managed by a Board of Governors composed of sixteen (16)
elected members, a non-voting Secretary and Treasurer, and
additional ex-officio members appointed by the President.
The board of Governors annually elects a five-person Execu--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

VIII
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ft
m 8627940 0003428
tive Committee, consisting of the President, President-Elect,

Vice President, and two additional members from the Board
of Governors.
The 6-member Standards Review Committee determines
whether a standard is consistent with the Bylaws, mission
and overall best interests of SSPC and the industry before
the standard is sent to the Board of Governors for approval.
The Executive Committee of the Board of Governors
is responsible for the policy matters of the Council. It is elected annually, and is currently made up of the following:
R . Dale Atkinson
John F. Montle
William M. Medford
Bernie Beethe
R. Wayne Beason
Bernie Appleman
Barbara Fisher
Brock Enterprises, Inc.

Carboline
North Carolina
Department of
Transportation
Texas Eastman
Company
American Steel &
Aluminum Co., Inc.
SSPC
SSPC
President
President-Elect
Vice President
Secretary (Ex Officio)

Treasurer (Ex Officio)
The following also served as members of the Board of

Governors at the time of publication:
Fred Beckmann
Joseph L. Buerger
Ed Darrimon
Tom Dunkin, II
Marcel M. Gaschke
E. Crone Knoy
Richard Lavergne
Michael J. Masciale
Mark S. Schilling
Steven L. Schmidt
Kenneth A. Trimber
Charles H . Wyatt
The American Institute

of Steel Construction
Procter & Gamble
Company
Bay Area Coating
Consulting Co
Dunkin and Bush
CIBA-GEIGY
(Ex Officio)
Tank Industry
Consultants, Inc
Transocean Anticorrosion, Inc
Valspar Corporation
Unocal Corporation
Porter International
KTA-Tator
Enviro-Air Corporation
Technical Committees are standing or ad-hoc groups assigned to address a specific or general technical topic within the scope of SSPC. Activities of technical committees
include developing consensus standards and providing forums for exchange of information on pertinent technical issues. Technical committees are open to those interested in
participating in the above activities, including members and
non-members of SSPC.
COMMITTEES AND CHAIRMEN
(1993)
Name
COATING MATERIALS
Chair
c.1
c.1.0
c.1.1
C . l . l .a
C.l.1.b
C . l . l .c
Coatings Steering
Zinc-Rich (Unit)
ZR Performance Specs (inactive)
ZR Topcoating Systems
ZR Preconstruction Primers (inactive)
Mary McKnight
Dan Griffin
Gerald Evarts
Gary Tinklenberg
John Peart
Number

2T
c.1.2
C.1.2.a
C.1.2.b
METALLIC COATINGS
Painting Galvanized Steel
Thermal Spray (Metallizing)
c.1.2.c
Shop-Applied Zinc (inactive)
C.1.3
C.1.3.a
C.1.3.b
c.1.3.c
C.1.3.d
C.1.3.d.l
C.1.3.e
C.1.3.f
C.1.3.g
C.1.3.h
SOLVENTBORNECOATINGS
Coal Tar Epoxy (inactive)
Chlorinated Rubber (inactive)
Epoxy Polyamide (inactive)
Polyurethanes
Thick Film Polyurethanes
Vinyls (inactive)
Silicone-Containing Coatings (inactive)
Alkyds
LOW-VOCAlkyds
c.1.4
C.1.4.a
C.1.4.b
C.1.4.c
WATERBORNE COATINGS
Waterborne Epoxies
Water Miscible Coatings
Latex Coatings
C.1.5
C.1.5.a
C.1.5.b
C.1.5.c
C.1.5.d
C.1.5.e
C.1.6
C.1.6.a
C.1.6.b
C.1.6.c
SPECIAL USE COATINGS

Aluminum-Pigmented Coatings
Marine Coatings
Weathering Steel coatings (inactive)
Surface Tolerant Coatings
Coatings Under Fireproofing (inactive)
Coatings & Linings for Concrete
Concrete Coatings
Floor Toppings for Concrete
Coatings For Secondary
Containment
c.2
-
SURFACE PREPARATION
c.2.0
c.2.1
c.2.2
C.2.3
C.2.4
Surface Preparation Steering

Abrasives
Abrasive Blast Cleaning (inactive)
Power Tool Cleaning
Wet Blast Cleaning
C.2.5
C.2.6
C.2.7
C.2.7.a
Visual Standards
Industrial Blast Cleaning
Soluble Salt Contamination
Chloride Extraction
g&3
APPLICATION, INSPECTION, AND QUALITY CONTROL
C.3.0
C.3.1
C.3.2
c.3.3
Application Steering
Application Methods
Paint Thickness Measurement
Inspection
c.3.4
Quality Assurance
c.3.5
Applicator Pre-Qualification
METHODS FOR IMPROVED PERFORMANCE
C.4.1
C.4.2
c.4.3
c.4.4
Maintenance Painting
Performance Evaluation
New Specifying Methods (inactive)
Economics
IX
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Dick Drisko
Joe Butler
AI Kay
AI Roebuck
AI Beitelman
Dick Wakefield
Dean Berger
Dick Hergenrother
Jeff Jarboe
Bill Johnson
Clive Coady
Susan Simpson
Marcel Gaschke
Richard Benton
Bob Washburne
Dave Watson
Steve Delich
Steve Draskovich
Gary Tinklenberg
Tim Race
Tim Leise
Tim Leise
Bob Ketterlin
Tim Hyde
Alan Holub
Ken Trimber
Bill Hitzrot
Duane Bloemke
Jerry Woodson
Lydia Frenzel
Ken Trimber
Ken Trimber
Simon Boocock
William Johnson
TBA
TEA
Forrest Couch
Dean Berger
Dick Drisko
Nick Kozuska
Stan Gillard
Ralph Trallo
Eric Kline
TEA
Mary McKnight
AI Roebuck
Gordon Brevoort
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SSPC T I T L E f A
SSPC T I T L E m A
**
8 b 2 7 9 4 0 0003429 1 2 6
Bridge Painting Research

Protective Linings
Tank Painting (inactive)
Pulp & Paper Industry
Accelerated Testing
c.5
-
ENVIRONMENTAL, HEALTH AND SAFETY COMPLIANCE
C.5.0
C.5.1
Environmental, Health and Safety Steering

Safety and Health
C.5.1 .a
C.5.l.b
C.5.1.c
C.5.l.d
C.5.1 .e
C.5.1.f
C.5.2
c.5.3
c.5.4
C.5.4.a
Worker Protection Task Group (TG)

Guidelines for Contract Documents
Respiratory Protection TG
Safety and Health Guideline TG
Technical Peer Review
Lighting in Containment TG
Regulations & Litigation
Hazardous Paint Removal
and Disposal
Lead Paint Containment
Lead Paint Disposal
Ambient Air Monitoring for Lead
Paint Abatement
VOC Performance
Reg-Neg Task Group
C.6
-
EDUCATION AND CERTIFICATION
C.6.0
C.6.1
C.6.2
Education & Certification Steering

Education Main
Education Objectives &
Curriculum Review
Certification Requirements
PCCP Advisory
Local Chapter Education Policy
Local and National Painter
ComDetitions
C.5.3.a
C.5.3.b
C.5.3.d
C.6.4
C.6.3
C.6.5
C.6.6
ADMINISTRATIVE
C.A.l
C.A.2
C.A.4
Local Chapters
National Conferences
Volume 1 Revision
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
C.A
-
IV. PUBLICATIONS
John Peart
Wallace Cathcart
c.4.5
C.4.6
c.4.7
C.4.8
c.4.9
The Council makes available the results of its research,

surveys and specifications work in a wide range of reports,
manuals, conference proceedings and training videotapes
which are listed in its publications sheet and which include,
in addition to Volumes 1 and 2, the following:
Dennis Justice
Simon Boocock
Dan Adley
Dan Adley
Scott Ecoff
Richard Thompson
Bill Dixon
Frank Pokrwyka
Doug Stephens
Richard C. Miller
James A. Giese
John Baker
Individual specifications from Volume 2 on surface

preparation, painting systems, paints, application, safety,
thickness and maintenance;
Photographic standards for surface preparation and
degree of rusting;
SSPC National Conference proceedings, covering
protective coatings, surface preparation and compliance
with environmental and health and safety regulations;
Reports on laboratory and full coating performance
evaluation, influence of soluble salts, accelerated testing and maintenance of weathering steel;
Lead paint removal manuals, conference proceeding and reports;
Video tape training on Abrasives, Protective Coatings, and Application.
Lloyd Smith
Ken Trimber
Lloyd Smith
Vincent Coluccio
Bob Klepser
Bob Klepser
Steve Pinney
Steve Pinney
Bernard Appleman
John Keane
Dean Berger
Harold Hower
September 1993
Harold Hower
Ron Hayden
Ralph Trallo
Mark Schilling
Richard LaVergne
Ed Feige1
Rose Mary Surgent
Terry Sowers
NACEISSPC JOINT TASK GROUPS

SSPC/NACE TG A
Abrasive Blasting
NACEISSPC TG B
SSPCINACE TG C
SSPCINACE TG D
Thermal Cleaning
Wet Abrasive Blasting
Water Jetting
SSPCINACE TG E
NACEISSPC TG F
Solvent Cleaning
Surface Preparation
of Concrete

Ken Trimber
Fred Lichtenstadter
Carroll Steely
Jerry Woodson
Carroll Steely
Lydia Frenzel
Sy Solomon
TBA
Tom Aldinger
X
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8627740 0003430 948
BIOGRAPHY
Dr. Bernard R. Appleman
has been the Executive Director
of the Steel Structures Painting
Council since 1984. In this position, he is responsible for organizing
and
managing
operations of a technical society whose activities encompass
research, development of industry standards, and dissemination
of technical information via
reports, presentations, training
programs and conferences. He
has directed and coordinated
numerous projects in coatings performance evaluations, surface
preparation techniques, development of specifications and guides,
and lead paint removal and abatement.
His past work experience includes work as a CorrosionlCoatings Specialist for Exxon Research and Engineering Company. From
1977 to 1982, he was Project Manager, Coatings, for the Federal
Highway Administration. He also worked as a Research Chemist
for the Naval Ship Research and Development Center.
BIOGRAPHY
Dean M. Berger received his
B.S. degree at North Central
College and did advance studies
at the University of Wisconsin.
He has had over 20 years of
research experience at PPG
Industries, and eight years at
Union Carbide Research. Beginning in 1974, he worked for
GilbetVCommonwealth,advising
engineers and architects on the
application and use of coatings.
In 1988 Mr. Berger retired from
Gilbert Associates and formed
his own coatings consulting firm, Berger Associates Inc., of Leola,
Pennsylvania. He has attained specific expertise in zinc rich coating technology, epoxy, coal tar epoxy, urethane, and vinyl coating
systems.
He has been a member of the Steel Structures Painting Council
since 1960, chairman of the Epoxy Advisory Committee, and CoChairman of both the Research Committee and the Inspection Committee. He was chairman of the American Society for Testing and
Materials (ASTM) Subcommittee 0-1.46 on Industrial Protective
Coatings. He is the Executive Director of the Board of Registration
of Nuclear Safety-related Coating Engineers and Specialists, and
a member of ASTM Committee D-33 on Coatings for Power Generation Facilities. Mr. Berger is a recipient of the Man-of-the-Year
Award from the Washington Paint Technical Group, and belongs
to the Gallows Bird Society. In 1957 Mr. Berger was President of
the Pittsburgh Society for Coatings Technology Corrosion Committee, and of the National Association of Corrosion Engineers (NACE).
He is also a director of the Institute of Applied Technology, and a
member of the American Water Works Association Committee D102.
Mr. Berger is a licensed Professional Engineer in California, a
Nuclear-Safety-RelatedCoatings Engineer, and a NACE Corrosion
Specialist. He has published over 100 technical articles and presented many papers on coating technology.
BIOGRAPHY
BIOGRAPHY
de Nemours and Company.

Mr. Keane is a member of various honorary societies, including Tau Beta Pi, Phi Lambda Upsilon, Pi Nu Epsilon and Alpha Chi
Sigma. He has served as director of several civic and religious organizations and is the author of approximately 60 scientific and technical publications and 30 technical disclosures. He has represented
the United States at three international symposia and conferences
on coatings.
He served as a consultant, advisor, chairman, or active committee member in many societies, including the American institute
of Steel Construction, the American Iron and Steel Institute, the
Canadian Instituteof Steel Construction,the Painting and Decorating
Contractors of America, the Steel Plate Fabricators Association, the
Federation of Societies for Coatings Technology, the American Society of Association Executives, the National Paint and Coatings Association, the National Association of Corrosion Engineers (NACE),
the American Society for Testing and Materials, the Transportation
Research Board, the International Organization for Standardization,
and the American National Standards Institute. He is a Certified
Manufacturing Technologist (Coatings), a NACE Corrosion
Specialist, and a registered professional engineer (by examination)
in the states of Illinois, Pennsylvania and California.

XI
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SSPC T I T L E t A t t
SSPC T I T L E * A
Y*
b 2 7 9 4 0 0004097 T30
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XII
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CHAPTER 1.0
INTRODUCTION
by
SSPC Staff
This Third edition of the Steel Structures Painting Manual,

Good Painting Practice, also known as Volume 1, carries forward the mission of the Steel Structures Painting Council:
A new chapter has been added to cover the aspects of

environmental regulations that affect suppliers, specifiers,
and contractors most: air pollution issues, particularly the
recent Clean Air Act Amendments, hazardous waste disposal
as well as the requirements of the Toxic Substances Control Act, and requirements of the Clean Water and Safe Drinking Water Acts.
While worker safety regulations have not grown at the
same rate as environmental regulations, greater attention has
been focused on health and safety aspects of coating operations, particularly exposures to lead. A revised health and
safety chapter addresses the most important health and safety regulations facing coating applicators. Issues associated
with exposure to lead in industries such as the coating industry are sufficiently distinct from those in general industry
that OSHA recently issued a standard specifically addressing such exposures in the construction industry. Those in the
coating industry must also be concerned with exposures to
solvents, safety when working at heights, the flammability
of solvents and coatings and communicating chemical hazards to workers.
1. To instigate and carry on laboratory and field investigations of techniques to mitigate corrosion through
the use of protective coatings;
2. To develop standards, specifications, and guides

covering techniques and materials of surface preparation and coating of structures; and
3. To organize and communicate information intended to further improve and make more effective the
protection of industrial structures.
The first edition appeared in 1954 and the revised issue in 1964. The new edition is a technical update and editorial revision of the work that for nearly 40 years has been the
bible in protective anti-corrosion coatings. Its aims remain
the same as that of the original: the manual is written from
the viewpoint of paint users; it is not intended to be a scientific or highly technical treatise on paint formulation, but rather
a practical encyclopedia on painting methods, equipment,
and systems that in the recent past have proved to be both
economical and satisfactory.
The manual is still appropriate to the varied audiences
using it: contractors, engineers, specifiers, formulators, inspectors, suppliers, technicians, maintenance painters,
users, and manufacturers. Given this wide audience with
different levels of understanding about the subjects of the
manual, it is necessary to present some material in a general rather than a detailed way, although some chapters have
always been more detailed than others because the subject
demanded it.
II. THE EDITORIAL PROCESS

All sections of the manual were reviewed to identify
needed changes. Leading authorities in their fields were
asked to review and update selected chapters. Some aspects
of the coating industry have changed more than others. William D. Corbett revised Chapter 6.0, Inspection. Gordon
Brevoort revised Chapter 8.0, Comparative Painting Costs
and John Tock revised Chapter 24.0 Painting Navy Ships.
Dick Drisko rewrote chapter 22.0, Painting of Galvanized
Steel. All specifications that have been canceled or fallen
into disuse have been deleted from tables recommending
paint for particular uses. Several recent SSPC specifications
have been added, and specification for paints using lead pigments have been deleted.
I. PRINCIPAL CHANGES
Volume 1 is intended as a companion to Volume 2,
Systems and Specifications. The latter was revised in
1991. Like Volume 2, it now includes a list of specifications
referenced throughout the book.
During the last decade, there has been a tremendous
increase in the number and the complexity of environmental and health and safety regulations. These regulations now
apply in some way to most coating operations. Often, many
different aspects of the same omperation are affected by a
number of different regulations.
111. USING THE MANUAL

The reader of the Manual may wish to take advantage
of several features that may be helpful: the Table of Contents, Index, Glossary, Metric Conversion Table and List of
Referenced Specifications. The Index, for example, makes
it possible to find both specialized information on a particular industry, and information applicable to most or all coating operations.
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

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SSPC CHAPTER*L.O
8627740 0003432 710
93
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
scientific to engineering to jargon in legitimate use in special contexts. Proprietary names have been avoided
whenever a term could be described in any other way.
Definitions common to most industries and practices are

given in the Glossary. Even in these, considerable variation
exists within the standardizing bodies in the VariOUS industries involved. Whenever deemed necessary, definitions are
included with the textual material, since terms range from

2
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SSPC C H A P T E R * L - L
8627940 0003433 b 5 7
93
CHAPTER 1.1
CORROSION OF STEEL SI MPLIFIED TH EORY

by
F.L. La Que
This chapter describes how steel corrodes. Because

corrosion is the fundamental problem of coatings
technology, the discussion presents an explanation that
will be useful to those who design and develop innovative
protective coatings and to others who must put into practice the technology of coating systems.
Let us examine first the processes involved in the corrosion reactions that paint coatings will be required to
suppress.
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
achieving this recult.

Obviously, if the metal can be isolated from a corrosive environment, no corrosion reaction can occur. Such
isolation is the most important function of a paint coating.
In addition, some constituents of a coating can suppress
the rate of corrosion reactions where complete isolation is
not achieved either generally or locally, as at pores,
scratches or other discontinuities (holidays) in a coating.
Consideration must be given, also, to the possibility
that a constituent of a coating might actually accelerate a
corrosion reaction.
I. ENERGY EXCHANGE
Experience has shown that corrosion in the presence

of a paint coating is likely t o be much more serious where
it is localized at discontinuities in a coating rather than
where it occurs in a more general attack under a coating.
This is true even if a coating is unable to isolate the metal
from its environment. Consequently, what happens at
discontinuities in a coating as related to the processes of
corrosion requires special consideration.
Steel corrodes in reaction with its environment

because of the thermodynamically unstable condition of
iron after it has been extracted from its ores. Reduction of
iron from its state as an oxide in ore requires energy in the
reduction process. The fundamental laws of nature governing conservation of energy require that, eventually,
balance must be restored by return of the unstable metal
to its oxidized state. In the case of iron (steel) the oxidized
state usually appears as rust. Rust is similar in appearance and practically identical in composition (Fe,O,)
to the most common form of iron ore (hematite).
Appropriate conditions yield two other oxidized
forms, one of which has the same chemical composition
as a principal form of iron ore magnetite (Fe304).The other
is the lowest oxide of iron, Feo. All three of these oxides
are components of the mill scale formed on steel by oxidation at temperatures encountered in the manufacture of
steel into structural shapes and plates. Effects of such
mill scale must be taken into account in preparing and
painting steel to prevent corrosion.
The principal difference, in terms of energy, between
reduction from ore and eventual conversion into rust by
corrosion is not the amount of energy required but the rate
of reaction. Fortunately, ambient environmental corrosion
of iron proceeds much more slowly than high temperature
oxidation. The principal function of a paint coating is to
reduce the rate of corrosion in the environment and the
area of the metal involved as much as possible, ideally to
zero.
111. THE MECHANISM OF CORROSION

It has been well established by experimental
d e m o n s t r a t i ~ n ( ~ , ~ .that
~ . ~ .corrosion
~ . ~ . ~ ) is the result of an
electrochemical process involving an anodic reaction.
Here, the metal goes into solution as an ion, and acathodic
reaction takes place where the electrons released by the
anodic reaction are discharged to maintain electrical
neutrality by reaction with ions in solution, e.g. hydrogen
ions in acid solutions, or by reduction of oxygen in solution
in neutral or alkaline solutions.
The anode in a corrosion cell is analogous to the
negative zinc electrode in an ordinary dry cell battery. The
cathode is analogous to the positive carbon electrode in
such a cell. The current flows in the electrolyte inside the
battery cell from the anode, zinc, to the cathode, carbon.
The electrons generated by the cell move in the external
circuit from the zinc electrode ( - ) to the carbon electrode
k( +). By convention, the flow of current in the external circuit is opposite the electron movement.
Whether a particular area of a steel surface will act as
an anode or a cathode will be determined by a number of
factors. One factor is the condition of the thin, air-formed
oxide films that exist on dry steel. Such films when they
are intact induce a modest level of passivity that makes
the film-covered surfaces more noble than, and therefore
II. CORROSION PROCESSES

Understanding the process of corrosion provides the
key to steps that may be taken to prevent the reaction from
occurring and to identify the role that paint can play in

3
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cathodic to, adjacent surfaces where a less protective film

may exist.
Observations of steel surfaces after immersion in
water for several days have shown that, ordinarily, about
50% of the surface has been corroding as an anode with
the remaining cathodic surfaces showing little or no
evidence of attack. As time progresses, there is
breakdown of the protective films on the original cathodic
surfaces so that corrosion spreads eventually over the
whole surface. But a division between anodic and cathodic
surfaces persists with the cathodic areas at any time being protected from corrosion by currents flowing from adjacent anodic areas.
Other factors in establishing anodic areas are differences in crystal orientation, the presence of contamination on the surface of the steel, and, in exceptional cases,
the effects of stresses above the elastic limit of the metal,
which cause rupture of protective oxide films by plastic
deformation.
Anodic areas can be established also by variations in
the dissolved oxygen concentration of a solution i n different zones on the steel surface. These variations can
give rise to what is called an oxygen concentration cell in
which current will flow from an anodic area in contact with
the solution having the low concentration of dissolved oxygen to a cathodic area in contact with the solution having
the higher concentration. The difference in corrosion
potential that can be created by this mechanism on a steel
surface can exceed 100 mV.
The anodic and cathodic reactions in the corrosion of
iron can be written as follows:
At the anode where the metal goes into solution Fe (solid) Fe++(ion) + 2e- (electrons)
At the cathode 2H' (hydrogen ions) + 2eH, (gas)
H,O
or 2H' + %O, (air) + 2eor O, + 2 H,O + 4e4 OH- (hydroxyl ion)
The hydroxyl ions generated by cathodic reactions
can contribute to degradation of paints subject to attack
by alkali.
Figure 1 helps to illustrate the process of corrosion.
Iron ions (Fe++)released by the anodic reaction interact with hydroxyl (OH-) ions generated by cathodic reactions to form Fe(OH), near the boundaries of anodic and
cathodic areas. Oxygen reaching the precipitated Fe(OH),
reacts with it to form Fe(OH), and, eventually, rust Fe,O,.
The essential requirements for the electrochemical
reactions in corrosion are, therefore, a thermodynamically
unstable metal, iron; an electrolytic conductor of ions,
water or another conductive solution; an electrical conductor, the metal; and an electron acceptor, hydrogen ions or
disso Ived oxygen.
We have the metal that we wish to protect from corrosion. What we need to control, therefore, is the availability
of an electrolyte. This is best accomplished by an isolating
barrier such as paint, or by reducing the concentration of
electron acceptors such as hydrogen ions or dissolved
oxygen.
Ic

E,Y
\CATHODE
FIGURE 1
It may be possible under some circumstances to prevent corrosion by interfering with the anodic reaction by a
process called passivation or reduction of the tendency of
the iron to go into solution. In the case of steel, passiva
tion usually is accomplished by very thin adherent oxide
films which change the corrosion potential of the iron in
the more noble direction (towards gold in the electromotive series).
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Galvanic Corrosion Induced by Passivation

The change in potential of steel as a result of passivation,
achieved for example by contact with passivating
pigments such as red lead and chromates, can create
galvanic couples between the passivated iron under the
paint film and adjacent unpassivated iron at bare spots.
The result would be galvanic acceleration of corrosion of
the exposed iron.
For this reason it Was been proposed that passivating
pigments be excluded from paints used to protect steel
under conditions of continuous or frequent, complete or
partial immersion. However, with no more than the thin
film of electrolyte with limited electrical conductivity that
will exist on surfaces exposed only to the atmosphere, a
significant galvanic effect on a bare spot need not be anticipated. The benefit of passivating the bare spot by a pigment will more than offset the galvanic effect of passivation under the paint film. For this reason passivating
pigments such as zinc chromate are beneficial rather than
harmful in paints used for protection of steel in atmospheric exposures.
ATH O D
-.-
In view of the fact that an electrolyte (water or

moisture) must be present for corrosion to occur, the principal function of a paint coating is to provide a barrier to
penetration of water or moisture to the underlying metal
surface.
Transfer of water or moisture through a paint coating
can occur by water absorption by a coating or by transfer
of water vapor through a coating. Details of these processes will be described in other chapters of this book. For
the present it will suffice to note that penetration of water
or moisture is accompanied by poor adhesion of the
coating to the metal. This permits osmotic effects to
operate through the coating acting as a membrane and
thereby results in the development of blisters. Such action
may be accentuated further by the superimposed effects
of electrical currents created by corrosion, leading to the
phenomenon of electroendosmosis5 with resulting blisters
adjacent to cathodic areas.
4
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SSPC
CHAPTER*L.L
93
m 8627940 0003435
IV. CORROSION AT DISCONTINUITIES IN A

PAINT FILM
42T
EFFECTS OF POLARIZATION AND RESISTANCE

ON CORROSION CURRENTS
As noted previously, corrosion of steel associated

with paint films is most troublesome at, or adjacent to,
pores, scratches or other bare spots. It is convenient,
therefore, to examine the factors related to attack at bare
spots. The most important of these factors is the location
of the cathodic areas in the corrosion reaction. Possible
locations of cathodic surfaces are shown diagrammatically in Figure 2.
The extent of corrosion at an anodic area will be determined by the magnitude of the current generated by the
local reactive corrosion cell. It will be governed by Ohms
law:
1
Corrosion Current
Limited by Resistance
and Polarization
Equation 1
Corrosion CurrZnt
Limited by Polarization
FIGURE 3
where I = corrosion current

E = difference in potential between anodic
and cathodic surfaces
As a result of polarization the original potential of the

anode PA will be reduced by a factor Ap, and the original
potential of the cathode PC will shift towards that of the
anode by a factor Cp.
As a result, the effective potential difference (E) in
equation 1 will become:
(PA - Ap) - (PC
Cp)
and equation 1 becomes:
R = resistance of the circuit

When current flows in a corrosion cell, the initial
potential difference E is reduced by what is called polariza
tion. The potential of the anodic surfaces drifts towards
that of the cathodic surfaces as a result of an accumulation of corrosion products. The potential of the cathodic
surfaces drifts towards that of the anodic surfaces as a
result of accumulation of the products of the cathodic
reactions. The latter is affected by the rates of evolution of
hydrogen as a gas or, more importantly in applications of
steel, the rate at which oxygen in solution can react with
electrons reaching cathodic surfaces after release by the
anodic reaction. In most applications of painted steel the
extent of cathodic polarization will determine the rate of
the overall corrosion reaction. Anodic corrosion cannot occur at a rate higher than that accommodated by the
cathodic reaction.
Figure 3 illustrates the potential shifts that result
from polarization. As indicated, polarization limits the
amount of current that can flow. It will be reduced further
by an increase in the resistance of the circuit.
I = (PA
Cp)
Equation 2
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
- Ap) - (PC + Cp)

+ RL + RCt
RDt
OTHER METAL
Equation 3
Now let us examine possible effects of the location ot

the cathode on the corrosion reaction at the base of the
discontinuity.
Location 1 in Figure 2 assumes that both the anodic
and cathodic reactions will have to occur at the base of a
pore or other discontinuity in a coating. This automatically
limits the area that can act as a cathode and, consequently, by increasing the cathode current density, increases
favorably the value of the term Cp in equation 3.
Even more importantly, as the dimensions of the
PRIMER
(I) At Base Coating

(2) At Surface of Coating
( 3 ) At Base of Primer
( 4 ) At Other Metal Surface
FIGURE 2

Let us now examine the factors that determine the

magnitude of the resistance A.
These will include, in series, the resistance of the
electrolyte or whatever else occupies the discontinuity (D)
in the coating (RDt), the resistance of the solution or film
of moisture outside the discontinuity (RL), and the
resistance of the paint coating (C), (RCt).
The resistance of the metallic electron path is sufficiently low to be neglected.
The factor t in (RDt) and (RCt) takes into account the
fact that the resistance of the electrolyte within a discontinuity and the resistance of a coating will increase as the
thickness of the coating i s increased.
Combining all these component elements, the
resistance factor R becomes:
RDt + RL + RCt and
equation 2 becomes:
I = (PA
1 AN
(PC
POSSIBLE LOCATIONS OF CATHODES IN CORROSION

CELLS AT BARE SPOTS IN A PAINT COATING ON STEEL
ELECTROLYTE 7
- Ap) -
5
Not for Resale
SSPC C H A P T E R s L - L 93 H 8627940 000343b 3bb
than that of bare steel. Metal exposed at discontinuities in

such mill scale becomes the anode in a powerful galvanic
cell with resulting severe localized attack at such anodic
areas. The possibility of such effects produced by mill
scale under paint coatings and the generally poor
adherence of mechanically disturbed mill scale account
for the need to remove mill scale from steel in preparation
of steel for painting.
discontinuity decrease and the thickness of the coating increases, the discontinuity resistance factor RDt may increase dramatically; especially when, as frequently occurs, the discontinuity becomes clogged with rust (Fe203)
which has a very high electrical resistance.
The positive effect of thick coatings is shown by sea
water tests of steel covered with a paint of proper
thickness, but subsequently found to have many very
small pores. The steel showed no visible evidence of corrosion after immersion in sea water for more than a year.
What has just been described supports the advantage
of increasing the thickness of a paint film, especially i f the
application involves exposure under conditions of immersion.
The factor R L covering the resistance of the solution
or film of moisture explains why corrosion is likely to be
more severe in sea water than in fresh water and under
conditions of immersion as compared with atmospheric
exposure. In the case of the latter, humid atmospheres
containing chlorides, sulfur dioxide or other pollutants can
promote more corrosion than dry, unpolluted atmosp heres.
V. EFFECT OF ANODIC PIGMENTATION
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
A very favorable condition can be achieved if a paint

system includes zinc in either an organic or inorganic
(silicate) matrix. Since zinc is anodic to steel, an anodic
potential in the opposite direction is superimposed on the
steel so that the factor in the numerator of equation 3
becomes zero or even negative and consequently the corrosion current I is eliminated. This accounts for the excellent performance of zinc-rich coatings used either as
primers or alone for protection of steel in marine and other
severely corrosive environments. An essential requirement
is that the zinc pigment loading be extensive enough to
achieve electrical contact between the zinc particles so
that they can function as effective galvanic anodes for the
cathodic protection of the steel.
The rather startling 8500 to 1 range in corrosivities

of atmospheres was demonstrated by a test program
undertaken by ASTM.6
The factor RCt, the electrical resistance of the
coating, becomes important only i f the cathode of the corrosion reaction exists underneath the coating, (location 3,
Figure 2). In such circumstances, favorable factors will be
the thickness of the coating t and the resistance of the
coating to water absorption and moisture penetration as
well as its basic electrical resistance characteristics.
VI. EFFECT OF CATHODIC PIGMENT

It is unlikely that any paint system would create a
cathode at location 2, Figure 2, at the outer surface of the
coating; however, this could happen in the case of an antifouling paint sufficiently loaded with copper powder or
flake to form an effective copper cathode. Dangers from
this source have restricted the use of antifouling paints
based on metallic copper pigment.
A cathode created under a coating by the passivating

action of primers containing inhibitive pigments such as
red lead or chromates will have a low potential, Cp, and a
relatively large area with low cathodic polarization, Cp in
equation 3. Thus, the effect is to increase the corrosion
current I. This supports the recommendation that
passivating pigments should not be used in paints on steel
in services involving continuous or frequent, partial or
complete immersion.
Vil. EFFECT OF GALVANIC COUPLES

The most dangerous location of a cathode is location
4, Figure 2. This would be the case of painted steel in electrical contact with a more noble (cathodic) metal such as a
copper or nickel alloy or stainless steel, both being immersed in an electrolyte.
Such a situation would provide a cathode much larger
than the very small anodes exposed at discontinuities in a
paint film and with a large potential difference between
the anode and the cathode (EA
EC), over 500 mV between the steel and the more noble metal.
The resulting galvanic corrosion would result in fairly
rapid penetration (pitting) of the steel.
Painting the anodic (steel) member of such a galvanic
couple will aggravate rather than minimize galvanic corrosion of the steel. It would be much better to leave the steel
bare and tolerate the extent of the broadly spread galvanic
corrosion that would result. But the best practice would be
to paint both metals in the galvanic couple so as t o
eliminate both galvanic and normal corrosion.
The next best choice would be to paint the more noble
(cathodic) member of the couple and leave the steel bare.
As another example, it is possible also to create a

cathode under a paint film by migration of copper from an
antifouling paint containing cuprous oxide or metallic copper.
Copper ions reaching the steel surface from an antifouling paint can deposit on the steel by cementation and
thereby become a powerful cathode to steel at the base of
an adjacent discontinuity in a coating. Thus, an antifouling paint system based on copper must include an effective anti-corrosive film under the anti-fouling topcoat.
Quite different from the thin invisible oxide films
formed on steel by exposure to dry air, mentioned above,
are the relatively thick oxide scales formed on steel during
high temperature manufacturing operations. This mill
scale has the composition Fe,O,. It exhibits a potential
that in sea water can be more than 500 mV more noble

6
Not for Resale
SSPC CHAPTER*L.L
93
8 b 2 7 9 4 0 0003437 2T2
Cathodic protection is usually monitored and controlled by measurement of the potential of the protected
metal. This potential is measured relative to that of an appropriate bench mark reference electrode. One such
electrode is a saturated calomel half cell.
It is assumed that protection of steel has been
achieved when its normal potential in sea water of about
- 600 mV has been raised to - 850 mV.
Potential measurements can be used, as well, to
avoid hydrogen blistering of paints by restricting the
potential resulting from cathodic protection. A conservative maximum polarized potential would be about
- 1000 mV versus a saturated calomel half cell.
Discontinuities in a coating on the cathodic member can

be tolerated in view of the small area of cathode that
would become involved.
Coatings to be used on cathodic surfaces must be
able to tolerate the alkali generated by cathodic reactions.
An interesting form of galvanic corrosion has been encountered in oil production systems in the North Sea.
Here, steel drilling and production structures are
associated with very large concrete vessels used for
storage of oil. The reinforcing steel embedded in the concrete can develop films that make the reinforcing steel
strongly cathodic to steel outside the concrete. The
galvanic cell generated in this way can accelerate the corrosion of the outside steel. This can be particularly serious
if the galvanic effect is concentrated at discontinuities in a
paint coating. This could be a factor in deciding whether to
use a paint coating as a supplement to cathodic protection
and in determining the amount of current required for
cathodic protection of the steel in the concrete.
IX. EFFECTS OF STRAY CURRENTS

The advantage of a substantially intact paint film having high electrical resistance in connection with cathodic
protection is reversed in situations, usually rare, where
painted steel immersed in an electrolyte becomes involved
in the passage of a stray electrical current. Under such
circumstances the current is forced to leave the metal at
discontinuities in the coating with consequent severe
localized attack. This has been observed, for example, on
painted ship hulls when an on-shore source of current for
electrical welding on a floating ship has been provided
with inadequate negative return cables. This leads to a
substantial amount of current returning to ground through
the water path in parallel with the return cable path. The effect is to increase greatly the anodic potential AP in equation 3 leading to a high corrosion current l concentrated at
discontinuities in the coating.
VIII. CATHODIC PROTECTION USED IN

CONJUNCTION WITH PAINTS
Cathodic protection can be achieved using either
galvanic anodes (zinc, aluminum or magnesium) or impressed current systems as the source of the protective
current. As in the case of cathodic protection from zinc incorporated in a paint, the effect of the impressed current is
to eliminate or change the direction of the potential difference in the numerator of equation 3.
Cathodic protection simply substitutes electrons
from an external source for the electrons otherwise
generated in a corrosion cell to accommodate reduction of
hydrogen ions and oxygen at the cathodic surfaces.
The electrical resistance of the coating (RCt) plays an
important role in cathodic protection by increasing the
throwing power of the usually relatively small anodes by
enabling the protective current to extend for greater
distances from the current source.
It has been found that under severe service conditions
a combination of a good paint system and cathodic protection is better than either one alone.
In addition to the throwing power effect, a paint
system reduces the current required for cathodic protection by as much as 100 to 1, depending on the condition of
the paint.
X. EFFECTS OF COMPOSITION OF STEEL

Self-limiting forms of rust can offer protection to steel
under certain conditions of atmospheric exposure. The
protective qualities of such rust films are affected by alloying elements and other minor constituents of steel. Copper, chromium, nickel and phosphorus have beneficial effects. Sulfur has the greatest detrimental effect, which can
be compensated for by the presence of copper in an
amount greater than the sulfur content.
Combinations of favorable alloying elements are
more effective than the same content of a single beneficial
element. This is the case with the so-called high-strength,
low-alloy steels. As measured by weight loss after exposure in certain corrosive atmospheres for 10 years,
these steels showed an advantage over ordinary steel in a
ratio of about 4 to 1 or greater.
The advantage of the low-alloy steels is even greater
when the steels are painted,,* as illustrated by Figure 4.
Painted specimens of a steel of very low copper content
have poor resistance to a marine atmosphere as compared
with a better steel containing about 0.20% copper and an
even better steel containing copper, nickel, chromium and
phosphorus. The alloy steel suffered much less spreading
of corrosion adjacent to the scribe marks inthe paint.
Further improvement was achieved by a phosphating
Even when there may be no opportunity for renewal of

a paint system, its use can be justified in conjunction with
cathodic protection in sea water. This is based on the
probability that, in the course of time, the calcareous
deposits created by cathodic reactions will replace the
original paint system in achieving distribution of current
and maintaining the level of current required for protection.O
Paint systems used with cathodic protection not only
must tolerate attack by cathodic alkali, but must be protected from the danger of blistering by hydrogen which can
result from too high a cathodic current density.
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

7
Not for Resale
SSPC
Open Heorth Iron
CHAPTERaL.1 9 3
= 8627940 0003438 139 =
Untreoted Surface
01% Cu Steei
Cr-Ni-Si-Cu-P Steel
Bonderito Troated Surface
Open Hearth tron
0.2% Cu Steel
Cr-Ni-Si-Cu-$ Steel
FIGURE 4
Effect of Surface Treatment on Painted Steels Exposed Eight
- Months in Atmosphere 80 Feet from the Ocean at Kure Beach,
N.C.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The author and editors gratefully acknowledge the active
participation of the following in the review process for this
chapter: Roy Boyd, Theodore Dowd, Richard Drisko, Arnold
Eickhoff, W.P. Gallagher, Clive Hare, William Hitzrot, William
Mathay, Chuck Munger, Bruno Perfetti, Percy Pierce, Melvin
Sandler, and William Wallace.
pre-treatment of the steel before painting. As measured by

weight loss of scribed panels the advantage of the alloy
steel over the poorest steel was in the ratio of 10 to 1. The
combination of the phosphate pre-treatment and alloying
resulted in an improvement to a ratio of 20 to 1.
The advantage of a low-alloy steel observed in atmospheric exposure is not duplicated under conditions of
immersion. The better performance of the alloy steel in atmospheric exposure is based on the superior protective
qualities of the thin film of rust that forms on the alloy
steels, while the voluminous hydrated rusts that form on
steels under conditions of immersion do not exhibit a
similar difference in protective ability. Furthermore, the
principal factors that influence corrosion under water,
such as dissolved oxygen, effects of organisms and water
velocity, are external to the steel rather than related to its
composition.
BIOGRAPHY
The late Francis L. LaQue,
former Vice President of inco
Ltd.,(formerly International Nickel Co. of Canada), was often
called a pioneer in corrosion
research and had a distinguished career in metallurgy. He
devoted half his life to the
research and development interests of the company, retiring
in 1968, as Vice President and
Special Assistant to the
President.
An honored member of many technical societies, Mr. LaQue
served as President of the National Association of Corrosion Engineers from 1948 to 1949, the American Society for Testing and
Materials from 1959 to 1960,the ElectrochemicalSociety from 1962
to 1963, the American National Standards Institute from 1966 to
1971, and the international Organization for Standardization (ISO)
from 1971 to 1973. He was a Fellow and Honorary Member of the
American Society for Metals.
XI. CONCLUSION
Knowledge of the reactions involved in the corrosion
of steel combined with a knowledge of how a paint system

can impede these reactions and the qualities of a paint
system needed t o achieve the desired results, as described in the following chapter, along with proper
preparation of steel of desirable composition, can serve as
an effective guide for using protective coatings to prevent
corrosion.
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

8
Not for Resale
SSPC
CHAPTER*Z.L
93 W 8627940 0003439 075
He influenced several professional areas within the scope of

his diversified interests. He was instrumental in the formation of
I S 0 Technical Committee TC156, Corrosion of Metals, served
as chairman of the U.S. Corrosion Research Council, and as a
Deputy Assistant Secretary to the U S . Department of Commerce.
He was a senior lecturer at the Scripps Institute of Oceanography
at the University of California, in LaJolla, California and a professor at the University of Hawaii.
He is best remembered for his specialization in marine corrosion engineering and for the establishment in 1935 of the worldrenowned marine corrosion test site at Kure Beach, North Carolina. The LaQue Center for Corrosion Technology, Inc. Wrightsville
Beach, North Carolina, (a corporate unit of Inco Ltd.) stands as a
monument to his achievements.
REFERENCES
1. W.R. Whitney, The Corrosion of Iron J. Am. Chem. Soc., Vol.
22, p. 394, 1903.
2. T.P. Hoar and U.R. Evans, The Velocity of Corrosion from the
Electrochemical Standpoint, Part II Proc. Roy. Soc. (A) 137,
343, 1932.
3. G.D. Beniouah.
U.R. Evans. T.P. Hoar and F. Wormwell. The
,
Corrosion of Metals by Salt Solutions and Natural Waters an Agreed Statement, Chem. ind., p. 1043, 1938.
4. R.B. Mears and R.H. Brown, Causes of Corrosion Currents
J. Ind. & Eng. Chem., Vol. 33, p. 1001, 1941.
5. W.W. Kettelberger and A.C. Elm, Water Immersion Testing of
Metal Protective Paints, ind. & Eng. Chem, 39, 1947.
6. S.K. Coburn, C.P. Larrabee, H.H. Lawson and 0.8. Ellis, Corrosiveness of Various Atmospheric Test Sites as Measured
by Specimens of Steel and Zinc, ASTM Metal Corrosion in
the Atmosphere Symposium June 1967; published June 1968.
7. H.R. Copson and C.P. Larrabee, Extra Durability of Paint on
Low Alloy Steels ASTM Bull. 242, 68, Dec. 1959.
8. F.L. LaQue and J.A. Boylan, Corrosion, 9, 1953, p. 237.
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

9
Not for Resale
SSPC
C H A P T E R * L - 2 9 3 W 8627940 0003440 8 9 7
September 1993 (Editorial Changes)
CHAPTER 1.2
PAINTS FOR ANTI-CORROSION SERVICE

by
Clive H. Hare
tion removes such contamination, and exposes many more

reactive sites, thereby dramatically increasing the amount
of surface area where adhesion can occur.
The chapter on corrosion has been primarily concerned

with the metallic side of the metal/paint film interface.
Proceeding across this interface, review will now be made
of some basic principles of paint technology as they apply
to the design of protective coating systems. These principles
underline the specifics discussed in the chapters on paint
materials (Chapter 4.1), inhibitors (Chapter 4.3),and zinc rich
(Chapter 4.2).
Protective coatings may function by one or more of
three mechanisms: (1) the barrier principle, (2) the inhibitive primer principle, Or(3) the galvanic or zinc-rich principle',*. Often, coating systems employ two of the three
mechanisms in conjunction for improved effect. For instance, the barrier principle may operate in a finish coat
while another principle operates in the primer. Inhibitive
pigments are sometimes used in the finish coat as well as
in the primer, and thick-film systems utilizing the barrier
principle alone are widely used on buried structures. Zincrich coatings, to work at all, must be electrically contiguous with steel and are used only as primers, with or
without barrier coats.
I I . BARRIER PRIMERS
The removal of surface contamination is important
not only for adhesion, but also for good corrosion
resistance. The barrier film prevents corrosion by increasing the electrical resistance (RCt) of the path of currents
generated by slight differences in electrochemical potential between adjacent areas of the metal surface or between the underlying metal and another metal having a different potential. Paint films are not completely impermeable to the concentration of water and oxygen, and
transmission of both is normally high enough so that
prevention of the cathode reaction is impossible6.'.*.
Penetration by water and oxygen does not produce a
resistance low enough to maintain a corrosion current,
and though most paint films take up water relatively quickly, they take up ion solutions only very slowly3. This keeps
the electrolyte resistance relatively high and the corrosion
low since corrosion is dependent upon ionic flow.
However, even when the electrical resistance of
penetrating moisture is reduced by absorption of ions, the
resistance of a good barrier film remains high enough to
achieve an important reduction in the magnitude of the
corrosion current.
Underfilm ionogenic (ion producing) materials (particularly chlorides and sulphates) that are left after poor
surface preparation can be dissolved as ion-free water,
penetrate the film, form conductive electrolytes, and increase corrosion.
Also, under conditions of immersion, differences in
ionic concentration between liquids beneath and outside
the film give rise to osmotic migrations of water into the
film. This promotes blistering and eventual film rupture.
Further degradation and loss of protective value can result
from electroendosmosis generated by differences in the
electrochemical potential on the metal surface at and
around the film disruption.
Salts may also form from soluble matter within the
film. The effect of corrosive salts such as chlorides is obvious. Inhibitive ions, themselves, however, may also
cause problems. At the interface, the ionic solution from
inhibitive pigments passivates the metal by increasing
the polarization of the anode (Ap in equation 2 in Chapter 1.1). However, such passivation of underfilm sur-
I. ADHESION AND SURFACE PREPARATION

The primer is the critical element in most coating
systems because it is most responsible for preserving the
metallic state of the substrate, and it must also anchor the
total system to the steel. This it may do in one of two ways,
depending upon the nature of the primer vehicle3. Most
coatings adhere to metal via purely physical attractions
(e.g. hydrogen bonds) that develop when two surfaces are
brought closely together.' Paint vehicles with polar groups
( - OH, - COOH, etc.) have good wetting characteristics
and show excellent physical adhesion characteristics
(epoxies, oil paints, alkyds, etc.). Much stronger chemically bonded adhesion is possible when the primer can actually react with the metal, as in the case of a WP-1 wash
primer5 pretreatment (SSPC-Paint 27),or a phosphate conversion coating.
For adhesion to take place, the coating and substrate
must not be separated from one another by more than appro:iimately 5 8, - about three times the diameter of an
oxygen atom. Any contaminant on the steel will increase
the separation and decrease paint film adhesion.
Moreover, reactive sites on steel at which adhesion can occur are masked not only by contamination, but also by
chemically bound species which may themselves satisfy
sites on the steel that would otherwise be available for
reaction with the paint vehicle. Thorough surface prepara-
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

10
Not for Resale
SSPC C H A P T E R * L = 2 9 3 W 8627740 000344l 723

High-build vinyl and chlorinated rubber systems of 8
mils and more make excellent barrier systems. Both
polymers contain an inherent flexibility. They employ a
moderately slow solvent system with an efficient thixatrope to produce high wet film builds. Organomontmori Ilonites, pyrogenic si Ik a s , hydrogenated caster oi I
derivatives or high molecular weight polyolefins are often
used as thixatropes. Minimum effect on viscosity is
desirable for ease of application. Solvent systems with
high boiling aromatics or mono ethyl ether acetate are
used. Application of up to 20 wet mils (5-7 dry mils) in one
coat is possible. High build epoxy systems are also effective. Such synthetics are more permeable than coal tar
enamels applied in super thick films. One hundred mils of
coal tar on buried pipelines or immersed structures used in
combination with impressed current cathodic protection
can reduce current requirements for cathodic protection
ten thousandfold as compared to requirements for bare
steeIl7.
High solids thermosets produce good barrier films,
but they bring their own problems. Urethanes and epoxies
may suffer from an unfavorable potlifeldrytime ratio
resulting from exotherms that tend to increase reaction
rate in the can but which are dissipated from the applied
film. High solids urethanes often have the additional problem of hygroscopicity. The successful use of multiple component systems is very dependent on the skill of the applicator. Mixing and application instructions must be
followed exactly.
faces can have a detrimental effect under certain conditions by accelerating the corrosion at bare spots. There
will be a considerable difference between the potential of
the unpassivated metal at a bare spot (PA in equation 2)
and the relatively large areas of passivated metal (PC in
equation 2) under the paint film. This can result in accelerated corrosion at the bare spot. For this reason the
use of inhibitive primers (containing passivating pigments)
is avoided by some formulators on surfaces submerged in
conductive electrolytes such as salt water.
Unlike well cured films, insufficiently cured films
allow the penetration of much more ionic materiallo,ll.
Polymer groups such as carboxyls and hydroxyls tend to
foster ionic p e n e t r a t i ~ n ~ ~ As
~ , ~pigment
~ . ~ ~ ,volume
~ ~ ' . concentration (P.V.C.)' is increased, these factors are overwhelmed because interstitial penetration dominates.
Good barrier films, therefore, are high molecular weight
films with uniform crosslink density, cured uniformly, formulated well below the critical pigment volume concentration (C.P.V.C.)** with low water solubility pigments.
Lamellar pigments (leafing type aluminum) dramatically
reduce ionic transmission rates. Care must always be
taken in using metal flakes (such as copper or stainless
steel) to ensure complete pigment encapsulation to avoid
unwanted galvanic effects. Lamellar metallic pigmented
barrier films are best used as finish coats, with a nonmetallic primer to improve adhesion. Similarly, tie coats
should be used to improve adhesion between such
metallic barrier films and zinc-rich primers.
All things being equal in atmospheric service, thicker
barrier systems give better protection, as shown in work by
SSPC and the FSCTl8. In general, the more severe the environment, or the longer the requirement for protection, the
greater will be the coating dry film thickness required.
Care should be taken, however, in the application of high
build systems to thin walled structures and other dimensionally unstable substrates. Thick films (particularly
those of rigid thermosets) are less able to provide the
necessary flexibility to substrate movement (e.g. expansion and contraction) than are thinner films, and can easily
undergo adhesive and cohesive failure leading to subsequent disbondment. Such delamination has been found in
rail car tank linings, for example.
Vehicle choice for barrier primers is also important.
High molecular weight thermoplastics (e.9. vinyls and
chlorinated rubbers) are effective, particularly at high
builds. Thermosetting systems such as epoxylphenolics
and certain polyesters are also effective vehicles, as are
the coal tar epoxies. Vehicles with high hydroxyl or carboxyl contents (oils, alkyds, acrylics, etc) tend to attract
water into the film.
111. THE INHIBITIVE PRIMER
'Ratio of the volume of pigment to the volume of total

hon-volatile material (.e., pigment and binder) present in
a coating.
"Level of pigmentation where just sufficient binder is
present to fill the voids between pigment particles in the
dry film.
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

11
In this type of primer, pigments are incorporated to

provide a source of corrosion inhibitive ions which can be
carried to the metal interface as water penetrates the film.
Here they modify anode andlor cathode reactions, driving
the steel potential into its passive region1a.
There are two principal routes to such inhibition. The
first, direct inhibition, relies on a controlled dissolution of
ions from the pigment itself. At the interface, the ionic
solutions passivate the metal by increasing the polarization of the anode (increasing Ap in equation 2), by increasing the polarization of the cathode (Cp), or by thickening
the natural oxide layer and increasing the electrical
resistance across anode and cathode (increasing R).
Perhaps the most efficient direct inhibitives are the salts
of hexavalent chromium. (Chromate pigments are toxic substances. Follow all applicable health, safety and environmental requirements in applying, handling or disposing of these
materials.) In paint films, chromate inhibition is provided from
such pigments as zinc potassium chromate, strontium chromate, etc. Pigment solubility is most important. Highly soluble pigments (calcium chromate) are rapidly depleted, while
those with very low solubility (lead chromate) provide too few
hexavalent chromate ions for protection. Zinc chromate offers
a moderate solubility and is extensively used. Other less toxic
inhibitors, the molybdates, phosphates, phosphosilicates,
borates, and borosilicates also protect by similar mechanisms. Both type and loading of pigment are important, as
are the type of vehicle and its moisture vapor transmission
rate (MVTR).
Not for Resale
= 8627740
tant, as are the type of vehicle and its moisture vapor

transmission rate (MVTR).
The ratio of the primers pigment volume concentration (P.V.C.) to the critical pigment volume concentration
(C.P.V.C.)of the pigment system is equally important. Very
low ratios (low pigment content) give overly tight films and
increase the tendency of the primer to blister. Filiform corrosion of the substrate can occur. Too high a ratio provides
rapid dissolution of the inhibitor, and allows corrosive ions
such as chlorides from the environment to penetrate the
film.
Chlorides and other depassivators compete with inhibitive ions for anodic adsorption, and can nullify inhibition, or at least increase the quantities of inhibitor needed.
Inhibitive primers are best restricted to environments
where the penetration of chloride ions is limited. Their use
in immersion conditions is definitely not recommended
because of the danger of osmotic blistering. The best pigment volume concentration: critical pigment volume concentration ratio is determined experimentally, but a level
near 0.9: 1 is often used.
Barrier type vehicles are less effective with inhibitive
primers than the more permeable vehicles (oils, alkyds,
etc.). Oils and alkyds do not, however, have the alkali
resistance of vinyls, etc., and this is a disadvantage.
Alkai generated at the cathode can rapidly saponify alkalisensitive coatings. Alkali attack occurs at cathode areas adjacent to or surrounding corroding areas (anodes). Vehicle
saponification can render a film quite water-soluble in such
areas. This frequently occurs in alkyd systems where adhesion is destroyed. For more information on corrosion inhibitive pigments, see Chapter 4.3.
weight linear epoxies and epoxy ester systems are used as

binders. Epoxy esters do not have quite the alkali
resistance of other vehicles, but certain specific vehicles
(high epoxy content) offer acceptable compositions.
Primer films will vary and reflect the properties of the vehicle type.
In adjusting the P.V.C. to levels slightly higher than
C.P.V.C.,the primer achieves its tightest zinc to zinc packing, and zinc encapsulation is minimized. Judicious mixing
of zinc dust of different particle sizes will also assist here
to provide more uniform packing, resulting in better particle contact and ultimate galvanic protection. Too high a
P.V.C., produces a coating having poor physical and application properties. Were zinc the only pigment, the P.V.C.
fixation of a zinc primer (and, therefore, its optimum zinc
loading) would be simple. Formulations are complicated
by pigment anti-gassing agents, thixotropes, anti-settling
agents, extenders, etc. Small amounts of highly oil absorbent materials markedly depress the C.P.V.C.,but not the
P.V.C., and the coating becomes porous. Used in controlled
amounts such materials may be employed to reduce zinc
levels, and maintain a P.V.C.:C.P.V.C. ratio, thus obtaining a
strong film. This provides enough film and filmlcubstrate
conductivity for good protection. Up to 15% mica has been
effectively used in this way1e.The use of conductive extenders (di-iron phosphide) is not related to P.V.C. effects,
and high zinc replacements have been achieved with this
type of pigmentz0.
Careless application of any organic zinc-rich primer
can severely change the P.V.C.:C.P.V.C.
ration in the applied
film. Even with the best thixotropes, zinc settlement is
possible, particularly in single package coatings. In a nonhomogenous film, some areas must surely be underbound,
and some low in pigment. Poor physical properties, or zinc
encapsulation (resulting in a nullification of cathodic protection) are the result. Zinc encapsulation has ruined many
jobs at the outset, although the coating system itself may
have been quite satisfactory. Application of organic zincrich paints must involve continuous agitation throughout
the application.
IV. ZINC-RICH PRIMERS

Zinc, employed in coating films at loadings that insure the film conductivity, will form an efficient anode of a
galvanic couple with steel, sacrificially corroding itself,
and overriding local cell activity on the steel which
becomes entirely cathodic and protected.
The concept is easily adaptable to practical coating systems, and such primers are the most efficient of all. Zincrich primers based on both organic and inorganic vehicles
are widely and successfully employed. For more information
on zinc-rich primers, see Chapter 4.2.
B. INORGANIC ZINC-RICH PRIMERS

Inorganic zinc-rich paints, unlike the organics, depart
radically from conventional paint technology. These
vehicles (generally silicates) do not bind zinc as do the
organics, but chemically react with zinc ions on zinc particle surfaces forming primary bonded zinc silicate
matrices.
As presented in the SSPC-Paint 20 classification,
vehicles may generally be classed as either alkaline
silicates (water solutions of sodium, potassium, lithium, or
quaternary ammonium silicates) or alkyl silicates which
may be ethyl silicate (the most common) or higher alkyl or
alkoxy homologues.
1. Alkali Silicates
Film formation of the alkali silicates involves water
A. ORGANIC ZINC-RICH PRIMERS

The organic zinc-rich primer may be considered a
special case of a high pigment volume concentration
(P.V.C.) paint. It must maintain zinc particle to zinc particle
contact within its continuum and contact between pigment and substrate to ensure electrical conductivity
within the film and across the interface. These r e
quirements translate to a paint formulated at a pigment
volume concentration slightly above the CPVC. The film
must also display sufficient adhesion at these loadings to
anchor the system to the steel. Because of cathodic alkali
generation at the interface, the vehicle must resist alkalis.
Chlorinated rubber, epoxylpolyamides, high molecular
0003442 bbT
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evaporation followed by neutralization of the

silicate alkalinity (either by post curing solutions or
by acids derived from the atmosphere such as
carbonic acid) to form silicic acid. This then reacts
with zinc ions to form the three dimensional zincoxygen-silicon (zinc silicate) matrix. Further atmospheric neutralization of residual alkali with consequent tightening of the matrix will occur with
aging2'.
2. Alkyl Silicates
The alkyl silicates form their matrix by an
analogous route (evaporation of solvent, and
hydrolysis of the vehicle to silicic acid by atmospheric moisture with evolution of the pertinent
alcohol)z2.The silicic acid forms a matrix with the
zinc similar to that described abovez3. Again,
hydrolysis continues for some time after initial curing. The chemical nature of fully cured zinc silicates is (theoretically, at least) identical, irrespective of the silicate used.
unknown. Surface preparation requirements are exacting (particularly with the alkaline silicate
systems), a commercial blast being the very
minimum acceptable, and a white or near white
blast with a typical surface profile of 1 to 2 mils being more usual and often mandatory. Alkyl silicates
are rather more tolerant of poorly blasted
substrates than the water-based type, probably
reflecting their higher organic content and lower
surface energies.
Despite their incompatibility with poorly
prepared surfaces, the inorganics may be considered safer coatings than the organics. Not only
are the organics subject to encapsulation, but also
they can mislead the applicator by adhering initially to poorly prepared substrates. But adhesion is
not protection, which is possible only through intimate contact of iron and zinc (the more contact,
the better the protection). Inorganics require such
contact (through good surface preparation) not only for protection, which may be initially difficult to
determine, but also for good initial adhesion, which
is easy to determine. If an inorganic sticks,. it
should protect. If an organic sticks, protection is
still an open question.
3. Single-package
Single-pack inorganic primers of the polyol silicate
type involving ester exchange or interester exchange reactions with alkyl, alkoxy and hydroxy
alkoxy silicates to form mixed esters pursue the
same basic chemistry to provide similar film
matricesz4.Organic moieties remain within these
films and subtract from their wholly inorganic
nature. Other routes to single package inorganic
zinc-rich primers include the use of amine-initiated
hydrolysis of alkyl p o l y s i l i c a t e ~and
, ~ ~the
~ ~ use
~ of
alkali metal alkoxide catalysis of hydroxyl free
alkyl silicatesz7. Single pack inorganic silicate
vehicles are now generally available. Some are
modifications of silanes.
5. Secondary Mechanisms
If cathodic protection were the sole mechanism of
zinc-rich primers, they would rapidly break down as
zinc was consumed. In practice, this is not the
case. As zinc corrodes, its corrosion products
(depending upon the environment) tend to polarize
the reaction, coating the zinc and bridging the
voids within the film, thereby packing them so that
the primer is sealed from the environment. The film
is slowly transformed from a zinc-rich primer to a
barrier primer, and, in this state, it is maintained
until the zinc is again exposed by some abuse. The
zinc will then corrode again and be healed with corrosion product (providing that the agents of
physical or chemical abuse have been removed).
These phenomena are primarily responsible for
long term zinc-rich protection.
Zinc-rich primers are normally applied at approximately 3 dry mils. Some compositions form
good films at thicknesses up to 6 mils, while others
may severely mud-crack at these high builds.
The porosity of zinc-rich films (particularly the
inorganic) can lead to problems because of air occlusion on top coating. The resultant bubbling and
pinholing of applied top coats may necessitate the
use of mist coats, thinned finish coats or tie coats
(such as the WP-1 wash Orimer, SSPC-Paint 27)
before finish coat application28.Careful formulation of solvent system and pigmentation of the
finish coat can mitigate this problem, and many
manufacturers carefully tailor finish coats for
bubble-free application over the zinc-rich
SSPC-PS Guide 8 includes a list of such finish
coats.
4. Inorganic vs. Organic

With inorganic primers the P.V.C.concepts must be
modified. Also, zinc levels lower than those necessary for the organics are possible with little immediate loss of performance. Zinc levels of 70% of film
weight can give acceptable performance, and even
levels of 50% (such as SSPC-Paint 29) if enhanced
by other conductive pigments. Some have reported
that reduced zinc level products do not have as good
a performance in the long term as do the 85% loaded primers's.
As discussed in the chapter on zinc-rich
paints, the inorganic films show better performance than most organics. Their films are strong,
hard, and resistant to impact and abrasion. They
are quite resistant to heat. The matrix of the inorganic primer film is not subject to age-related
deterioration as are organic primers. Weathering
may actually improve its physical properties.
Adhesion is of an exceptionally high order and

has led to speculation on the formation of primary
valency linkages with the substrate as well as the
zinc. The mechanism of adhesion at this point is
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6. Pre-Construction Primers
Single component inorganic zinc-rich films make
good pre-construction primers, protecting steel
during storage and fabrication. In thin films, they
allow easy cutting of steel and good weldability,
particularly when modified with the conductive extender, di-iron p h ~ s p h i d e ~ After
' . ~ ~ .fabrication, preconstruction primers may be recoated with a
suitable primer and top coat. Further considerations on zinc-rich primers are discussed in a
separate chapter.
V. INTERMEDIATE AND FINISH COATS FOR

STEEL
A total coating system cannot be considered without
regard for its external interface. While the primer mitigates
metallic corrosion, the finish coat must counteract
malignancies specific to the environment in which the
system must function.
As finish coats are designed at low p.v.c./c.p.v.c.
ratios, they are dense, highly dielectric, and are applied in
film thicknesses as high as possible. They are much like
barrier primers, and play no inconsiderable part in assisting the primer in its anti-corrosive function. Unlike barrier
primers, which are designed to be recoated and thus protected from the environment, the finish coat must contend
with the environment from which it must shield the lower
elements of the total system.
Oleoresinous, varnish-type finish coats had to be built
up of successive coats to the required film thickness,
because of drying time difficulties inherent in thick, oxidizing films. High-build thermoplastics and high solids thermosets have enabled high film builds to be applied in
single coats. While thinner coats applied successively give
better solvent release, fewer pinholes and voids, and better
continuity throughout the film, high-build systems have
economic advantages and careful formulation can minimize their shortcomings. Statistically, more coats increase the risk of intercoat failure, although adhesion at
any coatinglcoating interface is usually better than at a
coatinglmetallic interface,
In any coating system, compatibility between coats is
critical. Compatibility can prevent solvent attack on primer
films by the finish coat, solvent induced bleeding of
organic pigments from one coat to a subsequent coat, and
other pitfalls. Less appreciated are effects of poorly
matched viscoelastic properties, which may become obvious only after aging. Inflexible finishes applied over flexible primers can eventually lead to cracking on aging. Too
flexible a finish coat can actually pull an inflexible primer
from the substrate. Cohesive failures (cracking, checking,
etc.), and adhesive failures (flaking, popping, blistering)
can have grave consequences in anti-corrosive coating
systems. All elements of the coating system must be
matched to one another and to the substrate. For instance,
thin steel siding requires a more flexible system than one
applied to structural members, as does aluminum with
twice the coefficient of expansion of steel.

Flexibility can be built into a system by P.V.C.adjustments, or by vehicle changes including blending,
copolymerization, and plasticization. Primers are generally
kept less flexible than succeeding coats.
Finish coat selection is dictated by the environment,
although there are considerations with regard to the
primer and intermediate coat that may influence this.
Environments vary widely, ranging from exposure to
weather and UV (ultraviolet light), to chemical immersion,
high temperatures, and physical abuse. They may be simple or complex involving intermittent immersion, chemical
attack, large temperature differentials, and extreme a b r a
sion. All elements of the environment must be considered
and evaluated in terms of their relative importance to provide the best compromise system.
The vehicle binder of the finish must bear the brunt of
the environmental attack. Most design decisions should
be based on the polymer chemistry of the vehicle involved.
An empirical awareness of the effects of UV, moisture,
oxygen, chemical attack, microbiological attack, high and
low temperatures, abrasion and impact, etc. on individual
finish coat polymers will often suffice, but in-depth experience and understanding of the effects of such
phenomena on molecular structure may be essential when
resin systems must be mixed or synthesized to attain the
desired result s.
An in-depth discussion of the wide ranging
characteristics of each polymer type is quite beyond the
scope of this chapter and is presented in a separate
chapter. Table 1 presents a summary of the properties of
finish coat materials. The following is no more than a brief
discussion of those polymers commonly used in maintenance finishes.
A. LACQUERS: THERMOPLASTIC COATINGS

A lacquer is simply a coating that forms its film by solvent evaporation alone. Vinyls are the most common lacquers used in anti-corrosive maintenance finishes. Solutions of high molecular weight, vinyl chloridelvinyl acetate
copolymers or terpolymers with vinyl alcohol or maleic
acid, are used. Vinyls are distinguished by excellent acid
and alkali resistance (their backbone being exclusively
carbonkarbon bonds), good abrasion resistance and,
when pigmented, excellent exterior durability. Vinyl films
are attacked by the solvents from which they were cast
(ketones, esters, etc.), also by concentrated organic acid,
and softened by aromatics. They have low water and oxy.
gen transmission rates, and are suitable for water immersion service.
Acrylic films have even better resistance to ultraviolet
Ilght than the vinyls, and show long-term gloss and color
retention as well as good weatherability in exterior environments. They are more suitable for polymer modification than the vinyls, and copolymers of both acrylates and
methacrylates are possible. Acrylics are also copolymerized with styrene and vinyl toluene. The introduction of
such aromatics may slightly upgrade the acid and alkali
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has included the evaluation of many water-based systems.
resistance of acrylics, although the UV resistance is

decreased.
Styrene is also copolymerized with butadiene. These
lacquers form films with better chemical resistance than
the acrylics (all carbon-carbon backbones with the advantage of aromaticity), but aromaticity and unsaturation in
certain species of these copolymers give poorer UV
resistance.
Chlorinated rubber coatings have perhaps even lower
moisture and oxygen transmission properties than the
vinyls, and the absence of pendent ester groups provides
better chemical resistance than the acrylics. Solvent
resistance is not as good as the vinyls, but chlorinated rubber has better compatibility with other film formers than
have the unmodified
In any lacquer, care must be taken with selection of
additives and modifiers (such as plasticizers) to suit the r e
quirements of the environment. Where high alkali
resistance i s required, hydrolizable plasticizers
(phthalates, etc.) are best avoided. The inert chlorinated
paraffins are widely used with thermoplastics. Tricresyl
phosphate is often used with vinyl systems.
Because of the finite viscosity limitations of high
molecular weight thermoplastics, high-solids lacquers are
not possible. By judicious formulation with slow to
medium evaporating solvents and efficient thixotropes,
however, high-build thermoplastics (vinyls, chlorinated
rubbers) are quite possible and widely used.
Numerous other thermoplastics which can be
employed in maintenance systems are beyond the scope
of this chapter, although reference to their chemical structure will give a good general guide. Further data and case
histories may be obtained from the respective resin
manufact urers.
All thermoplastics display a glass transition
temperature (Tg), and will flow at high enough
temperatures, becoming soft and tacky. Heat resistance
may be somewhat limited, and at low enough
temperatures, the coatings will become brittle with reduced physicals.
C. OXIDIZING SYSTEMS
Oxidizing systems are thermosets which convert to
three-dimensional polymeric networks by absorption of atmospheric oxygen. Such systems are based on fish and
vegetable oils (esters of glycerol and vegetable oil, fatty
acids) or modification of such materials with other
species. Unmodified oils are rarely used now except in certain specialized primers. They are slow drying and suscep
tible to alkalis, but have excellent low surface energies
and are perhaps the best vehicles where surface preparation is poor.
Alkyds are oxidizing systems, the polycondensation
products of multi-functional polyols and di-functional
acids which are generally oil modified to give a wide variety of vehicles. Alkyds may also be copolymerized with
phenol, silicones, styrene, acrylics and other resins. Still
the backbone of the coatings industry, alkyds have limited
applications i n heavy-duty maintenance. As with oils, the
ester groups in the alkyd backbone are easily cleaved by
alkalis. Chemical resistance is poor, .and they are not
suitable for immersion service, cementitious substrates,
or for use directly over zinc-rich primers. They lend
themselves well to polymer modification and may be used
with certain thermoplastics to provide increased gloss and
adhesion.
Alkyds make an excellent choice of vehicle in lightduty environments. Thirty percent silicone modification
provides finish coats that have excellent ultraviolet light
resistance and exceptionally good weathering properties.
More alkali-resistant oxidizing vehicles are obtained
with the phenolic varnishes and epoxy esters (epoxy resins
esterified with oil fatty acids). Both vehicles have better
chemical resistance than either the unmodified oil or the
analogous alkyd, and, as phenolic or epoxy content of
such resins increases, so does their chemical resistance.
Unfortunately, as with all epoxies, epoxy esters yellow and
chalk markedly during exterior exposures, and while
deterioration is not progressive, chalking restricts usage
on aesthetic grounds. Epoxy esters are hard, resistant to
abrasion, and soluble in aromatic and even aliphatic
hydrocarbons.
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
B. LATEX
Latex systems show every possibility of expanding in.
to the maintenance painting area as technologies dgvelop.
Unlike lacquers, latexes are dispersions (not solutions) of
thermoplastic polymers in water. Molecular weights are
not restricted by solution viscosities, and much higher
solids of very high molecular weight polymers are possible. Film formation involves evaporation of water followed
by coalescence of discreet particles of polymer (micelles)
dispersed in the water. Total coalescence has never been
and systems give higher moisture and oxygen
transmission rates than their lower molecular weight
analogues cast from solution. Great strides are being
made and their excellent durability and mechanical properties indicate a bright future for latex maintenance systems
in moderate environments. The PACE program of SSPC

Replacing the dibasic acid with a polyisocyanate, the

alkyd becomes an oil-modified urethane or uralkyd. Ester
linkages are replaced by urethane linkages, and chemical
and physical properties are again upgraded. Like epoxy
esters, uralkyds both yellow and chalk on exterior exposure, and are difficult to recoat.
D. CHEMICALLY CURING THERMOSETS

Oxidizing systems are a special case of thermosetting
vehicle, where the activator is supplied by the environment. In other cases, water from the air will cure the vehicle. In baking finishes (e.g. alkydlamino) both reactive
oligomers are added to one can, but are selected so that
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--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
the reaction will only occur when the system is applied as

a film and subjected to high temperatures (180-400F
depending on vehicle type).
More commonly, maintenance painting systems are
designed so that reactions occur at room temperature.
Reactive vehicles are packaged separately and combined
in the field just before application. Of these two-package
systems, the two most important are epoxies and
polyurethanes. The properties of both systems are related
to the chemical constitution of the reactants. Epoxies are
less complex than polyurethanes because of the more
limited choice of reactants. Epoxies are available in
molecular weights ranging from materials which are liquid
at room temperature to high molecular weight materials
which may themselves be used without crosslinking as
lacquers. The epoxy resin is most commonly cured in the
field with polyamines or polyamides. With a given epoxy,
polyamines produce a tighter crosslinked film having
greater chemical resistance, hardness, and cure response
than the same resin cured with a polyamide. The
polyamides give better flexibility, water resistance and exterior durability. As a molecular weight (distance between
reactive Oxirane groups) of the epoxy resin increases, the
cured material becomes more flexible, but poorer in solvent resistance.
In general, epoxies show excellent adhesion, good
chernical resistance, especially to alkalis, and good solvent resistance. Epoxies have less acid resistance than
vinyls and chlorinated rubbers, but show good abrasion
and impact resistance. Exterior durability is hampered only by a tendency to chalk and yellow, which is not progressive and does not affect resistance properties. Chalk
resistant epoxies with good color retention are now
availableJ5.Because of the variety of possible epoxy resins
and curing agents, performance capabilities will vary widely from one product to the nextJs.
With certain coal-tar pitches, epoxy systems give
synergistically improved coatings, which, at 16-20dry mils
or so, give good protection against moisture and oxygen
transmission, chemical attack and physical abuse. They
are ideal coatings for areas with restricted access after application.
Polyurethane systems have an even wider variety of
possible reactants. While polyisocyanates are generally
limited to adducts of toluene diisocyanate or hexamethylene diisocyanates, polyols used in the formulation
are exceptionally varied. Almost any resinous material
having di- or poly-functionality based on a hydrogen donor
will react with isocyanates, although - O H functionality is
most widely used in coatings. The opportunities for
molecular engineering with the urethane (and its
associated groups, ureas, substituted ureas, allophanates, biurets, etc.) are much greater than with other
types of vehicles. Hydroxy-terminated polyesters and
acrylics, epoxies and other polyethers, phenolics,
polycaprolactams, cellulosics, and even alkyds are all
possible hydrogen donors. The urethanes may range from

hard, chemically resistant finishes, to soft rubbery

finishes having good abrasion resistance. Toluene diisocyanate coatings give exceptional chemical and abrasion
resistance, while hexamethylene diisocyanate systems
have exceptional light and weather resistance, and despite
high costs are finding ever increasing markets. Urethanes
show better curing properties at low temperatures than do
most epoxies, but specific properties will depend greatly
upon the type of modifier selectedJ7.
VI. PIGMENTS IN ANTICORROSIVE FINISH

COATS
Pigments for finish coats must also be chosen with
care. Some common types are discussed in a separate
chapter. Alkaline pigments ( c a l c i u m carbonate,
ultramarine blue, etc.) must not be used in acidic environments, and alkalis will attack alkali-sensitive
pigments (chrome yellow, iron blue, etc.). Metallic
pigments may be attacked at either extreme of pH, but,
used in flake form in neutral environments, reduce the
moisture and oxygen transmission. Aluminum and stainless steel flakes are also ideal for high temperature
coatings. Other inert finishes may be employed with nickel
titanate, chromium green oxide, titanium dioxide, iron oxide (brown) and a range of calcined pigments based on
mixed inorganic oxides.
If both the environment and the chemistry of the pigment are understood, design error can be avoided, and
pigmentation can assist the polymer in providing the
necessary protection against the environment. Thus,
pigments may actually improve the ultraviolet resistance
of the vehicle, its resistance to microbiological and
biological agents such as marine foulants and mildew, and
its physical properties.
Inert extenders may be used to advantage in finish
coats to adjust the p.v.c./c.p.v.c. ratios, at less cost than
prime hiding pigments. Pyrogenic and ultrafine silicas may
also be used as thixotropes and flatting agents.
VII. CONCLUSION:
The design of effective anticorrosive coatings for
steel structures is a complex discipline that borrows extensively from both corrosion science and coatings
technology. Unhappily, all too often there is too little communication between these parent technologies and fewer
attempts by scientists and engineers of either practice to
cross the interface and assess the same problem from
the others perspective.
If we are to serve our respective disciplines to mutual
benefit in our avowed war on corrosion, a more intensive
effort to appreciate the problems involved on both sides of
the interface is required of us all - corrosion engineer and
paint chemist alike. A desire to foster such effort has been
the driving force behind the presentation of this chapter.
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93
SSPC C H A P T E R * 1 - 2
TABLE 1
SOME PROPERTIES OF FINISH COAT MATERIALS FOR EXTERIOR EXPOSURE
Oil Paints
Alkyd-Long Oil
Alkyd-MediumOil
A l k y d - S M Oil
Alkyrhstyrenated
Alkyd-Siliconized
Alkyd-AminoComb.
Silicone
Siliconized Polyester
Thermoplastic Acrylic
Thermosetting Acrylic
Acrylic Latex
Fluorocarton
Epoxy-Polyester
Epoxy-Phenolic
Epoxy-Amine
Epoxy-Amide
Epoxy Ester
UrethaneOil Modified
UrethaneMoisture Cure
UrethaneAliphaticTwo Pack
Urethanekomatic Two Pack
Vinyl Lacquer
Chlorinated Rubber
Styrene Butadiene
Asphaltics
Coal Tar
Coal Tar-Epoxy
Oil Paints
F
F
G
F
F
P
P
F
F
F
F
F
G
F
F
F
G
G
G
G
G
F
F
F
P
P
P
P
F
F
F
F
F
F
F
F
F
F
P
F
'
VG
G
'
*
F
E
G
G
F
G
E
G
E
G
P
G
E
E
E
E
E
G
G
G
E
E
E
G
F
F
G
G
G
E
E
E
E
G
G
G
G
F
G
E
E
E
E
G
G
G
G
F
F
G
G
G
E
E
P
P
P
P
P
F
E
F
E
P
G
G
F
P
F
E
F
E
G
E
G
G
F
F
G
E
E
VG
F
E
E
VG
F
P
G
E
E
E
G
E
E
VG
G
F
G
E
E
E
E
E
E
E
G
F
G
E
E
G
G
F
F
F
F
F
G
F
G
G
G
G
G
P
F
E
G
G
G
G
G
F
F
G
E
E
E
G
G
G
P
E
E
E
G
G
F
P
P
F
F
E
E
E
G
G
V
E
E
E
E
E
E
P
P
P
P
P
P
G
P
P
P
P
P
P
E
P
E
G
G
E
G
G
'
'
Alkyd-Long Oil
Alkyd-Medium Oil
Alkyd-Short Oil
Alkyd Styrenated
AlkyrhsiIiconized
Alkyd-AmimCmb.
Silicone
'
'
Siliconized Pdyester
Thermoplastic Acrylic
Thermocetting Acrylic
'
*
'
'
'
'
'
Acrylic Latex
Fluorocarton
Epoxy-Polyester
Epoxy-Phenolic
Epoxy-Amine
Epoxy-Amide
Epoxy Ester
Urethane01Modified
UrethaneMoistureCure
UrethaneAliphaticTwo Pack
UrethaneAromatic Two Pack
Vinyl Lacquer
Chlorinated Rubber
Styrene Butadiene
Asphaltics
Coal Tar
Coal Tar-Epoxy
Key: E = Excellent
VG = Very Good
G=Good
F = Fair
P = Poor
BIOGRAPHY
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
chapter: Ted Dowd, Jarry Drake, Dick Drisko, Arnold Eickhoff,
Harlan Kline, Frank LaQue, Bob Martell, William Mathay, John
Montle, Chuck Munger, Bruno Perfetti, Percy Pierce, E. Praschan,
Melvin Sandler, Ron Skabo, William J. Wallace, Jr., and Harry
Wonders.
Clive H. Hare of Coating

System Design, Inc. has been
Editor of the Materials Technology section of the Journal of Protective Coatings and Linings
since 1989. In his work as a consultant, after having spent ten
years as chief chemist of Cadillac Paint Ei Varnish, Hare has
developed anti-corrosive coatings and coatings specifications
for many organizations, such as
raw materials suppliers, the military, NASA, and highway
departments.
Among his numerous publications are Units 26 and 27 of the
original FSCT Series on Coatings Technology (Corrosion and the
Preparation of Metals for Painting and Anti-Corrosive Barriers and
Inhibitive Primers); "Specific Utility in the Design of Coatings Systems for Steel Bridges," JPCL, October 1984, for which he won
SSPC's Annual Publication Award; and the recently issued book,
The Painting of Steel Bridges, a synthesis of highway practice
emanating from his work for the Transportation Research Board.
He is an active member of the National Association of Corrosion
Engineers (NACE).
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17
Not for Resale
SSPC CHAPTERaL.2 9 3
8627940 0003448 088 M
REFERENCES
1. L.I., Shreir, Corrosion Vol. 2, p.15.26 Wiley, New York, 1963.
2. C.H. Hare, Anti-Corrosive Barrier and Inhibitive Primers Unit
?7 Federation Series on Coatings Technology, Federation of
Societies for Coatings Technology, Phila., 1979.
3. C.H. Hare, Corrosion and the Preparation of Metals for Painting Unit 26 Federation Series on Coatings Technology,
Federation of Societies for Coatings Technology, Phila., 1978.
4. K.W. Allen, Strength and Structures Aspects of Adhesion
Vol 1, 14, University Press of London, 1965.
5. T.R. Bullet and A.T.S. Rudram, J.O.C.C.A. 11, 1959, 789.
6. J.E.O. Mayne, Official Digest, 24, 325, 127, 1952.
7. D.M. MacDonald, Official Digest 33, 432, 7, 1961.
8. Pittsburgh Society for Paint Technology, Official Digest 33,
436, 1427, 1961.
9. W.W. Kittelberger and A.C. Elm, Ind. Eng. Chem., 44, 326,
1952.
10. J.E.O. Mayne, Br. Corr. J., 5, 106, 197.0.
11. J.E.O. Mayne and D.J. Mills, J.O.C.C.A., 58, 155, 1975.
12. C.C. Maitland, Ph.D. Thesis U. of Cambridge, England, 1959.
13. B.W. Cherry and J.E.O. Mayne, Official Digest, 33, 435, 469,
1961.
14. G.W. Raothwell, J.O.C.C.A., 52, 219, 1969.
15.. B.W. Cherry and J.E.O. Mayne, Sec. Int. Congress on Metallic
Corrosion (N.Y.) 680, 1966.
16. J.D. Keane, W. Wettach and C. Bosch, J.P.T., 41, 533, 372,
1969.
17. A.W. Peabody, Principles of Cathodic Protection, NACE Basic
Corrosion Course National Association of Corrosion Engineers, Houston, 1974.
18. M.J. Stern of Electrochemical Soc., 105, 11, 638, 1958.
19. A.J. Eickhoff, Am. Paint Journal, July 16, 1973, p54.
20. M. Kowalik, N. Intorp and N. Lange, 7th Int. Cong. on Metallic
Corrosion, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, 1978.
21. C.G. Munger, Mat. Perf. 14, 5, 25, 1975.
22. T. Ginsberg, C.N. Merriam, L.M. Robeson, J.O.C.C.A., 59,315,
1976.
23. D.M. Berger, Modern Paint and Coatings, June 1975.
24. D.M. Berger, Metal Finishing, 27, 1979.
25. G.H. Law, W.M. McMahon, US. Pat. 3,615,730 and 3,653,930.
26. G.H. Law, W.M. McMahon, Dutch Pat., 6,900,749.
27. A. Oken, U.S. Pat. 3,660,119.
28. M. Tellor, Mat. Perf., 17, 9, 37, 1978.
29. K.B. Tator, Mat. Perf. 15, 3, 9, 1976.
30. D.M. Berger, Modern Paint and Coatings, October 1980.
31. F.A. Simko, Jr., V.P. Simpson, J.C.T., 48, 614, 61, 1976.
32. R. Cressey, Bath Iron Works, Private Communication.
33. D.M. Berger, Metal Finishing, April 1978.
34. C.H. Hare, J.P.T. 47, 605, 69, 1975.
35. R.G. Young, J.C.T., 49, September 1977.
36. D.M. Berger, PDCA, November 1976.
37. D.M. Berger, Modern Paint and Coatings, July 1981.
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18
Not for Resale
73
SSPC CHAPTER*2.0
8627740 0003447 T L 4
CHAPTER 2.0
SURFACE PREPARATION
by
H. William Hitzrot
I. INTRODUCTION
high-pressure water blasting and high-pressure blasting

with a mixture of water and sand.
It is widely recognized that surface preparation is the

most Important single factor in coating performance. As
our knowledge of the relationship. between coating and
metal substrate expands, so also does the need for improved and varied surface preparation techniques. This
series of chapters represents the current state of the art
and covers most aspects of industrial applications of
mechanical surface preparation.
Chapter 2.1 Centrifugal Blast Cleaning
Chapter 2.2 Metallic Abrasives
Chapter 2.3 Non-Metallic Abrasives
Chapter 2.4 Abrasive Air Blast Cleaning
Chapter 2.5 Water Blast Cleaning
Chapter 2.6 Hand and Power Tool Cleaning
Chapter 2.7 Field Surface Preparation Costs
Chapter 2.8 Other Methods and Factors in Surface Preparation
Chapter 2.9 Chemical Cleaning in the Field
Pickling is described in a separate chapter.
The chapters were authored by recognized authorities
and cover not only the methods of surface preparation but
also equipment, types of abrasive, surface preparation
cost and some future alternatives. They provide up-to-date
information on mechanical surface preparation with a
ready reference and background for ChOOSinQthe proper
technique for a given job. For those experienced in the
field this material not only reviews techniques but offers
possible solutions for some of the out of the ordinary surface preparation jobs as well. Each mechanical method is
described in detail together with recommended applications and examples. Also included are types of equipment
and anticipated performance criteria.
Both metallic and non-metallic abrasives are discussed. The various abrasives available are described
along with recommended applications for these abrasives.
Reference is made to a number of specialty abrasive products and their applications.
Surface preparation costs are discussed as a separate
section, providing the reader with one means of comparison among the various approaches to mechanical surface preparation.
These chapters cover those methods of surface
preparation requiring mechanical force as well as the
related equipment, abrasive materials, and costs.
Mechanical methods include hand and power tool cleaning, centrifugal wheel blasting, compressed air blasting,
II. DISCUSSION
Mechanical surface preparation has been the traditional approach to preparing metal substrates for subse
quent coating systems. Surface preparation methods vary
from the most rudimentary hand scraper to laser beams.
The broad spectrum of tools available suggests that surface preparation is in fact a complex process and therefore
requires a good understanding of the mechanical surface
preparation process and job parameters that dictate the
process. As an aid in selecting the proper mechanical surface preparation process, the following brief discussion of
job parameters and associated techniques is provided.
A. LOCATION OF JOB
Although often not considered, the location of a job is
an important parameter in the selection of a surface
preparation method. I f the job is on a production line, then
an automatic operation such as a centrifugal wheel
machine should be considered. On the other hand, outside
fabrication, maintenance or repair jobs generally call for
portable hand and power tools and manual sand blasting. If
the job is located in an area where soluble salts could be a
surface contaminant, such as near the ocean or in an industrial atmosphere, then wet blast cleaning may be
preferable.
B. CONDITION OF SURFACE
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
The surface preparation method selected will depend

on the condition of the surface to be cleaned. For example,
is it coated, rusted, painted, or coming directly from the
mill? Scaled and rusted surfaces are best cleaned by any of
the mechanical methods that employ an abrasive medium.
Painted surfaces can be cleaned by hand or with power
tools to remove loose paint. For more extensive cleaning of
painted surfaces, an abrasive blast cleaning method can be
used. Steel coming directly from the mill is usually cleaned
by means of production line centrifugal wheel machines.

C. DEGREE OF CLEANLINESS
The required degree of cleanliness as defined by the
SSPC Surface Preparation Specification is a determining
factor in the method of cleaning. Hand tool and power tool
specifications apply only where localized surface prepara19
Not for Resale
8 b 2 7 9 4 0 0003450 736
or finishing steps. If the final coating is two mils or less,

the surface finish should be finer than if a heavy coating
were required. Ideally, test panels prepared prior to the
start of a job offer the best method for testing the adequacy of a chosen surface finish. A report is available from
the SSPC on profile, its formation, its measurement, its
control, and its effect on coating performance4.
Most coating manufacturers recommend a degree of
cleanliness and a minimum etch or profile for good coating
adhesion. When .choosing a mechanical surface preparation method, one should take into consideration the compatibility of the subsequent coating. To aid in selecting the
proper abrasive for a given surface profile or etch, Table I
is provided as a guide.
tion is required, as in the removal of loose paint, loose rust,

or other localized surface defects. Blast cleaning
specifications usually cover applications where the entire
surface is to be prepared to a defined degree of
cleanliness.
D. PHYSICAL VERSUS CHEMICAL

CLEAN LIN ESS.
Studies by R. Allen and A. McKelvie2, confirmed by
SSPC3, show that residual chemical contaminants may
be a greater threat to a coating system than physical surface imperfections. According to these studies, ordinary
abrasive blast cleaning techniques do not remove nonvisible contaminants such as salts from a rusted, contaminated surface. Methods such as high-pressure water
blasting and high-pressure water-abrasive blast cleaning
have proven more effective in removing such surface contaminants. A further discussion of water blasting is given
in the subsection dealing with water blast cleaning.
F. ENVIRONMENTAL CONSTRAINTS
In recent years environmental constraints have played
an ever larger role in the selection of surface preparation
methods. To minimize dust, cheaper sands are being
replaced by costlier and less abundant products such as
boiler slags or copper slags. Also, enclosed rather than
open blasting is being favored. If enclosed blast cleaning
is necessary, consideration should be given to recyclable
steel abrasives and automated centrifugal wheel blasting
E. PROFILE
The surface finish (or profile) resulting from surface
preparation should be compatible with subsequent coating
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
SSPC CHAPTERsZ-0 93
TABLE 1
Typical Profiles Produced by Some Commercial Abrasive Media
Maximum
U.S. Sieve
Size
Typical Profile Height, (mils)

Average
Maximum
Maximum
Steel Abrasives
Shot 5-230
Shot S-280
Shot S-330
Shot S-390
Grit G-50
Grit G-40
Grit G-25
Grit G-14
20
18
16
14
30
20
16
12
2.9
3.5
3.8
4.6
2.2
3.4
4.6
6.5
f
f
f
f
f
f
f
f
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.8
2.2
2.5
2.8
3.5
1.6
2.4
3.1
5.1
f
f
f
f
f
f
f
f
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.7
0.3
0.5
0.7
0.9
Medium-Fine
Medium-Fine
Medium
Medium
Coarse
Medium-Fine
Coarse
Medium
Medium-Fine
Fine
3.5
3.5
4.0
4.6
6.0
2.6
6.0
4.5
3.5
2.5
f
f
f
f
f
f
f
f
f
f
0.4
0.4
0.5
0.5
0.7
2.6
2.7
2.9
3.1
3.7
2.2
5.5
4.0
3.0
2.0
f
f
f
f
0.4
0.4
Mineral 81 Slag Abrasives
Heavy Mineral Sand

Flint Shot
Silica Sand
Boiler Slag
Boiler Slag
St aurolite
Copper Slag (Air-Cooled)

Not for Resale
0.4
.7
.5
.5
.5
0.4
0.5
fi 0.7
f 0.4
f .5
f .5
f .5
f .5
SSPC CHAPTER*2.0
73
8627740 0003453 672
machines. To m i n i m i z e subsequent environmental prob-
BIOGRAPHY
lems, one should investiaate

- the environmental imDact of a
given surface preparation mechanism. This subject is explored in a separate chapter on other surface preparation
methods. This chapter is also available for t h o s e w h o have
d i f f i c u l t or u n i q u e cleaning p r o b l e m s or ones that require
a novel approach.
Bill Hitzrot is an active

member of the Steel Structures
Painting Council and currently
chairman of the Abrasives Committee.
pent 31 years with
Bethlehem Steel, initially in the
Research Department and then
with a business unit developing
and then manufacturing steel
abrasives. Currently, Bill is Vice
President of Chesapeake
Specialty Products, Inc., a
manufacturer of steel abrasives.
He is actively involved in the abrasives industry.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
chapter: William Chandler, Ted Dowd, Richard Drisko, M.
Lichtenstadter, A.W. Mallory, Marshall McGee and William Pearson.
REFERENCES
1. J.R. Allen and C. Calabrese, Corrosion, pp. 331-338, Vol. 34,
No. 10, Oct. 1978.
2. A.N. McKelvie, Evaluation of Various Cleaning Processes for
Steel, Paint Research Association, Waldegrove Rd., Teddington Middlesex, TW11 8LD, England.
3. J.D. Keane, J.A. Bruno and R.E.F. Weaver, Surface Profile for
Anti-Corrosion Paints, Steel Structures Painting Council,
1976.
4. Keane, et. al.
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21
Not for Resale
S S P C C H A P T E R * Z = L 9 3 W 86279YO 0003Y52 509 W
CHAPTER 2.1
MECHANICAL SURFACE PREPARATION

CentrifugaI Blast Cleaning
by
A.
W.Mallory
Among the most prominent applications of centrifugal
blast cleaning is surface preparation of structural steel for
painting. Centrifugal blast cleaning of structural steel
FIGURE 1
Centrifugal Blast Wheel; Development of Blast Pattern.
Courtesy of Wheelabrator-Frye Inc.
FIGURE 2
Centrifugal Blast Wheel; Abrasive Feed and Blast.
Courtesy of Pangborn.
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Centrifugal blast cleaning relates, not only to cleaning structural steel, but to a wide range of applications
that include etching, deburring, deflashing, texturing, shot
peening, cleaning and descaling. It is typically used for
machine parts, castings, forgings, steel mill rolls, steel
plates and shapes, fabricated units, molded plastic and
rubber parts, cut stone and acoustical ceiling tile. The list
grows annually as new applications are discovered, as
costs of other means become prohibitive, and as pressures increase from OSHA, environmentalists and ecologists. The art of air blasting began prior to the turn of the
century, but centrifugal (airless) blast cleaning, since its
introduction in 1932, has emerged as an efficient process
for ever increasing types of applications.

22
Not for Resale
BLAST P A T T E R N FOR T Y P I C A L
FABRICATED BEAM
continuous surface preparation and painting systems,

including air blast enclosures for touch-up blasting. Centrifugal blast cleaning machines are used in most steel
fabrication shops.
Traditionally, the process has been limited to installa
tions in fabricator shops. However, portable systems
recently have been developed to provide on-site, dust-free
cleaning of structures, such as storage tanks and ships,
during construction as well as maintenance.
Portable systems are economical and environmentally acceptable. Mobile (transportable) systems also have
been developed for surface preparation prior to steel
coating at construction sites.
Major advantages of centrifugal blast cleaning, compared to airblast cleaning, are savings in time, labor,
energy and abrasive consumption. A further advantage is
automation of the cleaning operation, which provides
superior, more uniform cleaning of steel and more acceptable environmental operating conditions.
RECOMMENDED
30
MINIMUM EFFECTIVE
ANGLE OF IMPINGEMENT
FIGURE 3
Typical Blast Pattern; Wide Flange or Fabricated Beam (4 Blast
Wheels).
dates back to the late 1940s and, of steel for major construction projects, to the middle 1950s. Since then, centrifugal blast systems have been developed for cleaning
structural steel before and after fabrication, including
massive fabrications of irregular shapes and complex construction. Machines are often integrated into in-line,
@l
WHEEL UNIT
2 CABINET
~-
FIGURE 5
,Y, _,
Airwash Separator System.

Courtesy Wheelabrator-Frye, Inc.
5DUST
I. PRINCIPLES OF OPERATION
Centrifugal blast cleaning machines use motordriven, bladed wheels to hurl abrasive at the surface by
centrifugal force. The abrasive used for structural steel
cleaning consists of tiny particles of alloy steel, generally
ranging in size from 0.005 to 0.040 inches in diameter.
These particles, unlike sand, resist fracturing despite repeated impacts at high velocity. Abrasive is fed to the
center of the wheel and moved onto the inner end of the
blades by an impeller. As abrasive particles move down
the blade (Figure l), they are accelerated and hurled at
high velocity at the surface. Centrifugal blast wheels are
available in several sizes and may be equipped with drive
motors of up to 100 hp (horsepower) for high production
4 ABRASIVE CLEANING & RECYCLING

FIGURE 4
Blast Cleaning Machine.

Courtesy of Wheelabrator-Frye, Inc.
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

23
Not for Resale
SSPC
CHAPTER*Z.L
93
ab27940 0003454 3L
DESCALING MACHINE
ABRASIVE REMOVAL SECTION
EXIT ROLL CONVEYOR
DRAG CHAIN CONVEYOR
DRAG CHAIN CONVEYOR

FIGURE 6
Pre-Fabricating Descaiing and Painting System.
applications. Generally, motor sizes o f 15 to 60 hp, with

wheels ranging from 15 to 20 inches in diameter, are used
for structural steel cleaning.
Until recently, under average operating conditions,
velocities of the abrasive from the airblast nozzle or the
airless wheel were similar, about 14,000 feet per minute
(fpm). For special applications the velocity can be decreased by reducing air pressure to the nozzle or cutting
the rotational speed of centrifugal units. New develop
ments in centrifugal blast units have increased abrasive
velocities to 18,000 - 19,000 fpm, with impressive cleaning
results. Since work accomplished is based on the familiar
MV2
formula -,
where M = mass and V = velocity of the
2
abrasive particles, it is easy to visualize the effect obtained when the velocity component (V) is increased.
FIGURE 8
Pre-Fabrication Descaling System (4 Blast Wheels); Cleaning of
Small Parts on Racks.
C l A l & & *L
Because blast cleaning*results depend on volume or mass

(M) of abrasive particles impinged against the surface per
unit of time, additional horsepower also can be used to increase the volume of abrasive being thrown and to increase the blast cleaning rate.
Centrifugal blast cleaning machines incorporate one
or more wheel units, positioned so the abrasive blast will
reach the entire surface. Generally, the abrasive from each
I i 4
FIGURE 7
Pre-Fabrication Descaling System Channels-Prior to and After
Blast Cleaning.
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

24
Not for Resale
SSPC C H A P T E R x 2 . 1 9 3
8627940 0003455 218
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
ROOF SLOT FOR OVERHEAD

CONVEYOR OR CRANE
__--
~-~-
-Y
FIGURE 9
Post-Fabrication Descaling System.
wheel is thrown in a fan-like pattern (Figure 3) covering an

area about 3-4 inches wide and 36 inches long. The number
of wheels needed is determined by the size, complexity
and shape of the surface. Cleaning can be accomplished
in one loadinglunloading cycle or, in the case of structural
steel surface preparation, in one pass through the
machine. Rate and degree of cleaning will vary depending
on the number of wheels used and the size, type and quantity of abrasive. The nature of the material to be cleaned
and other variables also must be considered.
Specifications for the machine selected should be
based on analysis of present and future surface preparation requirements, in terms of work size and production
volume. Although larger and smaller machines are
available for particular needs, a typical structural steel
blast cleaning machine generally has a combination of
four to eight wheels (Figure 4). If each wheel unit is
powered by a 30 hp motor, a four-wheel cleaning system
has the capability to propel approximately 3,200 pounds of
abrasive per minute. An airblast cleaning operation would
require forty-four 318-inch diameter nozzles and a 3,000
hp air compressor to equal this abrasive capacity.

Essential components of all centrifugal blast cleaning systems are blast wheels, blast enclosure, work
conveyors, abrasive recovery and recycling system, and
dust collector (Figure 4). The type and arrangement of components will differ greatly, depending on application of the
system. It is essential to provide sufficient ventilation to
ensure that air pressure within the blast enclosure is lower
than the ambient pressure. That allows dust generated by
the blast cleaning to be drawn into the dust collector and
prevents it from escaping from the blast enclosure into
adjacent work areas. Openings provided for conveying the
work through the blast enclosure must be equipped with
good seals to prevent flying abrasive and dust from
escaping.
Spent abrasive thrown by the blast wheels drops into
hoppers beneath the blast chamber. There it is recovered
and conveyed to an abrasive reclamation system, where
contaminants are removed in an air-wash separator
(Figure 5) and reclaimed abrasive is returned to a storage
hopper. From there it is again fed to the wheels. Dust is
drawn from the machine into a dust collector, keeping adjacent areas clean and dust-free.
25
Not for Resale
SSPC C H A P T E R * 2 * L
93 W 8 b 2 7 9 4 0 000345b 1 5 4 W
II. PRE-CONSTRUCTION (SHOP) CLEANING
A thin-film primer can be applied in line with the blast

machine to minimize rustina durina fabrication. Opera-
A. PR E-FABR ICATI O N SYSTEMS
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Systems designed to clean plate and structural

members prior to fabrication will generally include a loading conveyor, possibly equipped with a drag chain loading
table; a centrifugal blast machine; and an exit conveyor,
which also may include a drag chain table for clean steel
storage. Depending on requirements of the individual fabricator, the system also may include a paint spray booth and
a drying oven (Figure 6). Prefabrication systems normally
are equipped with roll conveyors.
Illustrations of channels before and after blast cleaning are shown in Figure 7. Parts, which because of size or
shape cannot be passed through the machine onto the
rolls, may be placed on racks or screens as shown in
Figure 8.
FIGURE 11
Post-Fabricating Descaling System (8 Blast Wheels); Rack
Loading; Drag Chain Work Car Conveyor.
FIGURE 10
Post-Fabricating Descaling System (8 Blast Wheels). Rack
Gantry Crane Conveyor.
Loading
Aside from reduced cleaning time obtained with automated cleaning systems, there are several advantages of
cleaning steel prior to fabrication. They include:
1. Inspection of cleaned steel for defects revealed by
the blast.
2. More accurate layout for fabrication operations.
3. Faster steel cutting and burning.
4. Improved tool life (punches, shears, saws, etc.).
5. Improved weld quality.
l
i or reduction
~
i of ~blast ~
cleaning
~ after
~
6. ~
fabrication.
FIGURE 12
~
Post-Fabricating
~
Descaling System (8 Blast Wheels); Roll Conveyor.
26
Not for Resale
SSPC C H A P T E R * Z - L
93
8627940 0003457 090
FIGURE 13A
Post-Fabrication Descaling System (Roll Conveyor); Entry Conveyor-prior to blast cleaning.
Exit Conveyor-after
tions such as welding, burning and punching can be performed without removing primer. Minimal touch-up is
required before applying the final prime coat. Depending
on the type of primer, a drying oven may also be required.
There are fast-drying primers available that do not require
a post cure at elevated temperatures, and, in lieu of a drying oven, a flash-off tunnel at the paint booth exit may be
required to exhaust volatile paint fumes.
located where crane access is required for other operations.

If most of the work involves bridge girders, a work car
system may be necessary with an overhead crane. This
work may be extremely long and often will have a camber
or slight curve. A push-pull, drag chain arrangement with
variable speed drive provides power to work cars
(Figure 11).
FIGURE 138
blast cleaning.
B. POST-FABRICATION SYSTEMS
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
A post-fabrication cleaning system (Figure 9) can

clean external surfaces of a wide variety of fabricated sections, including massive girders and trusses for highway,
power plant and industrial building construction.
Post-fabrication systems generally include:
a work conveyor of one of the following configurations: bridge crane; gantry crane; work car; and
roll conveyor.
an eight-wheel cabinet to accommodate work to be
blast cleaned and a selected conveyor system.
optional movable wheels to eliminate work-piece
turnover.
optional air blast unit for touch-up.
In post-fabrication blast cleaning systems the blast
chamber design may have a slot in the roof for a monorail,
bridge crane or gantry crane conveyors (Figure IO), since
many fabricated members cannot easily be conveyed on
roll conveyors or work cars. Also, the machine generally is

FIGURE 14
Post-Fabrication Descaling System (8 Blast Wheels); adjustable
wheels to accommodate deep girders.
27
Not for Resale
S S P C CHAPTER*Z.L
93
8627940 0003458 T 2 7
Ship Hull Bottom Cleaning System: Two Wheel Blast Head Units
in Foreground. (Official U.S. Navy Photograph)
Racks can be mounted on work cars for stacking and

hooking of miscellaneous structural members. The racks
can be pre-loaded so the shop can take maximum advantage of the cleaning time available.
A roll conveyor is the most economical way of handling structural steel. Use of a roll conveyor system (Figure
12) with an eight-wheel vertical cleaning machine offers a
fabricator economical handling and efficient cleaning. (lllustrations of fabricated girders before and after blast
cleaning are shown in Figures 13A and 138.) A multi-bay
structural shop can use this system with the direction of
the blast cleaning system either perpendicular to or in-line
with the work flow by using drag chain tables for efficient
work transfer to and from the conveyor at both sides of the
machine. Steel that will not roll directly on the conveyor
because of shape, size, or the presence of gusset plates,
etc., can be placed in baskets or on racks that will support
work through the blast cleaning machine.
The combination of overhead and roll conveyor
systems offers maximum flexibility to the shop that is
engaged primarily in fabrication of steel for industrial and
building applications.
Generally, in an eight-wheel vertical design machine,
five-to-six-foot high fabrications can be cleaned in a single
pass through the machine. Machine designs also are
available with moveable wheels to reduce handling of
larger fabrications. Rather than turn deeper girders over,
all eight wheels can be positioned upward, allowing the
girder to be passed back through the machine to clean the
remaining surface. All eight wheels must be moved to obtain the same degree of cleaning as during the first pass.
Adjustment of wheels is illustrated in Figure 14 (also refer
to Figure 9).
Shii, Hull-Side Cleaning System (Two Wheel Unit; 48 inch Cleaning'width). (Official U.S. Navy Photograph).
c. SYSTEMS APPROACH TO
To achieve maximum savings from a centrifugal blast

fabricating
cleaning and painting system, the
shop arrangement should be reviewed. Special
tion should be given to the following areas:
Shop layout and capability
FIGURE 17
Ship Deck Cleaning System (Two Wheel Unit; 48 inch Cleaning
Width). (Official U.S. Navy Photograph).
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

EQUIPMENT
SELECTION
28
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SSPC
CHAPTER+Z.L
93
8627940 0003459 9 6 3
DUST AND
nisms - presents an array of system combinations too

numerous to discuss in this chapter. It is emphasized that
work requirements must be thoroughly examined, and subsequent selection of equipment be based on use of the
total system concept to obtain maximum efficiency and
economy.
FIGURE 18
Portable Blast Cleaning System (Operational Schematic).

--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Present and projected scope of production

Cleaning and painting requirements
Pre-fabricating de-scaling system
Post-fabricating de-scaling system
Selection of the blast cleaning machine depends on
the configuration of the steel fabricated, cleaning requirements and shop layout. Most shops fabricate structural
steel in one bay and bridge girders in another. Some have
built separate shops due to the variation in methods of
fabrication. A pre-fabricating cleaning system generally is
located between the steel storage yard and the punch and
drill operations, whereas a post-fabricating cleaning system is usually located in the painting and shipping area. In
either case, it may be advisable to relocate the layout and
fabrication to achieve efficient work-flow through the
shop. Location of the blast cleaning system also may pose
a problem in older structural shops planned prior to the advent of centrifugal blast cleaning.
A systems approach to the selection of the blast
cleaning equipment and work handling components
results in a highly efficient, low cost surface preparation
operation. Fabricators may be tempted to select centrifugal blast cleaning machines with a large number of
wheel units with high horsepower to obtain fast cleaning
speeds while neglecting thorough evaluation of work handling and auxiliary systems. The result can be an inefficient capacity to handle production capability of the blast
cleaning machine. Cleaning costs can be reduced
markedly by matching the throughput capability of the
cleaning machine with existing, modified, or new work
handling and other related systems.
For either type of system, pre-fabrication or postfabrication cleaning, the evaluation of components blast cleaning machine, number and arrangement of centrifugal blast wheels, conveyor and work-handling mecha-

FIGURE 19
Portable Cleaning System - with Auxiliary Dust Collector. (Steel

Surface Parking Deck).
111. ON-SITE (PORTABLE) CLEANING

Traditionally, airless centrifugal blast process has
taken the form of fixed place equipment, with work to be
cleaned brought to the machine. Applying the centrifugal
wheel process to cleaning structures in place meant the
traditional approach had to be reversed, .e., it became
necessary to take the surface preparation process to the
work with a portable blast cleaning device.
Development of portable, centrifugal blast cleaning
systems dates back to the early 1960s, but commercial
application of such units first became reality in 1974.
Since then, several systems have been developed and
used for a wide variety of applications. For structural steel
cleaning, applications presently include ship decks, ship
hull bottoms and sides, storage tank exteriors (top and
shell) and the wet side of tank bottoms. Machines are
used during construction and for maintenance painting
operations.
Although many applications can be envisioned for
portable centrifugal blast cleaning systems, the real
impetus in the development of such systems was initiated
29
Not for Resale
73
8 6 2 7 7 4 0 00034b0 685
power supply. For applications where great amounts of

blast residues are generated andlor where effluent dust
cannot be tolerated, the total system includes a supplementary, large capacity dust collector (Figure 19).
Portable blast cleaning units, the type illustrated in
Figure 19, are used for the on-site blast cleaning of storage
tank tops (both floater and cone). Similar equipment is being developed to clean the inside bottoms of the tanks.
Modified versions of the basic blast machine also make it
possible to clean the external surface of the tank shell.
Smaller units, essentially hand-held, are being developed
for touch-up blast cleaning of small areas and cleaning
weld seams on horizontal and vertical surfaces.
Cleaning rates obtained with portable units are many
times greater than those produced by.airblast. Touch-up
cleaning by airblast (or various types of powered hand
tools) is required around narrow peripheral areas and protuberances. Otherwise, the operation is environmentally
clean and economical. Because it is essentially an
automated process, it provides greater consistency and
uniformity of cleaning than airblasting does.
FIGURE 20
Portable Cleaning System; Ship Deck Cleaning. (Official U.S:Navy Photograph)
in the early 1970s, the result of increasing pressure from

environmentalists and OSHA, and emphasis on the need
for more environmentally acceptable and economical alternatives to traditional, open airblasting. Most notably,
the United States Navy became increasingly aware of this
need because open airblasting of ship hulls and decks in
drydock created huge quantities of dust that settled
around the vessel and caused costly maintenance problems on board the ship and all over the shipyard. It also
posed a major health (air pollution) hazard which had to be
eliminated.
REFERENCES
1. B. Baldwin, Methods of Dust-Free Abrasive Blast Cleaning.
Plant Engineering, pp. 116-125, Feb. 16, 1978.
2. P.J. Bennett, Current Occupational Safety, Health, and
In 1974 and early 1975 portable systems custom designed to Navy specifications were put into production first at the Norfolk U.S.Navy Shipyard for cleaning hull
sides (Figure 16) and hull bottoms (Figure 15), and then at
Long Beach U S . Navy Shipyard for cleaning hull sides.
These systems now are used routinely in ship hull
maintenance painting operations. Machines incorporate
one or two blast wheels and clean a swath approximately
28 and 48 inches wide, respectively. Similar but less costly
and less complex systems are being developed for application on commercial and military vessels.
A mobile, self-propelled centrifugal blast cleaning
machine (Figures 17 and 20) for removal of heavy, anti-skid
coatings from aircraft carrier decks was first put into service at Long Beach, California, in 1975. Like the hull bottom
and side cleaners, two blast wheels are used to clean a
48-inch path. Smaller and more maneuverable companion
machines subsequently have been put into routine service.
Smaller units employ a single blast wheel and clean a
swath 20 inches wide.
In principle, the portable machines use the basic components required for stationary installation, .e., the blast
wheel, abrasive recovery and re-circulation, system ventilation, dust removal and collection and a work conveyor
(Figure 18).
In many applications, where small amounts of dust
are generated during blasting or where minor dust effluent
from the ventilationlcollector system is permissible, blast
cleaning units are completely self-contained except for

Pollution Codes and Their Effect on Surface Preparation.

Paper No. 46, pp. 1-9, 1973.
3. T.R. Bullett, Preparation and Protective Painting of Structural Steel. Corrosion Prevention and Control, Vol. 18, pp.
8-12, 1971.
4. Centrifugal Wheel Blast Cleaning of Steel Plate, Shapes and
Fabrications, NACE Publication 6G-174, Materials Performance, June, 1974.
5. B. Cromwall, L. Thureson and V. Victor, Centrifugal Blasting
of Steel: Cleaning and Coldworking. Swedish Corrosion
Institute Bulletin, No. 67, 1971.
6. Impact Finishing: Synthetic Abrasives Erode the Natural
Markets. lnd. Materials, No. 121, pp. 19-21,23, 25-27, 29, 31,
Oct., 1977.
7. A.W. Mallory, Centrifugal Blasting for Surface Preparation,
Society of Manufacturing Engineers, Technical Paper
MR79-764, 1979.
8. A.W. Mallory, Centrifugal Blast Cleaning of Surfaces for
Painting, Materials Performance, Vol. 16, No. 2, pp. 11-17,
February, 1977.
9. National Association of Corrosion Engineers Committee
T6-6-13, Cleanliness and Anchor Pattern Available Through
Centrifugal Blast Cleaning of New Steel. Materials Protecfion, Vol. 15, No. 4, pp. 9-13, April, 1976.
10. F.A. Scrima and A.W. Malldry, Centrifugal Blasting for Surface Preparation, American Society for Materials, Conference
Specialized Cleaning, Finishing and Coatings Processes,
February, 1980.
30
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SSPC CHAPTER*Z.L
SSPC C H A P T E R a 2 . 1 73
8627740 0003461 511
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

chapter: Jim Flaherty, Bill Hitzrot, Charlie Lewis, Joe Mazia,
Marshall McGee, Bill Pearson, and Bill Wallace.
BIOGRAPHY
A. W. DUKE MALLORY

--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
The late A.W. Duke Mallory

was a 1939 Aeronautical Engineering graduate of Tri-State
College, Angola, Indiana. Duke
held various positions in Design
and Sales Engineering and Marketing in the Landing Gear and
Nuclear Reactor Components
groups of the Bendix Corporation. In 1963 he joined Douglas
Aircraft where he held positions
of Design Engineer and Systems
Design Analyst in Hydraulics,
Landing Gear and Controls Systems Egineering groups.
In 1966 Duke joined the Materials Cleaning Systems Division,
Wheelabrator-Frye Inc., as a Project Engineer. He later was appointed Manager of Technical Development,Marketing Department, and
in 1974 assumed the additional position of Manager of Product Planning for the Division.
Duke actively represented Wheelabrator-Frye in the Steel Structures Painting Council, working on advisory committee activities in
steel surface preparationcleanliness and profile studies, and in similar activities of other industry associations, including the National
Association of Corrosion Engineers and the American Society for
Testing Materials.
31
Not for Resale
CHAPTER 2.2
METALLIC ABRASIVES
by
Einar A. Borch
tremely low abrasive flow rates in relation to total abrasive

in the system, the grit rounding process takes much
longer.
This chapter discusses the physical properties of

metallic blast-cleaning abrasives and describes their versatility in producing various required degrees of finish,
profile and cleanliness on metal surfaces. Also reviewed
are types
of metallic abrasives and an analysis of the
..
mechanics of blast cleaning with these abrasives.
Purchasing abrasive that meets the prescribed
chemical and physical specifications i s only one prerequisite for achieving the required cleaning and finish. An
equally important requirement is for the user to maintain
and operate the blast-cleaning system to produce a properly balanced size distribution in the abrasive working mix.
This, i n turn, can assure effective, efficient cleaning and
uniform finish.
These factors should be considered in evaluating the
performance of a metallic abrasive used to achieve a
specified finish:
Time required to achieve the specified finish
Abrasive consumption rate and its costs
Cost of wear, parts and maintenance of the
blast-cleaning equipment, including the effect of
down time for maintenance work.
No one type, size, shape or hardness of metallic
abrasive can fulfill all requirements of blast cleaning for all
applications. Therefore, the user must be prepared to
evaluate the above factors in selecting proper abrasive.
Metallic abrasives are available in a wide variety of types,
shapes, hardnesses and sizes. It is possible to select a
metallic abrasive with the right combination of properties
to meet specified finish requirements.
II. METHOD OF MANUFACTURE
111. HISTORY OF METALLIC ABRASIVES
Chilled iron shot was the first cast metallic abrasive

developed, coming into use shortly after the turn of the
century. It satisfied a vital need in the granite industry for
an improved, faster-cutting medium to replace sand, which
was being used for the gang-sawing and polishing of
granite blocks. Chilled cast iron abrasive cut much faster
than sand, and because it could be reclaimed and re-used,
resulted in dramatic reductions of cost per square foot of
sawed or polished surfaces.
Chilled iron shot and grit subsequently replaced sand
as the medium in many air-blast applications equipment.
Its use grew rapidly because one ton of chilled iron
abrasive did the work of 40-50tons of sand. Chilled iron
abrasive, moreover, cleaned better and faster.
In the mid-I930s, two events had major impact on the
growth of the metallic shot and grit industry: anti-silicosis
laws were imposed that prohibited the use of sand for
blast cleaning inside industrial plants; and the centrifugal
(airless) blast-cleaning method was developed.
Centrifugal blast cleaning, using chilled cast iron
shot and grit, eliminated the silicosis hazard of sand. It
also provided faster, more effective, and more economical
cleaning than with air-blast methods using non-metallic
abrasives. The use of metallic abrasives expanded rapidly.
I. TYPES OF METALLIC ABRASIVES

Three general types of metallic abrasives - cast steel
shot and grit, malleable iron shot and grit and chilled cast
iron shot and grit - are available for surface preparation.
(Cut-steel wire shot is a fourth type, but represents less
than one percent of all metallic abrasives produced.) The
choice of one type over another is a matter of matching
size, shape and hardness with the surface finish required
and evaluating relative consumption rates and cost.
In addition to hardness, the rapidity with which grit
rounds up depends upon the frequency that individual particles are recycled. With the airless blast equipment, the
frequency of recycling is rapid. In air-blast, due to the ex-

--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Raw materials and alloys are melted and adjusted to

meet required chemistry specifications for iron or steel.
Molten metal of the required temperature is removed from
the furnace and is channeled into streams, which then
drop onto jets of water under pressure, atomizing the
molten metal into random sizes of shot that fall into a
water-filled quenching pit. Atomization may also be accomplished mechanically, or by air or gas jets.
The cast shot is removed from the quenching pit and
heat treated. It is then screened into sizes in accordance
with Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE) specifications
(Table 1). Grit is produced by crushing hardened shot i n
roll-type crushers or ball mills, after which it is screened into SAE sizes and heat treated, as required.
32
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8627940 0003463 3 9 4
TABLE 1
SAE SHOT & GRIT SIZE SPECIFICATIONS WITH SUGGESTED REMOVAL
SIZES(')
CAST SHOT SPECIFICATIONS FOR SHOT PEENING OR BLAST CLEANING

N BS
Screen Standard
No.
mm
Screen Opening Sizes and Screen Numbers with Maximum and Minimum Cumulative Percentages Allowed on Corresponding Screens
S I E Shot Number
Screen
Size
(in)
5550
S1320
S460
(3)
4
5
6
7
8
10
12
14
16
18
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
80
120
200
4.75
4.00
3.35
2.80
2.36
2.00
1.70
1.40
1.18
1.00
0.850
0.710
0.600
0.500
0.425
0.355
0.300
0.180
0.125
0.075
S330
S2O
S230
5170
(4)
(0.187)
(0.157)
(0.132)
(0.111)
(0.0937)
(0.0787)
(0.0661)
(0.0555)
(0.0469)
(0.0394)
(0.0331)
(0.0278)
(0.0234)
(O 0197)
(0.0165)
(0.0139)
(0.01 17)
(0.007)
(0.0049)
(0.0029)
I
S390
Ail Pass
5 % max Ail Pass
5 % max All Pass
5 % max All Pass
85% rnin
5 % max
96% m i n 85% m i n
96% min 85% min
96% min 85% mir
96% mir
-
00117
O0082
0.0117
All Pass
10% max
Ail Pass
10% max
35% min
Ali Pass
37% min
10% max
80% min
90% min 80% min
90% min
-
Jggestei
0.0138
0.0070
0.0059
for Cleaning Structurai
I
0.0049
0.0029
CAST GRIT SPECIFICATIONS FOR BLAST CLEANING

NBS
Screen
NO.
Standard
mm
Screen
Size
Screen Opening Sizes and Screen Numbers with Minimum Cumulative Percentages Allowed on Corresponding Screens
CAE Grit Number
(in)
G10
G12
G14
G16
016
(4)
(0.187)
(0.157)
(0.132)
(0.111)
(0.0937)
(0.0787)
(0.0661)
(0.0555)
(0.0469)
(O 0394)
(0.0331)
(0.0278)
(0.0234)
(0.0197)
(0.0165)
(0.0139)
(0.0117)
(0.007)
(0.0049)
(0.0029)
(0.0017)
(3)
4
5
6
7
8
10
12
14
16
18
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
80
120
200
325
4.75
4.00
3.35
280
2.36
2.00
1.70
1.40
1.18
1.00
0.850
0.710
0.600
0.500
0.425
0.355
0.300
0.180
O 125
0.075
0.045
Suggested
Removal Sizes for
Cleaning of
structural Steed2)
AllPass
80%
90%
All Pass
80%
90%
-
Ail Pass
80%
90%
Ail Pass
75%
85%
-
All Pass
-
75%
85 %
-
G40
GSO
70%
80%
0.0232
0.0165
0.0165
0.0138
0.0117
0.0062
(3) Corresponds to I S 0 Recommendations.

(4) This is coarsest size in common use for blast cleaning structurai steel for painting

6200
G325
Ail Pass
-
All Pass
-
70%
80%
-
65%
75 %
0.0059
0.0049
65%
75%
-
All Pass
All Pass
60%
70%
All Pass
55%
65%
20%
0.0029
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
(1) Courtesy Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE J444a).
G120
Ail Pass
GE0
All Pass
-
025
33
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SSPC CHAPTERU2.2
93
8627940 00034b4 220

Much longer useful life - as much as a 2:l advantage for steel abrasive of 45 Rockwell C hardness.
As the use of centrifugal blast cleaning increased, it

was discovered that the combination of mass and velocity
of the extremely hard, friable chilled cast iron resulted in
two serious problems: fast abrasive breakdown and resultant high consumption cost, and extensive and costly wear
on the blast-cleaning equipment.
These problems were minimized by development of todays superior metallic abrasive - steel shot and grit. The
change came about, however, in stages over a period of
years.
First, chilled iron shot and grit was subjected to a normalizing process. The resultant malleable iron abrasive
had hardness values about half that of chilled iron
abrasive, with economic benefits: malleable iron abrasive
had up to double the life of chilled iron; and malleable iron
very markedly reduced the wear on blast-cleaning equip
ment.
Malleable iron abrasives provided definite improvement i n the economics of blast-cleaning, but introduced
new problems. Graphitic carbon, ordinarily present in the
malleable iron abrasive, often caused carbon deposition
on the work or substrate being cleaned, creating problems
in subsequent processing. Also, the use of malleable iron
shot and grit, being of lower hardness than chilled iron,
resulted in measurable reduction in cleaning rates and
sometimes in the ability to produce specified surface
finishes or anchor patterns.
A. COMMON USES OF METALLIC

AB RASIV ES
Metallic abrasives have several common uses:
1. Surface cleaning and preparation of metal products prior to coating and painting of the surface
(removal of mill scale, rust, old paint and other
contaminants, and generation of an anchor pattern to enhance coatings adherence).
2. Surface cleaning of ferrous and non-ferrous
castings (removal of molding sand, and heat treat
s ca Ie).
3. Surface cleaning of forgings, weldments and steel
mill products including slabs, billets, bars, plate,
sheet and strip, pipe and rolled structural shapes
(removal of mill scale, rust and other oxide accret io ns).
4. Surface cleaning of heat-treated metal products
(removal of oxide scale).
5. Surface preparation of fiberglass reinforced
plastic products for bonding.
6. Etching of hardened steel mill rolls.
7. Shot peening to impart residual compressive
stresses to improve fatigue properties of metal
products, and to minimize intergranular and
stress corrosion cracking of alloyed metal products.
8. Peen forming of aircraft wings.
9. De-flashing of precision molded rubber products
and some molded plastic (polymeric) parts.
10. Reduction of chemically bonded mold and core
sand lumps for reclamation and re-use of foundry
sand.
IV. CURRENT PRACTICE

Recognition of those problems led to the development
of cast steel shot and grit. Today, approximately 85 percent of all metallic abrasives are cast steel, which has
these advantages over malleable iron:
Wider selection of hardness ranges, permitting the
user to tailor abrasive hardness to finish requirements.
Elimination of the graphitic carbon deposition problem.
TABLE 2
DESCRIPTION OF PROPERTIES
HARDNESS
GRIT
ABRASIVES
SHAPE
SIZE
SHOT
Cast Steel
Shot or Grit
Full range of SAE

sizes (SAE J-444)
May be specified:
commercially available cast steel abrasives
have mid-range hardnesses of approximately
35 Rc, 45 Rc, 55 Rc, 65 Rc.
Malleable Iron
Shot or Grit
Full range of SAE

sizes (SAE J-444)
1 range
(28 RC - 40 RC)
1 range
(28 RC - 40 Rc)
Chilled Cast Iron
Shot or Grit
Full range of SAE

sizes (SAE J-444)
1 range
(57 RC - 68 Rc)
1 range
(57 RC - 68 Rc)
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

34
Not for Resale
93
B. ADVANTAGES
with respect to hardness, it must be noted that both of

these specifications were developed primarily for blastcleaning iron and steel castings, where an anchor pattern
is seldom critical on the finished casting. For many other
applications, and because of more critical finish requirements, the cleaning of structural steel and other products often requires abrasives of greater or lesser hardness
values than those specified by SAE J-827 and SFSA 20-66
(Rockwell C40-50).
The cost-benefit trade-offs in a users selection of
high versus low hardness in metallic abrasives requires
evaluation of the finish, desired speed of cleaning,
abrasive durability and equipment wear. Only the user can
make the proper choice based on fhe priority placed on
each of these factors.
The generally accepted specification for malleable
iron abrasive is SFSA 21-68. The size and chemistry
specification in SFSA 21-68 also applies to cast chilled
iron.
Compared to sand or other non-metallic abrasives,

metallic abrasives are used differently and have certain
advantages:
I . Longer useful life as compared to that of sand,
ranging from 50 times greater for chilled iron t o
more than 200 times greater for tempered cast
steel.
2. Greater impact for given size particles, resulting
in much faster and better cleaning. (Metallic
abrasives have a density of approximately 1-112to
2-112 times that of sand or other non-metallic
abrasives.)
3. Versatility and adaptability. Cast steel offers a
wide range of options in size and hardness, in addition to the basic choice between round shot
and sharp, angular grit.
4. Much greater visibility while blasting. (Dusting of
non-metallic abrasives causes visibility problems
and can create environmental hazards.)
5. Minimal embedment of abrasive particles. (Nonmetallic abrasives, because they are so brittle and
friable, have a different type of embedment than
metallics2.)
V. MECHANICS OF BLAST CLEANING WITH

METALLIC ABRASIVES
Abrasive blast cleaning is a battering or bombarding
of the work surface by continuing impact of abrasive particles propelled by compressed air through a nozzle, or by
centrifugal force from an airless blast wheel.
For abrasive particles to affect a change in the work
surface, the stress exerted by the individual shot or grit
particle at the point of impact must exceed the strength of
the work surface itself. Four factors determine that stress:
Energy contained in the propelled abrasive particle.
Area upon which that energy is expended, and the
angle of impingement.
Strength and hardness of the work being cleaned.
Strength and hardness of the abrasive particle.
Energy contained in a single particle of abrasive is
generally related to the variables of particle mass and
velocity, as illustrated by the
equation for kinetic energy - MV2
C. CONSTRAINTS
Basic constraints that must be recognized in the use
of metallic abrasives as a substitute for non-metallic
abrasives in airblast equipment are
1. The blast-cleaning operation must provide effective reclamation and recycling to realize the
durability advantage of the metallic abrasive
(abrasive leakage must be kept to the minimum by
proper maintenance of the blast-cleaning system).
2. To achieve consistent production cleaning quality, and optimum operating costs, careful attention must be given procedures for maintaining a
stabilized work mix, or operating mix, in the
system.
3. Metallic abrasives must be protected in such a
manner that they are not exposed to moisture or
corrosive environments.
4. Overblast must be avoided to assure proper profile for long-range performance of high-performance coatings.2
(M = mass; V = velocity)
When selecting new blast-cleaning equipment for a

given application, a choice of velocity is available. Velocity
is governed by air pressure in airblast systems, or by the
combination of wheel-peripheral speed, wheel diameter
(inside and outside) and shape and length of the wheel
blade in centrifugal (airless) blast cleaning.
It is apparent from the above equation that change in
velocity has the most significant effect on kinetic energy
of the particle. However, with any given blast-cleaning
equipment and under a given set of operating conditions,
the factor of velocity can, for all practical purposes, be
considered constant. Thus, for an abrasive of given hard-
D. CHEMICAL AND PHYSICAL PROPERTIES

(TABLE 2)
There are two generally accepted specifications for
cast steel shot and grit:
1. Society of Automotive Engineers - SAE J-827;
and
2. Steel Founders Society of America - SFSA
20-66.
From the standpoint of chemistry and screening,
either of the above is suitable for specifying steel shot and
grit to be used in metalworking applications. However,

8 6 2 7 7 4 0 O003465 Lb7
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--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
SSPC C H A P T E R t 2 . 2
SSPC C H A P T E R * 2 . 2
93
m Bb2799O 0003466
OT3
TABLE 3
EFFECT OF ABRASIVE SIZE O N IMPACT ENERGY AND COVERAGE
SA
Shot
-~
Size (1)
Approxima te
Shot Pellets
Per Pound (2)
Approximate Relative Effect

on Impact Energy
(Based on Weight) (3)
S-390
S-330
s-280
S-230
65,000
110,000
210,000
360,000
660,000
1,700,000
7,000,000
110
60
40
20
10
S-I70
s-110
S-70
5
1
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
(1) Basic shot size designations.

(2) Based on the mid-size pellet of the purchased abrasive.
(3) The weight of a particle of S-70 shot is considered as the base of 1 - all other values are relative to that base, varying as
the cube of the diameter. The data shown cannot be translated directly as kinetic energy.
S.330 (through 20-M or 40-M)

(NOTE: Round particles are fractures that have been rounded
back into spheres.)
S-330(through 18-Mor 20-M)
FIGURE 1
Fracture Failure (shot particles from work mix)
Courtesy: Ervin Industries, Inc.

36
Not for Resale
93
8 b 2 7 9 4 0 O003467 T 3 T
proximately 110 times more impact energy than the

smallest mid-size pellets.
Achieving the specified cleanliness and anchor pattern requires close control of the factors of impact energy
and the coverage on the work surface. Such control is attained by maintaining an effective balance of the size
distribution i n the work mix.
The mode of delivery or system by which the abrasive
is propelled determines the abrasive flow rate and
coverage per unit of time, which, in turn, affects finish and
cleaning rates. Abrasive flow rates of equipment to be purchased are predetermined by choice of airblast pressure
and nozzle configuration in airblast equipment or by
choice of wheel diameter and width, rotational speed,
blade (vane) design and drive-motor horsepower in cent rifugal (ai rless) b Iast -cIeaning eq u ip ment.
As noted in the chapter on abrasive air blast cleaning,
a 1/4 in. airblast nozzle has abrasive flow rates of about
eight pounds per minute, depending upon the air pressure
level. A 112 in. nozzle would have a flow rate of about 34
pounds per minute. Centrifugal blast-cleaning equipment
ness, the mass of the individual abrasive particle becomes

the significant variable in the energy exerted at impact on
the work surface.
Since the mass (in steel shot) varies as the cube of the
diameter, it can be recognized that even slight changes in
abrasive particle size can cause a major change in impact
energy delivered. This, in turn, can account for pronounced
changes in the effectiveness of contaminant removal and
in the finish or anchor pattern produced.
In addition to the impact energy delivered to the work,
another critical factor in blast-cleaning effectiveness is
coverage (a measure of impact distribution on the work
surface by the many pellets contained in the abrasive work
mix). Table 3 illustrates the dramatic differences in both
impact energy and coverage as particle size i s changed.
A general rule is that i f there is a difference in
diameter of 2:1, the relative impact energy is approximately 8:l and the relative coverage (pellets per pound) is approximately 13. As Table 3 reveals, a work mix using S-390
as the original size and retaining particles as small as new
S-70 will have the coarsest mid-size pellets delivering ap-
G-25 working mix (.0079") 80 mesh
G-25 working mix (.0165") 40 mesh
FIGURE 2
Evolution of the working mix using steel grit: While all particles in
the working mix started as original size G-25 (upper left), they
eventually rounded up and diminished in size under repeated impact, which imposes the two modes of abrasive failures. (approximately 1OX magnification)
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

37
Not for Resale
SSPC C H A P T E R x 2 . 2
93
= 8627940 0003468 97b
develops much higher flow rates, ranging from 165 pounds

with a 10 hp motor to as high as 2800 pounds per minute
with a 100 hp motor. As noted in the chapter on centrifugal
cleaning, this equipment for structural steel descaling
typically may have four 30 hp wheels, each throwing approximately 600 to 800 pounds per minute.
The mechanics of blast cleaning - how metallic
abrasives develop their tremendous cleaning power - can
be appreciated by thinking in terms of one 30 hp wheel
throwing from 600 to 800 times the numbers listed in Table
3 as pellets per pound for the various sizes at velocities
usually in excess of 240 feet per second. Harnessing that
cleaning power to best advantage depends on proper
abrasive selection (type, size and hardness) and constant
control over the developed work mix.
VI. MECHANICS OF METALLIC ABRASIVE

FA1LURE
Forces that work to develop the cleaning capability of
metallic abrasives also tend to reduce the size of the
abrasive particle and to cause its eventual breakdown to
dust. Two modes of abrasive breakdown are involved.
The first and predominant mode is fracture failure, the
inevitable result of an abrasive particles repeated impact
against the work being cleaned and against the wear parts
of the blast equipment itself. Such repeated impact
fatigues the abrasive until it fractures. Chilled iron grit
(55-67Rc) and full-hard (untempered) steel grit (66.68%)
fracture rapidly to sharp edged angular particles.
Tempered steel shot and grit and malleable iron shot and
grit also fracture, but much more slowly. Under continuing
impact the broken particles tend to be forged back into
smaller, near-round shape. The fracture and rounding process continues until individual particles are so small that
they are pulled out of the system by the abrasive separator
(exhaust) system (Figures 1 and 2).
The second mode of abrasive failure is called flaking (Figure 3). As the outer surface of the abrasive particle
is fatigued by repeated impact, microscopic flaking of the
surface occurs and, as impact continues, those flakes pop
off and are withdrawn through the separator system to the
dust collector.
Hardness aside, the relative rate of failure of the different types of abrasive varies in accordance with basic
chemistry and microstructure. Iron abrasives, due principally to extremely high content of carbon, phosphorus
and sulfur, fracture and fail much more rapidly than steel
abrasives.
70-X
FIGURE 3
Flaking failure of shot particles from work mix
In the case of steel abrasives that meet SAE andlor

SFSA specifications for chemistry, microstructure and
physical characteristics, hardness and microstructure are
the critical factors with regard to fracture and flaking
failure. Generally speaking, the harder the abrasive, the
faster its breakdown from fracture failure. The lower its
hardness, the more the abrasive resists and delays fracture failure, and surface flaking of the abrasive becomes a
contributing factor in its ultimate failure. However, frac-

ture failure is the dominant factor in the reduction of

abrasive particle size.
Harder steel abrasives, especially grit, also cause
greater wear on blast cleaning equipment. Every point of
hardness higher than that needed to provide the required
38
Not for Resale
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
700-X
93
8b2794O 00034b9 802
eventually are pulled out of the system by the separator

mechanism. New abrasive must be added at regular intervals at rates corresponding to loss of abrasive due to the
attrition or breakdown rate andlor by losses of usable
abrasive via the separator system or carry-out with the
work pieces.
The combination of new abrasive being added and the
gradual attrition and withdrawal of abrasive added earlier
results in a mixture of sizes commonly called the work mix
or operating mix.
Size distribution within the abrasive work mix is influenced by these factors:
Type and quality of abrasive
finish in the required time cycle contributes both to faster

abrasive failure and more rapid deterioration of the blast
equipment. (See Surface Profile for Anti-Corrosion
Paints, Ref. 2.)
From the standpoint of relative metallic abrasive consumption (considering products that meet their respective
SAEISFSA specifications), the following guidelines exist:
Chilled c a s t iron abrasives have a
breakdown rate as much as one third greater
than full hard (65 plus Rc) untempered steel grit.
Malleable iron abrasives have a breakdown
rate of 50% t o 100% greater than steel abrasive
in the 40-50 c hardness range.
Steel grit breaks down slightly faster than
steel shot of the same size and hardness range.
However, the smaller the size grit involved, the
greater the difference in breakdown compared to
shot.
Similarly, increasing the hardness of steel
shot or grit in a given operation increases the
breakdown rate. Obviously, however, the more
rapid breakdown of a harder steel abrasive
becomes academic if i t has been determined that
a lower hardness will not do the job.
Original size
Original shape
Original hardness and density
Velocity of thrown abrasive
Hardness of work being cleaned
Angle of impingement
Adjustment of air-wash separator (to control
abrasive size withdrawn from the system)
Loss of usable abrasive due to carry-out with work
pieces
Manner in which abrasive additions are made.
Figures 4,5, and 6 illustrate size distribution of typical
shotlgrit work mixes.
VII. ABRASIVE WORK MIX
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
As fracture and flaking failure continue, individual

abrasive particles become smaller and smaller until they
330
280
230
170
110
S330 Work-Mix
FIGURE 4
S.330 work mix. Work mix should contain all of above sizes, and should be neither predominantly coarse nor predominantly fine. Coarse
particles provide optimum impact energy; smaller particles provide optimum coverage.

39
Not for Resale
SSPC C H A P T E R * 2 - 2 9 3
G=25
8627940 0003470 5 2 4
G-40

FIGURE 5
G-25 work mix (centrifugal blast unit). A G-25 work mix may also contain material as fine as G-80. G-25 work mix should contain all of the
above sizes and should be neither predominantly coarse nor predominantly fine. Coarse particles provide optimum impact energy;
smaller particles provide optimum coverage.
VIII. ABRASIVE WORK MIX VS. FINISH

Control of the work mix size and maintaining a
stabilized work mix are vital factors in maintaining a consistent production rate and a quality finish. Representative
samples of the work mix, which actually does the cleaning
and provides the finish (anchor pattern), should be subjected frequently to careful sieve analysis to be sure the
work mix has its size distribution in balance, .e., not
predominantly coarse or fine.
The larger pellets in the work mix impart the greatest
impact energy per pellet, cracking or fragmenting heavy
surface contaminant on the work being cleaned and imparting identations of maximum peak-to-valley values.
Medium and smaller pellets in the work mix provide
greater coverage for scouring and complete removal of
cracked or fragmented surface contaminant. Because of
the decreased impact energy of the smaller abrasive particles, the peak-to-valleyvalue is decreased. Also, because
of the smaller size, greater number of impacts occur on a
given area of the work piece and greater peak population
results.
Figures 7 and 8 illustrate the effect of changing the
size distribution in the work mix on both profile height and
peak distribution. Those are based upon SSPC experimen-
tal work in both laboratory and plant. Also see Commentary on Surface Preparation in Volume 2 of the Steel
Structures Painting Manual. Each abrasive type, size and
shape has its own inherent impact life cycle, generally
measured in pounds used per blasting hour. Theoretically,
new abrasive should be added to the system every blasting
hour in amounts equal to the rate of withdrawal, or loss,
from the system. In practice, however, making additions
once a shift, or every eight hours, is acceptable. A continuous automatic system of abrasive replenishment is
the preferred and most reliable method of maintaining a
uniform work mix in a production operation.
Delay in making new abrasive additions tends to
decrease the percentage of coarser sizes in the work-mix;
the result will likely be poorer quality cleaning and reduction of anchor pattern depth. Conversely, adding a large
quantity of new abrasive at one time increases the percentage of coarser sizes, resulting in a coarsening of surface
profile, and for a given through-put speed, insufficient
coverage and poorer cleaning.
Maintaining a uniform and stabilized operating-mix
also requires the abrasive particles removed from the blast
machine to be of uniform size. To realize the greatest
economic benefits of using metallic abrasives, the particle
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

Not for Resale
.0394
(18-M)
93
8627940 0003471 460
.O165
(40-M)
.0278
(25-M)
(50-M)
FIGURE 6
S-330/Gm18*work mix (from centrifugal blast unit). Work mix should contain all of the above sizes, and should be neither predominantly
coarse nor predominantly fine. Coarse particles provide optimum impact energy; smaller particles provide optimum coverage.
55-60 RC
TYPICAL EFFECT OF ABRASIVE SIZE ON PROFILE HEIGHT

Effect of 4 Degrees of Cleoning IS Summed Out
SHOT
TYPICAL EFFECTOF ABRASIVE SIZE ON PEAK COUNT

Effect of 4 Degrees of Cleaning is Summed Out
SHOT
t4
GRIT
I-
1
I - S t d Deviotion
Std Deviation
GRIT
E
n
E
1 O0
Each Profile Measured Optically by Averaging 60 Moximum

Peak- to-Valley Heights
FIGURE 7
FIGURE 8
From Surface Profile for Anti-Corrosion Paints, by Keane, Bruno, Weaver, 1976. (Ref. 2)

Eoch Profile Measured witha Surfacouiit and a Brush Surfindicalar
41
Not for Resale
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
SSPC C H A P T E R a 2 . 2
93
8 b 2 7 9 4 0 0003472 3 T 7
X. ABRASIVE SELECTION
size removed should be the smallest size that is effective

in the cleaning operation. Suggested removal sizes are
shown in Table 1 for each of the basic SAE sizes of shot
and grit. Control of removal size requires careful attention
to adjustment of the separator system and of the air flow
through the separator.
Degree of cleanliness andlor profile are the main

reasons for impact cleaning and must be given priority
over all other factors in abrasive selection. Obviously, consideration must be given to the surface condition prior to
blast cleaning and its relation to the desired finish.
Abrasive selection depends on whether the surface has a
light oxide scale or is heavily pitted and rusted, or whether
removal of paint or other coating is involved. The desired
finish after blast cleaning may include a combination of
degree of cleanliness, degree of roughness and type of
IX. DEGREE OF CLEANING

Figures 9 and 10 are typical scanning electron photomicrographs, taken by the SSPC in its profile study. They
show a comparison of degrees of cleaning of four sizes of
steel shot and three sizes of steel grit.
VARIOUS SHOT BLASTED SURFACES

1OOX 60VIEW
S 230
S280
*
S390
S330
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
NEAR-WH I
COMMERCIAL (SP 6)
FIGURE 9
From: Surface Profile for Anti-Corrosion Paints, by Keane,
Profile (h,J
and density (NJ estimated visually from SEM
Bruno and Weaver, 1976. (Ref. 2)
stereo micrographs.
42
Not for Resale
8b27940 0003473 233
93
Changing the angularity of the surface finish changes

the light reflectivity of the surface. The grit or etched finish
appears nearer the parent metal in color. Hard grit particles, even when fractured, retain irregular or random
shape and produce a surface etch with more angularity
than a softer grit, which rounds up. Higher grit hardness,
however, leads to shorter impact life cycles and increased
usage. It also affects abrasive size distribution in the
machine work mix; a harder grit work mix contains a lower
surface texture. Size, shape and hardness of the abrasive

particles in the work mix are the dominant factors in determining whether the desired finish will be attained.
Shot pellets tend to burnish the surface and may
leave a burnished scale condition in the root of the surface
indentation. Irregular pellet shapes in a grit mix, on the
other hand, tend to reduce the entrapped burnished scale
condition and can affect the angularity of the surface profile.
V A R I O U S G R I T BLASTED SURFACES
1OOX 60 VIEW
GL25
hnax
GL40
GL50
Approximately 4 mils
WHITE (SP 5)
NEAR-WHITE ( S P 10)
COMMERCIAL ( S P 6)
BRUSH-OFF (SP 7)
FIGURE 10
From: Surface Profile for Anti-Corrosion
Profile (hmeX)and density (NJ estimated visually from SEM
Bruno and Weaver, 1976. (Ref. 2)
stereo micrographs.
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

43
Not for Resale
. dints.
bv Keane.
93
8b27940 0003474 L 7 T
)(l. CONCLUSION
percentage of the coarser sizes and a higher percentage of

smaller sizes.
Under a given set of equipment operating conditions,
when using shot, variables in the profile attained usually
relate directly and only to the size distribution in the work
mix. However, when using grit, variables in the profile
relate to abrasive hardness, size distribution, and particle
shape.
Steel grit, tempered to under 65 Rockwell C, rounds up
under repeated impact; thus, the grit work mix is a mixture
of new, angular grit, partially rounded particles and fully
rounded particles. It is obvious that with the use of such
grit, frequent and regular addition of new abrasive is absolutely essential to maintaining a consistent mix of particle size and shape.
Modern metallic abrasives, used in currently available

b l a s t - c l e a n i n g equipment, provide effective and
economical means of preparing steel surfaces for coating
applications. Available in a wide range of types, shapes
and hardnesses to meet varying application needs, they offer extended use-life and high impact per particle.
Optimum results can be obtained through an
understanding of theories relating to the mechanics of impact cleaning and abrasive failure. Careful selection of
shot or grit to satisfy surface finish specifications, along
with a disciplined program for controlling a proper balance
in the work mix will produce optimum results when blast
cleaning with metallic abrasives.
REFERENCES
1. ASM 6705-J, Specialized Cleaning, Finishing, Coating
Process. ASM International, Materials Park, OH 44073.
2. John D. Keane, Joseph A. Bruno, Jr., and Raymond E.F.
Weaver, Surface Profile for Anti-Corrosion Paints, Steel
Structures Painting Council Report, Oct. 25, 1976.
3. H.J. Plaster, Blast Cleaning and Allied Processes - Vols. I
and II,Garden City Press Ltd., Letchworth, Hertfordshire,
England SG6 1JS.
4. C.A. Reams, Modern Blast Cleaning and Ventilation, Penton Publishing, Cleveland, OH, 1939.
5. William A. Rosenberger, Impact Cleaning, Penton
Publishing, Cleveland, OH, 1939.
6. SAE J792a, Manual on Blast Cleaning. Handbook Supplement 124, Society of Automotive Engineers, 400 Cornmonwealth Drive, Warrendale, PA 15096, June, 1968.
7. SAE J827, Cast Steel Shot, Society of Automotive
Engineers, June, 1962.
8. SAE J444a, Cast Shot and Grit Size Specifications for Peening and Cleaning, Society of Automotive Engineering,
November 1976.
9. SFSA 20-66, Cast Steel Abrasives, Steel Founders Society
of America, Cast Metals Federation Bldg., 455 State, Des
Plaines, IL 60016, 1966.
10. SFSA 21-68, Malleable Iron Abrasives, Steel Founders
Society of America, 1968.
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
BIOGRAPHY
Einar A. Borch has been in the

metal abrasive industry for over
50 years, being active in the various management phases of the

business, manufacturing, marketing and research development. He is currently working as
a consultant for Ervin Industries.
He has been involved in committee work relating to development
of metal abrasive specifications
for various technical societies including the Society of Automotive Engineers, the Steel
Founders Society of America, the American Foundrymens Society, the Casting Industry Suppliers Association, and the Steel Structures Painting Council. He is a former director of the Casting Industry
Suppliers Association, a past trustee of the Foundry Educational
Foundation and a past president of the Foundry Equipment Manufacturers Association.
44
Not for Resale
SSPC C H A P T E R l t 2 . 3
93
8627940 0003475 O06

CHAPTER 2.3
NON-METALLIC ABRASIVES
by
H . William Hitzrot
Non-metallic abrasives used for blast cleaning may be
classified as (1) naturally occurring, (2) by-product and (3)
manufactured abrasives. This chapter deals with these
types, their physical attributes and the choices among
them. Physical data are summarized in Table 1.
luster finish and is most commonly used to clean precision

tools and castings.
B. BY-PRODUCT ABRASIVES
I. TYPES OF ABRASIVES
A. NATURALLY OCCURRING ABRASIVES
Naturally occurring sands and flint sand are probably
the most commonly used abrasives. Sands are a readily
available source of abrasive and have been used for the
blast cleaning of steel since the inception of this technique. Sand particles (Figure 1) range from sharply
angular to almost spherical, depending on the source.
Silica sands are an effective abrasive for blast cleaning
new steel and for maintenance cleaning in non-critical
areas. Since sands are often dusty, with a high degree of
breakdown, they are not desirable for critical blast cleaning. In recent years silica sands have been replaced by
heavy mineral sands or other products that contain little or
no free silica.
Nonsilica sands may also be used for blast cleaning.
These are generally termed heavy mineral sands and include magnetite, staurolite, olivene rutile - either by
themselves or in various combinations. These sands are
tough and dense but generally of finer particle size than
silica sand, with median size in the 70 to 100 rather than 20
to 40 sieve size range more typical of silica sands. An example of a heavy mineral sand is shown in Figure 2. Heavy
mineral sands are effective for blast cleaning new steel,
but are generally not recommended for maintenance applications.
Garnet (Figure 3) is a tough, angular abrasive suitable
for specialty-type blast cleaning of steel parts and
castings, .e., cleaning in a closed system that permits
recycling the abrasive. Available in a range of sizes, it can
be recycled a number of times because of its toughness.
The high cost of garnet restricts its use to specialty cleaning applications that require only small quantities of
abrasive.
Zircon is another tough, angular abrasive (Figure 4).
Its fine size limits its use to specialty blasting for removal
of fine scale, leaving a smooth, matte finish. Like garnet, it
has higher density and greater hardness than silica sand
and is considerably more costly.
Novaculite, a very pure, siliceous rock, is ground to
fine sizes for specialty blast cleaning. It leaves a satin

FIGURE 1
Silica Sand Abrasive (X8
45
Not for Resale
- Magnification 8 diameters)
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
This group constitutes the most rapidly growing source

of abrasive materials for cleaning steel structures. The
relative low cost, availability in bulk, and low (less than
1%) free silica content make by-product abrasives well
suited for blast cleaning large steel structures, both for
new construction and maintenance cleaning. Conservation of materials and environmental concerns have given
further impetus to converting by-products into commercial
abrasives. Chief among the by-product materials being
used as abrasives are slags from two sources: metal
smelting slags (Figures 5 and 6) and electric power
generating (bottom ash) slags (Figure 7). Smelting and
boiler slags are generally glassy, homogeneous mixtures
of various oxides, which give them uniform physical properties important for abrasive applications. Slag abrasives
have a sharply angular shape ideal for efficient blast
cleaning of new, corroded, or painted steel surfaces. They
are available in the full range of abrasive sizes - coarse (8
sieve) to fine (100 sieve). Not all slags can be used as
abrasives. They need to be tough, have a bulk density of 80
to 100 Iblcu ft, and exhibit a minimum amount of
breakdown on impact in order to be effective abrasives.
Agricultural shell products such as walnut shells
(Figure 8) and peach pits offer a specialty by-product
abrasive. Tough but lightweight with a bulk density of
42-47 Iblcu ft, agricultural shells are excellent for removing
paint, fine scale, and other surface contaminants without
altering the metal substrate. These shell products are
SSPC CHAPTER*2.3
93
8 6 2 7 9 4 0 0 0 0 3 4 7 6 T42
available from 10 to 100 sieve. Corncobs (Figure 9) are

another agricultural product used for specialty cleaning to
remove surface contaminants, such as grease and dirt,
without destroying or altering the paint or metal substrate.
Corncobs are also available in a full range of sizes.
C. MANUFACTURED ABRASIVES
FIGURE 2
Heavy Mineral Sand Abrasive X8
II. CHOOSING THE RIGHT ABRASIVE
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Non-metallic, manufactured abrasives are made from

raw material feed stock and can be produced for specific
abrasive properties, such as toughness, hardness, or
shape. Some examples are silicon carbide (Figure lo), a
tough angular abrasive for specialty etching; aluminum oxides (Figure 11) for blast cleaning materials such as
stainless steel; and glass beads (Figure 12) for peening
and cleaning small, delicate parts.
Because they are produced for specialized cleaning
needs, manufactured abrasives are 10 to 15 times more
costly than by-product slags and 30 to 40 times more expensive than sand. For this reason, manufactured
abrasives are not recommended for bulk cleaning jobs
where the abrasive cannot be recovered for reuse. The
tough, durable nature of most manufactured abrasives
makes them particularly adaptable to recycling as many
as 20 times. Consequently, net cost can be comparable to
that of the by-product abrasives.
The variety of materials available make it necessary

to know how to select the proper abrasive appropriate for a
given job. An abrasive has four parameters that determine
its performance: shape, hardness, density and size. It is
important to know how each of these parameters affects
surface preparation.
A. SHAPE (ANGULAR VERSUS ROUND)
FIGURE 3
Garnet Abrasive X8
Because of their scouring action, angular particles

are best suited for removal of soft friable surface contaminants such as paint, rust, and dirt. Figure 13 illustrates the scouring action. Round particles are best
suited for removal of brittle Contaminants like millscale.
Round particles are also used to produce a peening action
when little or no change in surface configuration is permitted.
B. HARDNESS (HARD VERSUS SOFT)

Hard or tough particles are best suited for blast
cleaning jobs where the primary objective is to remove
surface contaminants. Hard particles leave less residue on
the surface, minimize dusting, and, i f recycling is
employed, (see last column, Table l), provide the best
durability. Soft abrasives remove light contaminants
without disturbing the metal substrate or, in some cases,
the coating system. Soft abrasives, such as yvalnut shells
and corncobs, are used for cleaning valves or turbine rotor
blades and for removing grease from motors and dirt or
other deposits on paint films. They are also effective in
FIGURE 4
Zircon Abrasive X8

46
Not for Resale
SSPC CHAPTER*2.3
93
86279LIO 0003477 989
cleaning industrial plants prior to repainting.
C. DENSITY (DENSE VERSUS LIGHT)

Generally, the denser the particle the more effective it
is as an abrasive. Since the kinetic energy of a particle is
equal to the mass times the square of the velocity, increasing the mass increases the amount of work done by each
particle. The converse is also true.
D. SIZE (LARGE VERSUS SMALL)

Particle size is often overlooked as a parameter
affecting the performance of an abrasive. But marked improvement in cleaning can be realized by controlling the
size distribution of particles making up an abrasive. Cleaning rate is determined by the number of particle impacts
per unit of time. The more impacts, the faster the cleaning
rate. The limiting factor is that particles must be coarse
enough to remove the surface contaminants. The best
abrasive medium is one composed of a range of sizes
because coarse particles will remove the coarser contaminants while fine particles will scour out the residual
fine, friable corrosion products or old paint. For recycled
abrasives, it is extremely important that the range of particle sizes or operating mix be maintained by regular additions of new abrasives to replace fractured particles
removed from the blast cleaning system.
Copper Slag Abrasive x8
FIGURE 5
111. MATCHING THE ABRASIVE TO THE JOB

In addition to understanding the relation between
these parameters and abrasive performance, it is equally
important to be aware of the job conditions that influence
the selection of an abrasive.
A. TYPE OF SURFACE
FIGURE 6
The abrasive selected to do the most efficient cleaning will depend on whether the surface is rusted, scaled,
painted or produced in a foundry. Rusted steel requires an
angular abrasive to scour the corrosion product. Scaled
steel requires dense, spherical particles to pop off the oxide scale. Painted surfaces require coarse, angular particles to bite into more resilient paint coatings. A foundry
casting requires a hard, high density particle to remove
fused sand and metal flashing.
Nickel Slag Abrasive X8
The desired finish is a factor in selecting the abrasive.

For instance, i f the coating is to be removed without altering the substrate, a soft, angular particle, such as walnut
shells, may be used. Glass beads are suitable for removing
oxide films on rotor blades, plastic molds, and other intricate parts where no dimensional change can be tolerated. At the other end of the spectrum, if a deep etch in the
metal substrate is required to enhance coating adhesion, a
coarse, hard, and angular abrasive such as copper slag is
recommended.

FIGURE 7
coal Fired, il^^ Bottom Ash slag X8
47
Not for Resale
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
B. SURFACE FINISH REQUIRED
73
8627740 0003478 815
FIGURE 9
FIGURE 8
Corncob Shell Abrasive X8
Walnut Shell Abrasive X8
by-product slags or replacing open blasting with enclosed blasting. Enclosed blasting is commonly associated with reclamation of the abrasive, which must
be a high quality, tough, durable material if it is to be
recycled many times. Although the most commonly recycled abrasives are the steel abrasives, manufactured and
naturally occurring abrasives that exhibit excellent
durability should also be considered for recycling. The carbide and alumina abrasives and naturally occurring
garnets and heavy mineral sands can be reused many
times. If conditions such as job location make recycling
impossible, copper slag is recommended because it produces the least dust.
C. COATING SYSTEM
Most manufacturers recommend a minimum surface
texture on the abrasive-cleaned surface for good coating
adhesion. The coating system will therefore also influence
the choice of abrasive for surface preparation.
D. CLEANLINESS
Not all abrasives provide the same surface
cleanliness. An abrasive effective for a commercial blast
(SSPC-SP6) may not be able to provide a near-white (SSPCSP 10) or white-metal (SSPC-SP5 ) blast-cleaned surface. It
is important to know whether an abrasive can meet the
specified degree of cleanliness.
F. ABRASIVE EVALUATION TESTS

E. ENVIRONMENTAL CONSTRAINTS
Finally, among the criteria for selection of abrasives

are certain key physical and chemical properties of the
abrasives.
Environmental requirements affect the choice of

abrasive. The need to minimize dust or airborne free silica
may require replacing cheaper sands with more costly
FIGURE 11
Aluminum Oxide Abrasive X8
FIGURE 10
Silicon Carbide Abrasive X8

48
Not for Resale
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
SSPC CHAPTER*2*3 93
8627940 0003479 751
1. Size consist is the size distribution of abrasive par-
ticles and is best determined by sieve analysis, outlined

in ASTM-D 451. A consistent range of abrasive particle
sizes must be maintained to produce a consistent surface
and cleaning rate.
2 Abrasive breakdown is a measure of a particle
breakdown after impact. The greater the particle
breakdown the poorer the cleaning rate. That is, if
most of the particle energy is dissipated in particle
breakdown, little energy is left for removal of surface
contaminants. Most manufacturers list a breakdown value,
and standard test procedures are being established by
California and the federal government. A proposed test
procedure is outlined in Table 2, and Figure 14 illustrates
the test equipment.
FIGURE 12
Glass Bead Abrasive X8
Direction of Travel
Twisting d u e to
offset center of
Gouging a t point of impact
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
FIGURE 13
Impact of Angular Abrasive Particle on Steel Surface
FIGURE 14
Sponge abrasive used for sponge jetting

- no magnification.
49
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93
8 b 2 7 9 4 0 0003480 473
5. The soluble chloride test is important, because

chlorides in an abrasive will leave a chloride residue
on the blasted substrate that could be detrimental
to the substrate and subsequent coating systems.
Most chemical laboratories can routinely analyze
for soluble chlorides. If the abrasive source is near
seawater, routine checking for soluble chlorides is a
must.
3. Dust generation is the amount of dust generated by

an abrasive on impact. Excessive dust can create
visibility problems during blasting and cause environmental problems at the job site. A measure of
dust generation may be obtained during the
abrasive breakdown test described in Table 2.
4. The p H values of an abrasive should be nearly
neutral when the abrasive i s mixed with water. Most
suppliers note the pH on the technical data sheet
accompanying the abrasive. The pH value is easily
checked and should be routinely monitored. An
abrasive with an acid pH would cause premature
corrosion of steel and could cause coating failure.
6. Analysis for free silica is generally provided by the

manufacturer. The level of free silica should comply
with governmental regulations.
7. Trace toxic contaminants should be reviewed prior
to use, and suppliers should provide a trace element
analysis for potentially toxic substances.
TABLE 1
PHYSICAL DATA ON NON-METALLIC ABRASIVES
5
5-7
6.5-7
7.8
7.5
4
Bulk
Shape
Specific
Gravlty
rounded
rounded
angular
angular
cubic
angular
2-3
3-4
2-3
4
4.5
2.5
1 O0
128
80
145
184
1O0
Free
Slllca
wt Yo
Degree
of
Dusting
Reuse
white
variable
grey-white
pink
white
white
90 +
nil
nil
90
high
med
med
med
low
low
poor
good
good
good
good
good
black
black
green
brown
brown
nil
nil
nil
nil
nil
high
low
high
low
low
poor
good
poor
poor
poor
black
brown
nil
nil
low
low
good
good
Color
Density
Ibslcu ft
Naturally OccurringAbrasives
(5
90
+
+
By-product Abrasives
Slags
Boiler
Copper
Nickel
Walnut shells
Peach pits
8
8
3
3
angular
angular
angular
cubic
cubic
2.8
3.3
2.7
1.3
1.3
80-90
100-120
84
44
44
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Sands
Silica
Heavy Mineral
Flint
Garnet
Zircon
Novaculite
Hardness
(Mohr Scale)
ManufacturedAbrasives
Silicon carbide
Aluminum oxide
9
8

angular
blocky
3.2
4.0
105
* 120
50
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SSPC C H A P T E R t 2 . 3 93
8 b 2 7 9 4 0 0003483 3 0 T
BIOGRAPHY
A biographical sketch and photo of Bill Hitzrot appear at the
end of Chapter 2.0.
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
chapter: Harlan Kline, A.W. Mallory, Joe Mazia, R.N. McCorrnick
and William Wallace.

51
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--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
CHAPTER 2.4
ABRASIVE AIR BLAST CLEANING

by
P.J. Bennett
Abrasive air blast cleaning provides a method of surface preparation that is rapid, proven, and well established. An understanding of air blast cleaning with
various abrasives is essential for a successful operation.
Proper surface preparation by this method provides a
foundation for the paint system, resulting in a clean surface, uniform etch, and a long, economical coating
life. In abrasive air blast cleaning, surface preparation
can be achieved on parts or weldments that are not
uniform in size or shape. Uniform or flat pieces may,
especially on new work, be cleaned more efficiently with
mechanical cleaning machines.
.e., the compressor, air lines, abrasive blast machine,

abrasive blast hose and nozzle. This cleaning method is
the most productive of abrasive blast cleaning. The efficiency is largely dependent on actual nozzle pressure,
which should be 90-100 psi range. The pressure blast
machine, or pot, varies in size, but must be under
pressure for an even flow of abrasives. Velocity of the
abrasive in the pressure method is greater than the
abrasive velocity found in suction equipment (Figures 1, 2,
3, 4).
B. SUCTION BLAST EQUIPMENT

This equipment utilizes the suction jet method of obtaining abrasive from the abrasive tank that is not under
pressure. The jet of air blasts the abrasive against the surface after sucking abrasive from the container. Cleaning
speed is approximately 113 slower than that of pressure
blast cleaning with similar size air jets. Its use should be
limited to touch-up or spot cleaning jobs, where high
speed cleaning is not a factor (Figures 5 and 6).
I. DESCRIPTION
Air blast equipment contains and meters abrasive into
a compressed air stream through conveying hoses and
nozzles to the work piece. In effect, the part being cleaned
is eroded away by a mass of abrasive particles until a firm,
clean surface results. Abrasive blast cleaning with a compressed air source, air hose, abrasive blast machine,
abrasive hose, and nozzle imparts a velocity to the
abrasive particle that becomes a working force. Because
of its effectiveness in cleaning metals, the process has
been widely accepted to remove mill scale, rust, paint and
other contaminants.
Various abrasives are used in the process, but the
most widely used abrasive is silica sand that has been
processed for a blasting abrasive. Respiratory protection
must be given to the operator and workers in the blast
cleaning area because of .spent abrasive and the contamination being removed from the surface. Selection of
the abrasive in this process becomes a major factor in
cleaning speed, surface etch and coating adhesion. The
trend is to a finer size of abrasive because of increased
cleaning speed on new or lightly rusted steel; a coarser
size of abrasive is used for more corroded steel or harderto-clean surfaces. Paint coating manufacturers have found
a uniform etch with a cleaner surface much more effective
for coating adhesion than an overly smooth surface of
similar cleanliness. It is important to maintain a proper
size of abrasive for air blast cleaning.
C. VACUUM BLAST EQUIPMENT

In the vacuum blast cleaning method, air and abrasive
are captured in a rubber-hooded enclosure. They are drawn
by suction back to the blast unit where reusable abrasive
is separated from blast-cleaned surface contaminants,
recycled, and reused.
This is considered a dust free abrasive blast cleaning because it shields the blast surface area from flying
particles and dust. It will not disturb adjacent machinery
and workmen. Cleaning speed is limited because the surface is not visible to the operator.
There are two methods of vacuum blast cleaning. In
the suction type the abrasive is siphoned from container to
the blast head. The pressure type machine delivers sand
under pressure through a blast hose to the surface. The
pressure method provides greater production. The process
is limited to the use of reusable abrasives, such as
metallic, steel shot or steel grit, aluminum oxide or garnet.
In some cases, where moisture is a problem due to high
humidity, a mixture of steel grit and aluminum oxide or
garnet is recommended because it keeps the metal
abrasive from lumping or congealing due to moisture
(Figure 7).
II. TYPES OF AIR BLAST EQUIPMENT
A. PRESSURE TYPE
In a pressure-type abrasive blast system the abrasive
machine is under the same pressure as the entire system,
52
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SSPC C H A P T E R * 2 * 4 73
8627740 0003483 182
have a check list of each component to ensure peak performance. Each component is discussed in detail.
A. AIRSUPPLY
Air supply provides energy for the entire operation
and is responsible for maintaining pressure and volume.
Volume requirement is determined by the orifice nozzle
size.
The nozzle size in Table 1 indicates air consumption in
cfm (cubic feet per minute) at 100 psi (pounds per square
inch) without abrasive going through the nozzle.
When determining the compressor size the next larger
size compressor available for the nozzle should be used. It
is also wise to consider other air requirements from the
compressor, such as for an air-fed hood (20 cfm) and airdriven ventilating equipment (approximately 120 cfm). A
separate air source for air-fed hoods may be required,
unless a carbon monoxide detector is installed in the air
system. Insufficient air supply results in excess abrasive
and slower cleaning rates.
B. AIR HOSE AND COUPLINGS

Recommended size of the air supply hose should be 3
or 4 times the nozzle orifice. On lines over 100 feet, four
times should be the minimum size. Often, the size hose
used requires a coupling installed on the inside diameter
of the air hose, which further restricts air flow. The I.D. of
the coupling should be considered along with hose size.
Another problem is the size of the air compressor manifold
valve. It is common for air compressor manufacturers to
furnish compressors with 1-inch outlets and valves. These
should be removed and replaced with 1% or 2 outlets to
match the main air supply hose.
FIGURE 1
Pressure blast machine.

Courtesy of Clemco Industries.
111. ESSENTIAL INGREDIENTS OF AIR BLAST
EQUIPMENT
To achieve efficient abrasive air blast cleaning,
specific attention must be given to each component of the
air blast equipment (Figure 8).
Components are air SUPPlY, air hoSe and CoUPlings,
abrasive blast machines, abrasive blast hose and
couplings, nozzles, operator equipment, air-fed hoods and
control valves, and oil and moisture separators.
A manager of an abrasive air blast operation should
c.
ABRASIVE BLAST MACHINES
The pressure machine is a non-fired pressure vessel,

built t o ASME code requirements for 125 psi working
pressures, sized to maintain an adequate volume of
abrasive for the nozzle orifice.
TABLE 1
AIR CONSUMPTION
NOZZLE
ORIFICE
C F M REQUIRED
@ 100 PSI
ABRASIVE CONSUMPTION
PER HOUR
3116
1I4
5116
318
7116
112
518
314
60 CFM
105 CFM
160 CFM
232 CFM
315 CFM
412 CFM
580 CFM
840 CFM
260 Lbs.
490 Lbs.
812 Lbs.
1152 Lbs.
1584 Lbs.
2024 Lbs.
2518 Lbs.
3174 Lbc.
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

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SSPC C H A P T E R x 2 - 4 93
8627940 0003484 019
nozzle end. There, a short hose of smaller diameter should

be used for operators convenience and flexibility. Typical
abrasive blast operations will be 100 ft. of 1 i/d-inch sandblast hose and 10 ft. of 1-inch hose (called a tail line or
whip hose) for a 3/,-inch orifice nozzle.
Hose construction is normally %-inch thick rubber
tube with carbon black compounding for the dissipation of
static electricity generated by an abrasive flow through
tube. Dissipating static electricity prevents build up and
shock to operator.
The tube is covered by 2- or 4-ply wrapping to provide
strength for pressure requirements. Normal working
pressure should not exceed 125 psi.
A wear-resistant cover is applied over the ply to protect it against premature wear.
In some cases an additional static wire or two is
wrapped spirally around the tube between the ply to ensure drain of static electricity. In areas of volatile liquids
this type of hose should be used. Parts that are abrasive
Cover
(Optional)
---
Screen
(Optional)
-Coded
Pressure
Sand Valve
(Grit Valve not shown)
FIGURE 2
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Diagram of pressure blast machine.
It should have a sloping bottom for free flow of

abrasives and be constructed with an abrasive metering
valve to provide the correct abrasive-to-air mixture. The
pressure tank, with pressurizing and depressurizing
valves, becomes an abrasive blast machine, pressure type.
Figures 9-11 illustrate various size machines. Smaller
machines are adaptable to small nozzles and to smaller inaccessible type work, whereas larger machines can accommodate multiple large nozzle outlets for large flat
areas.
Suction machines are little more than small, nonpressured containers with screens and a bottom outlet for
abrasive flow to a suction blast nozzle. Hose distance is
less than 25 feet where abrasive can be vacuumed to the
blast nozzle.
D. ABRASIVE BLAST HOSE AND COUPLINGS

Recommended size of the blast hose is important to
an air blast operation because of friction loss measured in
pressure drop of conveying abrasive. The recommended
size is three to four times the nozzle size, except near the

FIGURE 3
Two chamber continuous action pressure blast machine.
54
Not for Resale
SSPC C H A P T E R w 2 . 4
POP-UPValve Seat Gasket
93
8627740 0003485 T 5 5
, -.. e
vide rapid speed of abrasive particles through the nozzle,

increasing cleaning rate compared to a straight bore nozzle of the same length.
Nozzles are a very important part of an air blast operation and should be inspected regularly for orifice size and
wear. Worn out and cracked nozzles result in increased
compressor wear, increased abrasive usage, and poor
nozzle pattern (Figure 12).
/'
F. CONTROL VALVES
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Pressure abrasive blast machines have an inlet, outlet

or depressurizing and choke valve and an abrasive metering valve. The abrasive inlet on air blast machines i s called
an air operating and sealing valve, but is not common to all
machines (Figure 2).
Valves mentioned are all manual because of safety requirements, the need for fewer operating personnel and
the use of pneumatic valves controlled by operation. Two
FIGURE 4
Diagram of two chamber continuous action pressure blast
machine.
blast cleaned should be grounded to prevent a spark that

could ignite flammable material. Proper grounding
prevents the spark and ensures safe working conditions.
Couplings used on blast hoses should always be exterior and should be fitted to the hose in a snug, tight condition. Small screws through the coupling into the cover
ply tube completes sure fastening of the coupling to the
hose. The advantage of exterior couplings is that they do
not contribute to friction loss.
Normal pressure drop of sandblast hose with 3/,-inch
orifice nozzle is 5 psi per 50 ft. length. Therefore, it is
important to use large hose as short as practical.
A word of caution: too large an abrasive hose (1-inch)
on small nozzles (y,,-inch) may result in uneven abrasive
flow.
E. NOZZLES
There are many types of blast nozzles, but construction material used in liners of nozzles determines the life
and cost. Liners are constructed of ceramic, cast iron,
tungsten carbide and boron carbide. Ceramic and cast iron
are short life nozzles. Carbide nozzles are long life.
Average life of tungsten nozzles is 200 hours. Ceramic and
cast iron are 2-4 hours. Boron carbide nozzles can maintain their size for 1500 hours i f properly handled to prevent
cracking of the brittle carbide material.
During construction of these nozzles a soft metal
(lead and aluminum) is used to absorb shock and protect
the liner. It is common to put a small, 4-6 inch piece of
rubber hose over these nozzles for added protection. A
polyurethane cover is also used over liners, but they
should be checked for threads wearing.
Nozzle shapes provide great advantages to nozzle
construction. Venturi style nozzles (large throat converging to the orifice and then diverging to the outlet) proCopyright The Society for Protective Coatings
FIGURE 5
Suction blast equipment.

55
Not for Resale
SSPC CHAPTER*2*4 93
m 8627990
000398b 991
G. OIL AND MOISTURE SEPARATORS

The large consumption of compressed air in an
abrasive blast operation introduces the problem of
moisture (especially in high humidity areas) and oil mists
from the lubricating oils in compressors. This is especially
true in portable compressors. To combat this, an adequately sized oillmoisture separator should be installed at
the blast machine (the most distant point from the compressor) to eliminate 95% of the contaminants. Separators
are usually of the cyclone type with expansion chambers
and small micron filters. They require solvent cleaning to
remove oil and routine replacement of filters.
H. AIR SUPPLIED RESPIRATORSIHOODS

The protective helmet for abrasive blast cleaning
operations has several requirements to be effective. It
must be
Safe to user, furnishing respirable air to operator at
a low noise level and protecting operator from rebounding abrasive particles;
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
FIGURE 6
Suction blast cabinet.
Courtesy of Clsmco Industries.
of these manual valves, the inlet and outlet, can be replaced. When these valves are replaced, the air blast
machine becomes an automatic, one-man operated
machine, remote controlled by the blast operator. Further
advantage is obtained when an abrasive hopper is placed
above the blast machine. This method is well suited for
recycled abrasives in abrasive blast rooms or enclosed
systems (Figure 13).
The choke valve is seldom used, except for removing
clogged abrasive, paper or foreign particles that block flow
of abrasives. The choke valve is closed momentarily to
force all pressure through the machine, freeing a clogged
line. This usually takes 10 seconds.
The abrasive metering valve is the carburetor that provides proper abrasivelair mixture to the nozzle orifice. It is
very important that this valve be in good condition. Once it
is set, it does not require constant or continual change.
FIGURE 7
Vacuum blast equipment.
Courtesy of Pauli 81 Griffin Company.

56
Not for Resale
93
8627940 0003487 8 2 8 W
Points to Check
FIGURE 8
Essential components of a successful sand blast operation.
In a confined or congested area only air-fed helmets

should be used. They should have a charcoal filter with air
regulator to filter air supply. The filter to the helmet hose
should be a minimum of JS-inch I.D. and constructed to
convey compressed breathing air. Air-fed helmets should
have NIOSH approval.
Able to provide clear vision to operator;

Comfortable and not restrictive.
There are several types of abrasive blast hoods, including air-fed and non-air-fed. The non-air-fed hood is
satisfactory for light duty, non-continuous exterior work.
They should not be used in confined or congested areas. A
specifically designed NIOSH approved dust respirator
must be worn under the hood.
IV. AIR BLAST ABRASIVES

Many abrasives are used in air blast operations. Each
has specific uses and provides a specific etch and surface
appearance. The coating usually has a specific adhesion
requirement, and a selection of the proper abrasive is most
important. Generally, an abrasive is classified according
to the following characteristics:
Size - Usually by U.S. Sieve Sizes (.e., 16 x 40
mesh) - (.0469 x ,0165 - 1.19mm x .42mm).
Shape - Irregular, round, sharp.
Hardness - Usually by Mohs Hardness Scale of
the present element.
Color - Light or dark. Lighter abrasives reflect
light and restrict visibility. Dark abrasives absorb
light.
Chemical Components - Abrasives should not
contain undesirable components that would remain
on surface being cleaned.
Specific Gravity or Weight - Heavy abrasives
clean faster and impact much better while lightweight abrasives are primarily used for polishing.
pH of Abrasive - A neutral pH within the range of
7.0 i 1 is desirable. Salt water washed abrasives
are not recommended.
Availability and Cost - Selection of abrasives
could result in a high cost of transportation to
using area. Quite often, freight costs exceed abrasive cost.
Abrasives fall into five general categories:
Metallic - Steel, iron shot or grit.
FIGURE 9
Large (8 ton capacity) portable pressure blast machine.
Courtesy of Clemtex Ltd.

--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
1. Large Compressor
2. Large Air Hose and Couplings
3. Portable High Production
Sandblast Machines
4. Large Size Sandblast Hose
with External Couplings
5. Large Orifice Venturi Nozzle
6. Remote Control Valves
7. Moisture Separators
8. High Nozzle Air Pressure
9. Proper Sandblasting Abrasive
10. Safety Air Fed Helmet
11. Training of Operators
57
Not for Resale
73
m 8627940 0003488 764 m
TABLE 2
ABRASI VE
TYPE
ABRASIVE CHART
MAJOR
COMPONENT
Metallic
Iron
Steel Shot
Metallic
Iron
Steel Grit
Metallic
Iron
Iron Grit
Alumina
Alum. Oxide
Oxide
Silicon Carbide
Silicon Carbide
Oxide
Iron-Silica
Oxide
Garnet
Conglomerate
Iron-Alum Silica
Slag-Coal
Conglomerate
Iron-Alum Silica
Slag-Copper
SlagNickel
Conglomerate
Iron-Alum Silica
Silica
Flint
Silica
Silica
Silica
Sand
Caco2
Limestone
Oxide
Mineral
Silicate
Magnesium Silicate
Mineral
Silicate
Staurolite
Vegetable
Cellulosic
Walnut Shell
Mineral
Silica
Zirconium
Vegetable
Cellulosic
Corn Cob Grit
Chemical
Sodium Bicarbonate
Sodium
Silica
Glass Beads
Oxide
Plastic Beads
Organic
Polymer Resin
'Soft materials are < 4 on Moh's hardness scale; Medium 4 5 6; Hard 2 6
""Various Hardnesses Available
Oxides - Natural or manufactured.

Silicas - Sands, staurolite, zirconium, magnesium
silicate
Vegetable - Cellulose type, walnut shells, corn cob
grits.
Slags or conglomerates, coal, nickel, copper
HARDNESS
Round
Angular
Angular
Angular
Angular
Irregular
Irregular
Irregular
Irregular
Hard*'
Hard'
Sharp
Irregular
Irregular
Round
Round
Irregular
Round
Irregular
Irregular
Round
Round/lrregular
Hard
Hard
Hard
Hard
Hard
Very Hard
Hard
Medium
Medium
Soft
Medium
Hard
Soft
Hard
Soft
Soft
Medium
SoftlMedium
SPECIFIC
GRAVITY
7.2
7.6
7.4
3.8
3.8
4.0
2.8
3.3
3.2
2.7
2.7
2.4
3.2
4.5
1.3
4.5
1.2
1 .o
2.7
1 .o
to increase life and rate of cleaning. Generally, the hard

abrasives, 65 Rockwell C Hardness, are used for etching,
but they break down rapidly. The softer abrasives, 30-40
Rockwell C, are used for easier cleaning jobs. The softer
grit will round-up after reuse. Average hardness of metal
abrasives is 45-50 Rockwell C, which works satisfactorily
as an air blast abrasive.
Table 2 is a guide for abrasive selection. Metal etching will remove mill scale, rust and other contaminants
from metal to produce a white metal surface condition
with an etch (anchor pattern) on the surface. Light cleaning removes only old paint and loose rust. It is generally
used for maintenance or repainting.
Tests for abrasives, derived by the NACE T-6G Committee, using a certain volume of abrasive to blast clean a
steel plate at a constant pressure and distance, determine
the breakdown rate of the abrasive and the abrading or
metal removal quality.
Although this test is lengthy, it provides accurate information on abrasives. Silica abrasives (sand) range from
soft to hard and poor to good for metal removal.
Field tests of abrasives by a qualified engineer should
consider
Size - Approximately 16 x 40 mesh (U.S. Sieve)
(.0469" x .0165" x 1.19mm x .42mm).
Cleanliness - Fresh Water Washed.
Contamination - (clay, iron, salt, etc.) that would remain on surface cleaned.
Metallic abrasives present different problems. These
abrasives are normally heat-treated to various hardnesses
V. EFFICIENCY OF AIR BLAST OPERATIONS

As with any production job, efficiency results in good
production rates and lower unit costs. This is especially
true in abrasive air blast operations where a small drop in
pressure rapidly increases consumption of abrasive and
decreases cleaning rate. Figure 14 illustrates the irnportance of good nozzle pressure. In a blast test of two
minutes, differences in nozzle pressure were compared. At
60 psi the rate of cleaning is 112 the rate at 100 psi and
abrasive usage is more than double. This is especially important on interior work (inside of tanks) where abrasive
must be removed prior to painting. Pressures in excess of
100 psi tire the operator, and little is gained working above
these pressures.
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

SHAPE
A. PROCEDURE
To correctly set up an air blast the following procedures should be followed. Assume the correct size of
nozzle, hose, machine and compressor.
58
Not for Resale
SSPC C H A P T E R r 2 . 4
93
= 8627740 0003489 b T O
Connect respirator and safety equipment and
check for operation.
Depressurize machine, add abrasives, start blast
cleaning operation, adjust abrasive metering valve
to allow proper flow of abrasive to nozzle. The correct abrasive flow will be a steady flow to nozzle.
Uneven flow or surging indicates too much
abrasive.
On completion of blast cleaning, the blast machine
should be emptied to prevent introduction of
moisture into abrasive.
Prior to painting the surface, dry air from nozzle
without abrasive should be used to blow down the
surface to remove spent abrasive dust. The surface
is now ready to be coated.
Abrasives vary in their hardness and size. The

greatest variable is the operator. Some people can be
trained to perform satisfactorily, while others find this
work monotonous or otherwise unacceptable. It is best to
ensure operator comfort and safety.
As with all cleaning operations, differences in surface
condition, type of steel, corrosion, etc., affect the rate of
cleaning. On large cleaning jobs it is wise to mark off a
FIGURE 10
Large stationary pressure blast machine.
Start compressor after the oil and water has been

checked and compressor has been located upwind
of blast operation.
Uncoil air and abrasive hoses and lay out in most
direct line to machine and work.
Locate abrasive blast machine as close to work as
possible to minimize abrasive hose use.
Connect air hose with safety connections and blow
out hose.
Connect blast machine to air supply hose ahci blow
out machine for any abrasive that may have been
left over from previous use.
Check all control valves on machine for correct
working order.
Partially open the moisture trap drain valve to drain
moisture. Install safety clips on abrasive hose.
Test complete unit without abrasives.

FIGURE 11
Portable bulk abrasive pressure blast machine.
59
Not for Resale
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
B. VARIABLES
S S P C C H A P T E R s 2 - 4 93
8627940 0003490 312

Vi. PRODUCTION RATES OF CLEANING
given area and run a cleaning test to achieve a more accurate cleaning rate.
Special consideration should be given to interior blast
cleaning. A wide variation in production rates exists on interior cleaning, as much as 2:l (112 exterior cleaning rate),
because of visibility problems, ventilating problems, and
inaccessi bi Iity . These variables can be mi ni mized with
good lighting, ventilation and good scaffolding techniques.
Table 3 illustrates open air blast cleaning rates and

abrasive consumption On newly fabricated steel using a
J/,-inch orifice nozzle and 100 psi to a SSPC-SP 10 nearwhite condition.
~~
TABLE
EXAMPLES
OF C L E A N I N G R A T E S W I T H T Y P I C A L A B R A S I V E S
ABRASIVE
CONSUMPTION
PRO DUCT ION
2.6 Lbs./Sq. Ft.
4.75 Sq. Ft./Min.
1Y' Mil Etch

Dusty
'Garnet 36 Grit
*3.6 Lbs./Sq. Ft.
3.55 Sq. Ft./Min.
1% Mil Etch - Very

little dust-reusable
*Aluminum Oxide
36 Grit
*3.1 Lbs./Sq. Ft.
4.58 Sq. Ft./Min.
1 % Mil Etch - Very

little dust-reusable
*G-40 Steel Grit
'5.5 Lbs./Sq. Ft.
3.06 Sq. Ft./Min.
2'/2 Mil Etch-NO Dst

Grey Metal-Reusable
Crushed Flint
12/30 Mesh
3.6 Lbs./Sq. Ft.
2.69 Sq. Ft./Min.
3 Mils
Staurolite
501100 Mesh
3.1 Lbs./Sq. Ft.
4.85 sq. Ft./Min.
Mil Etch
Smooth Surface
Coal Slag
16/40 Mesh
3.2 Lbs./Sq. Ft.
3.83 Sq. Ft./Min.
2% Mil Etch
Reusable-Imbedding
Copper Slag
3.1 Lbs./St. Ft.
16/40 Mesh
*These abrasives are normally reused.
4.36 Sq. Ft./Min.
2 Mil Etch
Reusable-Imbedding
ABRASIVE
Silica Sand 16/40

Mesh
RATE
COMMENTS
- Reusable
CONVENTIONAL STYLE NOZZLE
B: ---sf
-11
'
tun &celerates and develops

an outlet spee twice that of
a straight barrel nozzle.
FIGURE 12
Nozzle styles.
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

60
Not for Resale
High impact in center but diminishing

towards edge of pattern. Large fringe
area. Requires more passes than Venturi
to cover surface. Force of air and abrasive
on fringe not being utilized.
SSPC CHAPTER*2.4
93
8 b 2 7 9 4 0 0003493 2 5 9
A general comment on abrasive tests would include

the following:
Only open blast cleaning is represented.
Fine abrasives clean faster than coarse abrasives.
Fine abrasives produce less etch than coarse
abrasives.
Reuse of abrasives lowers cleaning costs.
Some abrasives imbed in mild steel.
Illustrated is recessed Flo-Flor with 3
recovery pans. While configurations of
Flo-Flor systems will vary, the components o f each system will be the same
a
.
NOTE: Attention must be given to

drainage around recovery
system. Moisture entering the
recovery area will cause serious
malfunction.
_-
FIGURE 14
Effect of nozzle pressure upon cleaning rate. Cleaning time is two
minutes.
Air and sandblast hose - required for different

size nozzles. Proper coupling techniques.
Nozzle - proper size and care of (Figure 15).
Complete equipment - with air-fed helmet
(Figure 16), filter and pressure regulation. Care,
maintenance and assembly.
Proper grounding - of all equipment.
Abrasive - type and size.
A. SAFETY REQUIREMENTS
It is necessary to stress the safety aspects of air blast
cleaning. At the work place everyone should be advised of
health hazards of improper grounding, abrasive dust, contamination, spent abrasive removal and known hazards of
working with high pressure equipment. Scaffolding is not
included in this section, but should not be overlooked.
Safe scaffolding is very important and can provide many
benefits.
Safety requirements should be in accordance with all
applicable federal, state, and local rules and requirements.
They should also be in accord with instructions of the
paint manufacturer and of insurance underwriters. A
checklist of necessary precautions would include but not
necessarily be limited to the following:
1. Proper grounding techniques - With the use of
anti-static abrasive blast hose, the static electricity cannot build up as it dissipates immediately;
however, precautions should be used when working with volatile, flammable materials. An example
is petroleum storage tanks or similar containers.
Equipment and the piece that is abrasive blast
cleaned should be grounded. Quite often, patches
(or repairs) to the vessel, valves and gauges are insulated from the tank itself by gaskets or epoxy
adhesives; therefore, it is very important that all
items be grounded and checked for ground potential. These pieces, when abrasive blast cleaned,
build up high static electricity potentials.
In some extreme cases the nozzle and worker
should be grounded to the part being abrasive
blast cleaned.
FIGURE 13
Abrasive recycle system for blast room.
VII. TRAINING OF OPERATORS

A well trained sandblast operator can be a great
asset. There are training films and training literature
available from equipment manufacturers. It is easy to plan
a training session.
Specific topics that should be covered are
Purpose of cleaning and degree of cleanliness required for protective coating to achieve maximum
economical life.
Training and familiarization of actual working
pieces of equipment used in air blast cleaning
operat ion.
Air Compressor - start, stop, pressure adjustment.
Abrasive Blast Machine - start, stop, abrasive
filling, abrasive mixture control, choking
machine to relieve moisture and inspection of
ASME code stamp.
Operator Remote Controls - start, stop and
emergency shut-down. Trouble-shooting of
problems.
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

61
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--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
FIGURE 15
Effect of nozzle size increases production rate from 96 to 180 to 252 cq. ft. per hr.
Courtesy of Ciemtex Ltd.
When weldments or small parts are being

cleaned, it is not required to go into such detail
when proper equipment and static dissipating
abrasive hose are used. In the interest of safety,
these conditions must be checked before blast
cleaning.
2. Breathing air - With oil-lubricated air compressors, whether driven by electric or gasldiesel
engines, a proper charcoal filter, particulate filter
o r a chemical cartridge filter should be used to s u p
ply breathable air to air-fed blast hoods. In some
cases a separate air source should be used. The air
supply should be monitored or sampled routinely
with a carbon monoxide detector to ensure safe air
supply.
The air-supplied helmet should have NIOSH
approval for use as a Type CE abrasive blast air-fed
helmet. The instructions on its use should be
carefully followed and a maintenance system installed.
If no respiratory protective device is used, crystalline silica abrasives can cause silicosis after several years of constant exposure. Therefore, extreme
caution should be used with these abrasives. Use
of a low silica substitute (less than 1% free silica)
should be considered.
Although particles in excess of 10 microns are
not readily breathable, the nuisance dust should be
avoided with respirators designed to guard against
this dust. Metal abrasives, copper slag and coal slag
abrasives do not contain free silica; however, they
do break down and cause a dust that should be
avoided. ALL abrasives used in abrasive blast cleaning do break down and create a dust hazard. Workers involved in blast cleaning operations should be
provided with personal protective equipment.
Water blast cleaning minimizes dust levels.
(Refer to Chapter 2.5.) Compressed air cooled aftercoolers also serve this purpose. They cause the compressed air to expand, lowering the dewpoint and
eliminating moisture in the blast cleaning system. By
drying the air, the aftercooler reduces abrasive use
and resulting dust considerably. (Refer to Section
IIIG)
3. Abrasive dust - Abrasive blast operations require

an understanding of the principles of industrial
hygiene and personal protective equipment. Abrasives, as provided for use in the abrasive blast industry, do not pose a hazard because they are not
themselves respirable. However, when they are used
in the blast cleaning process, they create a fine
respirable dust. Inhalation of this dust may be harmful to the respiratory system. Therefore, it is imperative that the abrasive blast operator wear a National
Institute for Occupational Safety and HealthIMine
Safety and Health Administration (NIOSHIMSHA) approved type CE positive pressure air supplied blast
hood. Other workers in the area should also be supplied with respirators.
4. Contaminated Dust - This dust is often overlooked and can be more of a problem than abrasive
dust. As abrasive and the contaminant dust combine, it is wise to ensure that respiratory and skin
protection devices are adequate to protect
workers from such contaminants as old lead
paint, coal tar derivatives, and various metal oxide
decay.
62
Not for Resale
In a majority of air blast operations this area
of abrasive and contaminated dust is confined to a

200-foot radius from the nozzle. All workers in this
area should wear respirators designed to provide
safe, respirable air to required health standards.
5. Hazards of working with high pressure equipment
- Any type of pressure equipment must be designed in accordance with ASME Code for working
pressure requirements and so labeled. Excess
pressures to overcome pressure drops on long
hose lines should be avoided to maintain safe
working conditions.
Pressure vessels should be inspected annually. Personnel should be completely familiar with
their use and operation.
Pressure vessels (abrasive blast machines are
non-fired pressure vessels) should be depressurized prior to inspection, filling of abrasive, and
maintenance on controls. These vessels should
not be transported under pressure. Although
abrasive blast machines are provided with
pressure gauges, they are not reliable because of
fine, abrasive dust and harsh treatment received in
this type of work. Therefore, the vessel should be
fitted with a depressurizing valve (bleed-off valve)
near the abrasive opening to discharge pressure
prior to opening.
Safety procedures are generally furnished with airblast equipment. Safe maintenance painting practices
should include, but not be limited t o SSPC-PA Guide 3 A
Guide to Safety in Paint Application.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

chapter: Wallace Cathcart. Howard Cheshier, Charles Fox,
Charlie Lewis, A. W. Mallory, R. N. McCormick, Marshall McGee,
William Pearson. Robert Roth and William Wallace.
FIGURE 16
Air-fed helmet with filter.
BIOGRAPHY
P.J. BENNETT
P.J. Bennett is a Registered
Professional Engineer with 38
years experience in the fields of
surface preparation and abrasive blast cleaning. He received
a Bachelor of Science in Civil
Engineeringfrom Texas A&M in
1950. He is a member of a number of professional organizations.
REFERENCES
1. B. Baldwin, Methods of Dust-FreeAbrasive Blast Cleaning.

Plant Engineering, pps. 116-125, February 16, 1978.
2. P.J. Bennett, Surface Preparation Abrasives. Materials Protection, July 1964.
3. H.P. Bradley, Tanks Can be Sandblasted Safely. Petroleum
Refiner, January 1961.
4. N.D. Cosdorph; Engineering Approach to Chemical Plant
Coating, Corrosion, 1960.
5. Use of Abrasive Blast Equipment. Clemco Industries.:
FIGURE 17
By eliminating moisture in the blast cleaning system, compressed air aftercoolers reduce abrasive use and dust levels.
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

63
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93
8627940 0003494 T b B
CHAPTER 2.5
WATER BLAST CLEANING

by
P. J. Bennett
The process has been used by industry to clean heat

exchangers, boilers, flaking tar, clogged piping, rubber
molds, concrete surfaces and latency from fresh concrete
prior to pour. It also is used in plant filter screens and contaminated floor areas.
Water blast cleaning (sometimes called hydroblasting) uses water at high pressure, 10,000 or more psi,
and low volume, 2 to 15 gallons per minute, to prepare
metal for painting. This process removes loose, flaky rust
and mill scale. It has gained wide acceptance where dry
abrasive blast cleaning dusts and contamination present a
hazard to personnel and machinery.
Water blast cleaning does not replace abrasive blast
cleaning. Water alone cannot etch a metal surface. injection of dry abrasive at the nozzle achieves a surface etch.
Many applications prior to painting are enhanced by this
method with these major advantages: fast cleaning of
soiled surfaces, a neutral surface for application of paint
coatings, and low cost. It is important to exercise caution
when using high pressure forces, taking care to protect
personnel and equipment.
II. LOW PRESSURE TYPES

Waterblast cleaning with water pressure. up to 2000
psi is low pressure cleaning (Figure 2). As water pressure
increases, so does cleaning rate. Low pressure waterblast
cleaning uses the same equipment as large units, .e.,
engine, pump, hose and gun, but a smaller size and less
water volume. The size of the cleaning job dictates the
equipment required. Low pressure cleaning is referred to as
Power Washing and should be recognized in that service
requirement. Low pressure Power Washers are especially suited for removing oil and grease accumulations
when water is added to a detergent inhibitor. The volume
of water, in gallons per minute, at this pressure also influences the cleaning rate. The greater the volume, the
greater the force or cleaning rate.
I. DESCRIPTION AND USE

Hydroblast cleaning takes a clean, filtered water supply into a power driven stainless steel pump and increases
water pressure to as much as 10,000 psi. High pressure
water is conveyed through hoses to a hand-held gun with a
small diameter orifice nozzle (Figure 1).
When abrasive is injected into the water stream, the
process becomes much more effective. This method
restricts dust and flying particles. When abrasive is used
to expose bare metal, a secondary washing procedure
must follow to remove spent slurry. This procedure includes a rust inhibitor, which must be compatible with the
painting system.
Hydroblast cleaning offers the greatest advantage in
maintenance because of cleaning speed. With abrasive injection, it can be used to clean irregular shapes, back-toback angles, corroded valves, marine vessels with sea
water corrosion and similar hard-to-clean surfaces. It has a
wide range of applications, but does not solve all cleaning
problems. It is not used to shop clean new weldments.
Abrasive air blast cleaning can be used effectively and
economically on new steel construction, where inorganic
zinc primers are used as permanent primer. The hydroblast
method is not preferred, due to rust forming between the
drying period and coating application.

111. HIGH PRESSURE
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
High water pressure cleaning is most widely used

(Figure 3). It provides higher pressures and volumes for
greater production cleaning rates. Pressures up to 10,000
psi and volumes to 10 gpm provide maximum cleaning
rates and maximum endurance of the operators physical
ability. Pressures up to 20,000 psi have been used. The
most commonly used pressure for maintenance surface
preparation is 3000 to 6000 psi at 8-10 gpm water volume.
This pressure and volume provides an operator with a
workable cleaning force and limits fatigue, resulting in
greater overall performance. High pressures require safety
provisions for sure, sound footing for operators.
Ultra high pressure methods, which may use pressures
above 40,000 psi, are more efficient but also more expensive.
*For further information on water blasting, see Recommended Practices NACE RP-01-72: Surface Preparation
of Steel by Water Blasting by L.L. Sline.
64
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S S P C C H A P T E R * 2 = 5 93
8627940 0003495 9 T 4 W
FIGURE 1
Typical Water Blast Equipment with Sand Injection.
Courtesy of Partek Corporation of Houston
Abrasive is injected into the system after water is

pressured by means of a suction head to prevent pump
damage. It is usually injected at the blast gun before the
nozzle. The high pressure jet induces abrasive from short
distances (up to 25 feet) by vacuum. The preferred method
is to use a pressure abrasive blast machine to ensure even
and adequate flow for distances greater than 25 feet.
IV. EQUIPMENT
The basic waterblast unit consists of an engine driven
pump, inlet water filter, pressure gauge, hydraulic hose
of burst pressure 3 times working pressure, gun and
nozzle combination. The water gun should be a fail-safe
dump gun, to relieve pressure should the operator release
the trigger. Nozzles are usually circular orifices for concentrated round spray and tapered for flat or fan spray.
Long hose may be used (200 - 300 feet) without loss of
pressure. Air compressors are not required for hydroblasting.
V. INTRODUCTION OF ABRASIVES
Any type of abrasive commonly used with air blast
cleaning can be used in waterblast cleaning. Sand is the
most common abrasive. Injecting abrasive into water
eliminates dust that normally accompanies dry use of
friable abrasives. Use of expensive abrasives i s limited
because spent abrasive becomes wet and contaminated.
In this condition it cannot be economically dried, screened
and recycled.
FIGURE 2
Low pressure water blast cleaning with sand injection.
Courtesy of Acme Cleaning Equipment Company
FIGURE 3
High pressure water blast cleaning with sand injection.
Courtesy of Tri-Tan Corporation
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

65
Not for Resale
SSPC C H A P T E R r 2 . 5 93
8b279LIO 000349b 830
TABLE 1
SOME WATERBLAST CLEANING RATES*
Sq. Ft. Per Hour
SURFACE
CONDITION
Easy to clean, dusty
settlement, flaky flat
surface, light oil or
grease
-W
Sand Injection - SI
0-2000 PSI
Water Only
5 GPM
- 6000 PSI
6-8 GPM
10,000PSI
10 GPM
3000
150
350
500
SI
200
450
650
Average rusty surface

angles and piping
W
SI
75
1O0
200
225
250
350
Heavily corroded surface

rust scale, irregular
shape
20
75
125
SI
25
1O0
175
NOTE: Hydroblast surface comparable to SSPC-SP 6 condition.

Abrasive cleaned surface comparable to SSPC-SP 10 condition.
*These rates not necessarily achieved under different surface conditions.
VI. PRODUCTION RATES

The speed of cleaning is dependent on highest
manageable working pressure and volume of water. Depending on surface condition, hydroblasting compares favorably
with dry or wet sandblasting. Table 1 is a guide to cleaning
rates, based on the authors experience.
VIII. COST COMPARISON

Hydroblast cleaning cost can be nearly the same as
dry abrasive blast cleaning. Equipment costs are approximately the same and production i s comparable. There is a
difference because of inhibitors and rinsing costs.
Steel cleaned by waterblast or water pressure flashes

rust upon drying unless an inhibitor is in the spray solution
or applied immediately after blasting.
Inhibitors are generally injected at the blast nozzle,
similar to sand injection.
Inhibitors are generally sodium andlor potassium
dichromate or phosphate. They mix well with water and
retard corrosion until suitable paint is applied. The solutions, upon drying, leave salts that can produce adhesion
problems for protective coatings. Hydroblast equipment
manufacturers market chemical solutions that are very
effective in retarding rust. The prime consideration should
be to determine i f the protective coating is compatible with
the inhibitor.
After hydroblast cleaning, the surface must be rinsed
of spent abrasives. It is necessary to use an inhibitor that
prevents rust formation after rinsing.
Inhibitors can retard rust up to seven days. This is particularly useful in tank work. The entire surface can be
cleaned prior to painting.
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
VII. INHIBITORS
FIGURE 4
Gasoline driven trailer mount
showing optional hose reel.
Courtesy of Tritan Corporation
66
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SSPC C H A P T E R * 2 * 5 9 3
8627940 0003477 777
The blast gun should have automatic control to

release pressure when the operator releases the trigger. A
dump valve on the gun serves this purpose.
Everyone within 50 feet of the work area should be
warned of hazards associated with hydroblast cleaning
(including signs a,nd rope-Offs where necessary).
No electrical power should be in the work area.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
chapter: James Flaherty, A. W. Mallory, Joe Mazia, Marshall
McGee, William Pearson, John Perchall and Bill Wallace.
BIOGRAPHY
A biographiwl sketch and photo of Jim Bennett appear at
the end of Chapter 2.4.
FIGURE 5
Steel blasted to white finish (SSPC-SP 5) at 10,000 psi.
Courtesy of Partek Corporation
In maintenance painting, where job specifications

require only removal of all loose paint scale and flaky rust
and a thoroughly washed surface, the hydroblast method
is very economical, compared to hand or power tool cleaning. Hydroblast cleaning may also be preferred where
there are restrictions on ry abrasive blast cleaning.
IX. SAFETY PRECAUTIONS AND

PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT
Hydroblast cleaning uses high pressures. Extreme
caution should be exercised with the equipment.
Instruction and training of operators about correct
use and equipment operation is essential.
Surfaces, other than metal, can be damaged with high
pressure water and should be protected from effects of the
high pressure water blast.
The operator of a hydroblast unit must have sound,
safe footing. Extra caution should be taken on rigid scaffolding. Swinging stages and bosun chairs are not normally recommended for use with hydroblasting.
The operator should wear a rain suit, face shield, hearing protection and gloves.
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

67
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S S P C CHAPTER+Z.b
93
a b 2 7 9 4 0 0003502 964
CHAPTER 2.6
HAND AND POWER TOOL CLEANING

by
Preston
S. Hollister
and R. Stanford Short
I. HAND CLEANING
Scrapers may be of any convenient design. Figure 3
shows practical scrapers used by maintenance crews.
Scrapers should be made of tool steel, tempered and kept
sharp to be effective. Some scrapers are made by sharpening the ends of 1-112 to 2-inch wide flat files or rasps and
fastening them to a handle. The handle may be up to 5 feet
long to increase the area that can be reached. Other chipping and scraping tools made from old files or rasps have
both ends sharpened. Several inches from one end, the file
is bent at right angles.
Hand-chipping hammers are advisable in maintenance work where rust scale has formed. A chipping
hammer is about 4 to 6 inches long with two wedge-shaped
faces at either end of the head, one face perpendicular to
the line of the handle and the other at right angles to the
first face. Typical tools are illustrated in Figure 3.
Auxiliary equipment includes dust brushes, brooms,
various sizes of putty knives and conventional painters
scrapers, coated abrasives, and safety equipment such as
goggles and dust respirators.
Hand cleaning is one of the oldest processes for

preparing surfaces prior to painting. Generally, it is used
only when power operated equipment is not available, i f
the job is inaccessible to power tools or when the job is
small.
Tools needed include wire brushes, non-woven
abrasive pads, scrapers, chisels, knives, chipping hammers, and, in some instances, conventional coated
abrasives. Specially shaped scrapers or knives are sometimes necessary.
In close areas tools must be shaped so they can enter
areas to be cleaned. Further limitations are also found
with hand tools when tight mill scale or rust must be removed. These can be cracked on impact and removed with
scrapers, abrasive paper or non-woven abrasive pads, a
very slow and impractical method except for small areas.
There is danger that deep markings in the metal from impact tools will leave a burr on the metal surface that interferes with coating systems performance. Generally,
both hand and power tool cleaning are employed for
economical cleaning.
Before hand cleaning, the surface should be examined to determine the contaminants to be removed.
Work should follow the Steel Structures Painting Council
Surface Preparation Specification No. 2 Hand Tool Cleaning. Solvent cleaning should precede hand cleaning when
detrimental amounts of oil and grease or other soluble
contaminants may be present. This procedure is specified
in detail in SSPC-SP 1.
B. PROCEDURES
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Hand-cleaning operations vary depending on the job.

Rust scale forms in layers. It is removed first, usually by
impact from hand chipping hammers, sledge hammers,
etc. Where rust scale has progressed to the point where
thickness of the metal has been diminished, extreme care
in removing rust scale by impact prevents heavy sledges
from puncturing the metal. Deep marking of the surface
must be avoided. Burrs interfere with performance of the
coating system. After rust scale, oil, grease and similar
contaminants are removed, all loose and non-adherent
rust, loose mill scale and loose or non-adherent paint are
removed by a suitable combination of scraping and nonwoven abrasive or wire brushing. The cleaning method
depends on the surface. Loose, voluminous rust is easily
removed by scraping with thin, wide-blade scrapers and
then wire or non-woven abrasive brushing. Tightly adherent rust is generally removed with a heavy scraper.
Hand cleaning does not remove tight mill scale and all
traces of rust. Complete removal is extremely expensive
and noneconomical, except for extremely small areas.
Rust, scale, oil, grease, etc., should be removed from the
surface before cleaning.
A. HAND CLEANING TOOLS

Dried or caked soil and other such contaminants are
generally removed with loose mill scale and rust by scraping, brushing with non-woven abrasive pads, wire brushing
and hand chipping. It is important that any surface contaminant, such as gobs of oil or grease, is not distributed
over the entire surface through cleaning operations. Some
tools used for hand cleaning are illustrated in Figure 1.
Wire brushes may be of any practical shape and size. Two
general types are the oblong with a long handle and the
block type. Bristles are of spring wire. Brushes should be
discarded when they are no longer effective because of
lost or badly bent bristles. Non-woven abrasives are used
in simple pad form or applied to a backup holder with
handle (Figure 2). They are conformable and can be cut to
fit various applicators.

6%
Not for Resale
SSPC CHAPTER*Z.b
93
8b27940 0003503 B T O W
111. IMPACT CLEANING TOOLS

Impact cleaning tools are characterized by chipping
and scaling hammers. With these tools, a chisel is struck
by an internal piston and strikes the work surface.
Chisels can be adapted for scraping and chipping.
This type of tool is useful when heavy deposits of rust
scale, mill scale, thick old paint, weld flux, slag and other
brittle products must be removed from metal. Typical tools
are shown in Figure 4. Chisels have different shapes and
are made of various materials.
A needle scaler is a scaling hammer with a bundle of
steel needles housed and positioned forward of the striking piston. The piston strikes all needles simultaneously,
propelling them individually against the work surface. This
FIGURE 1
Tools used in hand cleaning operations. An oblong type of wire
brush is shown to the right of goggles and gloves; wide blade
hand scraper; hand chipping hammer; long-handled, wide blade
scraper; hammer and chisel used for removing rust scale.
Hand-cleaning painted surfaces removes all loose

non-adherent paint in addition to any rust or scale. If paint
is thick, edges of the old paint should be feathered to improve the quality of the paint job. After cleaning, the surface is brushed, swept, dusted and blown off with compressed air to remove all loose matter.
II. POWER TOOL CLEANING

Use of portable power tools - pneumatic and electric
P L I N T E R S RUST CHISEL
PAINTERS' SCRAPER
- is common for cleaning operations. Through careful
selection and use of the great variety of power tools and

accessories, many cleaning operations can be accomplished rapidly and produce satisfactory surface conditions with reasonable labor costs and good paint life.
Power tools used for surface cleaning fall into three
basic families:
Impact cleaning tools
Rotary cleaning tools
Rotary impact cleaning tools
Tools in each family have unique characteristics that
make them adaptable to different cleaning operations and
requirements.
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
FIGURE 3
Shop drawings of typical hand tools.
type of tool adapts to irregular surfaces. Needle scalers

are illustrated in Figure 5. They are most effective on brittle and loose surface contaminants.
Piston scalers are similar to scaling hammers, but the
piston is also the chisel. This minimizes the axial dimension and permits use in operations with limited access.
This type of tool is available in single and multiple piston
types. Some makes can be mounted in groups for cleaning
large surface areas.
Cleaning surfaces with scaling and chipping hammers is comparatively slow. When considerable rust scale
or heavy paint formation must be removed, it may be the
best and most economical method.
Impact cleaning tools are available with various
handle and throttle styles. They should be selected for
specific operations with consideration for operator safety,
convenience and preference. This minimizes fatigue and
improves operator productivity.
FIGURE 2
Non-woven abrasive pad attached to plastic backup holder.
Courtesy of 3M Company.

69
Not for Resale
73
8b27740 0003504 737
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Non-woven abrasives and rotary wire brushes can be

used to remove old paint, light mill scale, rust, weld flux,
slag and dirt deposits. Wire brushes (Figure 6) can be composed of differently shaped and sized wire bristles.
Bristles may be crimped or knotted. Non-woven abrasive
products (Figure 7) can be composed of various grades of
abrasive and densities. Wire brushes and non-woven
abrasives come in cup and radial (wheel) form. Non-woven
abrasives also are available in disc form. Selection of style
and type of bristle or non-woven abrasive composition
should be based on trials. Surface condition affects the efficiency of cleaning. Non-woven abrasives are particularly
FIGURE 4
A selection of various chipping hammers and the chisels they
use.
Courtesy of ARO Corporation.
Great care must be exercised in using tools because

of the tendency to excessively cut into the surface, removing sound metal and leaving sharp burrs where the paint
will fail prematurely. The cutting action of sharp chisels is
valuable for shaping sharp edges to a rounded or less
sharp surface so paint does not pull away. It also removes
imperfections from the surface. These tools may be used
to remove tight mill scale and surface rusting, but they are
not the most practical or economical tools because they
gouge metal, which must be smoothed to do a thorough
job. Tools must be sharp or they may drive rust and scale
into the surface.
FIGURE 6
Types of brushes used with power tools. On the left is shown a
wheel type of stiff wire brush; in the center and on the right are
shown cup types of wire brushes of knotted construction; on the
lower right is a wire brush with a crinkled wire construction. On
the lower left is a wire brush used for cleaning corners, etc.; in use
it is held in an adaptor illustrated in the lower center.
IV. ROTARY CLEANING TOOLS

Rotary power tools do most hand-cleaning jobs
rapidly. Rotary power tools and the cleaning media that fit
them are discussed.
advantageous in removing coatings because of lowered

susceptibility to loading, as compared to coated
abrasives.
Coated abrasives are used in several converted forms
(Figure 8). Discs and flap wheels are used to remove loose
mill scale, old paint, etc. similar to wire brush applications,
but can remove base metal. Loading from old paints may
make such applications uneconomical for discs.
A. CLEANING MEDIA
There are three basic types of cleaning media for
rotary power tools: non-woven abrasives, wire brushes and
coated abrasives. As subsequently described, these media
can be used on two basic types of tools.
B. TOOLS
Tools for the three above media are divided into two
basic types: straight, or in-line machines (Figure 9), and
vertical or right angle machines (Figures 10, 11).
The straight or in-line machine style is used with
radial wire brushes, coated abrasive flap wheels and nonwoven abrasive wheels. The vertical machine style is
suited for cup wire brushes, coated abrasive discs, nonwoven abrasive discs, cup wheels and wheels. The type of
machine varies with job conditions. It is advisable to have
both types on hand and generally both are used on field
jobs.
Operator fatigue is an important factor in power tool
cleaning. An operators preference should be considered
in selecting a machine. In some cases, where much overhead work is to be done, small lightweight machines may
be used. Machines may be operated by pneumatic or elec-
FIGURE 5
Typical needle scalers.

70
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8b27740 0003505 673
Non-woven abrasive wheels are recommended where

base metal should not be removed but where wire brushes
are not aggressive enough. Non-woven abrasive wheels
wear at a controlled rate. Fresh working abrasive provides
a constant rate of surface cleaning with minimal loading.
Non-woven abrasive wheels are useful in removing light
mill scale. In many applications, non-woven abrasives are
a quicker and more effective alternative to wire brushes or
coated abrasives.
In power wire brushing it is possible to cut through
some mill scale by using the toe of a very stiff brush and
bearing down hard. It is impractical to remove tight mill
scale by power wire brushing. Generally, removal of only
loose mill scale and rust is required. Too high a speed must
not be used with rotary wire brushes and the brush must
not be kept on one spot for too long. Detrimental burnishing of the surface may occur. Under such circumstances the surface is smooth and develops a polished, glossy appearance that provides a poor anchor for
paint. It is clear that doing too much surface work is
detrimental. Rotary wire brushes are particularly notorious
for spreading oil and grease over the surface. Oily or
greasy surfaces must be cleaned with solvent before
power brushing. Coated abrasive and non-woven abrasive
products are also vulnerable to oily or greasy surfaces.
Solvent cleaning, prior to power cleaning, is recommended.
Coated abrasives are particularly useful for application where metal removal is either desired or acceptable,
such as weld grinding. Tight mill scale cannot be removed
with such media, but loose scale can be.
FIGURE 7
Non-woven abrasive products are available (from right to left) in
disc, wheel and cup wheel forms.
tric motors. Lightweight machines operated by high frequency current are available.
The machine should be compatible with the size and
speed rating of the cleaning media and should produce
enough power to perform the operation efficiently. Most
air powered machines contain governors to limit the free
operating speed. Governors respond to tool load resulting
from thrust applied to the work surface and supply more
air to the motor, increasing power output and maintaining
its rated speed while under load. Electrically driven
machines operate at a fixed speed.
V. ROTARY IMPACT TOOLS

Rotary impact tools operate on the same basic principle as other impact tools, through cutting or chipping
action, but rotary tools use a centrifugal principle where
cutters or hammers are rotated at high speed and thrown
against the surface.
FIGURE 8
Coated abrasives disc (left) or coated abrasive flap wheels (right)
are used for surface preparation.
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71
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93
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failure due to insufficient paint coverage. If these tools are

used to remove all mill scale and rust from the surface, it is
very likely that the surface will be too rough for satisfactory painting unless a very thick coating, such as coldapplied mastic, is applied.
VI. TOOL SAFETY

Safety is a very important consideration when using
tools. It includes proper use and maintenance of tools, and
protection from air-borne contaminants.
Prescribed safety practices are published by various
FIGURE 11
A non-woven abrasive cup wheel in use on a vertical power tool.
organizations, including the American National Standards

Institute, the National Safety Council, the Occupational
Safety and Health Administration and the Environmental
Protection Agency. Some publications are referenced at
the end of this section to help users identify them, and include recommended operating procedures.
Safety practices include the following considerations.
Tool users and other people in the area should wear eye
protection to guard against flying particles. Different
types and requirements are prescribed in ANSI Z 87.1. Ear
protection should be considered when impact tools are
FIGURE 10
Three air-powered vertical or right-angle power tools.

72
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8627740 0003507 446 D
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Coated and non-woven abrasives should be run at or

below manufacturers rated maximum operating speed.
Non-woven abrasive wheels should be operated in the
proper direction of rotation. The wheel or disc should be
put on the tool and tightened securely while the tool is disconnected from the power supply. Guards should be used.
Protective clothing should be considered. Proper air
pressure to pneumatic tools is important. Proper rpm
should be checked with a tachometer on all tools before
use.
Rotary impact tools also should be operated at or
below manufacturers rated maximum operating speed.
Proper guards should be used on such tools. When using
Heavy Duty Roto Peen, it is important to have flaps
loaded for direction of rotation as recommended. These
media should be tightened securely and run only when
contacting an appropriate work surface.
Respirators should be used i f contaminants in the
breathing zone exceed applicable threshold limits. This is
of particular importance when cleaning paints containing
lead, chromate or coal tar products.
Since the cleaning operations can produce sparks,
care must be exercised when cleaning in the area of combustibles and volatile vapors. When such conditions cannot be avoided, only special non-sparking tools should be
used.
For more complete information on the subject of
safety, refer to the following:
FIGURE 12
Top left are four types of cutters or stars. Next is a heavy-duty

rotary peening flap. Pictured below the row is a rotary hammer.
Courtesy of Desco Manufacturing Co.
used. Particular attention should be paid when using

several tools simultaneously in close proximity.
Hand tools should be properly selected for the purpose and properly maintained. Hammers should be properly heat-treated and striking faces maintained to eliminate
mushrooming and flying fragments. Chisels must be
maintained on the striking and cutting ends. All sharpedged tools deserve respect and proper consideration.
Electrical tools should be run in dry environments.
They should be grounded or double insulated. Power cords
should be kept in good repair.
Impact tools should be operated only when the chisel
or scaling tool is in position and in contact with the
workpiece. Tools should not be used i f ejection of an accessory might endanger personnel.
Rotary wire brushes should be run at or below manufacturers rated maximum operating speed. Gloves and
leather aprons are additional safeguards to avoid injury
from loose wires. Recommended guards should always be
used.
Standard for Safety of Portable Electric Tools,

C33.49. American National Standards Institute, 1 1
West 42nd St., 13th Floor, New York, NY 10036-8002.
(Also UL45, Underwriters Laboratory).
Safety Requirements for the Design, Care, and Use
of Power Driven Brushing Tools, 8165.1, American
National Standards Institute.
Standard for Occupational and Educational Eye and
FIGURE 13
This electric tool (right) used a flap loading of heavy duty rcitary
peening (left) to remove mill scale from carbon steel.
Courtesy of 3M Company and Desco Manufacturing Company.

73
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8627940 0003508 382
Face Protection, 287.1. American National Standards Institute.
R . Stanford Short retired as

Manager of Engineering Standards and Services at the Aro
Corporation, Bryan, Ohio. He
received a B.S.M.E. from Michigan State College (University)in
1950 and had been associated
with The Aro Corporation and
the pneumatic tool industry from
1953to 1983. Mr. Short was engaged in the design, research
and development of air tools and
systems for 17 years. He holds
numerous Datentsfor air tool inventions, has conducted numerous seminars, and has had papers
published on various facets of pneumatic tools and their use.
In addition to having served the Compressed Air and Gas Institute (CAGI) as its representative to the European Committee of
Manufacturers of Compressors, Vacuum Pumps and Pneumatic
Tools (PNEUROP), he was chairman of the CAGI Pneumatic Tool
Engineering and Safety Committees. Mr. Short was also a member of various committees of the American National Standards Institute, PNEUROP and the International Organization for
Standardization.
His professional affiliations have included membership in the
American Society of Mechanical Engineers, the American Society
for Testing and Materials, the American Society for Metals and the
U.S. Metric Association.
Accident Prevention Manual for Industrial Operations, seventh edition, National Safety Council, 1121
Spring Lake Drive, Itasca, IL 60143-3201.
Also, various Occupational Safety and Health
;ociation
regulations may be applicable. Reguiations
As2
are available from the Occupational Safety and Health Admiriistration, U.S. Department of Labor, Washington, DC.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The authors and editors gratefully acknowledge the active

chapter: Dick Anderson, Duane Bloemke, William Mathay, Duke
Mallory, Ben Nieters, Bob Roth, and Bill Wallace.
BIOGRAPHIES
Preston Hollistergraduated
from the University of Illinois at
Champaign-Urbana in Decernber, 1979 with a B.S. in chemical engineering. He worked as a
technical service engineer with
Minnesota Mining and Manufacturing Company, Building Service and Cleaning Products
Division, where he specializedin
non-woven abrasive productsfor
industrial applications. He actively represented3M not only in
the SSPC but on ASTMs D33
committee on Protective Coating and Lining Work for PowerGeneration Facilities and the Utilities Nuclear Coatings Work Committee.

SUGGESTED READING
V.M. Gin, 3M Brand Heavy Duty Roto Peen Flap Wheel Coating
Removal System, BS&CP Division, St. Paul, MN, 1977.
V.M. Gin, Mill Scale. Removal with 3M Brand Heavy Duty Roto
Peen Flap Wheel, BS&CP Division, St. Paul, MN, 1976.
P.S. Hollister, Surface Preparation Procedure for Repairs of
Nuclear Grade Coatings on Steel and Concrete, BS&CP Division,
St. Paul, MN, 1980.
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SSPC C H A P T E R * 2 * b
SSPC CHAPTERr2.7
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CHAPTER 2.7
FIELD SURFACE PREPARATION COSTS

bY
Robert
B. Roth
face condition (mill scale, previous coating, degree of rust,

and deleterious material), and accessibility (on shop floor,
part of existing structure and adjacent hazards).
The cost for surface preparation of carbon steel

substrates varies with the degree of cleaning specified, the
cleaning method and the efficiency of the organization performing the work. Designated surface preparation must be
companioned with the selected protective coating
systems, and the inherent, desired or designed performance. Direct costs include labor, taxes and insurances,
materials, supervision, scaffolding, equipment and inspection. Indirect charges cover items such as engineering input, overhead, cost of capital, administration of the work,
depreciation and cost of down time. The total cost is the
sum of direct and indirect amounts.
This chapter presents general guidelines for the individual who has to select cleaning methods, design
specifications and establish budgets for painting and
coating work. It also deals with the standards available and
relative cost factors.
For mildly contaminated steel substrates, an effective

solvent cleaning at the rate of 500 square feet per workhour can be expected. Material use is approximately one
gallon per hour. Use the cost of one gallon per hour,
recognizing this quantity is conservative, to cover expendables, such as rags, mops, gloves, etc.
I. DISCUSSION
B. SSPC-SP 2 HAND TOOL CLEANING
The individual concerned with surface preparation

must research the assignment and select a degree of surface cleanliness and a coating system based on the criteria
demanded by the type of service or exposures presented.
Costs are escalating and warranties are essential.
Unauthorized or capricious deviations can lead to failures;
replacement or correction can be very expensive.
To assure successful performance of the selected protective paint or coating system and to enjoy the guarantees
available, recommendations of the paint or coating
manufacturers must be followed. Specific circumstances
may require variances, but variances must be authorized, in
writing, by the manufacturer. Inspection and documentation are necessary for each phase of the job for the warranty to be valid.
It is reasonable to expect hand tool cleaning rates in

the range of 250 to 300 square feet per work hour. Tool
allowance costs at the equivalent rate of four units
(scrapers or wire brushes, etc.) per person per day is adequate.
111. SSPC SPECIFICATIONS

The following sections assume identical conditions of
field work, supervision, crew experience, environment and
new, mill scale-covered steel with light surface rusting.
A. SSPC-SP 1 SOLVENT CLEANING
It is not reasonable to expect a worker to use conventional heavy, vibrating power tools or equipment continuously for an eight hour day. Experience shows that
three to four productive hours per day can be expected.
Power tools have other pitfalls: power wire brushes can
polish or burnish the substrate; chipping hammers and
power chisels can gouge the surface; and power sanders
clean only the high areas leaving some areas untouched.
It is reasonable to assume a cleaning rate of 100
square feet per hour in an eight hour shift or 400 square
feet per person per day for power tool cleaning. It is also
reasonable to expect a minimum of two items such as wire
discs, cup brushes, sanding inserts, or chisels and varnox
tip sets to be replaced per person per eight hour day.
II. SURFACE PREPARATION

There are nine formal surface preparation specifications
as covered by SSPC specifications. Each specification is
designed to define a degree of surface cleanliness and
eliminate misunderstandingsbetween vendor and purchaser.
Cost of surface preparation should be based on workhours per square foot of surface area to be cleaned, based
on job records. The individual responsible for preparing the
cost estimate or proposal for the work must recognize the
type and degree of cleaning, type of cleaning equipment,
steel configuration (plates, shapes, fabrications, etc.), surCopyright The Society for Protective Coatings
EXAMPLE: Assume 5000 square feet of steel plate, to be

cleaned per SSPC SP 1,2 and 3. Experience indicates that 50% of surface requires solvent
cleaning, 80% hand tool cleaning and 20%
power tool cleaning due to some tight scale,
etc.
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C. SSPC-SP 3 POWER TOOL CLEANING
73
m 6627740 00035LO
F. SSPC-SP 11 POWER TOOL CLEANING TO

BARE METAL
Your estimate would allow:

SSPC-SP 1 Solvent
Cleaning
5 person hours
SSPC-SP 2 Hand Tool
Cleaning
14-16 person hours
SSPC-SP 3 Power Tool
Cleaning
T30
10 person hours
Allow for expendables of material in the same proport ion.
D. BLAST CLEANING (SSPC-SP 5,6,7, and 10)

Most modern field practices use abrasive blast cleaning as a method of preparation, conforming to one of the
above specifications.
Sandblast cleaning can be the least expensive method
of field surface preparation, especially i f sophisticated
equipment is used. When estimating for basic blast cleaning costs, consider three persons working an eight hour
shift as a crew day. Two nozzles would be working leaving one person to handle hoses, move gear and to relieve
occasionally the other nozzle operators.
Table I presents cleaning rate data obtained by blast
cleaning lightly rusted steel plate with a synthetic abrasive
of medium hardness (30 to 40 mesh) using a #6 nozzle ( J /
diameter) operating at a nozzle pressure of approximately
80 psi.
These production rates allow for the stoppages and inefficiencies inherent in all such operations.
Variables such as nozzle diameter, dead-man or
automatic shut off and adjustments influence the rates on
the guide chart, Table I.
E. SSPC-SP 8 PICKLING
Pickling employs large dip vats and large cranes or
handling equipment and is a shop or fixed-facility operation. Costs are elusive, particularly since each shop
employs a proprietary process and keeps divergent cost
records involving equipment depreciation, discounted
cash flow and related economic factors. In modern industry, pickling has been decreasing in volume practice.
Expect lower cleaning rates when blast cleaning a pickled
substrate. Depending on the pickling process used, field
sandblasting rates can be reduced by as much as 50 to 60
percent.
This method uses power-tool driven abrasives to

produce a bare metal surface. It is used when a roughened,
clean, bare metal surface is required, but where abrasive
blasting is not feasible or permissible. It differs from SSPC-SP
3, Power Tool Cleaning, in that SSPC-SP 3 requires only the
removal of loosely adherent materials, while SSPC-SP 11 requires producing or retaining a surface profile.
The equipment required for this method is relatively inexpensive, though slightly more expensive than traditional
power tools. It is quite effective at removing paint, tight rust
and mill scale from flat surfaces when used in conjunction
with solvent cleaning. It is significantly less effective at removing these materials from irregular, hard-to-reach surfaces.
The quality of the prepared surface for painting is suitable
for most coating systems, with a minimum one mil surface
profile. However, productivity is low.
The technique generates more dust and debris than
SSPC-SP 3. Dust levels can be reduced by using the tools
inside a vacuum-equippedcontainment which surrounds only
the tool.
IV. WATER BLASTI NG

Costs vary widely with conditions but a cleaning rate
of approximately.3500 square feet per eight hour day (two
person crew) using waterblast cleaning on lightly rusted
steel plate can be expected.
Abrasive blast cleaning of a surface that has already
been hydrocleaned can be accomplished at a one-third
greater production rate than that shown in Table I. Often
the solvent cleaning step can be eliminated from the
specifications.
V. COST REVIEW
When making an estimate of surface preparation cost,
consider these factors:
1. Labor
(a) Rate classification

(b) Mechanics and Helpers
(c) Field Supervision
(d)Specialists (Riggers and equipment
operating personnel and so forth)
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TABLE 1
Cleaning Rate Data
Blast Cleaning
Specified
SSPC-SP 7 Brush Off

SSPC-SP 6 Commercial
SSPC-SP 10 Near White
SSPC-SP 5 White Metal

Average Cleaning
Rate Per Three
Person Crew Day
Abrasive
Used Per
Crew Day
5200 sq. ft.
7,000 Ibs.
8,000 I bs.
12,500 Ibs.
10,000 Ibs.
2500 sq. ft.

1500 sq. ft.
1000 sq. ft.
Not for Resale
Relative
costs
1
2+
3 /2
5+
SSPC C H A P T E R U 2 - 7 93
2. Labor
Fringes
8627940 0 0 0 3 5 1 1 9 7 7
VI. SUMMARY
(a) Health, Pension, Welfare, Vacation,
etc.
A successful protective coating operation starts with

proper surface preparation. Assuming personnel are
trained, qualified and properly instructed, paint failures are
usually the result of faulty surface preparation rather than
deficiencies in the coating material. In following the cost
projection guidelines presented, it is important t o compensate for the specifics of each situation since no two
assignments are ever exactly the same. Experience and
good record keeping is necessary to enhance your
estimating procedures.
(b)Travel pay, i f applicable

(c) Collective bargai ni ng addit ives
3. Labor Burden (a) Payroll Taxes
(b) Payroll Insurances
(c) Bonding Costs
4. Material
(a) Abrasive Media

(b) Solvents, thinners and diluents
(c) Expendable supplies
(d)Sales or Use Tax on the foregoing
(e) Delivery costs on above
5. Equipment
Rental
(a) Standard Blue Book or A.E.D. sources

(b) Fuels, Lubricants
(c) Transportation and handling costs
(d) Use taxes on above
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

chapter: Wally Cathcart, Jim Flaherty, Lowell Hartman,Joe Mazia,
Jack Oechsle, William Pearson, Steve Pinney, Bill Wallace.
6. Site of Shop (a) Permanent personnel - Project

Organization
Managing and Administrative
(b) Site of Shop Plant
(c) Storage or Warehousing
(Often expressed as a percentage of cost,
7. Overhead
items 1 through 6)
8. Profit
(Often expressed as a percentage of cost
plus overhead, items 1 through 7 above)
BIOGRAPHY
Robert B. Roth is Past President of Oliver B. Cannon and
Son, Inc. Following graduation

from Yale University, Mr. Roth
joined Oliver B. Cannon in 1948,
advancing to Executive Vice
President in 1956 and President
in 1972, a position he held until
his retirement in 1987. Mr. Roth
was a member of the American
Society of Civil Engineers, National Association of Corrosion
Engineers, American Nuclear
Society, the Utilities Nuclear
Coatings Work Committee, and the American National Standards
Institute Coatings committee. Mr. Roth is the author of the Painting Section in Plant Engineers Handbook and of numerous articles on protective coatings in professional journals.
An excellent aid in determining the cost of operating a

blast cleaning crew in the field may be found in the current
Estimating Guide of the PDCA (Painting and Decorating
Contractors of America).
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SSPC CHAPTERs2.8 9 3 m 86279YO 00035112 803 m

CHAPTER 2.8
OTHER METHODS AND FACTORS IN

SURFACE PREPARATION
by
I. INTRODUCTION
of silica sand abrasives may cause a debilitating lung

disorder known as silicosis. Silicosis is caused by
breathing minute dust particles. OSHA is considering
establishing a standard for worker exposure to silica and
other abrasive dusts, which could greatly restrict the type
and quantity of abrasives used for blast cleaning(*).
The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) has
established limits on the total permissible concentration
of suspended particulates in air(3).Proposed revisions by
EPA would impose restrictions primarily on particulates
with a diameter of less than 10 microns.
The dust produced from sand blasting is also objectionable because of visual pollution. Although no Federal
standards are in effect, many states and municipalities use
the Ringelmann scale(4).This scale indicates the proportion of light obscured by the particulates. A rating of 2 on
the Ringelmann scale, for example, corresponds to a
reduction of 40% in visibility.
Environmental and occupational health officials have
been very concerned about the composition of the old
paint being removed from structural steel, some of which
contains toxic lead and chromium compounds. Sand blasting of paint containing lead will frequently produce airborne concentrations of lead greater than the maximum
permissible by the EPA. In addition, the paint particles are
deposited on roadways, waterways, and adjacent ground.
The extent to which these particles pose a health hazard
has not been determined. The National Ambient Air Quality
Standard (NAAQS) for lead is 1.5 micrograms per cubic
meter (pglm), averaged over a 90-day period(5).
The Occupational Safety and Health Administration
has established standards for air-borne concentrations of
lead and chromium to protect the worker i n the
w o r k p l a ~ e ( ~There
> ~ ) . is little hard data available on the
levels of these compounds to which a sand blaster would
be exposed.
Another potential problem associated with abrasive
blasting of paint containing lead is the disposal of spent
abrasive. Lead is one of the toxic substances covered
by EPAs Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA)
regulations on solid waste disposaW. The 1980 Federal
Regulations require the use of the Toxicity Characteristic
Leaching Procedure (TCLP) to determine the concentration
of leachable lead. If the concentration of lead is greater than
5 milligrams per liter, the material is classified as hazardous
Most painting and corrosion scientists consider surface preparation to be the key factor in coating performance and protection. The more commonly used techniques
such as abrasive blasting, water blasting, hand and power
tool cleaning, chemical cleaning and pickling are covered
in separate chapters. This chapter describes the many new
approaches to surface preparation of structural steel that
have developed from the need t o protect worker health and
the environment. Several of these proposed new techniques also offer the prospect of improving the quality,
safety or cost of many surface preparation operations.
Open air sandblasting is being restricted in certain
locales because the paint and dust pollute the air and
water. In addition the Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) is concerned about protecting
workers against silicosis and other respiratory diseases. In
cleaning an existing structure, it may be necessary to
recover and dispose of old paint particles, particularly
those containing lead or chromium compounds.
The selection of the method of surface preparation
depends on a variety of complex factors such as location
and criticality of structure, availability of funds, existence
and enforcement of regulations, and the experience and ingenuity of owner and contractor.
Several of the alternative methods are variations, improvements, and modifications on existing techniques,
such as water blasting or abrasive blasting. Others are
based on non-mechanical forces such as xenon lamps,
lasers, ultrasonic waves or plasma streams. Both of these
categories are covered in this chapter(). This chapter also
describes some of the specialized equipment and
engineering approaches attempted by government agencies and industry to recover the abrasive dusts and paints.
Other chapters describe the latest advances in blast cleaning, power tool cleaning, and chemical cleaning.
II. ENVIRONMENTAL AND HEALTH FACTORS

Environmental and health problems associated with
abrasive blast cleaning have been among the major factors
i n the search for new methods. In this section we will
describe briefly the specific hazards and the type of regulation being considered.
Health officials have expressed concern that the use
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Bernard R. Appleman and John D. Keane
SSPC CHAPTER*Z.B
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~~
Area of Concern
TABLE 1: MATERIALS REGULATED

Regulatory Agency
Material Regulated
Permitted Limits
Worker Health
Worker Health
Federal: OSHA
Federal: OSHA
100 pglm3 (8 hr. average)

5 mglm3 (8 hr. average)
Worker Health
Federal: OSHA
Worker Health
Clean Air
Clean Air
Solid Waste
Federal:
Federal:
Federal:
Federal:
Clean Water
EPA, States, Fish &

Game, Coast Guard
Silica (Respirable)
Nuisance Dust
(Respirable Fraction)
Lead (Total)
(Construction and
General Industry)
Chromium (Respirable)
Lead (in air)
Suspended Particulates
Leachable Lead &
Chromium
Lead Residues
OSHA
EPA
EPA
EPA
waste. A similar standard exists for hexavalent chromium. The used abrasives (often several hundred tons)
would then require disposal in a more costly and often
difficult to find toxic waste disposal site. Recent blast
cleaning of some bridges in Massachusetts has resulted in
lead concentrations of up to 60mg/liter(g).
In summary, conventional sand blasting and other
paint removal methods may produce the detrimental effects listed above (Table 1).
Let us consider the prospects for alleviating the above
conditions and satisfying the regulations. It is useful to
divide the technology into those methods which alleviate
the air pollution problem and those which alleviate the
dust and paint fallout into water, roadways, etc. As will be
discussed, the new techniques have had reasonable success in reducing the air pollution hazards associated with
abrasive blasting. The problem of preventing dust and
paint from being deposited into the ground and water is
much more difficult and costly.
50 pg/m3 (8 hr. average)
50 pglrn3 (8 hr. average)

1.5 pglm3 (90 day average)
150 pg/ms (24 hr. average)
5 mg/L
zero discharge in
some locales
against the surface to be cleaned by means of compressed air as in dry sand blasting. A separate hose
delivers the water to the nozzle. In the water curtain
version, the water forms a ring around the sand
nozzle. In this method sand and water emerge from
separate orifices. There is little loss of abrasive
velocity leaving the nozzle; cleaning rates are much
the same as with dry blasting(ID).
2. Water Blasting with Sand Injection

The abrasive is injected or aspirated into the water
stream at the nozzle. It must necessarily be introduced after the water is pressurized to avoid
pump damage. Figure 1 shows a typical abrasive injection unit.
Many types of abrasives can be used in wet blast
cleaning, the most widely used being sand. The type and
size of abrasive is directly related to the rate of cleaning
and the surface roughness. Particles too small or too large
for the type of surface being cleaned can slow production.
Systems have been developed wherein the operator
may selectively blast with or without abrasive injection. In
this way a surface can be cleaned of biofouling or other
contaminants by water alone without disturbing the intact
paint. Corroded areas, however, can be cleaned to white
metal only by injecting the abrasive into the water stream.
111. VARIATIONS ON WET AND WATER

BLASTING
The chapter on water blast cleaning describes the use
of high-pressure water (up to 10,000 psi) to prepare metal
for painting. Water-blasting alone, even at high pressure,
will not remove tight, intact paint and heavy rust buildup
from structural steel at acceptable production rates. Wet
blasting (the use of water along with abrasives), on the
other hand, can provide highly satisfactory results for
these. There are several different types of equipment and
approaches available; the effectiveness and the cost depend strongly on the particular system selected. The main
systems described include wet abrasive blasting, sand injection, and air-water-sand.
A. CONVENTIONAL WET METHODS

1. Sand Blasting with Water
This technique incorporates water into a conventional abrasive air blast unit. The sand is projected
FIGURE 1
A typical sand injection blast unit.
Courtesy of Partek Corporatlon
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8627940 0003534 686
per hour. Each of the quantities - air, sand, and

water - is independently adjustable so that the
system can be used without sand at low pressure
merely to wash down the
A U.S. version involves a somewhat similar
unit which operates at about 1000 pounds per
square inch water pressure with sand injection.
Unlike the English system, this one entails remote
control via micro switches of a seven-ton dry blast
pot by the operator at the nozzle rather than by
verbal communications with an operator. Also,
unlike the English method, it involves a considerable amount of sand, which sometimes has a
tendency to stick to the work as a slurry. This slurry
is then allowed to dry and is washed off with an
auxiliary nozzle at perhaps 1000 to 1500 square
feet per h ~ u r ( ~ ~ ) ( F i g u3a
r eand
s 3b).
4. Sodium Bicarbonate
Sodium bicarbonate blasting is one of a group of
wet blasting and waterjetting systems that employ
water-soluble abrasives. Like most wet blast systems, they produce less dust than dry blasting. Residue can be sent to a wastewater facility, rather than
disposed of as hazardous waste, if paint chips, especially those containing lead, can be separated from
the wastewater. The technique does not damage a
substrate although it is very effective in scrubbing
a surface.
Sodium bicarbonate blasting has been shown
to remove epoxies and urethanes, oil, grease and
loose rust. It will not remove tight rust or mill scale,
and does not impart a profile, so it is best suited for
maintenance painting. Adhesion of various coatings
after use of the system is still being evaluated. While
sodium blast cleaning is more expensive than other
methods, the decreased costs of waste disposal
when paint chips are separated must also be taken
into account.
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
FIGURE 2
Typical marine use of the hydraulic equipment with sand injection.
Courtesy of WOMA Corporation
The overall performance of water blasting with or

without abrasives depends on the abrasive, inhibitor,
operational technique, surface condition and degree of
cleani ng required.
Several federal and state agencies have evaluated the
performance of moderate to high pressure hydraulic cleaning systems. In one evaluation, most of the systems failed
to meet the performance requirements because of being
underpowered (operated at 500-1200 psi using conventional pumps) or because of inability to meter the sand
without clogging. The most successful unit used pressures of about 2000 psi with two or more nozzles operated
at the manifold()(Figure 2).
3. Air- Water-Sand
Some recently developed processes utilize a combination of air, sand, and water to provide a highly
versatile and efficient means of preparing surfaces.
A British version of the air-water-sand method includes a large volume of air (300 to 400 cubic feet
per minute) into which one to two gallons of water
per minute can be entrained with or without acorrosion inhibitor. Sand or other abrasives may be
added at 200 to 400 pounds per hour, and the mixture is delivered through an open-ended, coneshaped, wide-mouthed nozzle (0.5 to 1 inch in
diameter) at pressures which can be varied from 15
to 100 psi. In various trials the speed of cleaning
has been estimated to be from 50 to 200 square feet
per hour depending on the surface, with reported
removal of single coats of paint leaving the primer
coat intact at rates as high as 300 to 450 square feet

B. IMPORTANT FEATURES OF WATER AND

WET BLASTING
1. Water Volume
The volume of water varies considerably among the
techniques discussed. The sand injection methods
rely on water as the primary medium; typical flow
rates are 5 to 15 gallons per minute (gpm). The
water curtain entails only the small amount of
water necessary to contain the dust. The air-watersand process typically uses 1-2 gpm.
2. Sand Volume
The sand injection method uses considerably less
sand than dry blasting or water curtain. The airwater-sand processes provide a greater degree of
control of the abrasive and consume still smaller
quantities of sand, with the British version using
the least.
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Most of the examples reviewed have been

directed at producing blast-cleaned surfaces (e.g.
SSPC-SP 6 or SP 10). For situations in which it is
necessary to remove only loose rust or paint, the
use of high pressure water alone or low pressure
with sand might well provide higher rates and
superior surfaces than either dry blasting or conventional hand and power tool cleaning.
6. Flash Rustingllnhibitor
Flash rusting can occur within minutes after
blasting with water (Figure 4). To prevent oxidation
or flash rusting, a suitable inhibitor is usually injected into the blast hose or applied after blasting.
It is important to use a rust inhibitor with a strong
enough solution to retard rust after the final rinsing
of the contaminants and spent abrasives has been
completed. Inhibitors include soluble chromates,
phosphates, nitrates, and molybdates(i4).Certain inhibitors, when dry, leave salts that could produce
adhesion problems for protective coatings.
Therefore, the inhibitor must be compatible with
the paint system to be applied. Inhibitors must also
meet EPA requirements and be non-pollutants.
It is often preferable to apply the inhibitor solution after water blast, thereby minimizing operator
exposure, saving inhibitor, reducing problems of
liquid pollution, and often running scant risk of excessive flash rust. The air drying feature of the airwater-sand method is highly beneficial in minimizing flash rusting.
7 . Production Rate
The production rate for achieving a specific surface
condition (e.g. near-white metal blast, SSPC-SP 10)
depends on the type of system chosen, the particular unit, the proficiency of the operators and the
original condition of the surface.
The air-water-sand u n i t s are t h e m o s t
sophisticated system concepts and would probably
be most competitive with conventional dry sand
blasting for a full-scale field operation. The sand-
FIGURE 3
Cleaning underside of European bridge with air-water-sand unit.
Coauthor observed separate sections which were cleaned to
white metal (passing potassium ferrocyanide test) and others involving spot removal of individual coats.
Courtesy of KUE, Ltd.
3. Water Nozzle Thrust

Conventional high pressure and sand injection
units develop pressures up to 10,000 psi and
thrusts of 50 pounds, which can be a significant
safety hazard, particularly when operated from a
scaffold or other location of precarious footing.
The sand injection unit may be operated at lower
pressure (2000-3500 psi) for removing loose paint
and rust.
The water curtain and air-water-sand units normally operate at 1000-2000 psi, thereby considerably reducing the safety hazard. For these
operations, the major safety consideration is
pressure used to propel the sand, which is normally
at about 1000 psi. The reduced nozzle thrust obta ned with the ai r-water-sand un its also produces
less operator fatigue. For several of the high
pressure-high thrust units (both with and without
abrasive) the operator could work only for one or
two hours at a time.
4. Dust
The dust created by dry blasting can be controlled
through the use of either a water injected system or
a water curtain.
5. Costs
It is difficult to compare wet abrasive cleaning
costs with other surface preparation methods.
Equipment and labor costs, surface conditions, and
production rates all vary and have not been well
documented. Compared to hand tool cleaning, the
higher equipment costs of wet abrasive blasting
are more than compensated in lower labor rate
costs per square foot, a cleaner surface, and higher
production rates. The total cost of wet abrasive
blasting is in almost all cases higher than dry sand
blasting. Observed rates vary from 125 to 200% of
the latter.
For the air-water-sand approach, the equipment costs are high compared to other methods;
economics dictates that its use be limited to large
scale appl cations.
FIGURE 4
Flash rusting of water-blasted steel rail.
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injection method has been documented as producing from 50 to 125% of the cleaning rate of dry
blasting; most users concede that dry blasting is
faster than a comparably-sized wet blast cleaning
technique. The water curtain method should have
little effect on the production rate, although some
ad hoc or home built modifications have displayed
considerably reduced rates.
Because of the lack of extensive field experience by the users and manufacturers, these
techniques are expected to have a higher rate of
malfunction and down time than conventional dry
sand blast and high-pressure water units.
C. NOVEL USES OF WATER

1. Controlled Cavitation Water Jetting
Under certain conditions of rapid water flow,
numerous low pressure cavities or bubbles are
formed. The collapse (implosions) of these bubbles
is accompanied by the release of large amounts of
energy. The formation, transport, and collapse of
the bubbles is known as cavitation(ls1.Cavitation is
well known as a destructive phenomenon which
results in metal loss on or near propellers, pumps,
etc. From efforts at countering these effects,
researchers developed the technology to control
and direct the forces of cavitation. The technique
has been successfully utilized in boiler tube cleaning, rock drilling, and i n removing underwater fouling from ship
The technique of controlled
cavitation also offers the possibility of certain advantages for surface preparation of structural steel.
For a given water pressure and flow rate,
cavitation develops higher forces at the point of impact than conventional high pressure water
blasting. Thus, it could provide greater efficiency
and higher production rates where abrasive
blasting is restricted. Cavitation blasting does not
introduce any solid abrasive onto the substrate.
The prospects for recovering the old paint or surface debris are therefore enhanced due to the much
smaller volume of solids compared to conventional
sand blasting or wet abrasive blasting discussed
earlier. The energy and water requirements for controlled cavitation blasting are similar to those for
conventional high pressure water blasting (Figure
FIGURE 5
Controlled cavitation blasting of galvanized steel.
Courtesy of SEACO, Incorporated
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
on developing units which produce less than 50

pounds of operator thrust. As with conventional
high-pressure water jetting, operator fatigue is a
limiting factor. The goal is to provide hand-held
devices for complex structures and inaccessible
areas. Researchers anticipate that rates for producing a clean, paintable surface (.e. removing loose
paint, dirt, and loose rust) will range from 50-200
square feet per hour. These are based on the use of
current technology nozzles. Additional research is
directed at advancing the technology to achieve the
more difficult task of removing hard rust and intact
paint, and producing a surface profile at rates approaching those above (Le. 100 sq. ft.lhr.).
In addition t o the hand-held units, efforts are
planned to develop high production units which
would include features such as multi-nozzle arrays
and automatic translation and thrust support. A further objective of the sponsors is to devise a means
for recovering the paint and rust removed from the
surface using suction, vacuum or other auxiliary to
the cavitation system. The U.S. Air Force is investigating the use of cavitation to remove paint
from aluminum. The techniques ability to control
the depth of erosion could allow removal of the t o p
coat alone, leaving the primer intact and avoiding
damage to the aluminum substrate.
5).
The efficiency and productivity of cavitation
jetting depend on the operating pressure and flow
rate, design of nozzle, size of orifice, standoff
distance and angle of impingement. The application of this technique to surface preparation is still
i n the early development stage. Current research efforts focus on a number of different areas pertaining to surface preparation, as well as related areas
such as steel cutting and concrete rehabilitation. A
government-sponsored program is concentrating

2. Automated Water Blasting

Highway officials from Texas have developed a
water jet cleaning system which does not require
an operator at the nozzle. The high pressure jet nozzle is attached to a rig clamped onto the bridge
beam and remotely controlled by an operator on the
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obstacles seem .to preclude its widespread use at

this time. First, Ithe cloud produced by the steam
obscures the operators view of the work. Secondly,
steam, because of its high temperature and release
of energy upon condensation, poses special safety
problems. Third, i n this era of energy consciousness, steamisand blasting is one of the most
energy intensive methods of surface preparation.
IV. OTHER ABRASIVES AND MATERIALS

Conventional and new metallic and non-metallic
abrasives are discussed in separate chapters. In this section we consider several novel types of abrasives that have
been proposed because of some special feature.
Preliminary work has indicated that it may be possible

to use carbon dioxide pellets as a blast cleaning medium in
those areas where clean-up of spent abrasive is a
problemW No reports or accounts could be obtained,
however, of successful use on structural steel under controlled conditions comparable with those in shop or shipbuilding. At the various meetings sponsored by the SSPC
to discuss new surface preparation methods, verbal
reports were presented indicating a series of problems
which appear to render this method impractical for structural steel applications: the pellets were not effective in
removing mill scale; visibility problems were presented by
fogging at the nozzle; pellet-forming equipment was
reported to be prohibitively expensive and difficult to maintain; problems were foreseen in ventilation and condensation of water. Attempts to arrange a demonstration by the
inventor were unsuccessful.
FIGURE 6
Automated robot high-pressure water jet blasting.
Courtesy of Texas Department of Highways and Public
Transportation
ground (Figure 6). The operator can translate the

nozzle along the beam and change the angle
sideways and up-down to allow access to over 90%
of the surface area. The developers are working to
increase this percent and the units overall versatility. The unit offers several important advantages.
The safety is greatly improved because the
operator does not direct the nozzle or support the
thrust. The thrust, which may be as high as 100
pounds, could cause the operator to lose his
balance on a scaffold or to blast himself or a coworker. In addition, with a hand-held unit, the
operator becomes greatly fatigued in a few hours,
which severely limits his productivity. The
automated device should produce a more uniformly
cleaned surface and permit more precise calculations of rates and costs. Some of the problems experienced are lack of maneuverability, cost and
time for maintaining equipment, and the need for
modifications t o allow use on different types of
structures.
3. SteamISand Blast
A technique which uses steam to propel the
abrasive has been developed by the JapaneseW
The use of steam instead of water results in a
shorter drying time and a significant decrease in
the amount of rust formation in comparison with
other wet blast methods. However, three major

B. HIGH VELOCITY ICE PARTICLES

This approach has been reportede01to be effective in
removing fouling and paint from ships. The process is
FIGURE 7
Xenon flash lamp for surface preparation.
Courtesy of Maxwell Laboratories
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--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
A. CARBON DIOXIDE PELLETS
SSPC C H A P T E R * 2 * 8 73
8627940 00035LB 221
D. OTHER ABRASIVES
claimed to be more efficient than metallic shot in removing

biofouling but less efficient in removing paint. It is probably impractical for use on new steel. Because of its
pollution-free characteristics, the use of ice may eventually
assume a larger role in cleaning, particularly in the refurbishing of hulls.
C. ZINC SHOT BLASTING
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Zinc shot blasting (zincing) is a modification of the normal blast cleaning procedure in which metallic zinc particles are substituted for all or part of the shot, grit, or
sand. The result is a thin discontinuous deposit of metallic
zinc left on the nascent, freshly-cleaned steel surface
du ring blast i ngIz2).
This deposit is only about 0.05 mils (1.3 microns) thick
but is sufficient to prevent rusting during the days, weeks,
or months required for fabrication and construction. Since
zinc metal is sacrificial to steel, the coating need not be
continuous in order to protect the steel completely. These
islands of zinc are so thin that they do not affect cutting,
welding, or painting. To date the method, originated by the
SSPCI22A) has been proven in both laboratory and pilot
plant, but not yet demonstrated on a full scale.
The zinc deposit can be achieved through either a onestep or two-step operation, but the two-step process appears to be the more practical. It consists of blast cleaning
with steel (or sand) particles, followed by a separate blasting with zinc particles (usually in the same equipment sequence). Alternatively, both the cleaning and the zinc
deposition can be carried out together in a single stage
operation. Both the one- and two-stage processes have
been demonstrated by the SSPC and cooperators with
both nozzles and centrifugal wheel blast cleaning equipment. Only a small portion of the zinc is transferred to the
clean steel by each particle impact. The zinc particles are,
of course, recycled just as the steel shot and grit are
recycled. During the recycling, zinc dust fines are removed
just as steel dust is removed in the shotlgrit blast cleaning
operation.
The zinc deposit has been shown by SSPC to be compatible with conventional coatings, and actually to
lengthen their protective life. Preliminary cost estimates
indicate substantial savings in materials, time and manpower compared with conventional pre-fabrication
primers. Additional work, however, would be necessary to
demonstrate whether or not the new process, or avariation
thereof, is applicable to a production construction or painting operation.
SSPC work has been reported in 1963-73 and subsequently. One variation of the SSPC process, reported in
1976 and developed in Denmarkcz31,is to the use of zinccoated abrasives. Another variation uses sand coated with
zinc dust. One investigator has achieved protection up to
four months with the two-stage zinc blasting process in
which conventional blast cleaning is used to remove rust
and mill scale followed by blasting with zinc powder(24).
NASA approved a variation of the process in 1973(22c).

SSPC work indicates that although zinc is the most effective inhibitive substance to date which can be applied in
blast cleaning equipment, it is not the only one. In early
work a wide variety of other inhibitive materials were investigated but were found to be less desirable because of
the complicated particle-coating process, handling difficulties, toxicity, safety, shorter protection period, or
necessity of removal before coating.
Recently, however, one process has been offered
which uses zinc-coated abrasive and has been used in
blast cleaning below water.
Subsequent to publication of the SSPC work, a
modification was investigated elsewhere using a stearic
acid inhibitor which gave temporary protection but had
to be removed from the surface before painting(25).
Attempts have been made to combine inhibitive
phosphating treatment with blast cleaning(26).
Although the
SSPC has explored several alternative inhibitive materials
to be used in solid, liquid, or vapor form during blast cleaning, additional work would be necessary in order to determine whether or not any of these have promise.
Common practice for cleaning previously painted
process equipment near machinery in industrial plants has
been to use vegetable grit such as corn cobs, walnut
shells, cherry pits, etc. Flintstone is also used.
E. BACTERIAL CLEANING
The Japanese127) have been experimenting with
biological methods of cleaning steel. Scale and rust stains
are removed by dipping or spraying the article with a solution containing a bacterium (thiobacillus ferrooxidans WU66-B or thiobacillus thiooxidans WU-79-A) plus an inorganic
salt (iron sulfate or ammonium sulfate) plus glucose. This
process has been shown to be environmentally acceptable.
It is felt that this method might be applicable for those
FIGURE 8
Navy hull cleaner.
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cleaning conditions where citric acid is now being

evaluated. However, much developmental work needs to be
done to make biological cleaning competitive or practical,
especially for large surfaces.
F. EXPLOSIVES
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
The detonation of an explosive charge has been used

to project abrasive particles such as sand or metal powder
onto the surface to be cleaned(*@.Although this method
shows some potential for cleaning the interior of pipes or
other confined areas, its impact on the blast cleaning trade
will most likely remain insignificant.
G. CRYOGENIC COATING REMOVAL

A new technique uses liquid nitrogen ( - 196" C ) for
cryogenic removal of organic coatings. The stream of liquid nitrogen sprayed onto the substrate embrittles the
coating; it is then easily removed with recyclable plastic
pellets. Additional engineering efforts are under way to improve the versatility and portability of the equipment(21).
V. THERMAL AND HIGH ENERGY METHODS

A. LAMPS
There are a number of techniques which do not use
any water or abrasives; instead they rely on some form of
radiation to remove paint and prepare steel for painting.
One such technique, under investigation by several
government agencies, involves high intensity xenon light
sources (Figure 7). These produce temperatures of the
order of 3000 F (1700" C)(29).
A recently developed proprietary system, known as
FLASHBLASTTM, has shown great promise for removing
thin layers of paint from a surface(30).
This system emits very intense, ultra-short pulses of
light with sufficient energy to vaporize or chemically
alter most non-metal substances. Due to the short duration
of the pulses, the effect is restricted to a layer approximately 0.001 " in thickness, with little or no effect on the
underlying material.
A typical FLASHBLASTTM system consists of a power
supply and control module and of one or more flashlamp
heads from which the light pulses are emitted. The power
supply provides intense electric discharges which are carried through flexible cables to the heads where they give
rise to the emission of short, intense pulses of light from
Xenon flashlamps. The weight of the flashlamp heads is
only a few pounds, and the flexible cables can be as long as
100 feet, permitting work on fairly large surfaces or objects
without moving the heavy power supply module. The
flashlamp heads must be in near contact with the surfaces
under treatment since the intensityof the light drops rapidly with increasing distance from the lamps.
Applications which have been studied experimentally
so far include removing thin paint layers from metal and
underlying paint layers. Because of the high degree of conCopyright The Society for Protective Coatings
FIGURE 9
Vacuum blast unit.

Courtesy of Pauli 81Griffin
trol afforded, the technique can allow precise, select

removal of outer layers of materials without disturbing the
inner substrate or paint layer. Additional work is planned to
develop and evaluate full-scale systems and to determine
the practicality and production rate for field applications.
6 . LASERS
Preliminary tests have shown that scale or other
adhering deposits can be removed, at least from small
specimens, when they are subjected to thermal shock or
chemical decomposition using a laser beam(31).When
rusted steel was exposed to laser beams of several
kilowatts, the hydrated oxides were changed to a dense,
hard scale of magnetite (Fe,O,), which could then be
removed. It may prove practicable to carry out such operations in a reducing atmosphere to produce a readily
removable layer of metallic iron. Although already applied
to sculpture restoration, laser cleaning i s not believed likely to have an impact on the cleaning of structural steel in
the foreseeable future because of requirements of energy
input and equipment development.
C. ULTRASONIC CLEANING
Ultrasonic cleaning is in widespread use in speeding
the solvent cleaning of small parts, etc. Although it has
been proposed for cleaning of larger structural steel, no
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unit larger than about 75 gallons capacity has been

reported(32).
conventional sand blasting. The five-foot long handle,

necessitated by the intense heat and fumes, limits its use
i n confined areas and contributes to operator fatigue.
Clearly, the safety problems related to fire, noise, and ventilation must be considered.
Although currently limited in its use on steel structures, this hot gas unit has the potential to solve specialized surface preparation problems. For example, the combined operation of first vaporizing or charring the old paint
with the hot gas blaster followed by conventional sand
blasting may, in some instances, prove beneficial. Field
work must be done to test this approach.
D. FLAME CLEANING
The heat energy of a direct flame of heated gas has
also been used for steel cleaning.
Surface preparation specification, SSPC-SP 4-64,
"Flame Cleaning of New Steel" described a process for
dehydrating and removing of rust, loose mill scale, and
some tight mill scale by passing a flame over the surface.
The surface is theh wire brushed to remove all loose
materials. (SP 4-64 has been dropped from the new edition
of Volume 2.)
This technique can be hazardous or detrimental when
used on previously painted surfaces. In addition, because
of poor cost effectiveness and limited use, the SSPC has
dropped this specification.
E. PLASMA
VI. SPONGE JETTING

Sponge jetting is a recent surface preparation technique
which uses compressed air and pieces of polyurethane
sponge. The sponges are effective in removing oil and grease
from pumps and motors. They may be impregnated with
abrasive for more aggressive cleaning. The impregnated
sponges are effective in removing paint, tight rust and mill
scale from both flat and irregularlhard to reach surfaces. The
method can achieve SSPC-SP 5,6,7and 10 when used in
conjunction with solvent cleaning. The equipment is fairly expensive.
Productivity is low - from 1/4 to 1/2 that of open blast
cleaning. However, the technique produces much less dust
and debris than open blasting. Despite the apparent lack of
dust, both containment and personal protective equipment
for workers are required.
- HOT GAS
A combustion unit that uses a mixture of liquid propane and compressed air to produce a blast of hot gas has
been used extensively to remove road markings'33).The
high temperature, 3000" F (1700" C), is sufficient to
vaporize many organic paint films or at least to char them
to the point where the high-velocity air blast can blow the
surface clean. Treatment of a paint film with the hot air
blaster makes any remaining paint easier to remove by
conventional sand blasting.
Use of this unit in the surface preparation of previously painted steel structures is not widespread. However, it
shows considerable promise in those situations where a
heavy vinyl or thermoplastic coating is to be removed,
since the abrasive has a tendency to bounce off rather than
fracture a thick flexible coating.
In preliminary field tests some problems were found
with this
Red lead primer is not completely
removed by the hot air blaster and must be removed by
VII. COLLECTING ABRASIVES AND

PAINT RESIDUES
A. ABRASIVE RECYCLING
In order to eliminate water and ground contamination,
it is sometimes necessary to recover the spent abrasives
and paint residues.
Several techniques have been developed based on
recycling of the abrasives. The abrasives must be metallic
shot or grit or a recyclable non-metallic such as alumina or
garnet. It is also necessary t o filter off the paint residues
and degraded abrasive to maintain a constant abrasive
particle size distribution.
1. Portable Automatic Centrifugal Blasting
Centrifugal (airless) blast cleaning machines have
assumed an ever increasing percentage of the steel
fabricating blast cleaning requirements. They provide rapid, uniform, automatic cleaning and greatly
reduce the need to dispose of spent abrasives. The
equipment is cumbersome and expensive, but for
shop application the technique is extremely cost
effect ive.
The technique has also been applied to field
preparation. The suitability and effectiveness in the
field depend on factors such as the size of the
operation, the configuration and accessibility of
the structure, and the necessity for collecting the
FIGURE 10
Vacuum blasting of bridge beam.
Courtesy of Massachusetts Pori Authority
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

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residues and abrasives. It has been most suitable

for use on large accessible areas such as ship hulls
and decks and storage tanks.
Contractors for the US Navy have designed
large, mobile cleaning heads which can clean a
swath up to 48 inches wide(35).These are mounted
on a boom connected t o a large truck. Because of
the 80 foot reach, this unit can clean most of the
ships hull from dockside (Figure 8). Additional
photographs and examples are given in another
chapter.
The portable centrifugal units are extremely effective in eliminating the environmental hazards
and in producing highly uniform blast-cleaned surfaces. The large units used by the Navy and industry have limited mobility and reach. They require
large amounts of energy and support equipment. In
return, they can often provide higher production
rates, and reduced labor and abrasive costs in comparison to conventional air abrasive blasting. A
more complete discussion of the principles and applications is given in the chapter Centrifugal
Blast Cleaning.
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
FIGURE 11
Enclosed blasting cages and residue collection system.
Courtesy of Massachusetts Port Authority
and canvas housing that the blaster worked in; it rolled on

wheels along the handrail. Flexible tubing at the bottom of
the enclosure let the spent abrasive drop to a floating barge
on the river
Massachusetts Port Authority (Massport) modified the
above arrangement in several ways(38).They provided
mechanical suction to exhaust the dust fumes from the
enclosure to improve visibility and air quality inside the
booth. The tubing was connected to a dumpster equipped
with a venturi water scrubber to separate the fine particles
and emit them as sludge. Massport also substituted metal
sheathing for the enclosure sides to provide better wear
(Figure 11).
Massport reported that the above enclosure system
for the longitudinal girders and handrails captured 80to 85
percent of airborne dust and lead paint particles in addition
t o virtually all the blasting grit. The shroud has also been
used for paint spraying under high wind conditions.
2. Portable Air Blasting with Vacuum Recovery

This technique has been widely used for preerection surface preparation in fabricating shops
and certain field facilities, particularly nuclear
plants. Its application to existing field structures is
limited by the capacity and reach of the recovery
system. Like the centrifugal cleaning units, the
portable recovery units have difficulty in cleaning
irregular surf ace feat ures.
There are several different types of vacuum
recovery machines available. These include portable units with single-chamber collection tanks;
portable units with automatic discharge tanks, and
mobile truck units with single chamber collection
tanks. These machines differ in their degree of portability, labor and utility support required, hose
sizes and costs (Figure 9). A discussion of the
relative merits of each as used for surface preparation of tanks is given in an SSPC report done for
the Maritime Administration(?
There are also available recovery units which
rely on suction to collect the abrasives(37).These
suction (alternately called siphon) units sometimes
have difficulty recovering the heaviest abrasives.
Their production rate is much less than the pump
actuated vacuum units described above. They are
used primarily for small areas or touch-up work
(Figure 10).
C. TARPAULINS AND OTHER DEVICES

Various approaches have been used to collect and
contain dust and paint. Several highway agencies have
used heavy tarpaulins to prevent the dust from blowing or
drifting into populated or recreational areas. The success
has been varied. For large structures the tarpaulins are
often torn down by strong winds, as they create a sail effect. However, the use of tarpaulins does greatly facilitate
the collection of sand from roadways.
In order to prevent old paint containing lead from contaminating waterways, the California Department of Transportation has stationed barges beneath the bridge. Tarpaulins and plastic sheets are used to funnel the particles
onto the barge. This technique has proven satisfactory in
many instances; some of the problems are that a significant amount of sand or paint particles may still be dropped
in the water, the barge may sink or spill the residue, and
the costs are appreciable.
B. BLASTING CAGES
Another approach to containing dust and paint involves the useof movable enclosures around the blaster. In
an early version, a California contractor built an enclosure
that covered the handrail assembly and longitudinal
girders. It consisted of a rigid frame around scaffolding
87
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SSPC C H A P T E R * Z . 8
93
8627940 0003522 7 5 2
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Much of the material in this report benefits from a survey
made by the SSPC for the U S . Maritime Administration through
the Avondale Shipyard.
The authors and editors also gratefully acknowledge the active participation of the following in the review process for this
chapter: Einar A. Borch, Theodore Dowd, Preston S. Hollister, A.
W. Mallory, Joseph Mazia, Marshall McGee, William Pearson,
William J. Wallace, Jr., and Raymond Weaver.
The Iowa Department of Transportation requires the

use of covers or drapes to collect paint wastes if they contain lead. The provisions also require contractors to collect
floating paint wastes. The scum that forms in the water
must be contained by straw dams or flating boom
devices. The State does allow alternate approaches when
recovering and collecting are not possible because of
bridge location and
BIOGRAPHY
Portraits and biographical sketches of Dr. Appleman and Mr.
Keane appear at the end of the Foreword.
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
VIII. SUMMARY
In this chapter we have described a variety of methods
which have had varying degrees of success. The future of
many of these methods depends largely on the regulatory
authorities. Almost all of the newer techniques are more
costly and less productive than sandblasting. In locales
where sandblasting will continue to be permitted, it will
probably remain the most cost-effective way to clean structural steel.
For situations in which the major problems are those
of air contamination, e.g. dust or lead paint particles, the
use of some form of wet-blasting technique appears to be
the best choice at present. Several of these water methods
are highly sophisticated and are able to reduce the airborne particulate levels by 80-90 percent.
In certain locales, such as near sensitive machinery, in
densely populated areas, or over sensitive waterways, it
may be necessary to eliminate any particles from contaminating the environment. For these conditions, it would
be necessary to use the less productive, most costly
techniques such as vacuum blasting or closed cages. Even
these, however, are not sufficiently developed to be applicable to most of the structural conditions encountered.
To improve these techniques would require substantial
commitment by users, equipment manufacturera, and contractors. Thus, it is essential that the regulatory agencies
provide clear guidelines and policies for the standards
governing air and water quality, worker health and safety,
and other requirements.
The overall regulatory picture, however, is likely to remain complex. Several of the federal standards are not yet
finalized; others are being considered for revision. State
and local regulations vary enormously from one jurisdiction to another. California, for example, frequently imposes
the earliest and most severe restrictions. There is a wide
variation i n the awareness and enforcement of existing
federal and state regulations. It is therefore not likely that
any set of uniformly applied regulations would be adopted
in the foreseeable future.
There are factors other than actual or anticipated
regulations which influence the development of surface
cleaning techniques. These include the cost and supply of
abrasives, the efficiency and cleaning rate of new equipment, the availability and cost of power and water, improved worker safety and comfort, and the requirements of
varied coating materials. Thus, there is a continuing need
to develop and evaluate new procedures and techniques
for surface preparation of steel.
88
Not for Resale
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
1o.
lla.
llb.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
73
Ab27740 0003523 699 W

228. Anonymous, Shotblasted Zinc Primer Weatherproofs
Steel Iron Age, August 1, 1963.
22c. U S . Patent 3,754,976 Babecki-Haehner to NASA.
23. B. BenderChristensen, An Investigation of a Combined
REFERENCES
John D. Keane, Joseph A. Bruno, Jr., and Raymond E.F.
Weaver, Survey of Existing and Promising New Methods of
Surface Preparation. (Report prepared by Steel Structures
Painting Council for US. Maritime administration through
the Avondale Shipyard).
OSHA, Standard for Abrasive Blasting. See Proposed ANSI Standard A10.29, American National Standard Practice
for Construction Abrasive Blasting October, 1980.
Environmental Protection Agency, Federal Register, Volume
36, Number 84, April 30, 1981, National Primary and Secondary Ambient Air Quality Standards and Revisions of
November 25,1981, July 1, 1976, December 1,1976, October
5, 1978, February 8, 1979.
US. Department of Interior, Bureau of Mines Informational
Circular 8333. Ringlemann Smoke Chart, May 1967.
Environmental Protection Agency, National Ambient Air
Quality Standard for Lead. Title 40, CFR Section 50.12, Appendix G (sets limits of 1.5 micrograms of lead per cubic
meter averaged over 90 days)
OSHA, Final Standard for Occupational Exposure to Lead.
Federal Register Vol. 43, No. 220 (Section 1910.1025, Table
2-2, amended to limit exposure to lead to 50 micrograms per
cubic meter averaged over 8 hours), November 14, 1978.
OSHA, Title 29 - Labor. (29CFR1910.1000, Sub-part Z,
Table 2-2 sets ceiling of 100 micrograms of chromic acid and
chromates per cubic meter.)
Resources Conservation and Recovery Act (1976), Federal
Register, May 19, 1980, pages 33127-33132, and amendments.
L. Stevens, Massachusetts Department of Public Works and
M. Tobey, Massachusetts Port Authority, Private Communications, 1981.
A. Ticker, and S. Rodgers, Abatement of Pollution Caused
by Abrasive Blasting: Status in Naval Shipyards. NSRDC
Report No. 4549, 79 pps., 1975.
U S . Coast Guard, (Code G-EOE), Washington DC, District;
Fifth Coast Guard District, Miami, FL; and Seventh Coast
Guard District, Portsmouth, VA; private communication.
Federal Highway Administration, Evaluation of Commercial
Blast Cleaning Systems. Report N-FHWA TS 81-xxx,
Federal Highway Administration, Washington, DC 20590.
KUE Engineering Ltd., KUE: System 9-18, Polymers, Paint
and Colour Journal, (Great Britain), pp. 202, March 9, 1977.
Equipment Technology, Inc., 5620 New Peachtree Road,
Chamblee, GA, Private Communication.
Steel Structures Painting Council, Volume 2 Systems and
Specifications, 4516 Henry Street, Suite 301, Pittsburgh, PA
15213-3728, 1991 Printin
V.E. Johnson, Jr., R.E. fohl, and A.F. Conn, Tunneling,
Fracturing, Drilling, and Mining with High Speed Water Jets
Utilizing Cavitation Damage. First International Symposium
on Jet Cutting Technology, Coventry, England, 1973, Paper
A 3 and Supplement.
Federal Highway Administration Reports FHWA RD-82-001
and FHWA RD-82-002, Development of System for Controlled Cavitation Blasting for Surface Preparation of Structurai Steel.
T. Appling, Texas Department of Highways and Public
Transportation, Private Communication, 1980.
M. Hosoda, N. Saiki, and J. Nakamura, Sand Blasting with
High-pressure Steam. Japanese Patent 7533,121, Dai Nippon Tokyo Company, Ltd.
C. Fong, Pollution-Free Blasting. National Paint and
Coatings Association 16th Annual Maine Coatings Conference, 7 pps. 1976.
C.J. Sandwith, and T. Briewick, High Velocity Ice Particles
for Cleaning Ship Hulls - A Feasibility Study. 4th International Congress of Marine Corrosion and Fouling, May,
24.
25.
26.
27.
28.
29.
30.
31.
32.
33.
34.
35.
36.
37.
38.
39.
Blasting and Coating Technique: A Patented Process.

Hemple Marine Paints, Copenhagen, Denmark, 1976.
J.E. Sandford, Zinc Coating Blasted on Steel. Iron Age,
August 1, 1973.
I. Geld, L. Deutsch, and F.J. DOria, A Comparison of Inhibitive Abrasive Blasting Techniques. Materiais Perforrnance, August, 1968.
G. Wallis, Phosphatizing - A New Approach. Industrial
Finishing and Surface Coatings, Vol. 27, No. 326, pps. 5-6,
1975.
S. Usami, and H. Kozu, Microbial Surface Treatment of
Metals. Ger. Offen, 2,409,649 (September 19, 1974) and
Japan Appl. 23,749 (March 1, 1973).
P. Barrillom, Preservation of Materials in the Marine Environment - Analysis of Replies to the inquiry on Methodsof Surface Preparation in Shipyards, 1964.
Anonymous, Bright Ideas - Xenon Lamps Intense Flash
Burns Off Steel Truss Rust. Engineering News Record, pp.
11, May 31, 1979.
Maxwell Laboratories, Inc., Surface Preparation by
Flashblasting. Technical Literature, San Diego, CA.
J.W. Hill, M.J. Lee, and I.J. Spalding, Surface Treatments
by Laser. Optics and Laser Technlogy, Vol. 6, No. 6, pp.
267-268, 1974.
Branson Cleaning Equipment Company, Ultrasonic Cleaning and Vapor, Parrot Drive, Shelton, CT 06484, 1980.
Prismo Universal Corporation, Hot Compressed Air (HCA)
Equipment, Parsippany, NJ 07054.
A. Beitelman, US. Army Construction Engineering and
Research Laboratories, Champaign, IL, private communication.
F.A. Boyle, New Methods of Surface Preparation by the
US. Navy. Paper presented 1978 Federal Highway Administration Research Review Conference, College Park,
Maryland, October 3-5, 1978.
National Shipbuilding Research Program, Procedure Handbook: Surface Preparation and Painting of Tanks and Closed
Areas, 1981, Cooperative cost shared efforts by Maritime
Administration, Avondale Shipyards (J. Peart, R&D Program
Manager) and Complete Abrasive Blasting Systems, Inc.,
(J. A. Geis, Project Manager).
B. Baldwin, Methods of Dust-Free Abrasive Blast
Cleaning. Plant Engineering, pps. 116-125, February 15,
1978.
M. Tobey, Painting of Mystic River (Tobin) Bridge. Paper
presented 1980 Federal Highway Administration Research
Review Conference, December 10-11, 1980.
Iowa Department of Transportation, Special Provisions for
Repainting Bridges (Environmental Protection). SP-240,
Ames, IA, March 27, 1979.
1976.
T.W. Burke, Air Products and Chemicals, Inc., Allentown,
Pennsylvania, 18105, Private Communications, 1981.
22. J.D. Keane, Zinc Shot Blasting of Structural Steel. SSPC
Report, April 1964.
22A. J.H. McAuliffe, Zinc Shot Blasting of Structural Steel.
Scientific Australian, March 1964.
21.

89
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--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
SSPC CHAPTER*Z.A
8 b 2 7 7 4 0 0003524 525
CHAPTER 2.9
CHEMICAL CLEANING
by
Melvin H. Sandler and Samuel Spring
The importance of surface preparation to the durability of any coating system has been emphasized throughout
this manual. Without proper surface preparation the finest
coating applied with the greatest of skill will fall short of
its maximum performance or may even fail miserably. A
coating can perform its function only so long as it remains
intact and firmly bonded to the substrate.
An adequately prepared surface not only provides a
good anchor for the coating, but also ensures a surface
free of corrosion products and contaminants that might
shorten the life of the film by spreading along the coating
substrate interface and destroying adhesion, or by actually
breaking through the coating.
Thus, the initial step in any finishing operation is
cleaning the surface. This chapter describes chemical
cleaning materials and methods. Other chapters of this
manual cover mechanical surface cleaning.
bination of solvent followed by the alkaline

cleaner.
3. Soils Containing Solids

Examples: mud, carbonized oils, corrosion products. These soils are usually the most difficult to
remove and may require a combination of solvent,
alkaline pressure spray and scrubbing, and in the
case of corrosion products, acid pickling.
Aged or impacted soils are generally the most difficult. In the cleaning process both the soil and the
residues of cleaners, which may subsequently contribute
to further corrosion or adversely affect coating performance, must be removed.
II. TYPES OF CHEMICAL CLEANERS

A. SOLVENTS
While a perfect level of cleanliness may not always be

possible to attain, especially under field conditions, every
effort should be made to reach the maximum level of
cleanliness under the specific operating conditions.
During manufacture, fabrication, and service, surfaces
become soiled. They pick up some foreign matter as corrosion products that must be removed before final finishes
or refinishes can be applied. The removal of these contaminating substances is covered under the term cleaning.
There are countless contaminants (soils) to be removed, but in general they may be categorized as:
1. Oily Soils
Examples: hydraulic oil, lubricating oil, light oil,
oil-based rust preventatives, etc. When present as
thin films or small residues, and when very
viscous in nature, these soils may be removed by
alkaline cleaners. On more stubborn areas solvent
cleaners may be needed because the longer a soil
ages the more difficult it is to remove.
2. Semi-Solid Soils
Examples: viscous oils, greases, heavy rust
preventatives, etc. These soils are usually removed with heavy duty alkaline cleaners or a com-

B. ALKALI
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Petroleum solvents such as kerosene, VM & P

naphtha, mineral spirits, or chlorinated solvents such as triclorethylene or l , l , l -trichloroethene are used to dissolve
and remove soil. Petroleum solvents may be used in hand,
soak, or spray cleaning and are efficient in removing oils
and greases. Chlorinated solvents are generally used in
vapor degreasing units but may also be used at ambient
temperatures by immersion or spray. They are effective in
removing heavy oils, greases, and waxes. Chlorinated
solvents should be inhibited against hydrolysis to prevent
the formation of hydrochloric acid that may occur in the
presence of water. This acidity can etch the metal. The solvent cleaners offer the advantage of leaving the part dry
after cleaning and eliminating the need for additional
rinsing.
Regulations restricting the use of organic solvents
havelbecome so stringent in recent years as to discourage
their use. Thus, for other than small area cleaning the most
commonly used cleaners are water-based, either alkaline
or acidic.
I. GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS
Alkaline cleaners are composed of highly alkaline

salts such as sodium hydroxide, silicates, and carbonates
along with surfactants, sequestering agents, inhibitors,
wetting agents andlor soaps. They function by wetting,
90
Not for Resale
SSPC CHAPTER*2.9
93
b27740 0003525 461
breathed in high vapor concentrations.

There is no single method of cleanin that will roperly condition all surfaces prior to preservation. The choice
of cleaning method will depend upon the type of structure
as well as other factors. Parts cleaned after assembly or in
the field can require quite different methods from parts
processed in a factory. If parts being reconditioned are to
be cleaned prior to repainting, paint and rust must be
removed in addition to other soils. Moreover, large parts
may require procedures that differ from small parts.
However, the principles governing cleaning are similar. In
general, cleaners are more effective at higher temperatures
and at higher concentrations. It is desirable to have application under conditions of high turbulence or force to
dislodge the soil loosened by the action of the chemicals.
This is true both of organic- and water-based systems,
but temperature is less important for organic solvents.
However, temperatures and turbulence may be prohibited
for organic solvents since this would generate toxic
fumes.
When cleaning with the alkaline or acidic materials,
regardless of the cleaning method used, every effort
should be made to thoroughly rinse the surfaces, not only
to minimize the amount of soil remaining, but also to
remove residues of the cleaning materials that may
adversely affect subsequent coating performance by providing electrolyte for the action of galvanic cells when
moisture penetrates the paint film.
Another consideration is the ionic content of the rinse
water. In addition to the calcium, magnesium, iron, etc.
associated with hard water, water in some parts of the
country also contains salts such as sodium chloride and
sodium sulfate that are potent electrolytes in the corrosion
process.
Cleaning procedures can be divided into those used in
the manufacturing process (factories), and those used in
the field for cleaning large, assembled units. This discussion will be limited to on-site cleaning of assembled or
large structures. Table I lists U.S. government chemical
clean ing specif cations.
FIGURE 1
Steam cleaning of large or assembled structures. The steam
cleaner may be directly fired or use plant steam as in the above
photograph. When the distance from the gun is small, the
temperatures are close to 2OOOF so high melting soils can be
removed more readily. At more normally used distances of the
gun from the surface, the temperature may be 160 to 180'F but a
larger area is covered. The cleaning operation is under considerable control by the operator in terms of the time of exposure of the
soil to the detergent spray and the distance from the gun.
emulsifying, dispersing and solubilizing the soils. They are

generally used at elevated temperatures.
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
C. ACIDS
Acid cleaners are usually composed of fairly strong
acids with small quantities of surfactants, water miscible
solvents and organic wetting and emulsifying agents. Acid
cleaners remove a soil by chemical attack and by dissolving the reaction products. They are used primarily to
remove corrosion products.
A. SOLVENT WIPE
Wiping with solvent followed by a second wipe with
clear solvent or by removal of excess solvent with a clean
cloth can be effective depending on the soil. Mineral spirits
and stoddard solvent are relatively convenient and inexpensive to use. The quality of cleaning obtained depends
largely upon the severity of the soiling and the expertise
of the operator. Good, well supervised workers using
clear solvent and clean wiping rags can do a reasonably
good job. Some soils may require more effective solvents
such as xylene or chlorinated solvents other than those
mentioned above. Solvent cleaning is most effective for
removal of oils and greases from limited areas of structures and for occasional cleaning prior to painting. Where
the complete structure is to be cleaned, other methods are
more practical.
D. DETERGENTS
Detergent cleaners are composed of buffering salts,
sequestering agents, dispersants, inhibitors, wetting
agents andlor soaps. They function by wetting, emulsifying, dispersing and solubilizing the soil. They are generally
used at temperature ranging from 150F (SSOC) to boiling.
111. CLEANING
WARNING - In the use of any cleaning method, appropriate safety precautions must be taken to protect personnel from materials and conditions which may present
fire hazards, cause skin irritation, or have toxic effect when
91
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SSPC CHAPTERl(2.9
9 3 W 862'7940 0003526 3 T B W
TABLE 1
S o m e U.S. Government Specifications for Chemical Cleaning*
S D e c i f i c a t i o n No.
Title
Material
Application
Purpose
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
P-c-111
Carbon Removing
Compound
Monoethanolamine
Soak
For use in softening

and removing carbon gum
& other contaminants.
MIL-STD 338
Cleaning and
Treatment of
Aluminum Parts
Alkaline base
Immersion
Cleaning aluminum prior to

painting.
P-C-436
Cleaning Compound,
Alkali
Hot alkaline
phosphate solutions
Immersion
Hot soak tank cleaning

of ferrous & non-ferrous
materials.
P-c-437
Cleaning Compound,
High Pressure
(Steam) Cleaner
Alkaline phosphate
& non-phosphate
TT-C-490
Cleaning & P r e
treatment of
Ferrous Surfaces
for Organic
Coatings
Solvent, Alkaline,
emulsion &
phosphoric acid
Immersion,
spray or
brush
Cleaning methods are

intended for cleaning,
rust removing, descaling
or surface etching
MIL-(2-10578
Corrosion Removing
and Metal
Conditioning
Compound
Phosphoric-acid base;
6 types
Immersion.
spray or
brush
Rust remover.
MIL-C-11090
Cleaning Compound,
Degreasing &
Depreservi ng
Solvent
Esters and
organic salts
Soak, brush
or spray
For use in removing oils,

greases, asphalt, tars
& rust preventive compounds from metallic &
painted surfaces.
MI L-H-13528
Acid, Hydrochloric,
Inhibited, RustRemoving
Hydrochloric
acid
Soak
For use in removing

heavy rust deposits from
steel surfaces.
MI L-C-14460
Corrosion Removing
Compound
Sodium hydroxide
base
Electrolytic
or immersion
Rust removal from bare and

painted iron and steel.
MIL-C-22542
Cleaning Compound,
High Pressure
Cleaner, Liquid
Optional
High pressure
steam cleaning
machines, coil
type
Painted and unpainted

aircraft surfaces.
MI L-C-38334
Corrosion Removing
Compound, Prepaint,
for AircraftAluminum Surfaces
Phosphoric acid
Spray or
wash
For removing corrosion

from aircraft aluminum
surfaces.
MIL-C-43616
Cleaning
Compounds, Aircraft
Surfaces
Opt ional
Spray, brush
or foam
Intended for cleaning

painted and unpainted
aircraft surface.
MIL-'2-46156
Corrosion Removing
Compound
Sodium hydroxide
base
Immersion
At elevated temperatures,
will remove rust, paint,
scale, grease, dirt,
asphalt & carbon.
MI L-C-81302
Cleaning Compound,
Solvent
Trichlorotrifluorethane
Spraying,
flushing,
vapor
degreasing,
ultrasonics
For use in cleaning

space vehicle components,
precision assem bl es,
oxygen assemblies &
electronic equipment.
MIL-C-87936
Cleaning
Compounds, Aircraft
Surfaces
Optional; water
dilutable
For use in steam cleaning

machines for cleaning
various ferrous & nonferrous surfaces.
Painted aircraft surfaces.
* T h e following specifications have b e e n removed from this table to reflect current practice: MIL-C-25769,
MIL-C-27251, MIL-C-81533, MIL-S-10561, MIL-T-7003
92
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93 D 8627940 0003527 234 D
- TYPES OF BRUSH MATERIAL
TABLE 2
USED IN CLEANING
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
(1) NATURAL FIBERS

TAMPICO FIBER -
Good durability and water resistance, soft

to medium stiffness
PATENT FIBER -
Select grade of tampico, stiffer and more

durable than tampico
PAYMYRA FIBER -
Lower cost, stiffer, reasonably durable
PALMETTO FIBER
(2) ANIMAL BRISTLES

HORSEHAIR -
Soft to slightly stiff, good durability,

fair water resistance.
BOAR BRISTLE -
Excellent durability and very good water

resistance, soft to slightly stiff
(3) PLASTIC BRISTLES

NYLON -
ACRYLIC PLASTICS
Very good durability and water resistance
Very good durability, wide selection,

resistance to alkaline cleaners but not to
solvent, excellent water resistance
- Excellent durability and resistance to

chemicals
(4) WIRE BRUSHES

CARBON STEEL -
Very stiff, tends to rust, high cutting

action, heat resistant
BRASS -
Very stiff, durable
STAINLESS STEEL -
Very stiff, durable, expensive, non-corroding
B. STEAM CLEANING
A high pressure jet of steam, with or without cleaning compound, is used to clean ferrous, non-ferrous
and painted surfaces. Steam removes grease, oil, and dirt
by a combination of detergent action, water, heat and impact. Alkali cleaners used in steam cleaning will attack
aluminum and zinc alloys, unless specifically inhibited
against such action. They should be used selectively over
painted surfaces to assure no damage to the paint i f
removal is not desired.
The equipment required is a pressure jet steam
cleaner (Figures 1 and 2). A separate solution tank or drum
may be required for preparation of the cleaning compound.
One type of steam cleaner stores the concentrated cleaning solution and mixes it with water at a constant rate to
produce a uniform cleaning solution through a heating unit
in which it is partially vaporized and put under pressure.
The hot solution and steam are forced through the nozzles
onto the surfaces to be cleaned. The same equipment can
be used for cleaning with dry steam or with cold water
under high pressure. This type of steam cleaner may be
either portable or stationary.
i\
_
.
c
._
FIGURE 2
Functional perspective of an oil-fired steam cleaner.
Courtesy Allied Kelite
Div. Richardson Corp. Chicago

93
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73 W 8627740 0003528 170

Another type of portable pressure jet steam cleaner,
sometimes called a hydro steam unit, requires an outside
steam source. The cleaning solution is mixed and stored in
a container or tank that is not part of the steam cleaner. No
water is mixed with the solution in the steam cleaner, so
the solution is made up at a lower concentration than that
used for the other type of cleaner. The solution and steam
are mixed in the cleaner and discharged through the nozzle
of a steam cleaning gun. The same equipment can be used
for cleaning with dry steam.
In the steam cleaning procedure a stream of steam,
with or without cleaning compound, is directed under
pressure through a cleaning gun or guns against the surface to be cleaned. The pressure should be adjusted so
that the area can be cleaned without requiring repeated or
prolonged spraying. The cleaning guns may be furnished
with interchangeable nozzles. A round one is used for most
cleaning. Flat nozzles are used for flat surfaces. Dry steam
may be used as the final step to aid drying. The material
and surface finish of the surfaces determines whether drying is necessary after steam cleaning.
a. Courtesy Oxford Chemicals

Div. Consolidated Foods Corp.
FIGURES 3A and 3B
Portable units that can be hooked into plant hot or cold water line
for convenient cleaning, for spraying high pressure detergent
solution.
C. HIGH PRESSURE-HOT DETERGENT

The machines (Figures 3A and 3B) used to provide
these sprays utilize pumps that develop pressures of 500
to 1000 psi. Volumes of detergent solution will vary with
the larger machines (Figure 4), delivering 3-5gallons per
minute. The cleaning procedure is basically the same as in
steam cleaning with the detergent spray directed under
high pressure through a cleaning gun against the surface
to be cleaned. As with solvent and steam cleaning, the skill
of the operator determines in large part how effective the
procedure will be. There is an inexpensive unit that uses
water line pressure for dispensing the detergent. The
detergent solution is metered into the water line before
spraying. In order to obtain reasonably good cleaning, the
detergent solution is used at considerably higher concentration, usually 1 to 2 ounces per gallon.
D. FOAM CLEANING
Foamed detergent solutions are popular for cleaning
food processing plants and automotive equipment such as
trucks (Figures 6 and 7). They are also used to acid clean
the inside of towers under conditions in which the tower is
actually filled with foam, obviating the necessity for filling
it with liquid. The foam is normally used t o cling to vertical
surfaces long enough for detergency to take place. Sometimes a gel is sprayed onto the surfaces to achieve even
longer contact time. In general the foam is neutral SD that
a limited residue may not adversely affect paint if rinsing
is not complete.
In this process foam is generated by mixing a high
foaming surfactant, often containing foam stabilizer and
detergent builder, with water and compressed air. Variations in foam cleaning (Figures 5A, 58 and 5C)include (A)
the small unit that has a tube to pick up foaming concentrate from a drum, (6) the unit that pumps diluted foaming
b. Courtesy Olympic Mfg. Co.


94
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--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
SSPC C H A P T E R * 2 = 9 93
8627940 0003529 O07
agent and detergent from a drum and (C) a self-contained

unit in which foaming agent and detergent concentrate is
mixed with water and air prior to spraying. These units are
quite mobile, enabling the operator to reach areas difficult
to clean.
E. BRUSH CLEANING
FIGURE 4
High pressure spray machines in which the hot detergent solution
is made up in a reservoir rather than being injected into hot steam.
This provides a more predictable concentration of detergent and
permits the spraying of a high volume solution of known
detergent concentration.
Courtesy, Oxford Chemicals
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
A
,R
I
Brushes and sponges are useful for cleaning. They

can remove stubborn soils and spot clean highly soiled
areas to complement other methods of cleaning. Fiber,
wire or plastic brushes may be used depending upon the
type of cleaning required. Table 2 lists the various types of
brush materials. Sponges are also available in a variety of
forms and compositions, including some with abrasive surfaces attached to one side.
IV. HANDLING THE CLEAN SURFACE

Cleaned surfaces should be further processed with a
prepaint treatment or painted as soon as possible after
cleaning to prevent rusting or recoiling from the atmosphere.
INLET
FOAM OUTLET
FIGURES 5A, 5 8 and 5C

Cleaning by the use of foam.
Foam is generated by mixing a high foaming surfactant, often
containing foam stabilizer and detergent builder, with water and
compressed air. Variations in foam cleaning units include (A) the
small unit with a tube that picks up foaming concentrate from
a drum, (B) the unit that pumps diluted foaming agent and
detergent from a drum, and (C) a self-contained unit in which
foaming agent and detergent concentrate are mixed with water
and air prior to spraying.
Courtesy DEMA Engineering Co.

95
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73
8627740 0003530 829
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
FIGURE 6
Use of portable foamer.

Courtesy Oxford Chemical Division,
Consolidated Foods Corp.
V. CLEANING PREVIOUSLY PAINTED SURFACES

If the painted surface has not been broken, it may be
possible to paint with little or no chemical cleaning.
However, if the surface has been exposed for any period of
time, it has undoubtedly accumulated some atmospheric
contaminants, as well as corrosion that must be removed
before repainting. Any of the chemicals and cleaning
methods mentioned previously may be used. Care must be
taken, however, to insure that the chemical and cleaning
procedures used do not attack the sound paint.
FIGURE 7
Portable Foamer.
Courtesy Oxford Chemical Division,
Consolidated Foods Corp.
VI. DISPOSAL OF CHEMICAL WASTES

Chemical cleaning materials should be disposed of
without violating of local, state, or Federal pollution
regulations.

96
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SSPC CHAPTER*2.9
93
8627940 0003533 765

BIOGRAPHY
Dr. Samuel Spring received his B.S. from City College of New York in 1936, his
A.M. from Columbia University
in 1938 and his Ph.D. from Temple University in 1952. He was
an instructor at City College of
New York from 1936-1939; a
chemist at Frankford Arsenal
from 1940-1947; a group leader
at Pennwalt Corporation from
1947-1956: laboratorv director
at Kelite Corporation, 1956-1963; technical director at Oxford
Chemicals, 1963-1970; technical director at Chemtrust Industries
1970-1973 and technical director at Gibson Chemicals, Ltd.
(Australia) 1973-1977. He has been President, Southeast
Laboratories, Inc. and a consultant from 1977 until the present.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
chapter: P.J. Bennett, J. Carroll, James Davis, Ted Dowd, Arnold
Eickhoff, Aaron Greenberg, Mark Kuchner, Robert McCormick, C.
Munger, William Pearson, William Wallace.
BIOGRAPHY
Melvin H. Sandler has been
involved in research and development and technical services
on chemical coatings, metal
preparation prior to painting,
and corrosion control for over
35 years. During his service as
a chemist and Division Chief at
the former U.S. Army Coating
and Chemical Laboratory, Aberdeen Proving Ground, MD, he
was responsible for the development of coatings for the
preservation of Army material.
Mr. Sandler is the author of more than 50 technical publications
and 20 military specifications dealing with coatings and corrosion
and has served as a consultant to government and industry. In
1976 he joined Lenmar, inc., an industrial finishes manufacturer,
with responsibility for new product development and other
coat i ngs con su It ing servi ces.
REFERENCES
S . Spring, Industrial Cleaning, Prism Press, 1974.
S. Spring, Preparafion of Metais for Painting, Reinhold Publishing
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Corporation.
Departments of the U S . Army, Navy, Air Force Technical Manual
No. 5-618, NAVFAC MO 110, AFM 85-3, Paints and Protective
Coatings, January 15, 1969.
U.S. Air Force Technical Manual No. T.O. 1-1-1, Cleaning of
Aerospace Equipment, Change 9 - March 15, 1976.

97
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SSPC CHAPTERm3-L 93
= 8627940 0 0 0 3 5 3 2
hTL
CHAPTER 3.1
SPECIAL PRE-PAINT TREATMENTS:

PHOSPHATING
by
Samuel Spring
Most paints will adhere reasonably well to clean steel,

especially if the surface has been abraded and surface oxides removed. The pickling and etching action of acids
also improves adhesion. Pickling removes oxides and
etches by selective solution of the steel, producing a larger
surface area for contact with the paint. A more
sophisticated method of surface preparation is to apply a
chemical deposit or coating, normally phosphate, that
holds paint because it is compatible with paint components and often provides an extended or porous surface
for retaining more paint.
Phosphate coatings are transformations of metal surfaces into new surfaces having non-metallic, and nonconductive properties. They are widely used in the
manufacture of metal products for four principal reasons:
then expose the part or panel to an atmosphere of salt

spray, .e., a fog of water droplets containing salt, after
which the distance of corrosion from the scribe line is
measured (ASTM-B 117).
The zinc phosphate coating is formed by crystallization onto the surface by chemical reaction, but is integral
with the surface rather than deposited on the surface. The
continuous structure consists of the steel substrate, a thin
layer of adherent iron oxide, then a mixed oxide-phosphate
(iron andlor zinc), and finally a crystalline zinc phosphate.
There are no sharply defined interfaces between the
layers. When paint is applied to this adherent surface, it is
held almost as tightly as though it were in good contact
with clean steel itself. In addition, the surface area in contact is greatly increased, and a high quality surface treatment i s obtained. Thus, there i s a substantial barrier to atmospheric moisture and considerable resistance to chipping, cracking, and underpaint corrosion; and often a
heavier paint film can be held in position in a single
coating. Small crystals of limited porosity in such coatings
provide the best performance.
Iron phosphate coatings have been referred to as
non-crystalline conversion coatings, but microcrystalline would probably be more appropriate. The
coating is a mixture of adherent iron oxide and iron
phosphate with minor quantities of other components
from the bath occluded in the crystals. It is considerably
thinner than zinc phosphate and essentially non-porous.
The thinner deposit allows more flexibility with paints that
are intrinsically less flexible but more enduring.
Treatment with phosphoric acid does not provide
much coating, but sometimes good results are achieved
with certain highly impervious and inert paint systems.
Prolonged treatment with phosphoric acid removes oxides
and sometimes provides a light etch that is beneficial to
adhesion. Residues from phosphoric acid treatment are
less detrimental than those from sulfuric or hydrochloric
(muriatic) acids.
Phosphate coatings function in the following ways:
1. They put the surface in a non-alkaline condition:
alkaline residues undermine paint finishes and thus promote corrosion;
1. To precondition surfaces to receive and retain
paint, and to protect surfaces against under-paint

corrosion;
2. To prepare surfaces for bonding with plastic
coat ings;
3. To precondition surface for metal forming operations, such as cold extrusion, and for breaking in
friction-bearing surfaces, by providing a base for
drawing compounds and lubricants; and
4. To improve corrosion resistance by providing a
good base for waxes and rust-preventive oils.
By far the most widespread use of phosphate coatings is
to prolong the useful life of paint finishes.
Phosphate coatings in commercial use are crystalline
zinc phosphate and microcrystalline (sometimes called
amorphous) iron phosphate. In addition, a coating forms
from phosphoric acid treatment (occasionally modified by
the addition of other chemicals to accelerate reaction with
the steel). The types of phosphate cleaning of steel are
outlined in Table 1.
Crystalline zinc phosphate coatings, properly applied,
provide the highest level of quality, especially in outdoor
exposure or conditions where there is the possibility of
breaking the paint film by mechanical action, as by impact,
cutting or abrasion. They prevent or reduce the spread of
corrosion from the exposed area. This is also true for good
iron phosphate coatings. As a matter of fact, the most
used method of evaluating the quality of these coatings is
to cut a line through the paint film to the metal below and
98
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--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
i. NATURE OF THE PHOSPHATE COATINGS
SSPC C H A P T E R * 3 - L
9 3 E 8627740 0003533 538
TABLE 1
TYPES OF PHOSPHATE CLEANING OF STEEL
Characteristics
Spray
3 or 4 stage
Non-crystalline phosphatelcleaning
Simple and effective.
5 or 6 stage Non-crystalline phosphate

with separate cleaning
Good quality. Consider for

steel appliances.
5 or 6 stage
zinc DhosDhate
Top quality. Expensive on

low volume lines.
Immersion
Zinc phosphate
Excel lent.
Non-crystalI ne phosphate
Satisfactory for non-critical work.
Alkali clean - preferably with

acidic rinse
Minimum performance; cheap.
Acid DiCkle
Minimum performance on rusted steel
Vapour degreaser
Minimum performance; expensive but no

drv-of f. reauired.
Manual
Wipe-on wipe-off phosphoric acid
clean
Adequate performance i f done

carefully.
Steam clean and phosphate
Adequate to good performance i f

operated carefully.
Solvent clean
Minimum performance.
Mechanical Abrasion
Good to excellent performance

i f done properly.
2. They impose relative uniformity in surface texture

and improved uniformity of post treatments such as paint;
3. They increase the surface area upon which the
systems of attractive forces causing adhesion can act;
4. They create capillaries and micro-cavities to (a)
provide mechanical interlocking of coatings with surfaces,
and (b) to hold drawing compounds, retain break-in oils,
and improve rust resistance;
5. They cushion metals against scoring and scratching;
6. They insulate metals against electrochemical corrosion;
7. They prevent reaction between the oils in paint and
sensitive metals; and
8. They inhibit the spread of corrosion from a damaged area to a sound area adjoining it.
sive and for average performance not difficult to maintain.

The type of equipment and procedure depends on the
number of parts to be processed and the size and shape of
the parts. A schematic of phosphate process operations is
presented in Table 2 to assist in making such decisions.
This schematic applies essentially to factory application
in the manufacture of such items as cabinets, appliances,
and automotive units, either as subassemblies or completely fabricated units. Components of other types of
structures, however, are sometimes handled similarly, including those treated and primed in a factory, then
assembled in the field. Field application of phosphate
coatings is sometimes done by manually operated steam
cleaning or by machines using hot solutions at high
pressures (see section on cleaning). Table 3 lists U.S.
government specifications for phosphating steel surfaces.
II. SELECTION OF THE TYPE OF

PHOSPHATING
A. ZINC PHOSPHATING
In this method the steel is treated with a chemical
solution prepared by diluting a proprietary concentrate to
the 2 to 4% level. Immersion baths are more concentrated
Cost is an important factor in selecting a phosphating

system. Generally, iron phosphate systems are inexpen-
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

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8627740 0003534 474
TABLE 2
PHOSPHATE PROCESS OPERATIONS
Size
Large: (e.g., an assembled bus or large tank assembly)
Manual
Substantial: (e.g., automobiles or large cabinet assemblies)
Very low output (1 unit per hour)

Manual
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Low output (4 unitslhour)

Manual - for low capital costs
Conveyorized spray - only i f high quality requirement justifies the high capital
and running costs.
Line speed 4 ftlmin minimum even i f loading i s very light.
Single chamber - multi spray - intermediate costs and performance
Moderate to high output (over 12 unitslhour)
Conveyorized spray
Moderate (e.g. domestic dishwasher or small filing cabinet)
Very low output (4 unitslhour or less)

Manual - i f high quality is a minor factor
Immersion
Conveyorized spray - line speed 3 ftlmin minimum
Conveyorized immersion - for lower line speeds or for maximum quality on
internal sections
Small: (e.g., bench appliances, lawn mower housings)
Very low output (10 unitslhour or less)

Manual - i f quality is a minor factor
Immersion
Low output (around 40 unitslhour)

Immersion
Conveyorized spray - line speed 3 ftlmin preferred but with careful design may
go lower in some cases
Tipping basket or conveyorized immersion - for maximum quality on internal
sections
with the formation of the coating.

A considerable amount of expertise is required to set
up a good system, but once this is done, controls can be
performed by operators trained for the job.
Mild carbon steel equipment is usually adequate
although stainless steel headers, risers, and nozzles are
preferred in spray systems. When spraying, ingenuity may
be required to position the work so that the spray impinges
on all critical surfaces.
Sludge formed during the process consists primarily
of ferric phosphate. Provision is made to allow this sludge
to settle by having heat sources along the side of the
tanks, and by having constricted areas in which sludge
than spray baths and are usually operated at higher

temperature, 150-170F in comparison to 100 to 1 4 5 F for
spray baths. To obtain good coatings an accelerator is
added as the system is applied.
The essential components of a phosphating bath are
a zinc salt, a phosphate from partially neutralized
phosphoric acid, nitric acid and an oxidant, usually
sodium nitrite (accelerator), added in small quantities continuously or intermittently. Zinc phosphate is precipitated
in crystalline form on the metal as the acidity is reduced by
reaction with the steel, while hydrogen gas formed at the
same time is oxidized by the nitrite to water. This last action avoids formation of a gas layer that would interfere

1O0
Not for Resale
SSPC C H A P T E R * 3 - 1 93
8 b 2 7 9 4 0 0003535 300
U S . Gov't. Spec. No.
Title
TY Pe
Requirements
Application
TT-C-490
Cleaning Methods and

Pretreatment of Ferrous
Surfaces for Organic
Coatings
Phosphate
Paint adhesion,
sait spray
Base for organic

coatings.
MIL-S-5002
Surface Treatments
and Inorganic
Coatings for Metal
Surfaces of Weapon
Systems
Phosphate
Salt spray
Paint base. corrosion

protection
MIL-C-13924
Coating, Oxide,
Black, for Ferrous
Metals
Oxide
Oxalic acid spot

test and salt spray
-96 hr. min.
Corrosion resistance
for moving parts.
DOD-P-16232
Phosphate Coatings,
Heavy Manganese and
Zinc Base (for Ferrous
Met a Is)
Manganese
phosphate,
zinc
phosphate
Salt spray 1.5-48 hrs.
Corrosion protection
resistant to alkaline
environments, and
prevention of galling.
MIL-C-46487
Cleaning: Preparation
and Organic Coating of
Steel Cartridge Cases
Iron
phosphate
Salt spray 24 hrs.
Epoxy - used with

phenolic varnish
may settle. This will reduce re-dispersion as the bath is

used.
The zinc phosphate system is usually applied in a fivestage process as follows:
1. Clean
Maintaining the acidity within specified pH ranges is

crucial. Ordinarily, this is done by adding proprietary salts,
but occasionally phosphoric acid is used in addition. Concentrations normally range from '12 O/O t o 2%. Best results
are obtained at 120 to 150F under spray application.
There is more variation in quality of end result with these
systems than with zinc phosphate, due, in part, to the
widespread custom of cleaning and phosphating in the
same spray system. Often variations in performance are
determined more by cleaning than phosphating. Better
quality is usually achieved in the lines where cleaning is
done prior to phosphating, but most work is processed by
dual-purpose chemicals to achieve the objectives of cleaning and chemical conversion. Maintaining two stages of
cleaninglphosphating yields superior quality, but this is
not done frequently enough i n industrial practice. When it
is used, it is preferable to have the first spray stage at
higher pH and the second at lower pH. More often, a three
stage system is employed: (1) Cleaner-phosphater (2) Rinse
(3) Passivating Rinse.
- alkaline cleaner
2. Rinse
3. Zinc phosphate
4. Rinse
5. Passivating final rinse
An intermediate stage may be interspersed between
stages 2 and 3 for the purpose of improving the crystal size
of the zinc phosphate by use of a colloidal titanium salt.
Cleaners containing titanium may also affect the grain
refining function. There will be further discussion below of
the final rinse, which applies both to zinc and iron
phosphate.
B. IRON PHOSPHATE PROCESSES

Most iron phosphate coatings are produced by spray.
In contrast with zinc phosphate, there are few processes
which operate successfully using immersion.
Generally a salt of phosphoric or pyrophosphoric acid
is used at pH of 3 to 5.5 in conjunction with relatively small
quantities of various activators. There are many types of
activators used with these baths. "Activators" (a term
used loosely here) may be, for example, sodium motybdate, tannic acid, organic nitro compounds, hydroxylamine, and metal ions such as magnesium, zinc, and
manganese.
C. OTHER TYPES OF PHOSPHATING

1.
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Low Temperature phosphating

There are now available many iron and zinc
phosphate materials which may be applied by
spray or immersion at, or close to, room
temperature, 60 "-120 "F (16 "-49OC). These materials make possible considerable savings in
heating costs through reduced fuel use. The prin-
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
TABLE 3
Some Government Specifications
on Phosphating Steel Surfaces
SSPC CHAPTERJ3-II 9 3
8627740 O003536 247
The awkwardness of supplying good rinsing or

passivating rinses in the field is a severe limitation to obtaining high quality paint adhesion, especially resistance
to underpaint corrosion. Quite frequently, this limitation i s
compensated for by the application of inhibitive or
sacrificial primers or quite heavy films of paint to reduce
permeability to moisture and water vapor.
However, field phosphating by the procedures just
described does provide a substantial improvement in
coatings performance, Field phosphatizing has been successful with benefit to farm and construction machinery,
and to a lesser extent with ships, tanks, bridges, and other
structures.
Another type of treatment, sometimes incorrectly
referred to as phosphating involves treatment with
phosphoric acid as contrasted with other mineral acids
such as sulfuric or hydrochloric (muriatic) acids.
This treatment may utilize hot concentrated
phosphoric acid to remove mill scale or heavy rust or
rather dilute phosphoric acid to modify light to heavy rust
to improve paint performance. It may also be applied to
reasonably clean and unrusted steel to form a light
phosphate coating, or at least a surface receptive to paint.
Most paints can tolerate mildly acidic residues better
than alkaline residues from cleaners, or indeed the iron oxide of rusted steel which also has an alkaline reaction.
Under ideal conditions there is just enough rust to react
with the amount of phosphoric acid applied, so that the
result is an almost neutral system. Of course, loose rust
which flakes off cannot be improved very much by such
treatments.
There is also limited use of phosphates of zinc or
other metals containing phosphoric acid with other ingredients, including thickeners (some being thixotropic
agents) to reduce run-off. If done properly, this provides
considerable improvement, especially i f applied by brush,
which enhances penetration and removal of loose rust.
This type of treatment probably has been used to a greater
extent in Europe than in the U.S. Naval jelly is a popular
American product.
At any rate, pickling with phosphoric acid offers an
iron surface with less tendency to rust and improved paint
adhesion, and reduces paint failure under outdoor weather
exposure. It is occasionally applied to abraded surfaces
with good results, especially if there is some rusting due to
a delay i n painting after blasting.
cipal advantages of low temperature processing

are:
a. dollar savings - less fuel
b. shorter start-up time - because of smaller
temperature differential
c. better working conditions
d. less wear on equipment
e. less sludge
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
2. Solvent Phosphating
The more widely used phosphating processes,
such as those which have been discussed up to
this point, are water-based. There is also a system
using trichloroethylene as the base for cleaning,
phosphating, and subsequent finishing.
This method involves three stages and requires special equipment:
a.vapor degreasing i n a boiling bath of
trichloroethylene at 188 F;
b.phosphating by either spray or dip in the
organic acid phosphates;
c. c o a t i n g w i t h an organic f i n i s h using
trichloroethylene as the solvent.
111. FIELD PHOSPHATING

Zinc phosphate and iron phosphate coatings of
highest quality are normally applied in the factory to items
such as automobiles, refrigerators, washing machines,
cabinets, assembled units and also to components that
are subsequently asembled. However, a reasonably good
job, certainly one superior to no phosphate coating, can be
achieved in the field by spraying a mildly acidic phosphate
solution onto the metal surface. The same iron phosphate
chemicals used in factories are often employed. This may
be done with steam cleaning machines or machines
originally designed to spray hot detergent solution for
cleaning under field conditions. Some machines spray
detergent solution from one section and phosphating solution from another. These are available in a variety of
designs and are treated in the chapter on cleaning.
A considerable problem with phosphating in the field
is the questionable adequacy of rinsing away the residues
from the sprayed solution and the difficulties in supplying
a passivating final rinse of chromic acid or acid chromate
salts. There is also the problem of disposal of run-off
chemicals.
The section on cleaning pointed out that the presence
of salts or electrolyte under a paint film can be very harmful in causing blistering and underpaint corrosion upon exposure to highly humid conditions. While this is true of
residues from alkaline detergents or hard water salts, it
is also true of the chemicals of phosphating solutions
that have not reacted with the metal.
When a final chromic acid rinse is used, residues from
phosphating solutions are insolubilized, or the tiny fraction
of the surface that has not reacted to form a tight adherent
coating is passivated (.e. converted to an adherent oxide
by the chromate).

IV. PASSIVATING RINSES

Occasionally, the importance of an appropriate final
rinse is neglected. We have emphasized the detrimental effect of electrolytic residues that prompt galvanic corrosion. A final rinse containing chromic acid can minimize
such corrosion. The chromate insolubilizes some of the
heavy metal ions and oxidizes steel which was not properly coated. A passive state is obtained and soluble residues
are then flushed away.
One common difficulty with chromic acid rinses is
102
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
chapter: Jim Bennett, James Davis, Ted Dowd, Larry Drake, Arnold Eickhoff, H. Kline, Mark Kuchner, Howard Lasser, M.F.
Maher, Jim Maurer, Joe Mazia, Robert McCormick, Lou Nowacki,
William Pearson. Melvin Sandler and William Wallace.
lack of adequate control of composition and concentration. The desired concentration is so low (e.g., 2 to 4 oz/lOO
gal) that small amounts of contaminant can reduce too
much of the chromate to the chromic condition. Excessive
concentration, on the other hand, can result in blistering
under highly humid conditions.
The rinse sometimes is used after excessive contamination by electrolyte salts. Disposal regulations are
another diffjculty: the amount of chromate that can be introduced into the effluent is extremely small, for practical
purposes, almost nil. This has resulted in the use of nonchromated final rinses, often merely very dilute phosphoric
acid or de-ionized water, which are of limited value. Some
chromium-free rinses are almost as effective as the
chromic acid type when used with zinc phosphate
coatings. Some of these also contain ions which have
limited acceptance in effluent. These can be adequate for
some purposes but are less safe to use than the chromic
acid rinse, and require very close control. The low concentration of chromium in the chromic acid rinse makes it
feasible to treat this effluent without high cost.
BIOGRAPHY
A biographical sketch and portrait of Dr. Spring may be found
at the end of Chapter 2.9.
REFERENCES
1. M.F. Maher and A.M. Pradel, Phosphate Coatings, Metal
finishing Guidebook, pp. 674-687, 1981.
2. Samuel Spring, Preparation of Metals for Painting, Reinhold
Publishing Co., New York, 1965.
3. Samuel Spring and K. Woods, Phosphatizing with NonCrystalline Coatings, Metal finishing, Volume 78, No. 9, p.
31, 1980.
4. K. Woods and Samuel Spring, Selection of a Paint Pretreatment System, Mefal finishing, Volume 78, No. 6, p. 17, 1980.
5. K. Woods, and Samuel Spring, Zinc Phosphating, Metal
finishing, Vol. 77, No. 3, p. 24 and No. 4, p. 56, 1979.
6. K. Woods and Samuel Spring, Chromating as a Prepaint
Treatment System, Metal Finishing, Vol. 79, No. 6, 1981.
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
V. COMPARING IRON AND ZINC PHOSPHATE

TREATMENTS
Maher and Pradel point out that both the iron
phosphate process and the zinc phosphate process have
inherent advantages for particular applications. A clear
economic advantage of the iron phosphate method is that
it usually requires few processing stages, because cleaning and phosphating can generally be accomplished in one
step. This means that the pre-cleaning and rinsing
associated with other processes are not required. Another
economic advantage of the iron phosphating process is
that the special acid-proof equipment frequently associated with other processes is not required. Thus, the
initial capital investment for the iron phosphate process
is usually considerably lower. On the other hand, because
of its crystalline structure and more absorptive characteristics, the zinc phosphate coating process generally
permits the application of heavier paint finishes with
potentially longer life expectancy.

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8627740 0003538 OLT
CHAPTER 3.2
PICKLING STEEL SURFACES

by
D. W. Christofferson
black coating. This is designated by various names, such
as oxide, magnetic oxide, scale, mill scale, roll scale, forging scale, annealing scale, etc.
Scale is brittle, expands less than the iron from which
it is formed and cracks on cooling. It is not uniform in composition. The lack of uniformity is the difference i n the
amount of oxygen in various parts of the scale film illustrated in Figure l .
The outer layer is richest in oxygen. It may approximate the formula Fe,O,, containing about 30% oxygen by
weight. Beneath the outer layer is a material generally constituting the bulk of the scale and nearly corresponding to
the formula Fe,O,, with about 28% oxygen. Next to the
metal the oxide may approximate the formula Feo, which
contains about 22% oxygen. Beneath this may be a layer
of mixed oxide and metal of still lower oxygen content.
The outer layer of scale is almost insoluble in sulfuric
acid but slightly soluble in muriatic acid. The under layer
or layers are more soluble and the metal itself quite s o h ble.
When pickling steel in sulfuric acid the diluted acid
penetrates through cracks in the outer scale layer and
dissolves some scale beneath and works through to the
metal or the scale layers rich in metal and low in oxygeni6.
These dissolve rapidly, evolving hydrogen between the
scale and metal. It is this hydrogen evolution that is
responsible for removal of scale that is blown off in flakes
of varying size.
If all the scale were blown off at one time and the
metal immediately removed from the pickling solution,
there would be little preventable acid attack on the metal
and little need for an inhibitor. This, however, does not occur. Scale is removed from parts of the surface quickly.
The uninhibited acid attacks and pits these exposed areas
before scale is removed from other areas. Also, when pickling with acids, the mill scale may be removed sooner than
rust, which often exists on some local areas. When
muriatic acid is used, the action is much the same as that
of sulfuric acid, except all the scales are more soluble and
some can be dissolved as well as blown off by the
hydrogen evolutioni6.
Acids remove surface deposits other than mill scale.
Rust is most generally encountered. Rust is a hydrated oxide of iron. It is more soluble in sulfuric, muriatic and
phosphoric acids than are mill scales; therefore, rust
coatings are removed by being dissolved rather than being
blown off.
Rust, unlike scale, continues to develop cyclically and
i f it were not removed along with chemicals that caused it,
I. INTRODUCTION
Pickling is the immersion of objects in dilute acids.
Pickling in metal working industries is a process in which
metals are immersed in acid solutions to remove oxides or
scales. Many excellent references are available1-16.
The primary reference is the second edition of the
Steel Structures Painting Manual, Volume i on Chemical
Surface Preparation by F.P. Spruance, Jr., then Chief,
Research and Development Section, American Chemical
Paint Company. Most of the basic technical data on pickling is valid and included in this chapter with appropriate
changes. Steel Structures Painting Council Surface Preparation Specification No. 8 covers several pickling processes.
Various acids used in commercial pickling are
sulfuric, hydrochloric or muriatic, nitric, hydrofluoric,
phosphoric and mixtures of these. In the United States,
sulfuric acid, because of its low cost, high boiling point,
availability and general suitability, is used extensively in
pickling simple and low carbon steels. They represent the
bulk of tonnage pickled. Increased use of reclamation and
regeneration of acids has made hydrochloric acid pickling
prominent for most low-carbon steels. Without acid
regeneration and reclamation some batch plant operations are being curtailed due to the high cost of disposing
of waste pickle liquors. Disposal problems result from envi ronmental reguIat ions.
Hydrochloric or muriatic acid alone or in combination
with sulfuric, nitric and hydrofluoric acid is used to
brighten stainless and some alloy steels. The use of
hydrochloric acid with some grades of stainless steel,
especially 300 and 400 series, can increase the susceptibility to pitting and stress corrosion cracking and must
be used with caution. This chapter primarily concerns
structural grade low carbon steels.
Pickling is usually done by immersing work into pickle
baths in tanks. The same principles apply if the pickle
solution is sprayed or flowed over the work or if the work is
pulled through baths of acid as i n the continuous pickling
of strip steel.
Acids suitable for pickling should remove only scale
from base metal, but a substantial amount may be wasted
dissolving the metal itself. Waste can be prevented with
suitable inhibitors.
For the rolling process steel is heated below the
melting point, usually i n open furnaces i n which oxygen
from the furnace atmosphere combines with hot metal to
form oxides of iron and alloying elements. On cooling,
these oxides set as a hard, brittle, adherent and usually
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,-fRACKS
I N SCALE
93
8627740 0003539 T5b
B. TREATING PICKLED METAL
1. Cold Rinsing
When metal is removed from the pickle bath, a
thin film of pickling acid and salts, resulting from
reaction of acid with metal, clings to it. The acid
and salts, with the exception of some produced
from phosphoric acid, actually stimulate rust formation and must be completely removed before
they dry. An ample supply of clean water must be
available for rinsing, which may be accomplished
by any convenient means. Steel, wood, or concrete tanks provided with a skimming trough to
take care of an ample overflow of water are
generally used, although water can be applied
liberally with a hose.
Pickled work should be rinsed promptly, particularly i f the acid is hot. If the film dries, it is difficult to rinse away residues that can cause trouble in many of the following operations.
FIGURE 1
Mili scale is composed of several layers: A. Fe,O, B. Fe,O, C. F e 0
D. F e 0
Fe.
Courtesy of Amchem Products, Inc.
it would continue to form indefinitely even under coatings

of paint, oil, etc. Sand or shot blasting is more convenient
for rust and scale removal from large assembled structures such as ship hulls, bridge plates, gas holders, etc.,
that are too large and often too thickly encrusted with pitted rust to be pickled. On smaller assemblies weldments
are normally abrasive blasted or mechanically cleaned to
remove welding scale prior to the pickling.
2. Final (Hot) Rinsing - Neutralizing

When pickling acid and iron salts are removed or
diluted, metal must be suitably treated in preparation for operations that follow. Treatment
prevents steel from rusting and prepares it for
painting. Weak alkali solutions, such as '/i
to
ounce per gallon of sodium carbonate or trisodium phosphate, are used in a boiling rinse following a cold rinse, previously described. The alkaline surface does not rust rapidly, but it i f is to be
stored indefinitely or exposed to weather, it
should be oiled. Alkali cleaning solutions are
suitable for application of oil but are not suited for
application of paint. Also, there are other
treatments that can be used to prevent rusting.
II. PICKLING PROCESS

The pickling process is divided into three steps:
Cleaning and preparation of metal
Pickling
Treating the pickled metal.
Cleaning, preparation and treating will be discussed
briefly before considering pickling in more detail. Surface
treatments and pre-treatments are more fully discussed in
Chapter 3. A wide variation exists in successful procedures; only a few will be discussed.
A. CLEANING AND PREPARATION OF METAL

PRIOR TO PICKLING
3. Preparing Metal for Painting

Most paints do not adhere well and blister in a
humid atmosphere if applied to an alkaline or
neutral surface. For best painting results the surface pH should be slightly acid. Best results occur
when the surface has a pH between 3 and 5. There
are exceptions when using special paints, such as
inorganic zincs, which normally are applied to
neutral surfaces. In pickling processes for inorganic zinc applications, no further treatment is
normally used after the hot water rinse.
Cleaning removes from metal any material that would

prevent pickling acid from contacting the surface and
removing scale. The coating most frequently encountered
is oil.
Oils can be removed with oil solvents, most of which
are volatile and leave a thin film. Solvents can be applied
by any convenient means and wiped off with clean rags.
The metal can be degreased by immersion in solvents or
solvent vapors. The latter method leaves metal free of oil
but not from particles or smut held on the surface by oil
film.
Alkali cleaning is relatively inexpensive and should be
provided when cleaning prior to pickling. This is required
more or less regularly to remove oils, greases, cutting or
forming compounds, etc. Other contaminants that should
be removed prior to pickling are heavy rust and paint,
which, on new steel, mainly involves shop and mill marks.
Heavy rust that might prolong pickling can be removed by scraping, wire brushing or abrasive blast cleaning. Paint and other types of marking can normally be
removed mechanically or with solvents.
For most paints, other than inorganic zincs, it

is important that proper acid be used to produce
the proper pH. Phosphoric or chromic acids, or
mixtures, produce best results. Muriatic or
sulfuric acids should not be used because their
residues stimulate rust under paint.
It is desirable to further clean and treat pickled and rinsed steel in a phosphoric acid solution
prior to painting. Good results can be obtained by
adding approximately 0.25% by weight of concentrated phosphoric acid to the hot rinse bath, contained in a steel tank, and maintaining this rinse
105
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8627740 0003540 778
at a pH of 3 to 5 by addition of acid as small

quantities are needed.
The cleanliness of the boiling rinse is important, since it is here that a satisfactorily cleaned
surface can be spoiled for painting. For best
results the bath should be discarded daily and the
tank cleaned before making a new bath. This is
not practical for large scale structural pickling
operations, and good painting results can be obtained by merely maintaining a water rinse
temperature at 140F (60C) or higher and painting promptly while steel is warm and dry.
resist them and that should be used to construct steam

coils for heating.
A pickle tank suitably lined and constructed should be
equipped with a large bottom drain for rapid emptying and
easy cleaning, heating coils or other source of heat, water
for diluting acid and for washing the empty tank, and provisions for introducing acid into the bath.
Water should never be added to strong acids. Even
when properly adding concentrated sulfuric acid to water,
enough heat generates to boil and blow the acid about.
Workers should stay as far as possible from acid when it
mixes with water in the pickle bath. In small installations
steel chutes or pipes should be provided over or through
which the acid i s poured. In large installations the acid
should be transferred through a steel or lead pipe from the
storage or measuring tank to the pickle tank.
It is advisable to have a tank for measuring the acid
added to each pickle tank. For concentrated sulfuric acid
the storage tank may be safely constructed of mild steel,
since it i s not attacked. However, other acids in concentrated form will attack mild steel. The acid storage tanks
must use material or linings suitable for the acid involved.
Pickle houses are usually filled with steam, and in
spite of the ability of inhibitors to reduce acid fumes, some
escapes into the air, It is desirable to provide adequate
ventilation. Warm air and exhaust ducts located over or
near the tanks are helpful i n clearing the atmosphere of
fumes and acid mists. Also, structural steel within an
enclosed pickle house should be properly coated with an
acid-resistant coating system.
111. ACID PICKLING

Sulfuric, muriatic, phosphoric, nitric and hydrofluoric
acids are used for pickling ferrous metals. Sulfuric acid is
used most extensively for structural steel, although
hydrochloric and phosphoric acids are also used for structural and other steels.
Typical sulfuric acid pickling for low carbon structural
steels may not be suitable for some high strength constructional alloy and heattreated alloy steels. Some higher
carbon and alloy steels burn in acid very easily, making
surface smut more of a problem. One method to help
solve this is to add rock salt to the sulfuric acid bath. Navy
specifications call for the bath to contain 1.5% sodium
chloride. Test work is in order before pickling special
steels for which prior experience or test data is not
available, since steel composition also affects the time required for picklinglB.
Tanks constructed of mild steel plate or wood can be
used for both cold and hot rinse, but ordinary steel, unlined, cannot be used to contain any of the acid solutions
used in pickling. Wood tanks can be used temporarily to
contain sulfuric, muriatic, hydrofluoric or phosphoric
acids, but more permanent equipment, steel tanks lined
with materials that resist the acids, should be used to contain them.
Table I includes acids and lining materials that
IV. OPERATION OF THE PICKLE BATH

WITH ADDED DETAILS ON SULFURIC ACID
A. ACID
Concentrated sulfuric acid neither attacks steel nor
removes scale. It must be diluted with water before it can
be used. The rate of attack of sulfuric acid solutions at
TABLE I
Acids and lining materials that resist them
Sulfuric
Muriatic
Phosphoric
Hydrofluoric
Nitric
Stainless
Acid Resistant masonry
Wood
Lead
Rubber
Steel
(Brick)
Vemporary)
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
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B. TEMPERATURE
While the activity of the acid solution within the usual
pickling range is proportional to its strength, the activity of
a pickle bath is markedly affected by its temperature, as is
shown in Figure 4 for sulfuric acid.
C. IRON SALTS
A fresh pickle bath at a fixed temperature continues
to remove scale from steel at the same rate; however,
pickle baths do not stay fresh. Small amounts of scale and
large amounts of metal that dissolve in the acid form iron
salts, such as iron sulfate (copperas), in solution. The
presence of iron salts in the bath has a significant effect
on pickling. As salts build up, removal of scale is delayed,
making the bath act as though the amount of acid in it had
been reduced.
With sulfuric acid pickling the effect of varying
amounts of sulfate in the bath is shown in Figure 5. As a
result of the retarding action of iron sulfate, or salts from
other pickling acids, the pickle baths should be discarded
before they become saturated.
D. TIME
Time is an important factor in scale removal. Some
time is required for acid to penetrate the scale and blow it
off, and even more time is needed to undermine "rolled-in
scale" or scale embedded in pits. Enough time must be
allowed to remove scale completely.
.PUURIG
FIGURE 2
Rate of attack of sulfuric acid on mild steel.

Courtesy of Arnchem Products, Inc.
E. AGITATION
120F (49C) on mild steel i s illustrated in Figure 2.

Even at a temperature of 120F (49"C), concentrated
acid does not attack steel. Not until it is diluted with an
equal volume of water is there any appreciable action. The
activity of acid increases with its strength until it reaches
40% concentration. With further increase in strength, the
attack decreases rapidly.
Sulfuric acid pickle baths are usually operated within
the range of 2% to 15% by volume of 66" Baume sulfuric
or its equivalent strength of other commercial grades of
this acid, and not at higher strengths approaching that of
maximum activity. The greater the viscosity of the bath,
the higher the dragout losses. The waste of acid in the
spent bath prevents efficient use of acid at high concentrations.
Figure 3 shows the relationship between acid attack
and strength of 20" Be muriatic acid. Muriatic acid is
hydrogen chloride gas dissolved in water. The 20" Be commercial grade contains only about 31 O/O hydrochloric acid
by weight. Undiluted 20" Be muriatic acid attacks steel
more rapidly than stronger solutions and, as in the case of
sulfuric acid, the attack in operating ranges is proportional
to the acid's strength.
Baths of fixed characteristics pickle faster i f agitated

than if still. This is clear when it is realized that the acid in
contact with any part of the surface picks up more and
more iron salts, such as the sulfates with sulfuric acid
pickling, and loses strength quickly, as shown in Figure 5.
The faster fresh acid is brought to the surface and salt
contaminated acid is dispersed throughout the solution
away from the metal, the faster the pickling.
Agitation also washes off scale particles loosened
from metal to expose fresh areas to the acid's action. This
same effect is accomplished by mechanical means as, for
example, with brushes.
Agitation in pickle baths may be produced
mechanically by moving the work through the pickling
solution, as in the continuous and semi-continuous pickling of coiled strip steel, or with a pickling machine of the
type illustrated in Figure 6.
Agitation may also be created by moving the solution
past work that is stationary in the tank. The plunger
pickler, in which the pickle bath is caused to surge up and
down by a large plunger, washes over the surface, changes
the solution rapidly and removes loose scale.
The most common type of agitation is produced by
the steam used to heat the pickle bath. This may either be
discharged through holes in the lead pipe near the bottom
of the tank or through an injector nozzle, causing violent
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

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SSPC C H A P T E R * 3 * 2 93 W 8627940 0003542 540
-,.I
RATE OF ATTACK OF HYDROCHLORIC

ACID AT VARIOUS
ON MILD STEEL
TEMPERATURE 120FAHR
/ \
usual method is to keep acid strength constant and to increase temperature to offset the slowing action of the accumulating iron sulfate.
When a pickle bath has dissolved about 2% pounds of
iron sulfate per gallon, its scale removing property is appreciably reduced (Figure 5). It is at or near this point
that most picklers discontinue adding acid, so that which
remains can be consumed as completely as possible in
useful pickling and so a minimum amount is left to be
discarded. To offset weakening acid and accumulating ferrous sulfate, bath temperature is gradually raised, eventually to the boiling point, and the bath is used as long as it
pickles in a reasonable time. It is then discarded. In this
way acid strengths can be reduced markedly but continue
to be used; thus, substantial savings in acid can be made.
The literature further discusses the influence of these
factors.
i
---I
i-I
IL
40--
I
--'?
F. ANALYZING PICKLE BATHS
>
30---
Acid strength cannot be determined by taste, a

method used by picklers years ago or by hydrometer, the
reading of which i s affected by both the acid and iron salts
in solution. Methods regularly used in the laboratory can
be used to titrate pickle baths for both acid and iron. It is
common in steel mills to install such apparatus near the
20 -
IO
40
60
EQUIVALENT PERCENT OF 2C
FIGURE 3
Rate of attack of hydrochloric or muriatic acid on mild steel.
Courtesy of Amchem Products, Inc.
circulation of the bath through a nozzle usually located at

one end of the pickle tub. Agitation can be further increased by injecting compressed air through appropriate
fittings.
Violent agitation and heat is provided by a submerged
combustion heater, i n which heat from burning gas is
transmitted to the pickle baths through walls of a pipe-like
combustion chamber located at the bottom of the pickle
tank, and from which the products of combustion, along
with compressed air, are discharged into the solution.
From consideration of the effects of acid concentration, bath temperature, agitation, and the retarding action
of iron salts, a reasonable method for operating the bath
becomes apparent. For example, a fresh sulfuric acid bath
contains no iron sulfate and can be operated at relatively
low temperatures with an amount of acid ranging from 2 to
15% by volume, as may be necessary to complete the
pickling in the time allotted. As iron sulfate accumulates
and slows pickling, the action can be speeded either by increasing the strength or the temperature of the bath.
Both methods are used; however, since increases in
temperature in most installations require the use of more
steam, the agitation of the bath is also increased. The
4
I I
A I
3600
RATE OF ATTACK O F SULPHURIC

ACID 5% BY VOLUME 66.d ON
MILD STEEL AT VARIOUS TEMPERATURES
FIGURE 4
Effect of temperature on the rate of attack of sulfuric acid on mild
steel.
Courtesy of Anchem Products, Inc.
Not for Resale
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-I
SSPC C H A P T E R s 3 - 2 93
m 8627940 0003543 487

Equipment required:
1 - 5 ml. pipette
1 - 1 ml. pipette
2 - 25 ml. burettes
1 - 5 ml. measuring cylinder
1 - burette stand
2 - 250 ml. glass beakers
2 - stirring rods
1 - glass indicator bottle
Reagents required:
1.0 normal sodium hydroxide solution
0.1 normal potassium permanganate solution
methyl orange - 1 gm./liter of H,O
c.p. sulfuric acid, concentrated
G. DETERMINING PERCENTAGE OF ACID
a
Y
W
CY
BO
II
~SULPHPITECONCE~TRCIO~
I;TWHICH
Measure a 5 ml. sample of the pickling solution

with a 5 ml. pipette and transfer it to a clean 250
m I. beaker.
Add about 100 ml (half a beaker) of clean,
fresh tap or city water and 2 or 3 drops of indicator solution (methyl orange).
Fill a burette exactly to the zero mark with 1.0
normal sodium hydroxide.
Stir the test sample constantly with a stirring
rod and slowly run in 1.0 normal sodium hydroxide until the red color has changed to
yellow. Stop adding this titrating solution at
the moment the color of the test sample
becomes pure yellow.
Record the reading taken on the graduated
burette. This is the number of mls. of 1.0 normal
sodium hydroxide used.
BATHS ARE USUALLY DISCARDED

1
I
CONCENTR'ATIONS
S~LPHATE
A; WHICH
ADDITIONS OFACID ARE USUALLY
DISCONTINUE0
2
W
o
K
290
IOOL
1. Calculation
The number of mls. of 1.0 normal sodium hydroxide used, multiplied by the appropriate factors
shown in Table 2 below, gives the desired quantity
of 66" or 60" Be sulfuric acid or 20" or 18" Be
muriatic acid.
pickle or measuring tanks and to have titrations made at

regular intervals, usually by the pickle foreman, who sees
to i t that acid is added i n measured and recorded quantities to maintain the proper strength.
2. Determining iron Content

Measure a 1 ml. sample of the pickling solution
TABLE 2
ICOL TABLE
Percent by Volume . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Grams per 100 m l . ....................
Poundspergal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Percent by Volume . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Grams per 100 ml .....................
Poundspergal .......................
66O Be
Sulfuric
60 Be
Su If uric
0.573
1 .O53
8.771
0.740
1.263
10.525
20 Be
Muriatic
1 8 O Be
Muriatic
1.999
2.319
19.353
2.288
2.612
21.796
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8b27940 0003544 313
with the 1 ml. pipette and transfer it to a clean

250 ml. beaker.
Add about 100 mls. (half a beaker) of fresh,
clean water. Measure 5 mls. of concentrated
sulfuric by means of the 5 ml. measuring
cylinder and pour it slowly with constant stirring into the beaker.
Fill a burette exactly to the zero mark with 0.1
normal potassium permanganate.
Stir the test sample continuously with a stirring
rod and slowly run in the permanganate solution until the color changes to a faint pink,
which persists at least fifteen seconds. Stop
adding solution when pink is obtained.
Record the reading taken on the graduated
burette. This is the number of mls. of 0.1 normal
potassium permanganate used.
Waste of acid and metal is prevented by inhibiting pickling

acids. The effects of suitable inhibitors have been
tabulated and p ~ b l i s h e das
, ~ well as methods of use and
advantages2.
In a typical pickling operation, when one pound of iron
is saved, about 2% pounds of 60 Be suifuric acid is also
saved, and nearly 7 cubic feet less hydrogen is evolved.
Saving 10 or more pounds of metal per ton is common with
a suitable inhibitor.
A minimum amount of acid, ranging from 1% to 10%
by volume, is discarded with each spent bath. The less frequently the bath is discarded or the greater the tonnage
pickled before the bath must be discarded, the less acid is
lost per ton pickled.
Dissolving less metal means less smut develops. A
part of this is due to carbon particles that are left loose on
the surface when iron dissolves. Other ingredients in steel
are similarly exposed and dissolved i n the pickling acid
and subsequently plated out as a discoloration on metal
surfaces. The effect is minimized by use of a suitable inhibitor, which makes it possible to pickle alloy and simple
steels in the same bath with less smutting. Where harmful
smut is formed on a steel surface, it must be removed
before any coating is applied. This is best accomplished
by washing or rinsing. Brushing and solvent wiping or
mechanical means of supplemental cleaning can be used
as required.
The susceptibility of steels of different analyses and
heat treatments to acid attack varies. A practice suitable
for pickling one lot of steel in an uninhibited bath might
result in overpickling and ruining another. This condition is
corrected by use of a suitable inhibitor that prevents overpickling under normal and even under abnormal conditions.
3. Calculation
The number of ml of 0.1 normal potassium permanganate used, multiplied by 0.0465, equals the
pounds of iron (Fe) per gallon of pickling solution.
Pounds of iron (Fe) per gallon, multiplied by 12,
equals grams of iron (Fe) per 100 ml of pickling
solution.
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
4. Records
With facilities to analyze the bath, pickling can be
efficient. Complete records are essential. A simple procedure for recording strength and temperature of the pickle bath, its iron content, when and
how much acid is added, the number of tons pickled, etc., is to plot the data at regular intervals on
a chart.
These records show consumption of acid per
ton. Other pertinent data can be calculated. The
graph indicates whether the bath has been
discarded with too much acid or before enough
iron has been dissolved. Records like this show
the effect of different pickling procedures over
periods of time.
Other records help in cost accounting or
comparing one practice with another. An example
is comparing the effect of an inhibitor throughout
the life of a pickle bath. Data and calculation
sheets provide for calculation of the necessary
cost per ton, or preferably, per 1000 square feet.
When this figure is compared for two or more pickling practices, advantages can be seen.
V. INHIBITORS
Analysis and record keeping of tonnage, acid consumption, etc. make it possible to prevent careless waste.
Pickling in uninhibited acid is a wasteful process because
to remove scale it is necessary that acid dissolve some of
the underlying metalt8. Uninhibited acid does not stop
dissolving metal after scale comes off. The result is that
parts of the steel are usually badly over-pickled before
all scale is removed. This wastes good metal and acid.
FIGURE 6
Pickling machine in use for the pickling of mild steel. Acid tank is
on the left, while the rinse tank is on the right.
Courtesy of Arnchern Products, Inc.
110
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8627940 0003545 25T
A. EFFECT OF HYDROGEN ON THE METAL

When metal dissolves i n acid, a definite volume of
hydrogen is produced. The hydrogen gas, when evolved,
consists of single atoms, (nascent or atomic hydrogen)
which quickly combine in groups of two to become
molecular or atmospheric hydrogen. It is apparently
atomic hydrogen, absorbed or dissolved in steel, that affects its flexibility and ductility. This i s hydrogen embrittlement or acid embrittlement. Blisters on sheets or
plate during pickling and galvanizing are from the same
cause. How and why hydrogen is absorbed into the metal
is theory; but it is absorbed, and many demonstrations
prove that hydrogen passes quickly and entirely through
sheet steel.
It may be surprising that a seemingly innocuous gas
can have harmful effects on dense, tough steel. The situation exists as proven by the rejections of galvanized and
other sheets, the breaking of both sheets and wire in drawing, the excessive wear on dies, the embrittling and
breakage of spring steels, etc. These flaws continue in
spite of elaborate precautions taken in the steel mills to
prevent them.
Many years of experience with a wide variety of steel
plate structures and laboratory tests indicates that commercial pickling of low carbon structural steel, in accordance with procedures set forth by SSPC-SP 8, does not present an embrittlement problem. Normal combinations of
acid strengths, bath temperatures and times are not conducive to this type of problem.
For stainless and other special steels, more consideration of brittleness and appropriate pickling procedures and inhibitor use is needed.
B. EFFECT OF HYDROGEN IN THE

PICKLE BATH
Atomic hydrogen that does not enter steel combines
to form molecular hydrogen outside the pickled surface to
cause other objectionable effects. Bubbles of molecular
hydrogen that form at the metal surfaceduring pickling are
extremely light. They rise rapidly through a poorly inhibited
bath. As they reach the surface, they break violently and
throw a pickling spray acid contaminating the air with suffocating fumes that can affect the health of workers and
rapidly corrode any metal work and masonry in the pickling
room.
To old picklers this bubbling indicated the bath was
working and fumes were looked upon as a necessary evil.
Inhibitors minimize acid fumes by reducing hydrogen
that causes them. Foam-producing grades of inhibitors, in
addition to eliminating acid spray, prevent the escape of
steam and loss of heat from the baths surface. While the
almost complete absence of bubbles i n an inhibitor-controlled pickle bath led many old picklers to think the bath
was not working as fast as it should, such a bath may actually pickle faster than one less inhibited.

VI. PICKLING PROCEDURES

A. SULFURIC ACID PICKLING
Details of sulfuric acid pickling are covered in general
discussions and further discussed under Sulfuric-Phosphoric Acid Pickling, a process utilizing sulfuric acid pickling for scale and rust removal and phosphoric acid solution for final treatment. Here i s the brief procedure:
Preclean metal as detailed in the general
discussion on Cleaning and Preparation of the
Metal Prior to Pickling.
Pickling in a solution of sulfuric acid with sufficient inhibitor minimizes attack on the base
metal. Common pickling solutions contain 5 to
10 per cent by weight sulfuric acid at a
minimum solution temperature of 140F (60C).
Rinse adequately in clean hot water above
140F (60C).
B. PHOSPHORIC ACID PICKLING

In some respects, pickling with phosphoric acid is
preferable to sulfuric-acid pickling. The number of dipping
and rinse tanks can be fewer than in a sulfuric acid pickling system, where rinsing must be more complete.
Phosphoric acid is not as corrosive as sulfuric acid under
normal conditions, so less expensive construction and
less maintenance is required. There are no obnoxious or
corrosive acid fumes objectionable t o operating personnel. Inhibitors are recommended to prevent overpickling,
though the need is not as great as with sulfuric acid pickling.
Phosphoric acid pickling generally utilizes a solution
of 10-50% phosphoric acid in water. Frequently, the process also includes chromates, solvents, or detergents to
assist in removing mill scale, grease and oil. Phosphoric
acid first dissolves rust and mill scale and then forms a
coating of iron phosphate on the surface. Various commercial phosphate coating processes use a solution with a
lower free acid content, capable of producing a much
heavier phosphate coating. With these solutions prior
pickling with sulfuric acid is usually required.
In England and Europe, phosphoric acid pickling has
been used for years in batch pickling operations for processing structural steel. A typical process involves a first
bath of 10 to 20% by wt. phosphoric acid followed by a
water rinse bath and finally a 1 to 2% phosphoric acid
bath. One of the earlier established processes utilized approximately 10% phosphoric acid at 85 C. This was
followed by immersion i n a 2% phosphoric acid solution at
85C. The intermediate water rinse bath was omitted.
The simpler version of phosphoric acid pickling i s to
pickle steel in a 10 to 25% by wt. phosphoric acid solution
at a temperature of about 180F (82C) and then rinse with
heated fresh water above 140F (60C). Test work indicates the procedure produces excellent results for paint-
111
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= 8627940
ing. Painting results are generally poor if the water rinse is

omitted and paint is applied directly to phosphate residues
from the pickling. For instance, Ihn steel panels were
precleaned of all oil and grease and then pickled by immersion in 185F baths of 13% and 23.5% by wt. phosphoric
acid. While still hot, the panels were coated by dipping in a
proprietary zinc-dust phenolic primer. The dry film was approximately 2 mils. After drying for 9 days the panels were
immersed in distilled water. General blistering was evident
within 17 hours and was more extensive with the 23.5%
phosphoric acid panels. In contrast, panels pickled
through the same procedures, but with a water rinse after
pickling, showed no blisters after 10 months. Similar contrasts were obtained with a red-lead alkyd primer in a
humidity exposure.
Shop and lab test results by Hudson & Waring found
that pickling times using phosphoric are greater than with
su Ifuric acid13.
Phosphoric acid pickling has not been used as extensively as sulfuric because the acid i s much more expensive, but there are now processes that make phosphoric
acid pickling more cost-competitive with sulfuric acid pickling. One successful process depends on continuous
purification and reclaiming of the phosphoric acid pickling
solution by means of an ion exchange unit, which converts
iron phosphate to phosphoric acid. The zeolite cation exchange resin is regenerated by sulfuric acid. Details are
explained by Paulson and Gilwood7.
C. IRON CONTROL IN PHOSPHORIC

ACID BATHS
0003546 196
ml of distilled water.
Add 0.18 normal potassium permanganate
from titration burette, with stirring, to solution
in the 125 ml Erlenmeyer flask until the solution first turns a permanent pink color. Record
number of ml of permanganate solution used.
Calculation: Each ml of permanganate solution used is equivalent to 0.08 Ib./gal. iron in the
phosphoric acid bath. If 3.0 ml were required to
obtain the pink color then 3.0 x 0.08 Ib./gal. =
0.24 Ib./gal. iron in pickle bath. A titration requiring 12 ml of permanganate solution would
equal an iron concentration of 1 Ib./gal.
D. SULFURIC-PHOSPHORIC ACID PICKLING

Originally called the Footner process in England and
now used in this country for steel plate, it is an efficient,
economical means of removing mill scale from steel5. It
also provides a clean, dry surface with an iron phosphate
coating that improves the bond between paint and steel.
The process consists of immersing material in baths of
sulfuric acid, rinse water, and phosphoric acid. Normally, a
coat of priming paint is applied immediately after drying to
all surfaces that require painting. Sulfuric-phosphoric acid
pickling is particularly effective in removing mill scale
from carbon steel plate, angles, channels, and other
shapes produced by rolling. It is also used to provide a
clean surface for priming coats of paint on pipe.
E. MATERIALS, SULFURIC ACID BATHS

The initial concentration of sulfuric acid is 5 % to 10%
by weight. In the original Footner process the bath was
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Iron is dissolved in phosphoric acid baths during steel

processing, and the iron build-up in the phosphoric acid
bath can lead to slowing the pickling rate, or cause difficult rinsing. The latter is evidenced often by a brown
discoloration of the surface when the work emerges from
the water rinse following the phosphoric acid stage.
Normally, when iron build-up in phosphoric acid baths
is excessive, the phosphoric acid bath is either drained
and a new bath charged or the contaminated bath is
overflowed and partially made fresh. The following factors
determine the amount of iron that can be tolerated in a
phosphoric acid bath: strength of the bath; type of scale,
rust, etc., to be removed; time available for phosphoric
acid treatment; type and cleanliness of rinsing available.
Certain phosphoric acid pickling baths must be
discarded when iron concentrations reach 0.3 pounds of
iron per gallon, whereas others can be operated until the
iron builds up to 1.0 pound per gallon, depending upon
variables mentioned above.
DETERMINATION OF IRON I N PHOSPHORIC
ACID BATHS:
Take 1 ml phosphoric acid bath sample

measured accurately with pipette and add to
125 ml. Erlenmeyer flask.
Add 1 ml of 50% C.P. sulfuric acid and about 25
FIGURE 7
Immersing steel plates in sulfuric acid pickling tank.
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FIGURE 8
Pickling set up for sulfuric-phosphate pickling. Sulfuric acid tank is on the right, rinse tank in the middle, and phosphate tank on the left. A
pickled plate is being withdrawn from the sulfuric acid bath.
acid and operate closer to the 1YO concentration by occasional additions of phosphoric acid. It is not necessary to
hold immersion time to a minimum of three minutes. Successful results can be obtained with immersion of approximately one minute. Though results are successful within
all mentioned ranges, the lower phosphoric concentration
and shorter immersion tends to produce thinner and less
porous phosphate coatings. This type of coating is an excellent base for most paints, even though the thicker
phosphate film might be more rust inhibitive by itself.
Either way, the film of iron phosphate prevents surface
rusting in a sheltered exposure, such as a fabrication
shop, for an extended period of time, even though primer is
normally applied while the steel is warm.
To prepare this bath the necessary amount of iron in
the form of steel drillings, steel wool, etc., should be
dissolved in 8-10% phosphoric acid heated to 176F (80C)
and then diluted with water to the required concentration.
The dilute phosphoric acid bath may be used over a
number of runs provided that the pickled material when
taken from the bath is clean and free from loose deposits.
maintained at about 140-149F (60-65C). Now a

temperature in the range of 160 to 170F (71-76C)is common. Normal pickling times to remove all scale and rust is
approximately 15 to 20 minutes, but varies with scale and
thickness of plate. If bath conditions are the same, pickling time for heavy plate, such as 1 '' to 1?h", may be 30 to
40 minutes. Further additions of sulfuric acid should be
made when pickling time increases appreciably. The bath
should be discarded when accumulation of sediment and
the concentration of iron in the solution interferes with
pickling and causes the plate to come out dirty. This condition of the bath corresponds to a specific gravity of about
1.18-1.20 with an iron content of about 6%. After lifting
from the acid bath, steel should be allowed to drain into
the acid bath for 15 to 30 seconds before immersion in
clear water rinse.
F. CLEAR WATER RINSE

The normal temperature is 140-149F (60-65C)but excellent results are obtained without heating. The plate and
other work being treated should be dipped in this rinse
before passing to the final bath. There should be a very
small flow of water through the rinse bath to prevent total
acidity, as determined by titration with phenolphthalein,
from exceeding 0.1 gram of sulfuric acid per 100 mi. It is
possible to determine the necessary flow of water after using the process a short time.
The sulfuric-phosphoric pickling process can be summarized as follows:

Immersing steel in hot sulfuric acid until the
mill scale and rust are removed (Figure 7).
Dipping steel in clear water to rinse off residual
sulfates.
immersing steel in hot phosphoric acid with
small amounts of iron added. A coating of iron
phosphate is deposited on the steel surface.
After drying, painting with priming paint while
the steel is warm and placing it in racks to dry.
This eliminates any danger of the surface
becoming moist or dirty before paint is applied
and improves considerably coating adhesion.
G. DILUTE PHOSPHORIC ACID BATH

In the original Footner Process this bath was maintained at a temperature of about 180F (52"C), with plates
immersed at least 3 to 5 minutes. The bath was originally
charged and maintained at approximately 2% free
phosphoric acid and 0.3-0.5% of iron. It is now common
and important to maintain the high temperature and to
charge the bath in the range of 1 to 1.5% free phosphoric

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H. METHODS
73 W 8627740 0003548 T b 7 W
All paint systems are not detailed other than t o say
they were various manufacturers proprietary systems, as
well as several of the standard systems from AWWAD102-64. These included vinyl, epoxy, chlorinated rubber,
phenolic, asphalt and coal tar epoxy systems. Ratings
were tabulated from the three exposure zones; .e. the
vapor zone above the high water level, the fluctuation zone
and below the fluctuation zone or continuous immersion.
The results, especially as related to surface preparation,
were:
Equipment for this pickling process is similar to that

normally used in industrial acid pickling. Three baths, all
of which can be steam heated, are required and their
dimensions are determined by the size of plate to be pickled. Plants are now in operation where plate measuring approximately 8 feet by 40 feet are pickled without difficulty
(Figure 8). Typical structures where steel is processed in
this manner include oil and chemical storage tanks,
floating roofs, water storage tanks, standpipes, elevated
tanks, steel pipes, and other miscellaneous structures.
The most successful lining material for sulfuric acid
descaling baths and the dilute phosphoric acid baths is
rubber, which is cheaper than lead in first cost and in certain instances gives longer service. A wood framework is
fitted inside the baths to prevent mechanical damage to
the lining. The waterwashing bath requires no lining. With
a single installation of three baths, it is possible to pickle
500 tons of average tank plate per week.
1. Above Fluctuation Zone

All systems were rated the same on both pickled
and blasted panels with 22 out of the 23 systems
rated good. The one failed system primarly involved intercoat adhesion.
2. Fluctuation Zone
The overall system results were not as good, but
20 of 23 systems showed essentially equal results
over pickling and the SP-10 blasting. Of the three
systems showing a difference related to surface
preparation, two systems involved multiple coats
of zinc-rich chlorinated rubber and the remaining
one was an amine-epoxy. Only eight systems were
rated good on both pickled and blasted panels
while eight others suffered intercoat failures on
both types of panels. One zinc dust-phenolic
failed to metal over both surface preparations.
The remaining three systems showed miscellaneous degrees of failure without notable difference
in surface preparation.
Results with paint systems were far more attributable
to the coating system characteristics than to the pickling
vs. blasting surface preparation.
I. CONTROL
The control necessary is simple and rapidly becomes
routine. A full strength concentration of sulfuric acid in the
descaling bath is not usually maintained in acid-pickling
work, although there is no objection to the concentration
being increased up to 10%. In fact, the higher concentration tends to produce a cleaner plate in less time, but
careful time control may be required to prevent pitting. The
iron content of the dilute phosphoric acid bath almost controls itself, since the bath makes up considerably from the
live steam used for heating, and as the amount of iron going into the solution is small, the concentration never exceeds the maximum specified. The amount of sulfuric acid
carried over into the dilute bath is, of course, small and
need not be considered at all. Traces of sulfuric acid in this
bath do not seem to affect the efficiency of the iron
phosphate film on the pickled plate. Technical phosphoric
acid can be used, which contains the usual small amounts
of impurities.
It is desirable to add a suitable inhibitor to the sulfuric
acid bath to reduce the attack of the acid on good metal.
J. PAINT PERFORMANCE EVALUATIONS PICKLED AND BLAST CLEANED SURFACES
Pickling has been used for years as an alternate to

blasting for certain exposures, including inside and outside surfaces of water storage tanks. Though field results
have been very good, it is always worthwhile to verify them
by tests. Many tests have been run. In one, involving 23 different water-immersion paint systems applied to 4 x 10
x
panels of A283, Grade C steel, each system was applied to a panel prepared in commercial baths for the
3-bath Sulfuric-Phosphoric Acid Pickling Process. Also,
each system was applied to panels prepared in a commercial shop by blasting with Ottawa Flintshot Silica Sand to
SSPC-SP 10, Near-White. The panels were immersed in
November, 1966, and formal observations were last reported after 44 months, in July, 1970.

Continuous Immersion Zone

Only one amine-epoxy showed a better result over
the blasted panel. Even the two zinc-rich
chlorinated rubber systems with inferior results
for pickling in the fluctuation zone showed equal
and good results in the immersion zone. In this
zone, 11 systems showed good results with eight
others suffering intercoat failures. The remaining
four systems had miscellaneous failure without
significance to surface preparation.
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3.
K. ELECTROLYTIC PICKLING
Electrolytic pickling of iron and steel is used to avoid
difficulties encountered in still pickling. The removal of
rust is comparatively easy with still pickling methods, but
removal of the black magnetic oxide of iron, Fe,O,, which
is slowly soluble in sulfuric acid, is difficult without the
use of electrolytic methods.
Electrolytic pickling is usually much more rapid than
still pickling because of greater evolution of hydrogen during electrolytic pickling, which agitates the pickling solution, reduces scale, and tends to pry off scale from the surface of the steel. In acid consumption, however, there is Iittle difference between electrolytic pickling and inhibited114
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Results are expected to be about the same as for the

sulfuric-phosphoric process, especially i f the phosphoric
bath conditions are the same.
acid pickling. Absorption of hydrogen, which may lead to

embrittlement, occurs in both electrolytic and still pickling. The effects of absorbed hydrogen can be removed by
baking the work material for about one hour at 300F or a
shorter time at higher temperature. A number of processes
are availableBbut are not used for structural steel.
C. PICKLING FOR INORGANIC ZINC PAINT

AND GALVANIZING
When pickling as surface preparation for inorganic
zinc paint, it is common to use sulfuric acid pickling plus
hot water rinsing, as per SSPC-SP 8. Most operations use
an inhibited sulfuric acid bath of 5% to 6 % by weight at
160" to 170F (71-76C). The minimum water rinse
temperature of 140F (60%) is a necessity to insure rapid
drying of the plate. This is more important than when a
third high temperature inhibitive bath is used. This type of
pickling and priming is widely and successfully used on a
variety of tanks, refinery vessels, and other miscellaneous
structures, primarily for atmospheric exposure.
Pickling also is used successfully to prepare the surface for coating systems to be used in immersion service.
In one water immersion test, pickling and SSPC-SP 10
blasting were used on panels testing four inorganic zinc
topcoat systems. After 44 months of immersion, there was
no failure of the three different inorganic-zinc primers over
pickled or blast cleaned surfaces. However, most systems
suffered failure between the epoxy and vinyl top coats and
the zinc primer.
The recommendations and pickling processes used in
surface preparation for painting are not normally directly
applicable as surface preparation for hot-dip galvanizing
and should not be specified for such. The galvanizing shop
should be consulted for pickling or other surface preparation recommendations. Normally, pickling is accomplished in the galvanizer's shop.
VII. MISCELLANEOUS ACID PICKLING

PROCESSES
A. SULFURIC - SODIUM DICHROMATE/
PHOSPHORIC ACID
This process is essentially set forth in SSPC-SP8, and
even though some variation in concentration of various
materials may be used, the main item of difference from
the sulfuric-phosphoric process is the addition of sodium
dichromate to the final passivating bath. The U.S.Navy
has often required this process for shipyard steel. The
sodium dichromate-phosphoric acid bath produces more
complex surface deposits, believed to be chromium
phosphate and chromite phosphite complexes, than does
the phosphoric acid-iron phosphate solution. However,
without attempting to judge the overall merits of the two
types of surface films for the wide variety of paints and exposures involved, it can be said that the use of the sodium
dichromate in the solution presents problems of operation
and added cost. The sodium dichromate solution tends to
give excess powdery deposits, especially i f the temperature is allowed to be a little low. Also, with excess
precipitation, it is necessary to drain, clean and refill the
bath in a matter of days as compared to months for the
more common sulfuric-phosphoric process.
B. HYDROCHLORIC ACID PICKLING

In accordance with SSPC-SP 8, hot or cold solutions
of hydrochloric acid as well as sulfuric and phosphoric
acid are used along with a heated water rinse. Hydrochloric
acid pickling lines at steel mills were commonly used in
the past, and such lines are thoroughly discussed in
reference article^'^^'^. But more recently, several of these
pickling processes have been closed due to E.P.A. restrictions.
For pickling structural steel it is not certain how much
hydrochloric acid pickling is being done, but there are installations in the US. and overseas where immersion bath
processes are used, as well as spraying processes. One
process involves from four to six hours immersion or one
to two hours spraying of an inhibited solution of 28%
minimum hydrochloric acid at ambient temperature. This
is followed by an ambient water rinse by spray and a final
neutralization by bathing in a 2% solution of phosphate
soda at 53% minimum and ammonium phosphate at 10%
minimum plus water and other additives.
Another plant operation has involved pickling in 10 to
25% HCI at 120F (49C) for 30 minutes or less plus a
heated water rinse and a final immersion in 1.5 to 2%
phosphoric acid at 175 to 180F (80-82C) for 5 minutes.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

chapter: Jim Bennett, Larry Drake, A.W. Mallory, Jim Maurer, C.
Munger, William Pearson, G. Satterfield, William Wallace.
BIOGRAPHY
D.W. Christofferson was a

continuous employee of Chicago Bridge & Iron after graduation
with a Bachelor of Science
Degree in Civil Engineeringfrom
the University of Wyoming in
1942. He has worked on all
aspects of surface preparation
and protective coatings used in
the steel plate fabrication industry. Mr Christofferson IS a
Registered Professional Engineer in the State of Illinois and
a NACE Accredited Corrosion Specialist. He is also a Certified
Nuclear Safety Related Engineer
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A member of the SSPC Research Committee since 1958, Mr.

Christofferson has been active on various other technical committees such as AWWA D102, NFPA #22, NACE T-6 Committees,
ANSI N101.2, ASTM D01.43, and ASTM D33. He is the author of a
number of papers on corrosion, shop surface preparation and
painting, and maintenance and painting of steel water storage
tanks.
6. Walter R. Meyer, The Electrolytic Pickling of Iron and Steel,

Metals Handbook, 1948.
7. C.F. Paulson, and M.E. Gilwood, New Process Slashes Cost
of Phosphoric Acid Pickling, American Chemical Paint Co.
8. John A. Gurklis, and L.D. McGraw, Pickling and Descaling
Stainless Steels and High Temperature Alloys, Metal Progress, June 1963.
9. John M. Griffith, Chemical Cleaning Neednt Cause Corrosion, The Oil & Gas Journal, March 4, 1963.
10. Fred H. McCurdy, Jr. and Charles L. McGranahan, Recent
Advances In Pickling Technique with Hydrochloric Acid Compound Iron & Steel Engineer, September 1965.
11. British Steel Corporation Report No. EX/9/73/47 Evaluation
of Scalamil Descaling Solution, November 23, 1973.
12. Sulfuric Acid Batch Pickling Process Promises No Waste,
No Pollution. Magazine of Metals Producing, August 1966.
13. R.M. Hudson, and C.J. Warning, Removing Hot-Mill Scale
with Phosphoric Acid. Metal Finishing, November 1977.
14. Picklers Pickle - Sulfuric or Hydrochloric, - Steel, June
20, 1966.
15. R.O. Bailey - Inhibited Pickling in Production Steel Processing, April 1954.
16. R.M. Hudson, and Cid. Warning, Factors Influencing The
Pickling Rate of Hot-Rolled Low Carbon Steel in Sulfuric and
Hydrochloric Acids, Metal Finishing, June 1980.
REFERENCES
1. F.P. Spruance, Jr., Chemical Surface Preparation, Chapter
Three, Steel Structures Painting Manual, Volume 1, 1963.
2. American Chemical Paint Company, Bulletin No. 13, Efficient Pickling with Rodine , September, 1952.
3. J.M. Camp, and C.B. Francis, The Making, Shaping and
Treating of Steel, Sixth Edition.
4. G.G. Eldredge, and J.C. Warner, Inhibitors and Passivators,
Corrosion Handbook, The Electrochemical Society, Inc., New
York, New York.
5. H.B. Footner, A Modern Method of Pickling Steel, Fifth
Report of the Corrosion Committee, Special Report No. 21,
The Iron and Steel Institute, London, S.W.l.
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CHAPTER 4.1
PAINT MATERIALS
Sidney 8. Levinson and Saul Spindel
I. INTRODUCTION
B. METHOD OF CURE
Knowledge of the many types of paints available to

coat structural steel is useful in understanding the capabilities and limitations of these products. Such knowledge
facilitates making the best choice for a coating system to
meet painting requirements and service. There are reasons
for the variety of paint systems offered that become apparent with insight into their basic composition. The information presented in this chapter helps explain which paint
or paint system is best for the particular combination of
conditions present or anticipated, .e., the condition of the
steel, painting conditions, coating properties desired, and
the environment to be withstood by the applied finish, as
well as the total cost for material and application.
Paint binders vary in their method of curing or drying.

Knowledge of various ways paint binders cure is helpful in
understanding comparisons among binders discussed in
this chapter.
1. Oxidation
Oxidation is a method of curing solvent-thinned
paint film. Oxidation, or absorption of oxygen from
the air followed by polymerization, is called air drying. Many alkyd resins, for example, dry by oxidation.
2. Solvent Evaporation
The binder is dissolved in a mixtureof solvents. (See
Solvents.) When applied, the solvent evaporates,
leaving a dry film that does not undergo further
change. However, the coating can generally be
softened or dissolved with strong solvents or
solvents similar to that in which it was dissolved
originally. Coatings that dry by solvent evaporation
are called lacquers. Vinyl or chlorinated rubber
coatings are examples. Since drying depends
only on solvent evaporation, lacquer coatings can be
applied at relatively low temperatures.
II. PAINT INGREDIENTS

Paints are composed primarily of pigments dispersed
in a film-former, or binder, which is either dissolved in
solvent or emulsified in water to make paint fluid enough
to apply by brush, roller or spray. After application of the
paint in a relatively thin film, the solvent or water evaporates
and the remaining film dries or cures to form a tough,
adherent coating. If no pigment is used, the coating i s clear
as, for example, a varnish on wood surfaces. Coatings for
use on structural steel are pigmented either with anticorrosive pigments to produce primers or with opaque,
colored pigments to produce various colored topcoats.
3. Chemical Reaction
The paint is supplied in two packages or two components: a base and a hardener. When mixed, the
two react to form a final coating. Since the reaction
continues whether the mixed paint is in the container or applied, the paint has a limited pot life
(useful life), usually a working day or less. Epoxypolyamides are typical of this type of coating. On the
other hand, since two-component paints do not rely
on oxidation to cure, some formulations can be
applied in relatively thick coats.
A. PIGMENTS
Here is a list of several reasons for adding pigments.
1. Opaque pigments are added to enable the paint film
to obscure the surface painted. These materials are
available in various colors.
2. Metallic pigments are added to produce metallic

finishes. Aluminum and zinc are by far the most
common metallic pigments.
3. Anti-corrosive pigments are used in primers to prevent or inhibit steel corrosion. They may also be
added to intermediate and even finish coats to
enhance corrosion resistance.
4. Coalescence
Latex binders are made of synthetic colloidal latex
polymer particles dispersed in water. Often called
emulsions, they are actually colloidal dispersions or
suspensions. When the paint is applied, latex
particles begin to press together or coalesce, as the
water evaporates. A coalescing solvent in the paint
softens the particles and causes them to form a continuous film. Latex coatings tend to allow movement
of water vapor through the coating, although after
the film has coalesced they are essentially resistant
to water. Consequently, latex paints can be used on
4. Extender pigments, which are not opaque, are added

to reduce gloss (to produce semigloss or flat
finishes), to aid intercoat adhesion properties, to increase viscosity and to decrease cost. (See chapter
on pigments.)
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(See Chemical Reaction.) The epoxy is generally

combined with either of two types of hardeners:
polyamine or polyamide. Epoxy-polyamine blends
are more resistant to chemicals and solvents and are
often used for lining tanks. Epoxy-polyamides exhibit longer pot life, superior flexibility and durability, and have adequate chemical resistance under
most conditions. Furthermore, they enable packaging of the epoxy and hardener in separate, equal
size packages. Epoxy-polyamide paints are the
most popular of all epoxy binders for use on structural steel. When exposed to weathering, they
chalk quickly, but retain their excellent chemical
resistance properties. SSPC-Paint 22 is a typical
specif icat ion.
6. EpoxyCoal Tar
Epoxy binders are often combined with coal tar
where color is not important, since the color of the
resultant coating is generally brown or black. Epoxycoal tar paints are almost as corrosion and chemical
(not solvent) resistant as epoxy-polyamide paints,
but are less expensive. They are often used on
submerged surfaces where color is of no importance. Epoxy-coal tar finishes have high build, but
tend to lose flexibility as they age, so substrates
must be relatively rigid. Typical specifications are
SSPC-Paint 16 and SSPC-Painting System 11.01.
7 . Inorganic
Inorganic binders are used with zinc dust in zinc-rich
paint where galvanic protection of steel is desired.
Common inorganic binders are silicates, either
lithium, sodium, potassium, ethyl alkyl, or quaternary ammonium.* Zinc-rich paints contain a relative
ly high concentration of zinc dust, 75% minimum by
weight of total solids, which provides intimate contact between the steel and zinc dust when the coating cures. Inorganic (silicate) zinc-rich paints must
be applied to blast-cleaned surfaces, at least
SSPC-SP 6, to obtain proper adhesion. They are
reviewed in depth by Munger in a separate chapter.
(See Chapter 4.2) When properly used, they produce
extremely hard, abrasion resistant films that are very
resistant to corrosive environments. SSPC-Paint 20
and SSPC-Painting Systems 12.00-12.01 deal with
both organic and inorganic zinc rich. A typical specification for zinc-rich primer is SSPC-Paint 29.
8. Latex
Latex paints are based on emulsions (actually colloidal dispersions) of very high molecular weight,
such as acrylic, polyvinyl acetate, ethylene vinyl
acetate, acrylonitrile or styrene butadiene and their
copolymers. They are relatively easy to apply and dry
by coalescence of the latex particles to form tough,
durable coatings. Latex paints have little odor, are
non-flammable, and generally meet air pollution
damp (not wet) surfaces. On the other hand, latex

pains will generally not coalesce well at temperatures under 50F or at either very low or very high
relative humidity. Instead, they will produce undesirable, d iscont i n uous, non-adherent, nonresistant films.
C. PAINT BINDERS
The paint binder is the major ingredient in the paint and
determines the major performance characteristics of the
coating. The binder is the cement or adhesive that binds
pigment and provides adhesion to the surface, .e., steel or
previous coat of paint. The more commonly used paint
binders are discussed below. They are listed in alphabetical
order.
I. Alkyd
Alkyd binders of coatings used on structural steel
are vegetable oil-modified phthalate resins that air
dry by oxidation.
Alkyd finishes are of the general purpose type,
are economical and available in a wide range of
colors and gloss levels, from high gloss to flat
finishes. They are relatively easy to apply and can,
if necessary, be used on surfaces that have been
only moderately cleaned, e.g., SSPC-SP 3. Alkyd
finishes have excellent durability in rural environments, but are only fair in marine or corrosive
environments. Typical specifications are SSPCPaints 101 and 104 as well as the SSPC-Painting
Systems 2.00 and 2.05.
2. Epoxy
Epoxy binders are available in three types: epoxy
ester, epoxy lacquer resin and two component
epoxy.
3. Epoxy Ester
These are vegetable oil-modified epoxy resins.
Consequently, they are similar to alkyds except
they are more expensive and produce films that are
harder and somewhat more alkali resistant.
Generally, they have less gloss retention when exposed. Epoxy esters are sometimes used where
slightly more alkali resistance than provided by
alkyds is desired, but at a lower cost than twocomponent epoxies.
4. Epoxy Lacquer
Very high molecular weight epoxies can be formulated as lacquer-type binders by solution in a
mixture of strong solvents. (See Solvents.) They are
sometimes used in organic zinc-rich primers
because they dry quickly at low temperatures and
can be recoated with topcoats, such as two-component epoxy paints. The two-component epoxies
contain strong solvents that will soften the primer
slightly and improve intercoat adhesion.
5. Two-Component Epoxy
Epoxy resins of this type cure by chemical reaction.

Ethyl silicates are not true inorganics but are generally included in
this group.
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regulations. They are economical and somewhat

more durable than oil paints (see Oil Paints) in rural
environments, exhibiting less chalking and much
better color retention. Latex paints are relatively
porous and allow moisture vapor through the film
and thus can be used on damp (not wet) surfaces. On
the other hand, latex paints will not coalesce properly when applied at temperatures below 50F or at
either very low or very high relative humidity and require careful surface preparation on chalked, glossy
or dirty surfaces, since they do not contain solvents
that will readily wet or soften these surfaces. SSPCPaints 23 and 24 and SSPC-Painting System 18.01
and 24 are concerned with latex paints.
9. Oil
Vegetable oils (especially linseed oil) are the oldest
paint binders with the longest history of performance. Oil-based paints dry by oxidation, but more
slowly than other binders. They wet the surface
better than any other binder discussed and therefore
need less careful surface preparation. Oil-based
paints are easy to apply and are adequate for rural
environments. They are not recommended in corrosive environments. Typical specifications are
SSPC-Paint 1 and the SSPC-Painting System 1.00
series.
10. Phenolic
Phenolic resin binders are varnishes made by processing vegetable oils (usually linseed or tung, also
known as chinawood) with phenolic resins. They
make excellent aluminum-pigmented paints and
have resistance in humid environments and to immersion in fresh water. On the other hand, phenolic
coatings are relatively dark (except in aluminum
paints), and they tend to darken further during exposure. Phenolic coatings are very hard and need
care to ensure proper intercoat adhesion. Typical
specifications are SSPC-Paint 5 and SSPC-Painting Systems Guide 3.00.
11. Rubber-Base
There are two major commercial types of rubberbase binders: styrene or vinyl toluene copolymers
and chlorinated rubber. Styrene-butadiene (SIB),
vinyl toluene-butadiene (VTIB) and styrene-acrylate
(SIA) are similar in characteristics. They are used in
lacquers that dry rapidly by solvent evaporation to
form coatings resistant to water and mild chemicals.
Therefore, they can be used in humid and wet
areas. Styrene-butadiene can be combined with
silicone resins (see Silicone Resins) to produce
heat resistant aluminum paints. The limited flexibility of these copolymers restricts their use on
exposed structural steel.
12. Chlorinated Rubber
Chlorinated rubber resins can be used in two
ways:
a. They can be plasticized to form fast drying
lacquers, which are highly chemical (not solvent)

resist ant.
b. They can be combined with alkyd resins to speed
drying of the alkyd resins and increase their
chemical resistance and durability.
Typical specifications are SSPC-Paints 17, 18,
and 19 and SSPC-Painting Systems 15.00-15.01.
13. Silicone
Silicone resins are available in two forms for use on
structural steel: pure silicone resin and siliconemodified alkyd resins.
a . Silicone Resin Pure silicone resins are expensive, but extremely durable, and resistant to
high temperatures, especially when pigmented
with aluminum. They can be added to styrenebutadiene resins or polyacrylates to reduce
cost but are still very good heat-resistant
aluminum paints.
b. Silicone Alkyd Alkyd resins produced with some
silicone resin result in silicone-modified alkyds,
which have improved durability, especially in
marine environments, as well as improved heat
resistance. Typical specifications include SSPCPaint 21 and SSPC-Painting System 16.01.
14. Urethane
Urethane or polyurethane binders are available in
three types:
a. Oil-Modified Urethane These also are called
uralkyds, since they are similar to alkyds in processing, method of cure (oxidation) and use. However, they produce coatings that are harder and
more resistant to abrasion than alkyds. Unfortunately, although uralkyds have excellent
durability as clear finishes, pigmented uralkyd
coatings are not durable enough to be used on
exposed structural steel.
b. Moisture-Cured Urethane These urethanes react
uniquely with air moisture to cure. They produce
the hardest, toughest coatings available in one
package. Pigmentation is extremely difficult
because of their moisture sensitivity, so they
are used primarily as clear finishes. They can
be pigmented, provided moisture-free materials
are used and proper precautions are taken during
manufacture and use.
c. Two-Component Urethane Urethanes can also be
reacted with products such as polyols, polyethers, polyesters or acrylics to produce extremely hard, resistant and durable coatings. These are
binders of major interest for use as topcoats on
structural steel exposed in marine or corrosive
environments.
d .Aromatic YS Aliphatic Urethane - Urethane
polymers can be made from isocyanates, which
are either aromatic or aliphatic. Aliphatic
urethanes are preferred for exterior use, despite
their high cost, because of their outstanding
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durability, color and gloss retention. Pigmented

aromatic urethanes are extremely hard, tough,
and chemical resistant, but chalk rapidly when exposed to sunlight. SSPC-PaintingSystem 17.00 is
a guide to urethane painting systems.
15. Vinyl
Vinyl binders are available in three types.
a . PVB - Polyvinyl butyral resins are the binders
used in wash primers. When combined with
basic zinc chromate pigment and phosphoric
acid, they improve adhesion of the paint system
tremendously. This can be critical for some
vinyl paint systems, which have excellent
resistance and durability but may be sensitive
t o surface conditions with respect to adhesion.
Wash primers are also used as metal treatments for galvanized steel and aluminum.
b . Polyvinyl Chloride and Polyvinyl Acetate Vinyl chloride and vinyl acetate resins produce lacquers that dry rapidly by solvent
evaporation t o form extremely durable coatings
for use in marine or corrosive environments.
They generally are not brushed, due to rapid drying, but can be sprayed. They are low in solids,
so multiple coats are usually necessary and surface preparation is critical (see polyvinyl butyral
resins). One spray coat of vinyl may yield only
one mil of dry film thickness. However, because
vinyls release solvents so rapidly, as many as
4-6 coats may be applied in a 24-hour period.
Vinyls are extremely resistant (except to
strong solvents), durable in most environments
and can also be used for lining tanks for water immersion service. Low-solids, high-polymer vinyls
are covered in SSPC-Paints8, 9, and 106, as well
as in SSPC-Painting Systems 4.00 through 4.05.
c. Vinyl-Alkyd - A compromise, which is effective
for most environments, is to combine hydroxylmodified vinyl and alkyd resins. Surface preparation requirements are slightly less critical than
for vinyl binders. Brush application can be easier,
total solids are higher, and exterior durability is
excellent. However, they are not recommended
for highly corrosive environments.
structural steel have been summarized in Tables 1-4 to

facilitate comparison of their characteristics, outstanding
properties and limitations. It must be kept in mind that these
tables compare the binders used alone in top quality formulations. It is possible that blends or formulation modifications can change the characteristics and performance of
any of the binders resulting in a different performance
level than the generic binders. Where blends are used,
average the data given for each binder in the blend. Common binders described in the tables include alkyds; epoxy
(epoxy-polyamide - two component); acrylic latex; linseed
oil; phenolic varnish; chlorinated rubber; urethane
(aliphatic two-component); and vinyl (polyvinyl chloridel
acetate copolymer). Inorganic silicate binders are not included because these materials are used only in zinc-rich
paints, as discussed in the chapter on that subject.
E. SOLVENTS
The third major ingredient in paints is the solvent. Paint
binders are polymerized to accelerate drying or curing and
to produce as tough acoating as possible. When pigment is
added, the viscosity of the mixture is increased sharply to a
point that would make the product incapable of application.
Therefore, the major functions of solvents are to
dissolve (or disperse, in the case of latex) the pigment/
binder and to make its viscosity low enough to enable
application by brush, roller or spray.
Solvents, with the exception of water, can also be
chosen andlor blended to produce the desired rate of
evaporation during application. For example, brush or roller
applications require relatively slow solvent evaporation,
while spraying is improved with fast solvent evaporation.
Slower evaporating solvents improve applications and leveling during hot weather. Table 5 compares the major solvents used in paints and lacquers. Note that some of these
solvents are also used for cleaning before painting, or
cleanup after painting. This data is presented under the
fol lowing head i ngs:
Evaporation Time - Relative time to evaporate the
same amount of solvent. The lower the number, the faster
the evaporation rate.
Flash - Flash Point in O F (Tag Closed Cup).
TLV - Threshold Limit Values in parts per Million
(ppm). This is an 8-hour day with no ill effects.
D. COMPARISON OF PAINT BINDERS

Properties of the most popular binders for use on
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TABLE 1
APPLICATION PROPERTIES
Alkyd
Solvents
Min. Surface Preparation*
Stability During Use
Brushability
Method of Cure
Speed of Cure
50 OF-90OF* *
35 OF-50OF*
Film Build per Coat
Use in Primers
Use on Damp Surfaces
Aliphatic
or
Aromatic
SP 3
EX
G
Oxid.
EPOXY
Acrylic
Latex
Linseed
Oil
Phenolic
Chlorinated
Rubber
Aliphatic
Urethane
Lacquer
SP 6
F
F
Chem.
Water
SP 6
EX
EX
Coal.
Al i phat ic
SP 2
EX
VG
Oxid.
Aromatic
SP 6
EX
G
Oxid.
Aromatic
SP 6
EX
F
Evap.
Lacquer
F
G
Chem.
Lacquer
SP 6
EX
P
Evap.
G
NR
VG
EX
G
EX
NR
F
F
VG
F
P
G
EX
P
EX
G
G
G
P
EX
G
VG
G
G
EX
G
G
G
G
2-Can
***
Vinyl
*SSPC Surface Preparation Specifications

"Painting should not be done above 90F or below 34F
'Usually used in topcoats
TABLE 2
APPEARANCE PROPERTIES
Use as Clear Finish

(Varnish)
Use in Ready Mixed
Aluminum Paint
Pale Color
Ability to Produce High
Gloss
Alkyd
2-Can
Epoxy
Acrylic
Latex
Linseed
Oil
Phenolic
Chlorinated
Rubber
Aliphatic
Urethane
Vinyl
VG
NR
VG
NR
EX
NR
G
VG
F
G
NR
EX
F
G
EX
P
F
VG
F
EX
G
EX
EX
EX
EX
VG
EX
Alkyd
Epoxy
Acrylic
Latex
Linseed
Oil
Phenolic
Chlorinated
Rubber
Aliphatic
Urethane
Vinyl
G
G
G
VG
EX
G
F
F
EX
P
VG
VG
VG
G
F
VG
VG
VG
EX
VG
VG
G
F
EX
VG
EX
EX
VG
EX
G
F
F
F
F
G
F
P
P
P
P
P
F
G
EX
G
EX
G
G
VG
EX
P
EX
EX
NR
EX
VG
EX
EX
VG
G
VG
EX
P
EX
EX
NR
2-Can
Hardness
Adhesion
FlexibiIity
Resistance To A brasion
Water
Strong Solvents
Acid
Alkali
Heat - 200F

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TABLE 3
PERFORMANCE PROPERTIES
SSPC CHAPTER*LI-L
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TABLE 4
DURABILITY
Moisture Permeability
Normal Exposure
Marine Exposure
Corrosive Exposure
Color Retention
Gloss Retention
Chalk Resistance
CODES
EX - Excellent
VG - Very Good
G - Good
F - Fair
P - Poor
NR - Not Recommended
Alkyd
Mod
VG
F
F
G
G
2-Can
EPOXY
Low
VG
EX
EX
P
P
P
Acrylic
Latex
High
VG
Linseed
Oil
Mod
F
NR
F
VG
EX
VG
F
P
P
Low
VG
G
G
P
G
G
SOLVENTS
Aliphatic - Mineral spirits
Aromatic - Xylene, toluene, etc.
Lacquer - Aromatic plus ketone, ester, or
ether solvents (See Solvents)
Chlorinated
Rubber
Low
EX
EX
VG
G
G
G
Aliphatic
Urethane
Vinyl
Low
EX
EX
EX
EX
EX
EX
Low
EX
EX
EX
VG
VG
VG
ABBREVIATIONS
- Oxidative polymerization or oxidation
Oxid.
Chem. - Chemical reaction (two component)
- Coalescence (latex)
Coal.
Evap. - Solvent evaporation (lacquer)
Min.
- Minimum
C. INTERMEDIATE COAT
111. TYPES OF PAINT

Following are the most common types of paints used
on structural steel.
A. METAL TREATMENT
Wash primer is discussed under vinyl. It is sometimes considered a metal treatment (or etch primer) rather
than a primer, since it is applied at very low film thickness
(0.3-0.5 mils) and is used primarily over galvanized steel or to
improve adhesion of paints, such as vinyls, which are sensitive to surface conditions and surface preparation. Use of
this product is designated as SSPC-Paint 27. Metal treatments do not replace anti-corrosion primers.
When a coat of paint is applied, it is likely there will be

missed spots (holidays) and pinholes. Consequently, it is
best to apply multiple coats. Since the primer and topcoat
perform different functions, and both may have the above
defects, it usually is best to apply three coats. Furthermore, for best results on exposed structural steel, the total
minimum dry film thickness (dft) should be 5-6 mils. Three
coats usually are needed to achieve the desired conventional
total dry film thickness.
The intermediate coat may be primer or topcoat. It
should be tinted slightly so its color can be discerned both
during application and topcoating.
D. TOPCOAT
B. ANTI-CORROSION PRIMER
Anti-corrosion primers prevent or inhibit corrosion or
rusting of steel if moisture gets to the steel surfaces
through missed spots, breaks or pinholes i n the coating.
To be effective, primers must be in direct contact with
steel, except when used over wash primer, which contains
an anti-corrosive pigment (basic zinc chromate).* Primers,
with the exception of zinc-containing paints, are not formulated to be exposed to the environment, but require a
topcoat for protection. Furthermore, they are rarely
colored, other than the color produced by the anti-corrosive
pigment. This may be grey, yellow, orange, white, red or
shades thereof, depending on the pigment used.
Zinc-rich primers are durable and can be used without
a topcoat in normal environments where there is no danger
of reaction with very acidic or very alkaline chemicals. In
the latter exposure, they must be topcoated. SSPC-PS Guide
8 provides more information on choosing topcoats for zincrich primers.
The topcoat provides color and protects the primer

from the environment so the primer can perform its function without being degraded.
E. PAINTING SYSTEMS
The paint system is the combination of surface preparation, primer, intermediate coat and topcoat. However, it may
have more or less than 3 coats to achieve the desired
thickness. For most painting systems, increased film
thickness decreases permeability and improves performance and durability.
In repainting, the painting system consists of surface
preparation followed by application of the touch-up primer
plus the topcoat (see SSPC-PA 4). Details of the painting
system are described in Volume 2 of the SSPC Manual.
*Chromate pigments are toxic substances. Follow all applicable health, safety and environmental requirements in
applying, handling or disposing of these materials.
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Phenolic
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REFERENCES
1. Paints and Protective Coatings, Army TM 5-618, NAVFAC
MO-110, Air Force AFM 85-3, U S . Government Printing Office,
Washington, D.C. 1969.
2. A.G. Roberts, Organic Coatings, Properties, Selection and
Use, Building Science Series 7, National Bureau of Standards, US. Department of Commerce, Washington, D.C.
3. A. Banov, Paints and Coatings Handbook, Structures
Publishing Co., Farmington, Michigan. 1973.
4. Paint/Coatings Dictionary, Federation of Societies for Coating Technology, Blue Bell, PA 1978.
5. S.B. Levinson, Solvents, American Paint Journal, July 19,
1966.
6. Handbook of Organic Industrial Solvents, Technical Guide
No. 6, American Mutual Insurance Alliance, (now Alliance of
American Insurers), Schaumburg, IL.
TABLE 5
PAINT SOLVENTS
Evap.*
Flash T L V * *
Time
(OF)
(ppm)
Aliphatic Hydrocarbons (Petroleum Solvents)
VM&P Naphtha
Mineral Spirits
20
50
Toluol (Toluene)
Xylol (Xylene)
20
35
45
85
1O0
1O0
8
10
30
50
40
50
90
1O0
400
250
150
4
8
5
30
750
200
20
65
50
70
200
115
145
50
50
1O0
66
500
104
124
141
5
5
25
20
60
O00
25
70
1O0
65
105
115
400
50
100
None
Safe
30
1O0
10
5
2
None
None
Aromatic Hydrocarbons (Stronger than Aliphatics)
300
1O0
Esters (Lacquer Solvents)
Ethyl Acetate
Isopropyl Acetate
Butyl Acetate-N
Amyl Acetate
7. TLVs Threshold Limit Values for Chemical Substances and

Physical Agents in the Workroom Environment, American
Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists, Cincinnati,
OH. 1991.
8. Raw Material Index, National Paint and Coatings Association,
Washington, D.C., 1979.
9. S.B. Levinson, Painting, Facilities and Plant Engineering
Handbook, McGraw Hill Book Co., New York, N.Y.
1O0
Ketones (Lacquer Solvents)
Acetone
Methyl Ethyl Ketone (MEK)
Methyl Isobutyl Ketone
(MIBK)
Methyl Isoamyl Ketone
(MIAK)
Diacetone alcohol
10. Fire-Hazard Properties of Flammable Liquids, National Fire

Protection Association, Boston, Mass.
11. Federation Series on Coating Technology, Federation of
Societies for Coatings Technology, Blue Bell, PA.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Glycol Ethers (in Lacquers and Latex)***
EGMEE
EGMEEA
EGMBE
The authors and editors gratefully acknowledge the active participation of the following in the review process for this chapter: AI
Beitelman, Alex Chasen, Lawrence E. Drake, Arnold Eickhoff, Dave
Eskra, J. R. Garland, Dan Gelfer, Joseph F. Guobis, W. A. Haldeman,
L. Hartman, Leondard Haynie, Joseph Mazia, Marshall McGee, John
Montle, C. G. Munger, Dan Nemunaitis, John Perchall, W. Richter,
Melvin Sandler, L. M. Sherman, V. J. Todd, Duane Werkman and
Rufus F. Wint.
Alcohols
Ethyl Alcohol (Ethanol)

Isopropyl Alcohol
(Isopropanol)
Butyl Alcohol (Butanol)
Amyl Alcohol
Water
1O0
Nitroparaffin
2-Nitropropane
Chlorinated Solvents
l,l,l-trichloroethane
Methylene chloride
350
50
Evaooration Time. Ether = 1

* *American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists
(1991)
* * EGMEE - Ethylene glycol monoethyl ether
EGMEEA - Ethylene glycol monoethyl ether acetate

EGMBE - Ethylene glycol monobutyl ether
Industrial Consulting Laboratories, AdcO Chemical Company,

Garland Company, D.H. Litter Company, David Litter Laboratories
and DIL Laboratories.
His professional associations include: the Association of Consulting Chemists and Chemical Engineers, the Federation of Societies for Coatings Technology, the American Society for Testing and
Materials, the American Chemical Society, the National Association of Corrosion Engineers, the Scientific Committee of the National
Paint and Coatings Association, the Washington Paint Technical
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Group, the Commercial Development Association and Steel Structures Painting Council. He is a former president of the New York
Society for Coatings Technology and received their highest award,
the TaVaC. He was recently made an honorary member of ASTM
Committee D1 (Paint and Related Coatings and Materials) and was
elected its chairman.
During these years he has held office as President of the New
York Society for Coatings Technology, and as Chairman of Committee D-1 (Paintings and Coatings) of the American Society for Testing and Materiais (ASTM)for three consecutiveterms, the maximum
allowed.
At present, he is an honorary member of the New York Society
for Coatings Technology, as well as both ASTM and its Committee
D-1, and he is a 50-year member of the American Chemical Society, the Federation of Societies for Coatings Technology, and the
National Paint and Coatings Association.
BIOGRAPHY
Saul Spindel, a graduate of
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Brooklyn College, has over 40

years of plant and laboratory
experience in production, formulation, testing and customer
service for the development and
application of trade sales, maintenance, marine and in-plant
industrial coatings. He is a certified Corrosion Specialist and a
licensed Professional Engineer
in corrosion. He has presented
numerous talks and has authored a variety of articles on
paint technology as well as hundreds of private reports.
As president of DIL Laboratories, Spindel has been engaged in
a variety of operations in the coatings industry involving testing, formulation, technical service, surveys, field inspection, legal assistance, expert testimony, preparation of specifications and
manuals and laboratory personnel training.
Spindel, who has served as chairman of the Corrosion Committee, the Technical Advisory Committee and the Planning Committee of the Federation of Societies for Coatings Technology, is also
a member of a number of coatings and sealant organizations. He
is especially active in the American Society for Testing and Materials, the National Paint and Coatings Organization and the New York
Society for Coatings Technology, of which he is a past president.
He has received the Award of Merit from ASTM, making him a Fellow of that organization.

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CHAPTER 4.2
ZINGRICH PRIMERS
by
Charles G.Munger
this time. By using very resistant synthetic resins, such as
chlorinated rubber, to start and incorporating high-loading
of zinc into the vehicle, the organic zinc-rich products were
born. They provided protection to steel surfaces that was
not available by other coating means except through the
galvanizing processes. Only very alkali-resistant resins
could be used effectively for zinc-rich coatings, and as the
epoxy resins entered the coatings field after World War Il,
the expansion of zinc-rich coatings was rapid and continuous.
In Australia, Victor Charles Nightingall, an engineer,
spent several years studying ways a chemical compound
could be made with high durability and long-lasting corrosion protection. His basic idea, which was unique, was
that if he could make a coating that would closely simulate
chemical characteristics of willemite or zinc silicate, he
would be able to accomplish the goal. He studied the ore
and came up with a mixture of zinc and sodium silicate
which, when applied to clean steel surfaces and heated to
250F or above, would form a hard, adherent, corrosionresistant coating. This was the state of the art up to 1950,
even though millions of square feet of the zinc silicate
coating had been applied on above-ground structures in
Australia up to that time. All of it, however, was stoved or
baked to bring about, as he states it, the rapid silication
of sil ica-zi nc iron.
The procedure used to coat steel in the late ~ O S us,
ing the zinc silicate, was to pickle steel free of all mill
scale and all other contaminants. Following pickling, the
steel surface was scrubbed with fiber brushes to remove
the black pickling deposit and washed with dilute sodium
hydroxide to remove sulfuric acid. Finally, it was rinsed
with dilute phosphoric acid to prevent rust forming on the
steel pipe before the coating could be applied. As soon as
the surface was prepared, the coating was mixed by weighing about 10 pounds of sodium silicate and a small amount
of sodium bicarbonate into a bucket.
Twenty pounds of zinc dust and about three pounds of
red lead followed. The whole mix was stirred vigorously
with a stick. There was no premanufacturing of inorganic
zinc coating at that time. It was made and used within a
few minutes, since it was rather reactive and left for any
period of time would solidify in the bucket. After mixing
the coating, painters applied it to the steel surface with
large 6 in. brushes. The coating was worked well into the
surface to eliminate holidays and, surprisingly, a relatively
even coat of zinc silicate was obtained. The aim was to apply approximately one ounce of zinc per square foot. This
was determined by the amount of zinc used in the coating
Since the invention of steel, it has been a primary

structural material used for all critical structures in
modern society. There are many reasons for this strength, workability, adaptability. It may be rolled, cast or
welded into any conceivable shape and, when properly protected, will last for centuries. Bridges, ships, skyscrapers,
towers, tanks, pipelines, railroads, automobiles, and offshore drilling equipment are examples of the multiple uses
of steel which contribute to the well-being of humanity.
The key words are properly protected. Without protection, steel structures tend to revert to their natural state of
iron, .e., iron oxide or rust.
I. HISTORICAL
From earliest time, keeping steel in its usable form
was the goal of all who used it, and there have been
thousands of materials used on steel surfaces in an effort
to resist change from usable metal to its non-usable oxide.
Of all of the materials tried for steel protection, zinc has
been the most successful. The first record of its use dates
back to 1840 when a French engineer, Sorel, patented a
process for coating steel with zinc to prevent rusting. The
simplest process to provide protection using zinc was dipping a piece of steel in molten zinc and providing a complete layer of zinc over the steel surface. This procedure
gave birth to the galvanizing industry, which has been a
growing one ever since.
There are increasing references to zinc in coatings in
the early 19OOs, and the use of zinc increased until, at the
present time in the United States, 150 million tons of zinc
are used annually.
A large percentage of this is for protection of iron and
steel either as galvanizing or in zinc-rich coatings. Most of
this expansion has come since the 1920s and ~ O S and
,
it
wasnt until the 1930s that anyone gave a great deal of
scientific thought to making a long-lasting, corrosionresistant coating from zinc dust. The movement started in
two different places, and the concept of zinc-rich coating
was as different in each place as the places were far apart.
The English started with the idea of using zinc dust in
organic vehicles to provide a zinc-rich coating while a completely different concept was started in Australia, where
the inorganic zinc-rich materials were conceived. The idea
of incorporating zinc dust into an organic vehicle coincided with the time that the more sophisticated synthetic
resins became available. These more resistant materials
were needed since zinc reacted readily with most of the
oleoresinous products that were used for coatings prior t o
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and applied to the steel surface. The water-base coatings

dried within a few minutes and then the coated steel was
moved into either a large stoving area, where the temperature was brought up to 200-300F or, i f the coating was applied to the pipe exterior, the pipe was moved in front of
large burners that blew flame, hot air and combustion
products into the pipe at one end and out the other. As
soon as steel was brought up to temperature, the coating
was dry, very hard, and very metallic.
The first well documented field test of this product
was i n 1942, on a section of steel pipe in the Woronora
pipeline, which was part of the water system for the city of
Sydney. The line ran above ground, close to the bay and a
few feet from some large oyster beds. The pipe was inspected in 1950 and it was in perfect condition. It still exists.
The Morgan Whyalla line, which is thefamous250-mile
pipeline in inorganic zinc silicate history, was negotiated
in 1941-42 and completed in 1944. The negotiations included a 20-year guarantee on coating performance. This
was done with little more than the Woronora pipe section
to go on. Victor Nightingall passed away in 1948, long
before the guarantee was up, and before he could see the
revolution in coating technology that his ideas created.
His work was carried on by another engineer with the same
drive and single-minded approach, M. G. McKenzie, whose
leadership in the inorganic field helped create the
worldwide use of zinc coatings. Woronora pipe and
Morgan Whyalla pipeline were the beginning of an era for
inorganic zinc coatings.
Presently, the heat curing or stoving process has been
used on some 3,000 miles of above-ground pipeline. The
process is still being used in Australia today, and heat curing provides a very fast method of in-plant coating with
water base inorganic zinc products.
The result of McKenzies convinction, that a zinc coating was a permanent one, was entirely borne out by the
guarantee period, which passed in 1965. In 1970, the South
Australia government duplicated the original Morgan
Whyalla line, using the same exterior coating. A section of
the original line at Whyalla was inspected firsthand in
1972. The pipe was in perfect condition and showed no
evidence of rusting, chalking or any change from the long
exposure to the atmosphere. This particular area was adjacent to Spencer Gulf and a steel plant. It had both a mild
marine atmosphere and an industrial atmosphere to provide corrosive conditions. Even the field welds, which were
touched up and allowed to dry, showed no corrosion.
II. AMBIENT CURING

It was recognized early that for this material to be entirely effective the stoving or baking step had to be eliminated. The early research set out to find a way that the
coating could be formed without heat and yet obtain all of
the excellent characteristics of the zinc silicate. Manyattempts were made to cure the coating with various salt
solutions. One attempt was to use a wash primer
developed by the U.S. Navy and Union Carbide during the

war, as both a cure for the zinc coatings and a primer for
organic coatings to follow. Such an attempt was made on
a very badly corroded naphtha tank at one of the refineries
on the U.S. east coast. While not perfect, the coating did
stand up and prevent corrosion for many years under a
very difficult industrial atmosphere.
Many attempts were made to use various salt solutions. These primarily were fairly concentrated water or
alcohol solutions of magnesium chloride, zinc chloride,
aluminum chloride, some soluble phosphates, etc. One
manufacturer recommended washing with sea water.
These trials had some basis i n fact, as this over-simplified
chemical diagram suggests.
2 Zn
+ 2NaCI + 3H,O
ZnOZnCI,
+ 2NaOH + 2H,
The zinc oxy chloride, or basic zinc chloride, is practically insoluble. This compound, complexed with zinc
hydroxide or zinc carbonate, which would surely be part of
the reaction products, could provide sufficient insolubility
to the silicate matrix to hold it until the zinc silicate reactions could take place. Actually, none of these procedures
worked satisfactorily, except under very limited and control led conditions.
Finally, it was determined that a solution of dibutylamine phosphate, applied after the zinc silicate coating had
dried, insolubilized the zinc silicate coating enough so the
resulting product had all of the good characteristics of the
stoved inorganic zinc as originally conceived by Victor
Nightingall. This was the post-cure inorganic zinc coating
that started the revolution in coating steel structures in
most areas of difficult corrosion, high humidity, and particularly in marine atmospheres. Hundreds of ships were
coated with this material, along with offshore platforms,
wellhead structures, onshore installations of all types including tanks, heater treaters, bridges, pipe racks,
bulkheads, refineries, and chemical plants. Once the postcured inorganic zinc demonstrated the efficiency of this
coating procedure, research was instituted by many U.S.
companies. Many materials were tried, including sodium
silicate, with many sodium oxide to silica ratios. Using
sodium silicates with higher silica ratios helped eliminate
white deposits that formed on the coating surface during
cure. Potassium silicate provided a somewhat faster cure
and eliminated much of the white deposit. Lithium silicate
produced a faster cure and harder product. Lithium silicate
was the base for one of the more successful commercial
inorganic zinc silicate coatings. Quarternary ammonium
silicate, while tried very early in the various research programs, was proven effective only in more recent formulations. Ammonium silicate systems are not as hard as
some of the zinc silicates and do not possess the glasslike properties of alkaline metal silicates. Colloidal silica,
silica colloids in solvent, and silica gels were all tried
alone and in combination with other silicates. Basic inorganic materials such as phosphates, titantates, borates,
zinc oxychlorides, and similar materials were also formed
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into coatings with somewhat fewer properties. Some were

also added to silicate vehicles in an effort to provide improved coating characteristics.
During this time many other inorganic materials were
being tried, such as ethyl silicates, cellosolve silicates,
and similar organic silicates, alone and in combination
with many materials listed above. Acid-hydrolyzed ethyl

silicate combined with powdered zinc was one of the
earliest, and one of the first successful self-curing zinc
silicate products. The alkali hydrolysis product of the ethyl
silicate was used to produce effective zinc coatings. (See
Table 1 for some interesting combinations of silicates -
~~
TABLE I
Typical Examples
Type*
of V a r i o u s Z i n c - R i c h P a i n t F o r m u l a t i o n s
Vehicle
Pigment
Weight
Ratio
pigmentvehicle
2.8
Water Based Inorganic Zinc-Rich Paints
IA
Post-cured
A
B
IB Self-cure potassium silicate
A
3.2 ratio sodium silicate; 22% 30,;

sod ium dichromate
3.2 ratio sodium silicate; 24% SO,;
potassium dichromate
2.9 ratio potassium silicate; 14% SiO,;
manganese dioxide; sodium
dichromate
2.4 ratio potassium silicate; 9.25% SiO,;
acrylic emulsion
2.8 ratio potassium silicate; 18% SO,;
quaternary ammonium hydroxide;
soluble amine; carbon black
3.2 ratio potassium silicate; 15% 30,;
quaternary ammonium hydroxide;
soluble amine; carbon black
Self-cure Iithi um si Iicate
Lithium-sodium silicate; 19% 90,; sodium

dichromate
Self-cure silica sol
Silica sol; 32% SiO,; soluble amine;

potassium dichromate; carbon black
Self cure-quaternary
ammonium silicate
A
B
Quaternary ammonium silicate; 32% SiO,

Quaternary ammonium silicate; sodium
silicate; 20% SiO,
Zinc dust
red lead
Zinc dust
3.2
Zinc dust
2.9
Zinc dust
2.0
Zinc dust
red lead
2.8
Zinc dust
2.5
iron oxide
3.3
red lead
4.1
Zinc dust
Zinc dust
Zinc dust
Zinc dust
2.5
2.5
Zinc dust
2.2
Zinc dust
Zinc dust + iron oxide
3.4
2.4
Zinc dust
2.2
Solvent Based Inorganic Zinc-Rich Paints
IC Self-cure
A
B
C
Partly hydrolyzed ethyl silicate; 10% SiO,;

clay fillers
Partly hydrolyzed ethyl silicate; 22% SiO,
Basic hydrolyzed ethyl silicate; 15% SiO,;
clay fillers
Polyol-Alkyl Silicate; 20% SiO,
'As per SSPC-Paint 20 - Zinc-Rich Paint

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taken place, environmental reactions such as those
described previously take over and chemical curing of the
coating begins. At this point the coating may be hard and
abrasion resistant, or somewhat soft with little abrasion
resistance. In either state, it is uncured and may be sensitive to water. In every case, regardless of the environment, the original reactions of either the water-base or the
organic base silicates are essentially the same.
The initial reaction is for water and CO, from the air
(H,O + CO,-H,CO,)
to ionize some zinc on the surface of
zinc particles. The slightly acidic water helps to hydrolyze
organic silicates to silicic acid and to hydrate water soluble silicates to form silicic acid. The ionized zinc then
reacts with silicic acid groups on the silicate molecules in
the silicate gel structure. This insolubilizes the coating
and provides its initial properties. At this time there is also
some reaction of the silicate vehicle with the iron surface
to form a chemical bond. Iron ions are formed reacting
with the silicate vehicle at the iron surface in the same way
that zinc does.
Most coatings at this point are somewhat porous,
largely because of the compacting quality of spherical
zinc particles. This can be seen in scanning electron
microscope photographs, and substantiated from a practical standpoint. In many cases where inorganic zinc
coatings have been overcoated with organic coatings,
within a short time after application bubbling of the
organic coating takes place. This is due to penetration of
organic solvents into the zinc coating creating a vapor
pressure that causes bubbling of material applied over the
zinc coating. Inorganic zinc coatings which are post-cured
have much less porosity due to the immediate formation of
zinc phosphate on and within the pores of the coating. This
makes for a high density, relatively pore-free coating.
Removal of the curing agent is necessary prior to topcoating.
The reactions described are taking place during formation of the coating. From this point on, the reactions
will be those that take place over a long period of time and
ones characteristic of the environment in 'which zinc
coatings are placed. Humidity and condensation of
moisture on inorganic surfaces plus carbon dioxide continue to create a very mild acid condition that results in
continued hydrolysis of the vehicle and ionization of zinc.
Zinc ions diffuse deeper and deeper into the gel structure
until there is a zinc silicate cement or matrix formed
around each of the zinc particles binding the coating
together and to the steel surface. This zinc silicate cement
is hard, insoluble, durable, and rock-like in character
(Figure 1).
Since zinc coating is porous, ionization of zinc on the
surface of zinc particles can occur any place within the
coating. In so doing, it provides electrons that protect the
underlying steel from corrosion (Figure 4). If water and CO,
are present, zinc hydroxide and zinc carbonate also are
present.
some have proven to be most practical and successful.)

Following development of self-curing ethyl silicate zinc
coatings was a great amount of research to produce selfcuring coatings from all other silicate materials. Research
has progressed to the point where there are a number of
single package zinc silicate products on the market that
are not only fully combined into a single package, but are
self-curing, as well. A number of these have proven to be
excellent products, particularly when overcoating with
organic coatings is a requirement.
Progress has been made in the last thirty years from
the original product, which was made by mixing the individual ingredients just prior to application, to the point
where the finished product in a single package may be
used essentially like paint.
These products have caused a coating revolution.
Some, in a single coat, provide protection in severe atmospheres that is better than a galvanized surface.
Others, when overcoated, increase the life of the organic
topcoats several times.
111. MECHANISMS
Inorganic zinc coatings, including those formed from
sodium silicate, potassium silicate, lithium silicate, colloidal silica, the various organic silicates and even galvanizing, are reactive materials from the time they are applied. Inorganic zinc coatings, including galvanized metal,
are in a state of constant change. This change depends on
their exposure - marine, industrial or rural. It is a slow,
continuing process until the zinc is practically consumed
in protecting the steel it is applied to, or inactivated by an
accumulation of zinc salts on the coating surface.
Some of these typical zinc reactions are:
Zn (metal)
H,O
Zn"
2e-
This is the normal corrosion reaction for zinc.

Zn
+ 2H,O + -, Zn (OH), +
Zn
2 Zn
H,O
CO,
-,Zn
+ 2NaCI + 3H,O
CO,
H,
H,
-, ZnOZnCI,
+ 2NaOH + 2H,
Galvanized surfaces or pure zinc react with carbon

dioxide and oxygen in air to form zinc carbonate or zinc oxide on the surface almost as soon as it comes out of the
galvanizing bath. The original bright zinc surface, after a
few days in weather, turns dull gray, and, at times, will accumulate a substantial quantity of white salts on the surface. The inorganic zinc coatings are somewhat more complex. They are composed of powdered metallic zinc mixed
into a reactive silicate solution. The first reaction is the
concentration of silicate zinc mixture by evaporation of
most of the solvent. The solvent can either be water, in the
case of water-base products, or organic solvents, in the
case of the organic silicates, leaving a non-reacted deposit
of a silicate gel and zinc powder. Once initial drying has
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8 b 2 7 9 4 0 0 0 0 3 5 7 b 923
accounts for zinc silicate coatings gradually becoming

harder, more dense, and more adherent. This process continues for many months and years, and with the formation
of every zinc ion, electrons are released, which protect the
iron substrate from corrosion. This is a very important
react ion, since it increases the effectiveness, du rabIity
and chemical resistance of the inorganic zinc coating with
age.
One very important characteristic of inorganic zinc
coatings is the electrical conductivity of the matrix.
Because of this, electrons formed by ionization of zinc at
any point within the coating can migrate to the steel
substrate and provide cathodic protection to any steel
area that may be exposed. Particle-to-particle contact of
the zinc pigment is not required for conductivity in inorganic zinc coatings, since i t is in a conductive, organic,
zinc-rich matrix.
Coating Surface 2 i n c D i s c o n t i n u o u s Surface
silicate
inc P a r t i c l e
But
Sand Blasted
Surface
I n t e r f a c e Between
C
n a t i.
n na nnd
_
Steel
I n t e r f a c e of S t e e l a n d C o a t i n g : C h e m i c a l
Bond
FIGURE 1
Inorganic zinc coating
These reaction products, zinc carbonate and zinc

hydroxide, are more voluminous than the zinc silicate.
They can form within the pores of the coating as well as
on the surfaces. This fills the pores and seals the surface
to create a very hard, abrasion-resistant metallic film. This
Na
- Na-O-
@ 1/3.0 R a t i o
N a O/Si02
2
on
OH
JH
Na
Na
9 YH Y
h OH
Na-O-Si-O-Si-O-Si-OH
dH
1
+ Fe++
7 TH PH
+ Pb++-)Na-O-Si-O-Si-O-Si-OH
++
I
I
I
+ Zn
tFe TPb ?
Zn
++
I
I
Fe++ from S t e e l S u b s t r a t e
Pb++ from Red Lead Additive
Zn
from Zinc Dust
S i l i c a t e polymer complexed
w i t h I r o n , Lead and Zinc.
Ammonium, Potassium and
Lithium S i l i c a t e r e a c t i o n s
s u b s t a n t i a l l y same a s f o r
sodium
I
I
(!I
I
I
-Si4
I
I
Na-O-Si-O-Si-O-Si-OH
OH
SC
--%
Na
OH
-di-o-
:i-o-di-
OI
Zn
I
Na-O-Si-
i-
H2C03 +OH-
c o n t i n u e s to grow a d eventual:;
zinc.
Na CO
2 3
White d e p o s i t on c o a t i n g s u r f a c e
removed by weather.
Sodium i n polymer removed by r e a c t i o n w i t h CO2 from a i r
++
Excess Zn
carbonate
Zn
++
reacts w i t h CO and H O t o form i n s o l u b l e z i n c

2
2
20H
kn
N
Witn e x c e s s Zn++ f.ion z i n c d c s t , s i l i c a t e polymer
From A i r
and Water
ia
H2CO3+ZnCO3
2H2Q
FIGURE 2
Chemical Reactions within a Zinc Silicate Coating
(SSPC-Paint 20, Type IA or 16).
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

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- Water Base
s a t u r a t e s with
93 W 8627940 0003577 4bT W
The chemistry of these inorganic coatings is very

complex. The effectiveness of the end product depends on
the skill of the formulator and his addition of minor ingredients that insolubilize the matrix around the zinc particles. It is believed that all of the truly inorganic zinc
coatings ultimately have matrices composed of heavy
metal silicates. The primary heavy metal is zinc derived
from ions dissolved from zinc particles mixed into silicate
solution, either water or solvent based. Minor quantities of
many heavy metals may be reacted into the silicate matrix
- lead, magnesium, aluminum, calcium, barium, iron, etc.
Immediate insolubility in water is the goal, with the con-
FIGURE 3
Zinc reaction within a porous inorganic coating
CH
O
acid
I
HsO*-+Et-O-Si-O-Si-O-Et
CH3CH2
I
I
It
It
Tetra Ethyl S i l i c a t e
E t OH
Ethyl S i l i c a t e Polymer
H O and CO
2
from humid a i r
0"
QH
Some o t h e r organic silicates
may be added t o o r s u b s t i t u t e d
f o r ethyl s i l i c a t e with similar
end results. ( S i l i c a t e Zinc Polymer. 1
++
Zn
OH
in
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
I
4PH
HO-Si-O-Si-OH
OH
, OH
F i n a l Ethyl S i l i c a t e Zinc Polymer

s i m i l a r t o Sodium Silicate Zinc
Polymer.
FIGURE 4
Chemical reactions within an ethyl silicate zinc coating.
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= 8b2794O
under this wide span of atmospheric conditions. It is not

effective in freezing conditions or in very high humidity
when water will not evaporate from the system within a
short period of time - a matter of a few minutes to one or
two hours. After that length of time zinc tends to separate
in the vehicle, making a poor coating with little resistance.
It is also difficult to use where rain showers are frequent,
since the coating must be cured with the curing solution
before additional water contacts the coating. A rain
shower on a Type 1-A coating prior to application of the
curing agent will break up the silicate gel film - and the
coating becomes useless. Post-cured inorganic zinc
coatings are most effective when used alone, without topcoats, since removal of the curing agent residue is essential when topcoats are to be applied.
tinued long-time reaction of zinc finalizing the insolubility.

Figures 2 and 4 indicate the possible reactions that
take place within the coating to form the insoluble
matrix. No other common metal powders react to form an
insoluble silicate polymer in the same way. Unsuccessful
efforts have been made to use both metallic aluminum and
mag nec ium.
IV. ORGANIC ZINC RICH

Organic zinc-rich primers, in contrast to the inorganic
zinc-rich products, involve very little chemistry in formation. These products are simple mixtures of zinc dust or
metallic zinc pigment into the organic vehicle. Zinc is the
primary pigment in these organic zinc-rich coatings, with
very little addition of other pigmentation. There are two requirements essential for effective operation of organic
zinc-rich coatings:
1. Zinc in the vehicle, in order to provide the cathodic
protection required by zinc-rich coatings, must be
in particle-to-particle contact or contain a conductive filler, such as iron phosphide, to make an electrically conductive path through the organic
matrix. Without this particleto-particle contact,
zinc in the coating essentially would be inert and
surrounded by the organic vehicle, which would not
allow the zinc to go into solution and provide the
cathodic protection.
2. The second important consideration in organic
zinc-rich primers is that the vehicle or carrier of
zinc pigment be alkali resistant. This is important
since zinc, particularly under chloride environments, reacts to form a strong alkali that would
adversely effect any alkali-sensitive resin or binder.
The primary organic resins used to make organic
zinc-rich primers are chlorinated rubbers, phenoxy
resins, or catalyzed epoxy resins. While there are a
number of other materials that can be used, these
are the principal ones applied to steel structures.
Type 1-B Inorganic self-curing vehicles, which are

water reducible, include water soluble alkali metal
silicates, quaternary ammonium silicates, phosphates and
modifications thereof. These coatings cure by crystallization after evaporation of water from the coating.
Several water-based silicates are included in this
category - and many are most effective when applied during warm, dry conditions. In this case, the water
evaporates rapidly from the coating, leaving a hard
metallic coating, which becomes insoluble to water in a
short time. Then it continues to cure to full hardness and
adhesion by the above chemical reactions. Some formations require more humidity for a complete cure than
others. Again, these materials are not effective under cold,
highly humid conditions, since water will not evaporate
from the film within a reasonable period of time.
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Type 1.C Inorganic self-curing vehicles, which are solvent reducible, include titanates, organic silicates, and
polymeric modifications of these silicates. These systems
primarily are dependent on moisture in the atmosphere to
complete hydrolysis, forming the polysilicate.
This category covers many different formulations,
most of which are based on an ethyl silicate vehicle. There
are a number of other organic silicates used or combined
with ethyl silicate to provide specific coating characteristics. Because of variation in properties and application
characteristics this class of inorganic primer is used widely throughout industry as a base for high performance
coatings. There are too many variations to outline the
specific properties of each product in this chapter. Nevertheless, they all primarily follow the same chemical reactions shown previously (Figure 4) to form the final
coating. The majority work best, application wise, under
cool, reasonably humid conditions. Moisture from the air
is required for a complete cure and many formulations will
not cure well or completely under hot, dry conditions.
Since they are solvent based materials, many are more
subject t o overspray under warm, windy conditions than
water base products (1-6).
There are two specific types of solvent base inorganics (1-C) that are variations from the standard twopackage products.
V. SSPC CLASSIFICATION
The specification for SSPC-Paint 20 includes the
types of zinc-rich primers common at this time. There are
two basic types, Type 1 - Inorganic zinc-rich; and, Type 2
- Organic zinc-rich. Description of the various zinc-rich
paints available are outlined in the above specifications as
follows:
Type 1-A Inorganic post-curing vehicles, which are
water soluble, include alkali metal silicates, phosphates
and modifications thereof, which must be subsequently
cured by application of heat or a solution of a curing compound.
Type 1-A has a very broad area of application. It is a
water-based material, and wherever water will evaporate
from the coating, this product can be used. It may be applied under cool or warm and dry conditions. Because of
the post-curing agent it will form an effective coating
0003578 7Tb
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SSPC C H A P T E R * 4 - 2 9 3 W 8627940 O003579 632 m
Type 2 organic vehicles include phenoxies, catalyzed

epoxies, urethanes, chlorinated rubbers, styrenes, silicones, vinyls and other suitable resinous binders. The
organic vehicles covered by this specification may be
chemically cured or may dry by solvent evaporation.
Under certain conditions heat may be used to facilitate
or accelerate hardening.
There is good reason for the number of different types
of zinc-rich primers. The basic use of the material - as
well as the conditions under which it is applied - dictates
what types of formulations should be used.
Type 2 primers can be applied under most conditions
where an organic vehicle applies effectively; however, they
also are subject to the basic problems inherent in organic
vehicles, such as weathering, undercutting, release of
adhesion from water absorpfion, blistering and so forth.
One good use of organic-based zinc-rich coatings is as a
repair primer for inorganic zinc primers and galvanized surfaces that have been topcoated and have been damaged
during use. By using organic zinc-rich primer, the zinc base
coating is maintained over the bare steel area while the
organic vehicle is compatible with the organic topcoats,
allowing it to be feathered out over the edge of the existing
organic material.
With the many different formulations of both inorganic and organic zinc-rich primers - some with high
zinc loadings and others with a minimum, some with additives and others without - some precautions should be
taken in selecting a product. The best insurance i s to use a
material with an extensive background of good performance for similar use. Without this, it is suggested information be obtained on the total solids content, theoretical

and practical coverage, percent of zinc in the dry film, type

of binder and scope of duration of actual field applications
or field tests of the several materials considered. If there
are requirements for high-performance coating, the best is
none too good. Since material cost is only a small part of
the completed coating job, only the best material, not the
cheapest, should be selected. The information above can
be a good basis for comparing various zinc-rich coatings
offered for a project.
Each type of zinc-rich primer has specific areas of use
where it is most effective. The above information allows
the corrosion engineer and applicator to select material
most effective for particular requirements.
VI. PRE-CONSTRUCTION PRIMERS
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
The first is the single-package inorganic. This product

combines the ingredients of the coating including zinc into
a single package, ready for application directly from the
container. The product characteristics are similar to the
two-package material, as are the basic chemical reactions
that forms the films. The main advantage of this product is
simplicity in handling a single container that only requires
stirring prior to use; one container to handle during transportation and storage; and one container for painters to
work with on the job. Most single-package products are
used in areas where topcoats are to be applied.
The second is the modified inorganic zinc primer.
Here the solvent base ( I C ) inorganic is modified by the addition of a compatible organic resin, usually a vinyl butyral,
which is soluble in alcohol solvents. The product characteristics are a compromise between completely inorganic
zinc coating and organic zinc-rich primers, with some of
the good properties of each appearing in the modified
product. Any deficiency would be due to the life of the organic resin incorporated into the system. Advantages
claimed for this material are improved application properties, a smooth film, easy and rapid overcoating, adhesion
to most clean steel surfaces and good repair properties for
previously zinc primed and overcoated surfaces. This product usually is used where topcoats are to be applied.
One additional type of zinc-rich primer should be mentioned: the preconstruction primer. It may be either 1-B or
I-Ctype. It is formulated to be applied as a very thin
material, approximately one mil in thickness, and is usually applied to steel prior to fabrication. In many shipyards
the preconstruction primer is applied to all plate as it
comes into the yard. There it goes through an automatic
blast-cleaning operation followed immediately by application of inorganic preconstruction zinc-rich primer. These
materials are applied under controlled conditions and
have proven very effective in providing a corrosion-free surface during construction. They may be over-coated directly
with organic topcoats or recoated with additional zinc-rich
primers, depending on coating requirements. Steel with
preconstruction primers applied must be capable of being
cut with manual and automatic gas torches and welded by
manual and automatic welding equipment, without any
loss in cutting speed or weld strength. Recently,
preconstruction primers have been formulated with an iron
phosphide additive that improves the weldability and
resulting weld. As much as 40% iron phosphide, based on
total pigment content, has been added without apparent
changes in the corrosion-resistant characteristics of the
primer.
VII. COMPARISON WITH GALVANIZING

Zinc-rich primers have often been compared directly
with galvanizing. There are many similarities; however,
there are also many differences.
Galvanizing can be considered an inorganic zinc
primer and, in many ways, it will do the same things an inorganic zinc-rich coating will. Both galvanized and inorganic zinc coatings are chemically bonded. Galvanizing
is an amalgamation or mutual absorption at the iron-zinc
boundary, while the inorganic zinc matrix forms a
chemical compound of iron and silica at the interface of
the coating and metal. Both types of coating provide protection to the steel surface by cathodic protection, so
there are many similarities. The inorganic zinc-rich coating
has, however, some basic differences:
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8627940 0003580 354
93
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Zinc in the coating is not continuous. It is made up

of zinc particles, surrounded by and reactive with
an inert zinc silicate matrix. This matrix is very inert
and, except for strong acids or alkalies, is inert to
most environmental conditions where coatings
would be used.
Because of the formation of the coating by zinc particles in an inert matrix, the coating controls reactivity and conductivity. This has been proven by actual measurements where zinc was coupled with
iron, and the inorganic zinc silicate coating was
coupled with iron. The actual potential of the two
coating materials was essentially equivalent. However, the current flow or amperage between the galvanized surface and iron was practically double the
current flow between the inorganic zinc silicate
coated panel and the steel panel. The zinc on the
galvanized surface went into solution much more
rapidly than the zinc held within the matrix of the inorganic silicate coating.
the coating, forming a permanent chemical bond.

This is an important property, since it prevents the
undercutting of coating by corrosion.
With this bond, an inorganic zinc-rich primer can
form a base coating that does not undercut or allow
underfilm corrosion. This property cannot be
overemphasized. The majority of organic coating
failure under severe corrosion conditions is by
underfilm corrosion, starting at small breaks in the
coating. This property of the inorganic zinc base
coat multiplies the effective life of an organic topcoat. This has been shown by test and field experience.
One of the most important characteristics of inorganic zinc coatings is that they do not shrink
while drying or curing, like organic coatings do.
Once applied, the inorganic material follows the
configuration of the surface. This is due to the
method by which the film is formed and is a major
advantage in overcoating rough, pitted, corroded
surfaces or rough welds.
As surprising as it may seem, many of the inorganic

zinc silicate coatings end up much harder, and
more abrasion resistant than the metallic zinc in
galvanizing.
Inorganic zinc materials are relatively unaffected by

temperatures above the melting point of zinc. Used
as a primer and topcoated with silicone base topcoats, the combination has provided protection
even at temperatures of 1000F.
High speed production welding cannot be accomplished with a full thickness of zinc rich. Porous
welds may result. Nevertheless, Battelle Memorial
Institute and several foreign laboratories have confirmed that inorganic zinc coated steel may be
welded without any reduction in strength of the
steel joint. This is because the zinc silicate matrix
reacts with the welding flux and prevents zinc occlusions in the weld.
These points generally indicate a longer life span for

inorganic zinc silicate coatings, compared to galvanized
steel. This has proven true in tests, and in certain full-scale
exposures where the two materials were used side by side.
Type II, the organic zinc-rich primer, should not be compared directly with galvanizing because of the organic
nature of the binder.
VIII. CHARACTERISTICS
(TYPE I)
- INORGANIC
The outstanding characteristics of inorganic zinc-rich

primers are:
Inorganic zinc coatings are unaffected by organic

solvents, even the very high strength ones, such as
ketones, chlorinated hydrocarbons, aromatic hydrocarbons, etc. They are also unaffected by gasoline,
diesel oil, lube oil, jet fuel and many similar refined
products. This being the case, they may be used
alone or in the connection with topcoats for continuous exposure to such chemicals.
The very strong rock-like film and chemical adhesion of inorganic zinc coatings form a base with
outstanding friction characteristics, and therefore
may be used as a coating for faying surfaces (the
friction interface between structural steel sections)
on buildings, bridges, towers, tanks, etc. A comparison of the coefficient of friction for various surfaces highlights this outstanding property. The
higher the friction coefficient, the less the chance
of joint slippage.
Cathodic protection is provided by inorganic zincrich coatings. The inorganic matrix is conductive
and allows zinc to go into solution in a controlled
manner, making it anodic to steel and able to
cathodically protect any breaks that occur in the
coating. Eventually, any minor holidays, pinholes,
scratches or scars heal by formation of zinc reaction products, such as zinc hydroxide arid zinc carbonate.
It is unaffected by weather, sunlight, ultraviolet
radiation, rain, dew, bacteria, fungus or
temperature. Since it is unaffected by weatheroriented factors, the coating does not chalk or
change with time. The inorganic zinc film remains
intact with essentially the same thickness, even
after many years of exposure.
The inorganic binder chemically reacts with the
underlying steel surface in a similar way to its reaction with the surface of the zinc particles. This reaction occurs at the interface between the steel and
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It is often claimed that the organic zinc-rich primers
are less subject to critical surface preparation than inorganic zinc materials. This may be true for initial application, since they would be less subject to problems from
organic contamination. On the other hand, eliminating the
organic contamination factor, light rust coloration on the
steel surface may be more easily tolerated by an inorganic
zinc coating than by an organic based material. This is due
to the possibility of the inorganic thoroughly wetting the
oxide and reacting with it.
Organic zinc-rich primers, depending on their formulation, are more compatible with oleoresinous topcoats than
are inorganic zinc coatings.
Coefficient of
Friction
Surface Conditions
Solvent-based inorganic coating

Rusted and wirebrushed surfaces
Post-cured inorganic zinc
Rusted surfaces
Water-based zinc coatings
Sandblasted surfaces
Mill scale surfaces
Galvanized surfaces
Rust-preventative paint
Red lead paint
0.52
0.51
0.48
0.48
0.47
0.47
0.30
0.25
0.1 1
0.06
Any coefficient of friction less than a sandblasted surface (.47) usually is not acceptable for steel construction.
Inorganic zinc coatings are unaffected by gamma
rays or neutron bombardment. These coatings have
been exposed to atomic radiation up to and beyond
1 x 10IDR,without any change in properties.
The basic surface formed by inorganic zinc
coatings is very hard, metallic and abrasion resistant. This is an important property as a base coat,
since even though the topcoat may be abraded
away, the inorganic zinc base remains and prevents
serious corrosion. This has proven extremely important on ship hulls above the water line where abrasion due to docking can cause severe coating
damage.
Compared to metallic zinc, the chemical resistance
of inorganic zinc coatings is excellent. This has
been proven in test and by use in industrial areas
where acidic fumes or fallout have caused rapid
galvanized failure. This is due to the inorganic
matrix surrounding zinc particles. Inorganic base
coats have excellent resistance to undercutting
when overcoated with chemical resistant organic
coatings and subject to very corrosive industrial
atmospheres.
IX. CHARACTERISTICS
- ORGANIC (TYPE Il)
The outstanding characteristic of organic zinc-rich

primers is their compatibility with organic and steel surfaces. This is extremely important in coating repair and
may be important during original construction, where
many types of surfaces are involved and all require excellent corrosion protection.
Organic zinc-rich coatings provide cathodic protection, providing the formulation maintains particle-to-particle zinc contact.
With an organic binder, the application of organic
zinc-rich coatings covers a very wide range of application
conditions. Organic binders may be very fast- or slowdrying and curing conditions can vary widely, depending
on requirements of application.
A binder in an organic zinc-rich primer may be chemical-resistant, depending on the binder and its use requirements.
134
X. SOME LIMITATIONS
Much has been discussed about application of zincrich products to steel surfaces. In many ways it is a controversial subject. However, much depends on the severity
of the exposure and the type of metal (corroded, new, mill
scale) to which the coating is applied. There have been
many claims about advantages of organic zinc-rich from a
surface preparation standpoint compared to inorganic
zinc-rich. Many claims have been self-serving with little
basis i n fact. As with all high-performance coatings, the
very best possible surface preparation should be used and,
irrespective of the coating, the better the surface preparation, the better the coating performance will be. There are,
however, differences in adhesion characteristics of
organic and inorganic zinc-rich materials. The primary difference is i n the ability of organic zinc-rich to be applied
over some organic material, such as old coatings, paint or
slight oil contamination. On the other hand, the inorganic
zinc-rich materials will not tolerate organic materials and
will immediately check, crack and chip off organic surfaces.
Inorganic zinc coatings should never be applied over
old paint. There are different adhesion characteristics
among various inorganic zinc-rich products. There are
some, such as lithium base materials, which require the
best surface preparation and substantial surface profile to
provide maximum adhesion. On the other hand, the
original Australian formulation was applied over pickled
surfaces, which were thoroughly clean but did not have the
advantage of the surface profile of a blast-cleaned surface. Also, some Type l - B and C materials can be applied
to pickled surfaces.
Type 1 materials cover the whole gamut of surface
preparation and each has proven to work well over surfaces they are specifically adapted to. All work well over
SSPC-SP 5 (White Metal Blast) and SSPC-SP 10 (Near
White) types of surface preparation. For preparation less
than this, that is, SSPC-SP 6 (Commercial Blast) or SSPCSP 8 (Pickled) surfaces, the manufacturers literature
should be consulted for each product and each type of surface.
Organic zinc-rich primers also have specific limitations. As previously mentioned, organic-based materials
will tolerate some organic material on the surface. Organic
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m 6627940 0003582 127 m

vides. The SSPC Zinc-Rich Committee has also had panels
under test at both the 80and 800 lot since 1963 (18 years).
zinc-rich coatings may be applied over SSPC-SP 6

(Commercial Blast) providing the application is to new
steel or a non-corroded previously coated surface. Also, as
previously noted, organic zinc-rich may be used for spot
repair to provide a zinc-based coating directly over bare
steel and yet provide a tie between the old and new organic
coating. Organic zinc-rich primers are subject to the difficulties of any organic material applied directly over steel
surfaces. This means they are subject to undercutting,
blistering and similar adhesion problems not normally encountered with the inorganic zinc-rich primers.
B. FIRST FIELD TESTS

Some early applications were in the marine field and
the Gulf Coast, where its high temperatures and humidity
provided a need for new protective coating. Applications
were primarily in the oil industry, onshore and offshore.
Well heads and Christmas trees were some of the first t o
receive the coating. These were pieces of equipment that
were subject to severe corrosion and small enough to
make good tests. Heater-treaters were field tested. These
were somewhat larger in size and followed by other equipment on the offshore production platforms.
XI. CASE HISTORIES

It is not intended that detailed application instructions and surface preparation methods be outlined here.
This is well covered by most manufacturers literature for
specific products and, in general, in Steel Structure Painting Council PS 12.00, Guide to Zinc-Rich Coating Systems and SSPC Paint System 12.01, One Coat Zinc-Rich
Coating System.
The uses of zinc-rich coatings are almost too
numerous to detail: they cover almost any use of steel
structure where high-performance coatings are required.
These products have been applied to objects as small as
nuts and bolts and to the interior and exterior of the largest
ships in the world. They have been used in the waterworks
industry, sewage industry, on pulp and paper plants,
chemical plants, refineries, atomic energy facilities,
geothermal energy plants, pipes, tanks, stacks and an infinite variety of other onshore steel surfaces. Offshore, or
in the marine industry, zinc-rich materials are standard
primer for all surfaces subject to severe seawater corrosion. Zinc-rich primer has been applied on floating equipment and stationary marine structures in tropical rivers in
South America, barges in the fjords of Alaska, in Japan,
Korea, Singapore, Western Australia, the East Coast of
Australia, New Zealand and many areas in Europe and the
Middle East. Many icebreakers in the U.S.S.R. are coated
with inorganic zinc primers. These materials are a
worldwide answer to severe marine coating problems.
Some specific applications that indicate the versatility of
zinc-rich products follow.
Offshore petroleum production platforms are an area

where corrosion protection is imperative. The corrosive
conditions for such structures are most severe and many
hundreds of stationary drilling and production structures
have been coated with inorganic zinc, from highly humid
tropical areas of Indonesia, Singapore and the Persian
Gulf to the United States Gulf Coast and Mexico, extending into the Arctic areas of Alaska and the North Sea. The
inorganic coatings applied alone, .e., Type l - A or 1-B or
overcoated Type l - C for additional protection and for safety coloration, are providing maximum protection for these
essential pieces of equipment.
A. EARLY TESTS
E. BRIDGES
Some of the earliest tests of inorganic zinc coatings

in the U.S. (early 1950s) were located on the 80-foot lot of
the International Nickel Companys testing area at Kure
Beach, North Carolina. Some of the original panels were
there with the inorganic coating still fully protecting after
23 years. The first test panels were heat cured and of
essentially the same composition as Australian material
of the. same period. A second test set also exposed 23
years is one of the first trials of a non-baked or stoved inorganic coating. The 80-foot lot at Kure Beach is recognized as one of the most corrosive of the marine test areas.
Twenty-three years under these conditions illustrates the
outstanding resistance that one coat of inorganic zinc pro-
Bridges, like offshore structures, are extremely

vulnerable to corrosion, perhaps more so since many
bridge structures are formed from structural steel shapes,
with all of the corners, edges, crevices and surfaces
defects that are inherent in such shapes. One of the
earliest bridges of this type to be coated was a drawbridge
across a tidal river in Florida. This bridge was coated in
1956, with the open grill work being the most difficult part
of the structure to protect. It was well protected after 15
years by a single coat of Type l - A inorganic zinc coating.
One of the new bridges in Australia i s a very interesting structure. It is the Batman Bridge with a main
span of 675 feet across the Whirlpool Reach on the Tamar
C. PORTABLE OFFSHORE DRILLING RIGS

One of the early applications was the first Mr. Gus.
This was a large, portable offshore drilling platform
responsible for many offshore wells in the Gulf of Mexico.
A later and possibly more spectacular drilling structure
was the Monopod installed at Cook Inlet, Alaska, where
tides are very high and ice in the winter continually flows
past and against the structure. This platform was coated
with inorganic zinc from the mean low tide line up. The
largest semi-submersible drilling rig in the world, the
ODECO Ranger, was coated with inorganic Type l-C. It
was recently built in Japan for use in the North Sea.
D. PRODUCTION PLATFORMS
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= 8627940
River i n Tasmania. A massive 320 ft. high back-anchored

cabled A-frame tower leans out at an angle of 20 degrees
and supports a 3,000 ton clear span of 45 ft. long deck
trusses. Each leg on the A-frame comprises eighteen, 15 ft.
high sections, one 18 ft. section and a top section 23 ft.
high. All tower sections, some weighing up to 32 tons
each, were connected on the site by high tensile, friction
grip bolts. The 3 mil inorganic coating Type l - A was applied to all steel surfaces on this bridge, and the faying
surfaces of the individual members were provided the optimum coefficient of friction by use of an inorganic zinc
coating.
The bridge across Golden Gate in San Francisco is
probably the worlds most famous bridge. It is subject to
as corrosive an environment as any existing bridge. There
are only thirty days or so a year when the sky is clear and
the temperature above 60F. The bridge is exposed to extreme atmospheric conditions of the salt and fog. It is constantly wet and damp. The bridge is also designed to move.
It sways as much as 24% feet and may rise and fall as
much as twelve feet, due to winds and temperature
changes. The inorganic zinc coating Type 1-B was first applied in 1962. It is not only protecting the metal of the
bridge and providing safe passage for 80,000 cars a day
across its 8,940 ft. span, but it is providing longer life for
the reddish-orange topcoat, the historical color of this
bridge.
Since 1961 the SSPC has cooperated with the
management in evaluating several series of coatings,
not only 22 zinc-rich systems but also other generic
types such as vinyls, epoxies, coal-tar epoxies, chlorinated
rubbers, alkyds and urethanes.
previously heavily corroded surface has provided this protection.
H. VERY LARGE CARGO CARRIERS (VLCCs)

The six Universe class tankers, 320,000 tons each,
are a good example of ships constructed i n Japan protected both on the interior and exterior with inorganic
zinc. These ships were first coated with an inorganic
preconstruction Type l - B primer, and in the most critical
areas, with a full.coat of inorganic zinc Type l-A. The total
footage coated with inorganic zinc in these six vessels
was over 18 million square feet. Almost 10 years of service
shows no corrosion on the exterior, except at severely
abraded areas.
The new medium-size crude carriers built for Alaska
crude transportation on the Pacific Coast are coated with
Type l - C inorganic zinc primer.
The touch-up and repair areas on the VLCCs were extensive. All spots where the final coatings had been applied were coated with Type 2 organic zinc-rich primers.
They are epoxy-based and applied by either brush or air
spray.
Many Japanese and European shipyards use Type 2
zinc-rich primers for preconstruction primers.
I. ATOMIC POWER PLANTS

Inorganic zinc is unaffected by radioactivity or radiation. This being the case, inorganic zinc coatings Type l - C
are used to protect steel in the containment shells at most
nuclear power plants that have been or are being constructed. This is the structure containing the atomic reactor, subject to high levels of radiation. From hundreds of
tests and years of actual exposures it is expected that the
inorganic zinc will protect the containment vessels for
their entire design life, 40 years.
F. REFINERIES
Cooling tower piping is a problem area in most
refineries because of the heat and continual wetting and
drying of the surface. It was one of the applications where
inorganic zinc coatings first proved effective. Another
refinery and chemical exposure difficult to maintain is
pipe racks. There are hundreds of miles of pipe racks in the
US., many that have been fully protected since erection
with zinc-rich primers.
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
J. MORGAN-WHYALLA PIPE LINE
G. INTERIOR TANKER TANKS

There have been many and varied uses of inorganic
zinc coatings in the marine field. One major use has been
lining the interior of tanker tanks, primarily those
transporting refined fuel. One of the oldest documented
applications of inorganic zinc coatings is to the No. 1
center tank in the UTAH STANDARD. This was applied in
1954 to a previously heavily corroded tank surface. The
tank was inspected i n 1965, after 11 years, and with the exception of holidays or missed areas in the original application, there was no rust or loss of metal. It is still in service
today, without repair, and is in very nearly original condition after more than 20 years of continuous use in refined
oil products. One coat of inorganic zinc Type l - A over a

0003583 O b 3
No discussion of zinc-rich coatings is complete

without mention of the earliest large application of any
zinc-rich product in the world. This was Morgan-Whyalla
Pipe Line, which was originally constructed between 1940
and 1945, to transport water 240 miles across South
Australia. The pipe was coated with a very crude product in
a crude manner. Nevertheless, a 1972 inspection by the
author, after it had been in service for 30 years, found it in
practically the same condition as when inspected in 1950.
Little, if any, corrosion was evident anywhere except for
isolated pinpoints of rust showing in some brush marks in
the coating. A second line has now been installed with the
same type of l - A coating, also stoved. During the 35 years
the line has been in service, almost complete protection
has been maintained in the face of sandstorms, grassfires,
marine exposures, normal weathering, and almost every
severe condition conceivable.
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Inorganic zinc coatings have c o m e a long w a y s i n c e

originally conceived b y Victor Nightingall in Australia and
the organic zinc-rich primers about t h e same time in
England. Their use n o w can be expressed in acres rather
than square feet, and they have proved effective in hundreds o f areas of severe corrosion. Their continued use w i l l
provide longer l i f e a n d l e s s maintenance for both n e w a n d
e x i s t i n g structures in t h e foreseeable future.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
chapter: Alex Chasan, Dan Gelfer, Tom Ginsberg, Joseph Guobis,
Dr. C. M. Hendry, Norbert B. Intorp, Sid Levinson, Walter
McMahon, Igriatius Metil, Walt Pregmon, and David Sealander.
BIOGRAPHY
C.G. Munger - consultant
in coatings and corrosion - has
been engaged in corrosion control
activities for more than fifty years.
He pioneered in the development
of plastic and synthetic resin
materials for combating corrosion
of steel and concrete surfaces, as
well as inorganic coatings for marine and industrial structures.
Previously, he was Vice President,
International of Ameron, Monterey
Park, California, and President of
Ameron Corrosion Control Division. He has been affiliated with Ameron since 1935. Mr. Munger is Past
President of the National Association of Corrosion Engineers, of which
he has been a member for over forty years, and a member of the Los
Angeles Section since its organization. He received the 1968 Frank Newman Speller Award during the NACE conference held in March 1969,
one of the two highest awards presented annually by NACE for outstanding contributions to the science and technology of corrosion. He is a
member of the Steel Structures Painting Council and received their John
D. Keane Award of Merit in 1986. In 1993 he was elected as a NACE
Fellow in recognition of distinguished contributions to the field of corrosion and its prevention.
Mr. Munger is a Fellow of the American Institute of Chemists and
a member of the American Chemical Society and the federation of Societies for Paint Technology. He is also a registered professional chemical engineer, as well as a Registered Corrosion Engineer in the State
of California. He holds a BA in chemistry from Pomona College,
Claremont, California, and did graduate research work for two years
on resin formulation and polymerization at Claremont College.
He is the author of the book Corrosion Protectionby ProtectiveCoatings and co-editor of the NACE Corrosion Engineers Reference Book.
He has also authored over 100 technical articles on coatings, corrosion,
and corrosion control, and has received several patents on corrosion
control materials and methods.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
REFERENCES
Dean M. Berger, Current Technology Review - Zinc-Rich
Coatings, Modern Paint and Coatings, June 1975.
D.M. Berger - Gilbert Associates, Inc., Zinc Rich Coatings
Technology, Septem ber 1974.
Walter W. Cranmer, Modern Coatings for Tankership Compartments, Annual Tanker Conference, American Petroleum
Institute, 1957.
J.F. Delahunt and N. Nakachi, Journalof Protective Coatings
and Linings, Long-Term Economic Protection with one Coat
of Inorganic Zinc-Rich, February 89, p. 48-53.
Daniel H. Gelfer, Rapid Topcoating of Inorganic Zinc-Rich
Primers - A Case for Improved Productivity. Presented at
N.A.C.E. Corrosion 80.
D. H. Gelfer, Comparison of Self-curing and Post-Cured Inorganic Zinc Coatings as Permanent Primers for Steel.
Materials Protection, Vol. 3, No. 3, p. 54, March 1964.
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

TTT
7. Norbert B. Intorp. Enhanced Zinc-Rich Primers. Paper #114,
N.A.C.E. Corrosion 80.

8. Zinc Silicate Coatings - 40 Years Experience, Journal of
Protective Coatings and Linings, March 85, p. 34-44.
9. R. Mallet, Brit Association Advancement Science 10, 221-388,
1840.
10. Dr. Ignatius Metil, Recent Developments In Inorganic Zinc
Coatings, Modern Paint & Coatings, December 1979.
1 1 . C. G. Munger, Report of the Inspection of Di-Met Products
Used in Australia, November 17, 1949 - December 20, 1949.
Amercoat Corporation file.
12. C. G. Munger, Background Notes on Dimetcote No. 2, October
1950. Amercoat Corporation file.
13. C. G. Munger, Solvent Service Corrosion in Tanker Ships. lndustrial & Engineering Chemistry, July 1957.
14. C. G. Munger, Review of Zinc Dust Coatings - presented at
Washington Paint Technical Group at annual symposium,
Washington, D.C., May 12, 1964.
15. C. G. Munger. A Revolution in Industrial and Marine
Coating, May 22, 1967, Seventh Annual Symposium,
Washington Paint Technical Group.
16. C. G. Munger, Inorganic Zinc Coatings, published in the
proceedings of II Simposio Sul-Americano de Corrosao
Metalica, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, 1971.
17. C. G. Munger, Marine Corrosion Prevention With Inorganic
Coatings, May 1972.
18. C. G. Munger, Coatings for Nuclear Plants, N.A.C.E. Western
Regional Conference, October, 1974.
19. C. G. Munger, Petroleum Industry Use of Zinc-Rich
Coatings, National Zinc-Rich Coatings Conference, Zinc Institute. 1974.
20. C. G. Munger, Inorganic Zinc Coatings - Past, Present and
Future. N.A.C.E. 1975, Toronto.
21. C. G. Munger, Dimetcoat #3 Story, Ameron- Publication,
1975.
22. C. G. Munger, Inorganic Zinc Coating Protection of Marine
Structures, Fourth International Congress of Marine Corrosion & Fouling, Antibes, France, 1976.
23. C. G. Munger, Environment - Its Influenceon InorganicZinc
Coatings, N.A.C.E., 1976.
24. C. G. Munger, Environmental Impact on Inorganic Zinc
Coatings, A.C.S. Division of Environmental Chemistry, San
Francisco, 1976.
25. Munse, Walter H., Static and Fatigue Tests of Bolted Connections Coated with Dimetcote, Report, March 10, 1961.
26. N.A.C.E. Tech. Committee T-6H, Hot Dip Galvanizing as a
Protective Coating in Atmospheric Corrosion.
27. Organic and Inorganic Zinc Filled Coatings for Atmospheric
Service. N.A.C.E. publication 68173.
28. D. I. Netting, H. H. Weldes, M. R. Derolf, Aqueous Quarternary Ammonium Silicate Vehicles for High Performance
Zinc-Rich Primers and High Temperature Resistant Paints,
International Marine Corrosion Conference, 1976.
29. New Jersey Zinc Company, Zinc Dust Metal Protective
Coatings.
30. Victor Nightingall, Aust. Patent 113,946.
31. Victor Nightingall, U.S.Patent 2,462,763, February 22, 1949.
32. Victor Nightingall, British Patent 505,710, May, 1939.
33. Victor Nightingall, U.S. Patent 2,440,969, May, 1948.
34. Victor Nightingall, Di-Metalization for the Prevention of the
Corrosion of Iron, Steel & Concrete. Melbourne, Australia,
1940.
35. H. E. Patee and R. E. Monroe. Battelle Memorial Institute, CoLumbus, Ohio, Research report on effect of Dimetcote
Coatings on Weldability of Selected Steels, April 19, 1967.
36. Pourbaix, Marcel, Atlas of Electrochemical Equilibria in
Aqueous Solutions, Chapter IV, Section 51.1, N.A.C.E., 1974.
37. E. G. Rochow, Chapter XV, Chemistry of Silica, Comprehensive Inorganic Chemistry, Pergamon Press.
38. A. H. Roebuck, Inorganic Zinc Coatings - Some Disadvantages & Remedies, N.A.C.E. Corrosion, 1980.
39. Steel Structures Painting Council, Topcoats for Zinc-rich Coatings, Journal of Protective Coatings and Linings, 1987.
SSPC 87-06.
40. O.P. Velsboe, Organic Zinc Coatings, presented at the International Ship Painting and Corrosion Conference and Exhibition, May 1974.
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0003585 936
CHAPTER 4.3
CORROSION INHIBITIVE PIGMENTS

AND
HOW THEY FUNCTION
bY
Arnold J. Eickhoff
By cathodic protection - e.g. zinc rich

coatings. In this instance, the metal, in form of
zinc dust in the paint film, is the anode and
sacrificially corrodes to protect steel from
rusting.
By mechanical protection, .e. by the use of
thick (10 to 20 mils) relatively impervious films.
These films have extremely low moisture vapor
and oxygen transmission.
Appleby and Mayne4 reported on the degradation
products of four red lead paints formulated with linseed
oil, oiticica oil, alkyd resin, and tung oil. The degradation
products were identified by vapor phase chromatography.
Mayne and Ramshaws showed azelaic acid was the principal degradation product of linseed oil fatty acids.
Extending this to the other three vehicles (.e. linseed oil,
alkyd resins, tung oil) suggests that their metal protective
properties may be evaluated by their ability to form lead
soaps of azelaic acid. Based on inhibitive properties,
linseed oil was best, followed by oiticica oil and finally
alkyd resin. Tung oil had the poorest inhibitive properties.
The relative amounts of degradation products were 11.9 for
linseed oil, 8.9 for oiticica oil, 3.5 for alkyd resin, and 1.1 for
tung oil. Partial immersion tests of mild steel coupons confirmed the analyses of the aqueous extracts. To obtain optimum substrate protection the protective coatings system
must be carefully evaluated considering many factors,
such as
environment;
0 physical chemistry of pigment-vehicle combination in different environments;
0 chemical
reactions that may occur between
pigment and the vehicle while paint is in the
container before it is used;
0 electrochemical
reactions that occur at the
anodic and cathodic areas or interface between
the dry paint film and the steel substrate;
electrochemical reactions that take place when
coated steel substrate is exposed to high
humidity or condensed moisture (dew);
the coated steel substrate is exposed to salt
spray (fog) e.g. in a marine or chemical environment; and
Metal corrodes because of one or more environmental

factors and gradually disappears or disintegrates through
physical and chemical processes. Corrosion is essentially
the formation of a more stable compound of metal. Most
pure metals are unstable and tend to return to original
form.
Undoubtedly, corrosion plagued early Egyptians,
Hebrews and Greeks. There is evidence that an iron tool
was found inside the great pyramid of Khufu at Gizeh,
dated about 3100 B.C. In the Book of Judges of the Old
Testament, iron is mentioned in connection with construction of chariots. Homers Iliad, written about 1200 B.C.,
also contains a reference to iron. A broken axle on a
chariot in 2000 B.C. was as embarrassing as a corroded
water tank in the twentieth century.
An early reference to protecting iron or steel against
corrosion is i n the writings of Pliny the Elder, written
about 1900 years ago. He describes how iron workers used
bituminous materials for varnishing iron. White lead and
fatty acid pitch also is mentioned for use as a protective
coating.
One method to prevent corrosion is to incorporate inhibitive pigments in the protective coating applied to
metallic substrates. Their purpose is to impart corrosion
inhibitive properties to the organic or inorganic binders or
vehicle portions of the primer coatings.
Many investigators consider only the pigment, and
not the vehicle, when they attempt to evaluate a corrosion
inhibitive pigment.
I. SUGGESTED INHIBITIVE MECHANISMS

reported in 1954 that water was noncorrosive after contact with paints prepared by grinding
basic pigments in linseed oil. Immersion tests showed
lead and calcium soaps of formic acid were corrosive.
Lead and calcium soaps of azelaic and pelargonic acids
were inhibitive.
The corrosion of steel is retarded by several
mechanisms:
By anodic inhibitors such as red lead, zinc
yellow, strontium chromate, etc.
By cathodic inhibitors or cathodic polarization
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coated steel substrate is immersed in fresh
water.
Misleading information can be derived from salt spray
(fog) or salt water immersion tests, when steel panels are
coated with films that are not alkali resistant. U.R. Evans
pointed out that sodium hydroxide can soften oil-modified
films and lead to their disintegration and a type of film
failure not encountered in a salt-free environment. Fancutt6 and Hudson tested 127 paint systems on steel immersed in sea water. They confirmed Evan's views.
Mayne' reported that panels coated with polystyrene
and immersed in sea water for 46 days showed rust
nodules at the anodes and liquid filled blisters at the
cathode areas. Liquid in these cathodic areas was 1.1 to
1.3 normal sodium hydroxide. Mayne expressed it i n simple chemical equations:
4Fe" + 8CI- -+4FeCI, + 8e- (anodic reaction)
The 8 electrons are consumed by reacting with water and
oxygen to form sodium hydroxide viz:
8e20, + 8Na' + 4H20+8NaOH (cathodic reaction)
When products at the anodic and cathodic areas combine in the presence of excess oxygen, the final product is
rust or Fe,O,.H,O.
4FeCI, + 8NaOH + 0,-2Fe,O;H,O
+ 8NaCI + 2H20
With the indicated reformation of sodium chloride,
and in the presence of moisture (water), the overall reaction is repeated.
The above reactions8 describe the corrosion process
i f salt (sodium chloride) is present. If only oxygen and
water are present (no corrosive salts) the electrochemical
dorrosion of iron (formation of rust) is as follows:
protection. Usually these paints rely on thick films (10 to 20

mils) and freedom from pinholes to protect the substrate.
Chemical inhibitive films are useful because they are
not as sensitive as the mechanical film to undercutting
when small breaks or pores are present. Also, moisture
permeability does not have to be as low to ensure useful
film life. The pigments in inhibitive paints act as a source
of a passivating agent.
II. EFFECT OF PIGMENT VOLUME

CONCENTRATION
Pigment volume concentration (PVC) and critical pigment volume concentration (CPVC) of anticorrosive
primers are very important. PVC is the ratio of pigment
volume to the volume of nonvolatile material, .e. pigment
and binder present in the coating. It is usually expressed
as a percentage. CPVC is that level of pigmentation in dry
paint, where just sufficient binder is present to fill the
voids between the pigment particles. CPVC is especially
significant in flat paints.
Various film properties are greatly affected by variations in PVC. Asbeck and Van Loo9 showed how formulating can affect the parameters of permeability,
rusting and blistering. These authors showed there is a
minimum of rusting and blistering when PVC is slightly
less than CPVC. Eickhoff'O also demonstrated this with a
series of epoxy-polyamide primers applied to cold rolled
steel panels and exposed at tide range. The PVCs varied
from 17.5% to 42.0%. The 42% PVC primers were very
blister- and corrosion-resistant.
The evaluation of an experimental anticorrosive pigment can be very misleading, even erroneous, i f the primer
formulator merely substitutes the experimental pigment
for a pigment of proven performance on an equal volume
basis.
PVC and CPVC are extremely important when formulating anticorrosive primers and subsequently interpreting their behavior in various environments.
4Fe "+4Fe++ + 8e- (anodic reaction)

20, + 4H,O + 8e-80H- (cathodic reaction)
By combining these two reactions we obtain:
4Fe" + 20, + 4H2O-4Fe(OH), (yellow rust)
In the presence of excess oxygen, red rust forms.
4Fe(OH), + 0,-+2Fe,O;H,O
+ 2H,O
This reaction shows that water is a by-product of corrosion. Once corrosion has started, it is self perpetuating,
as long as oxygen can penetrate the paint film. Thus, low
oxygen and moisture permeabilities are very important
film properties - especially if a steel surface must depend
only on mechanical or barrier protection.
Paints prevent corrosion by various mechanisms:
Mechanical protection or thick films;
Chemical inhibition; and
Galvanic or cathodic protection.
Mechanical protection is simple: the paint film acts
as a waterproof coating or an electrical insulator between
the anodic and cathodic areas. If the surface to be protected is not completely covered with a film free of pores,
corrosion may not only continue at the exposed sections
of the steel, but also accelerate due to concentrated
anodic attack.
Paints specially prepared for application in strong
acid and alkali environments provide effective mechanical
111. LIFE EXPECTANCY OF A PAINT FILM

How long will a paint film protect a steel substrate? A
discussion of corrosion inhibitive pigments is not complete without mention of four important variables:
Environment;
Surface preparation;
0 Composition of the pigment and vehicle; and
0
Dry film thickness of the paint.
The Protective Coatings Sub-Committee of the British Iron
and Steel Research Association11published some very interesting results. Steel specimens were primed with two
coats of red lead-linseed oil and topcoated with two coats
of iron oxide-linseed oil. The panels were exposed in an industrial atmosphere (Sheffield, England). Other studies of
a similar nature have been reported by Liebman',.
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

139
Not for Resale
SSPC CHAPTER84.3
73
8627940 0003587 707
mineral spirits and used to replace raw linseed oil.

Sometimes Fed. Spec. TT-P-86, Type 1 red lead primer
had excellent viscosity stability and sometimes it would
gel in 24 hours. Sometimes if the gelled paint aged 7 to 15
days it would de-gel, revert to its original viscosity, and be
suitable for use.
After extensive laboratory studies18 it was learned
that when the oil polymerizing temperature was 625 to
650F (330-343"C), the red lead paint gelled. If the
polymerizing temperature was 575 to 585 "F (302-307OC),
package-stable red lead primers were easily obtained. The
acid number of polymerized oil was not a controlling factor. The only conclusion was that the nature of the linseed
oil polymer formed at the higher temperature was the offending factor.
A study of the chemical reactions of a pigmentvehicle combination that occurs in a closed container is
discussed by Eickhoff, et. al.''.
It describes the effects of varying the true red lead
(Pb,O,)
content of the pigment, time, temperature,
moisture, and solubility of the reaction products in the
vehicle. The study concluded that red lead pigments containing 92% or more Pb30, do not react with alkyd resin
vehicles to form lead phthalate.
Effect of Surface Preparation on Paint Life

Surface Preparation
Sand blasted
Relative
Durability
10.3 years
Pickled
Intact Mill Scale
9.6 years
8.3 years
Weathered & Hand Cleaned
2.3 years
The effect of surface preparation on paint life, as

shown above, is self-evident.
IV. POLARIZATION
Polarization has been described in technical literature
for ears'^,'^,^^. In corrosion prevention its usage is becoming more common. Following is a very preliminary discussion of polarization. A more detailed discussion appears in references 16 and 17.
Moisture or water makes iron or steel corrode.
Hydrogen ions from the water or moisture corrode steel
and one product is hydrogen gas. Hydrogen, as bubbles,
collects on the cathodic areas of steel and acts as a
blanket to reduce corrosion. This is called polarization.
If it occurs on the cathode, it is called cathodic
polarization. Practically all water or moisture has some
dissolved oxygen. Oxygen combines with the covering of
hydrogen; the covering is destroyed; more water is formed
and polarization starts again. The result is that corrosion
continues unabated. In this case oxygen in the air acts as
a depolarizer. It is for this reason that water or moisture
with a high oxygen concentration is more corrosive.
B. SITE TWO: REACTION IN THE FILM

What reactions occur between pigment and the nonvolatile portion of the vehicle after paint is spread in a thin
film? It is common knowledge that when a mixture of raw
linseed oil and metallic driers is spread in a thin film and
allowed to dry, a wide variety of organic acids are formed.
These include formic, acetic, propionic, ketoxy, etc. It is
easy to understand how basic pigments in oxidizing oilmodified, alkyd resins can readily affect dry film properties
of paint.
An example of paint film that becomes hard and brittle when aged is a zinc chromate primer, made according
to Federal Specification TT-P-645. If a similar primer is
made with the zinc chromate replaced by an equal volume
of basic lead silicochromate, the dry paint film is tougher
and more flexible than zinc chromate pigmented film. This
is an example of a factor that should be considered when
the formulator selects a pigment-vehicle combination for a
given purpose. Other factors to consider include drying
time, color retention, and chalk resistance.
Metallic soaps formed in the dry paint film from different basic pigments impart different physical properties
to the dry paint film. These physical properties influence
hardness, toughness, flexibility, and adherence of paint to
the steel substrate.
O'Neill and Brettz0studied reactions in paint films between the paint and the atmosphere, between the paint
and the substrate, and between the medium (binder or
vehicle) and the pigment.
They showed red lead and zinc oxide are appreciably
reactive in the dry film; iron oxide and calcium carbonate
very much less so; and anatase titanium dioxide showed
V. CHEMICAL REACTIONS IN PAINTS

A can of liquid paint is a chemical factory. This applies to the same paint when it is spread over an area in a
thin film that changes from liquid to solid film. There are
two reaction sites between the pigment and nonvolatile
portion of the vehicle.
A. SITE ONE: REACTIONS IN THE PAINT CAN

--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
What reactions occur between the pigment and the

nonvolatile portion of the vehicle while paint is in the can?
Regardless of the chemical reactions, they have an important bearing on liquid properties (viscosity, drying time,
etc.) of paint in the can and the physical properties (hardness, flexibility, adhesion, weather resistance) of paint
when it is spread over an area in a thin film and allowed to
dry.
During World War II everyone was in a hurry. Due to
shortages of materials, someone developed a product
calted "linseed replacement oil." The linseed oil was heatpolymerized. It was then blended with raw linseed oil and
140
Not for Resale
93 W 8 6 2 7 9 4 0 0003588 b 4 5 W
SSPC CHAPTER*4.3
The initial reaction takes place in a water slurry of litharge

and chromic acid.
no detectable reactivity. They also reported on the percent

metal in films of linseed oil dried on different metal
substrates. Lead, copper, cadmium and zinc substrates
have an appreciable effect on the percent metal in the
various films. Iron was considerably less and aluminum
none. If the percent metal in the dried linseed oil film was
relatively high, the drying time was shortened.
2Pb0
Characteristics of common inhibitive pigments are

discussed in alphabetical sequence (see Table 1.)
3Pb0
Commerciallyz1,this pigment is known as modified

barium metaborate. The theoretical chemical formula is:
BaB,O,. HzO.
Pb0.PbCr0,+4Pb0.PbCr04
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Color . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Orange
Specific Gravity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..4.10
Pounds per Solid Gallon . . . . . . . . . . . . .27.5
Pounds per solid gallon . . . . . . . . . . . . .34.1
Refractive Inex. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1.55-1.60

.White
4(4Pb0.PbCr04) + 3Si02+4(Pb0.PbCr0,)
3(3Pb0. PbSiO,)
Physical Properties
Specific Gravity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3.24-3.35
Color.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Temperature is increased and the tetrabasic lead

chromate reacts with silica to form monobasic lead
chromate and tri-basic lead silicate.
A. BARIUM METABORATE
.30
H2
CrO-PbO'PbCrO,
In a rotary kiln unreacted lead monoxide (PbO) reacts with

the monobasic lead chromate to form tetrabasic lead
chromate.
VI. SOME COMMON INHIBITIVE PIGMENTS
Oil Absorption . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. 1 0 to 18
Oil Absorption ....................
Av. Particle Size. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .4.8 micrometres
Specific Surface Area . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1.3 mz/cm3
Type of Inhibitor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Anodic

In 1874 Benedikt2* prepared barium metaborate
(BaO.B,O,) by fusing sodium borate and barium chloride.
Levin and McMurdieZ3reviewed these early studies and
confirmed the findings of Benedikt.
The modified barium metaboratez4 is prepared by
coating barium metaborate with silica. According to
Buckman, et.
the corrosion inhibitive properties of
modified barium metaborate are due to alkalinity and the
metaborate ion which passivates the anode in essentially
the same manner as the chromate ion.
Both active ingredients contribute to the corrosion inhibitive mechanism of basic lead silicochromate. These
active ingredients are monobasic lead chromate and gamma tribasic lead silicate. Mechanical mixtures of these
two compounds plus silica have some corrosion inhibitive
properties, but they do not have as effective inhibitive
properties as the product made by calcination. Tribasic
lead silicate has definite anticorrosive properties when formulated with drying oils or oleoresinous vehicles. When
formulated alone in an oleoresinous vehicle, the tribasic
lead silicate pigment i s very reactive and has a very brief
package stability.
It is not fully understood why the kiln-formed tribasic
lead silicate in combination with monobasic lead
chromate is a package-stable product in many paint
vehicles. It also is more effective as an anticorrosive pigment than either monobasic lead chromate or basic lead
silicate alone or a mechanical mixture of monobasic lead
chromate and tribasic lead silicate.
The kiln product, monobasic lead chromate-tribasic
lead silicate, is stable with a wide variety of coating
vehicles. This indicates the material is highly complexed.
Microscopic examination of the milled pigment reveals
that practically all of the silica core surface is covered with
a very thin coating of basic lead chromate.
This pigment has relatively low hiding power. For this
reason small amounts of red iron oxide (5 to 10% by
weight) are ideal for improving the hiding power. Low
B. BASIC LEAD SILICO-CHROMATE*'* *

This pigmentz5 is a chemical complex that results
from mixing litharge, chromic acid and silica in a water
slurry2'. The filtered product is furnaced at about 600C and
ground to a size suitable for use in paints. The resultant
product is a mixture of two chemical compounds monobasic lead chromate and gamma tri-basic lead
silicate - on a silica core. X-ray and chemical analyses
show basic lead silico-chromate pigment has the following
typical composition:
Gamma Tri-basic Lead Silicate . . . . . . . . . .25%

Monobasic Lead Chromate . . . . . . . . . . . ..29%
Silica . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
_-

46%
141
Not for Resale
SSPC CHAPTERm4.3 93 D 8627940 0003589 581 W
Loss on
Calcium
Dhosohosilicate
Ca0
P,O.
B,O*
sio.
Ba0
lanition
Mean Part.
Size Microns
44.9
9.0
41 .O
4.6
SrO
ZnO
2.9
67.5
5.6
5.6
5.6
7
5
7
2.6
2.6
2.6
39.8
13.2
3.8
2.96
54.5
39.7
3.9
2.86
69
11.4
46.5
4.6
2.6
55
10.2
44.9
44.9
43.5
10.1
10.1
17.4
38.9
38.9
33.0
Calcium barium
DhosDhosilicate
37.1
6.1
Calcium strontium
DhosDhosilicate
37.2
7.8
Zinc
DhOSDhOSiliCatB
46.5
8.9
The suggested mechanism of corrosion inhibition is

that of anodic passivation. Extracts of lead suboxide are
depositedz8on the anode and insulate the anodic areas
from the cathodic areas, thus preventing under-film corrosion. Lead suboxide functions as an anticorrosive pigment
by reacting with the oxidation products of the vehicle. For
example, with linseed oils or oxidizing alkyds, lead soaps
are formed in the presence of water or water vapor,
hydrolyze, concentrate on the steel substrate and are adsorbed .on the metal surface. This results in anodic
passivation. Mayne and RamshawZ9discuss in detail the
formation of lead soaps in paint films applied to Steel Surfaces. Even with the high metallic content of lead in the
lead suboxide pigment, it does not function as a cathodic
inhibitor similar to zinc dust.
hiding power also facilitates use of this pigment i n pastel

primers and topcoats.
A commercial grade of this pigment is described in
ASTM Specification D-1648.
C. BASIC BOROSILICATE AND BASIC

PHOSPHOSILICATE COMPOSITE PIGMENTS
These essentially white or colorless pigments'27)are
silicate composites of basic phosphates of calcium,
barium, magnesium, or zinc. Calcium phosphate, calcium
borate and silicates are recognized corrosion inhibitors.
Complexing these crystalline pigments and changing
them to amorphous pigments improves their anticorrosive
propert es.
These pigments function as anodic and cathodic
depressants. However, the cathodic protection is the more
pronounced. These pigments form metallic soaps with oil
or oil-modified alkyds. The hydrolytic products resulting
from the hydrolysis of the metallic soaps inhibit corrosion.
Corrosion is inhibited by direct and indirect functionality, soap formation, acting on the barrier coat and
function improvement in adhesion.
Boron and phosphosilicate pigments include the
calcium, zinc, barium, and strontium types. Most of them
are relatively insoluble in water. Their specific gravities
and tinting strengths are low. Because they are white or
colorless, they permit a wide selection of tint and color.
E. MOLYBDATE PIGMENTS
This class of pigments is commercially available in
two types of compounds. The molybdated zinc oxide pigment is used for oleoresinous-organic solvent types of anticorrosive primers. The basic calcium zinc molybdate is
suggested for use in latex and other water-borne anticorrosive primers.
indicate that a series of
X-ray diffraction
relatively pure pigments can be produced ranging from 1:l
to 1O:l molar ratio of ZnO to MOO,. The molybdated zinc
oxide pigment has the general formula (ZnO), (Moo,),,
where y is greater than x.
The basic calcium zinc molybdate is specifically for
water-borne and latex metal protective primers3'. The
molybdates inhibit corrosion by anodic passivation. The
following is quoted from Sherwin Williams Bulletin No.
343, page 2:
D. LEAD SUBOXIDE**
Lead suboxide is a gray amorphous pigment manufactured from agitated molten pig lead in an electric furnace.
It is not a true chemical compound but a mixture of lead
and lead oxide on a core of metallic lead. A typical composition is:
The mode of passivation is believed to occur

as follows: as iron corrodes in a solution containing chloride and sulfate, molybdate ions in competition with these ions adsorb on the surface
and form a complex with divalent iron ions. This
complex offers no protection. However, the
142

Oil
Absorption
34.7
34.7
32.0
Calcium
boro.
silicates
Sp.
Gravity
Not for Resale
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
TABLE 1
TYPICAL PIGMENT COMPOSITIONS
SSPC C H A P T E R J V - 3 93
8627940 0003590 2 T 3 W
shows that the corrosion inProlonged
hibitive powers of red lead are not because it is an alkaline
pigment or because it acts solely as an oxidizing agent
over anodic areas.
As early as 1951 Mayne38 showed that water was
non-corrosive after contact with linseed oil fatty acid
soaps of lead, zinc, barium, etc. After some involved
laboratory procedures Mayne39 concluded that in the
presence of water and oxygen the lead soaps of the
linseed oil fatty acids yield soluble inhibitive degradation
products. Mayne40also stated that the soaps of saturated
acids such as palmitic and stearic do not render water
non-corrosive. On the other hand, lead soaps of oleic,
linoleic and linolenic degraded to yield rust inhibitive compounds.
Mayne and Ramshaw41showed that lead salts were
more efficient inhibitors than fatty acid soaps of calcium
or sodium. Optimum efficiency occurred when both the
mono-basic and di-basic acids had a total chain length of 8
to 9 carbon atoms. They showed that azelaic acid was the
principal degradation product of linseed oil fatty acids.
More extensive work showed that oiticia oil and tung oil
metallic soaps had poor rust inhibitive properties relative
to linseed oil metallic soaps.
In conclusion, the inhibitive action of red lead is complex. In addition to its oxidizing properties, red lead forms
soaps in the dry film. These soaps undoubtedly enhance
the mechanical properties of the film and in the presence
of moisture, hydrolyze to release organic acids and soluble
lead compounds. Mayne has shown that soaps can inhibit
corrosion of steel. Mayne's studies in combination with
studies by Hawke &
indicate that inhibitive or
passivation of steel under a red lead paint film can occur
by three mechanisms, either singly or in combination, so
that one supplements the other.
1. Anodic adsorption of organic acid molecules. A
water extract of linseed fatty acids (no lead compound present) has a definite corrosion-inhibitive
effect.
divalent iron is oxidized by dissolved oxygen to

the ferric or trivalent state. Thus, the ferrousmolybdate complex on the surface of the metal is
converted to a ferric molybdate which is insoluble in neutral or basic solutions. Eventually, all of
the corroding surface is covered with a protective
film of ferric molybdate and the corrosion
ceases.
Physical Properties
Basic Zn Molybdate
Color. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . white
Sp.Gravity . . . . . . . . . . . 5.06
--
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Wt. per Solid Gal.

42.1 Ibs.
Oil Absorption . . . . . . . . 14
Av. Particle Size . . . . . . .1.35microns
Specific Resistance
(Ohms) . . . . . . . . . . . . 500
Basic CaZn Molybdate

white
3.00
25.0 Ibs.
18
2.5 microns
5000
~__
~.
~
F. RED LEAD**
Red lead probably has the longest history as an anticorrosive pigment. In 77 A.D. the ancient Roman writer
pl in^^^ mentioned that a painter called Micias used red
lead as a pigment about 320 B.C. Today, red lead is
available in various33grades, such as 85%, 95% and 97%
PbJO,. Other than small amounts of trace elements, the remainder is lead oxide or PbO. Pure red lead is the lead salt
of ortho-plumbic acid (plumbus orthoplumbate).
The structural formula is:
Red lead is made by heating metallic lead in an excess of

oxygen.
2PB
+ 0,-
heat
2Pb0
2. Anodic adsorption of soluble lead compounds.

Under certain conditions, soluble lead compounds will inhibit corrosion.
heat
6Pb0
2Pb,0,
Physical Properties
Color . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Orange
Specific Gravity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .8.9
Pounds per solid gallon . . . . . . . . . . . . .74.1
Oil absorption (gl100g) . . . . . . . . . . . . ..6 to 9
Av. particle size
3. Anodic precipitation by oxidation. In the

presence of red lead, ferrous compounds are oxidized to ferric compounds and precipitated on
the metal.
None of the hypotheses fully explain all of the observations. A provocative survey of the action of metal protective paints was prepared by Elm43.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .lto 3
micrometres
Type of Inhibitor
G. STRONTIUM CHROMATE*
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..Anodic
Strontium ~ h r o m a t e 'is
~ readily prepared by mixing a
solution of strontium nitrate with sodium chromate. The
result is a yellow pigment.
While red lead has the longest history of use as an

anti-corrosive pigment, it also has the longest history of
controversy regarding its corrosion inhibitive mechanism.
Sr(NO,),
143

Not for Resale
Na,CrO,+SrCrO,
+ 2NaN0,
SSPC CHAPTER*4.3
93
8627940 0 0 0 3 5 7 3 L3T
I. X0,-
The residual sodium nitrate content should be kept

below 0.8% in order to minimize blistering when it (SrCrO,)
is part of the anticorrosive pigment.
Many years ago strontium chromate was used for
making artists colors. Organic pigments have now replaced it as a color pigment.
As an anticorrosive pigment SrCrO, is used in
coatings for the light metal alloys. Babcock and
R e t h ~ i s c h , describe
~
the use of SrCrO, in combination
with aluminum pigment as an aluminum flake corrosioninhibitive coating.
Strontium chromate can be purchased to meet
ASTM-D 1649.
This group of pigments is of scientific interest, but to

date, they do not appear to have any practical application
in coatings except as chromates, phosphates and molybdates. Cartledge46studied the behavior of inorganic ions
and molecules of the general formula X0,n- derived from
the elements of the VI to VIII groups of the periodic table.
The metals include salts or oxides of vanadium, niobium,
chromium, molybdenum, tungsten, technetium, rhenium,
ruthenium and osmium.
Technetium was especially interesting. The atomic
number is 43. It was the first of the previously unknown
elements to be artificially prepared in 1937 by Perrier and
Segle4. Its radioactivity is so low that dilute solutions can
be handled without special precautions.
The nuclear properties of technitium make it useful in
studying the mechanism of inhibition. The inhibition
depends upon the maintenance of some minimum concentration of pertechnetate. In this case it was potassium
pertechnetate (KTcO,).
Not all X0,n-1 type ions are inhibitors. The mechanism
of inhibition becomes more complex due to differences in
behavior of the SO,, CrO,=, PO,= and Mn0,- ions. It is well
known that the sulfate ion accelerates corrosion. According to Pryor and
the phosphate ion is an active inhibitor if oxygen is present. If inhibition by chromates is
due to the unreduced ion, it is difficult to understand the
great difference between the sulfate and chromate ions.
Cartledge4gproposed the necessity of looking within the
inhibitor particle for the property responsible for its unique
action, and led to the hypothesis that a suitable degree of
internal polarity might be the distinguishing feature of inhibitors of the XO,. type.
Typical Properties
Color . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Strontium as SrO.
.Yellow
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..41.0%
(mini mum)
Chromium as CrO,. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .41.0%

(minimum)
....................
.0.1/0
(maximum)
Sulfate as SO, . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.0.2%
(maximum)
Sp. Gravity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.3.67 to 3.77
Chloride as CI
INHIBITORS
Pounds per solid gallon . . . . . . . . . . . . .30.6 to 31.4

Oil Absorption . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.33
Particle Size (microns) . . . . . . . . . . . . . .10to 15
Type of Inhibitor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Anodic
H. TRIBASIC LEAD PHOSPHOSILICATE**
J. ZINC CHROMATE, BASIC*
This is a corrosion-inhibitive white pigment described

in U S . Patent 3,080,248. It can be modified with chromic
acid to make a light orange lead silicate-lead chromate
pigment. This material conforms to ASTM-D 2744.
Basic zinc chromate is also known as zinc tetroxy

chromate. It is the most popular of the oxychromates. The
assigned chemical formula is 4Zn(OH), Zn CrO,.
Physical Properties
Physical Properties
Sp. Gravity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Color.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .White
Pounds per Solid Gallon . . . . . . . . . . . ..50.0
.12 to 16
Oil Absorption . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Mean Particle Size. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .0.25 micron
Type of Inhibitor
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..Anodic
The water solubility is very low - on theorder of 0.02 g

CrO, per liter. For comparison, the common potassium
zinc yellow is about 1.1 g. CrO, per liter of water.
The principal use for this basic pigment is in the production of a wash primer50or etch primer. A popular wash
primer formula is described in Steel Structures Painting
Council Specification SSPC-Paint 27 and also in Military
Spec. DOD-P-15328. These wash primers are two-compo-
Typical Composition
Lead oxide as PbO. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..83 to 87%

Phosphorous Pentoxide . . . . . . . . . . . . .4.5 to 5.25%
.7.1 to 7.9%
Silica as SiO, . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Water of Hydration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..1.5 to 2.5%
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

.3.87 to 3.97
.Yellow
Color . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Oil Absorption . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.46
Pounds per Solid Gallon . . . . . . . . . . . . .32.3 to 33.1
I44
Not for Resale
6627940 0003592 O76 m
SSPC C H A P T E R * 4 . 3 9 3
nent products and are mixed together just prior to use. Any
wash primer that cannot be used within a maximum of
eight hours after mixing with the acid diluent must be
discarded. The chemistry of wash primers is more fully
discussed by Rosenbloom5'.
Whiting52 published an excellent history and review
of the uses and types of wash primers. He believes they
function in three ways:
Properties of Zinc Dust
Color. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Total Zinc (as Zn) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .97%

Metallic Zinc (as Zn) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..94%
Zinc Oxide . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. 4 to 6%
Type of Inhibitor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Cathodic
1. by forming both an inorganic and organic film

on a metal surface,
electrical contact and also electrical contact with the steel

substrate. The zinc in inorganic zinc coatings is held in a
conductive medium so that particle-to-particle contact is
not required. Zinc dust in zinc rich coatings acts as the
anode and corrodes while protecting the iron or steel
substrate. The development and use of zinc-rich primers is
discussed by Charles Munger in a separate chapter.
2. by preventing or retarding corrosion, and
3. by providing a base that improves the adhesion and integrity of subsequent protective
coating systems.
Wash primers can be reactive or non-reactive. The
reactive type is a two-package product described in SSPCPaint 27. The non-reactive type is a one-package product.
This one-package type does not adhere to metals as well
as the two-package type. The essential components of
wash primers are phosphoric acid, chromate pigment and
a polyvinyl acetal resin - usually a vinyl butyral resin.
E i ~ k h o f studied
f~~
many variations of the reactive or
two-package wash primer. The overall performance of
these variations was considerably less than the original
two-package wash primer developed by Whiting52.
If optimum results are required, the metal surfaces
must be clean and free from dirt, grease, etc. If the metal is
steel, mill scale and rust must be removed to produce a
near-white to white metal surface. Some investigators say
a small amount of rust is not objectionable. However, any
visible rust will detract from wash primer performance especially if the painted steel object is continually
submerged in either fresh or salt water.
The thinnest coating that forms a continuous film is
recommended - e.g. 0.5 mils. Films over 1.0 mil dry film
thickness do not develop good adhesion or adequate
toughness. Wash primer is especially effective when applied to galvanized steel or aluminum, but is not effective i f
applied over another primer. It must be applied directly
over a metal substrate.
L. ZINC OXIDE
Zinc oxide was known long before C l e ~ p a t r a It
~ ~is. a
product of copper as well as zinc ore smelting. Zinc as an
element was discovered by Paracelsus in 1520. In 1850 the
New Jersey Zinc Company produced zinc oxide from the
metal, using a method which came to be known as the
American process.
Physical Properties
Sp. Gravity
.......................
.5.6
Weight per Solid Gallon . . . . . . . . . . . . .46.7 Ibs.

Color. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.White
Oil Absorption . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.10 to 25
Davy, in England,
Almost a century and a half
reported that metallic zinc would sacrificially plrotect steel
immersed in sea water. In 1916, GardneP promoted the
use of zinc dust in primers. From the mid-1940s the
development of zinc rich primers has progressed rapidly.
There are two general types - the organic and inorganic
binder types.
Gassing in the container can be a problem unless the
paint manufacturer is careful in formulating. Many of the
zinc rich paints are supplied in two containers and mixed
for use at the time of application. Zinc rich paints are also
supplied in one-package containers.
Zinc dusts vary in particle size. Accordingly, formulators' ideas vary as to which particle size is preferable.
Organic zinc rich paints depend on particle-to-particle
M. ZINC POTASSIUM CHROMATE*

Zinc potassium chromate or zinc yellow, in its crude
form, was prepared in the early part of the 19th century. In
1829 L a m p a d i ~ ssuggested
~~
its use as a paint pigment.
Zinc yellow as it is known today is a basic potassium zinc
chromate with the assigned formula 4Zn0.K20.4Cr0,.
3H,O. Brizzolara60et al pointed out that zinc yellow is a
unique compound and varies slightly in composition. Commercial zinc yellows contain very small amounts of
145
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Commercial zinc oxide is available in either acicular

or nodular form. Normally, zinc oxide is not considered a
corrosion inhibiting pigment. For many years zinc oxide
has been used in combination with zinc yellow-alkyd
primers to improve the film-forming properties of the zinc
yellow. With the advent of water-borne (latex) metal protective primers, zinc oxide has shown some excellent metal
protective properties. Mayne5' and Van Rooyen have
reported on the passivating action of various metallic
soaps of linseed fatty acids - including zinc. E v a n P
classifies zinc oxide as a cathodic inhibitor. While zinc oxide is used in many types of coatings, in this treatise only
its use in metal protective coatings is discussed.
K. ZINC DUST

.Gray
SSPC CHAPTER*4.3
73 H Ab27740 0003573 TO2

One of the producers of zinc phosphate cautions the
formulator that salt spray and high humidity diminish outdoor performance.
BarracloughB6and Harrison propose that zinc phosphate protects steel by phosphate ion donation. Barraclough believes further supporting evidence for
phosphate ion donation is shown by using the capacitance
ce1I tec hnique6.
PantzerB8 promoted the idea that phosphate
pigments build up protecting films in the anodic areas. His
report gives a schematic diagram showing the reaction
process for zinc phosphate.
MayneB8 has established that, even though zinc
phosphate has very low water solubility, aqueous extracts
from zinc phosphate ground in linseed oil are inhibitive
and behave similarly to an extract from zinc phosphatelinseed oil fatty acid soaps. Mayne also believes that during soap formation a small quantity of phosphoric acid is
liberated and possibly improves the protective properties
of paints containing this pigment.
sulphates and chlorides. See ASTM Specification D-478,

Type 1 for a description of the low sulfate, low chloride
type.
Color . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Yellow
. . . . . . . . . . . ..29.2 Ibs.
.34
Oil absorption ....................
Type of Inhibitor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..Anodic
Weight per Solid Gallon
There is some difference of opinion whether or not

this pigment is a true chemical compound. When mixed
with water, the pigment undergoes partial decomposition
and releases potassium chromate and potassium dichromate. This type of zinc chromate is not suitable for making
wash primers or etch primers.
With the development of fast drying vehicles, zinc
chromate is used extensively in aircraft primers. Zinc
yellow-alkyd primers have a tendency to become brittle
with age, perhaps due to the common tendency of formulators to include some zinc oxide along with the zinc
chromate.
Like other pigments, the corrosion-inhibitive
mechanism of zinc potassium chromate is not readily explained. The slightly soluble chromate ion is definitely a
factor. Zinc yellow is not recommended for use in linseed
oil vehicles because linseed oil films are not sufficiently
water-resistant. The pigment is excellent for use in the
water-resistant, oil-modified, synthetic resins.
According to Jordan and Whitby3 chromates can inhibit corrosion by keeping the primary invisible oxide film
in good repair. Chromates are essentially anodic inhibitors. Chromates also precipitate ferrous salts even in
the absence of alkali to give a mixture of ferric and
chromic oxides - a protective matrix which binds the pigment particles to the metal.
Further theorizing is i n t e r e ~ t i n gbut
~ ~ newly designed ard carefully conducted experiments are needed to
more fully explain laboratory and field observations.
O. ZINC PHOSPHO OXIDE

This is a relatively new, white anticorrosive pigment.
According to Davidson70, it is an oxide of phosphorous
acid and zinc - sometimes called a zinc phospho oxide
complex.
-Physical Properties
Color..
Sp. Gravity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Zinc Content (as Zn) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .61OO/

Av. Particle Size. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . less
. than 1
micrometre
According to D a v i d s ~ n ~
this pigment is a compound made from zinc as a cation and a phosphite anion.
US. Patent 3,969,293 describes this complex as a basic
zinc phosphite (XZnO.ZnHP0,) where X varies from 0.5 to
10. By using the proper proportions of zinc oxide, water,
and phosphorous acid, tribasic zinc phosphite can be
formed (3 ZnO .Zn HPO,). This pigment has low hiding
power, enabling its use in pastel primers and topcoats.
Zinc phosphate is one of the more recent non-lead,

non-chromate, corrosion inhibitive pigment developments.
Early work done in England was reported by J.B. Harr i s ~ and
~ - his
~ ~associates.
~
One formula assigned for zinc
phosphate is Zn3(P0,),2H,0.
P. ZINC SALTS OF ORGANIC

N ITROCOMPOUNDS
.White
.30
With the imposition of more and more environmental

restrictions, the development of lead-free, chromate-free,
anticorrosive pigments is important. Pantzer reported on
a zinc organic nitrocompound (Sicorin).
Specific Gravity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..3.15

Wt. per solid gallon, Ibs. . . . . . . . . . . . . .26.2
Particle shape .....................
Lamel la
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

.White
.4.06
Wt. per Solid Gallon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..33.8

.40 to 60
Oil absorption ....................
N. ZINC PHOSPHATE
Color. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Oil absorption . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
..........................
146
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73
8627740 0003594 949
Physical Properties
Zinc Content . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.about 45%
Organic components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .a bout 50 O/O

Nature of the compound. . . . . . . . . . . . .powder
Color . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . colorless
Resistance to temperature. . . . . . . . . . .about 300C
(572 OF)
Sp. Gravity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.2.6
Pounds per Solid Gallon . . . . . . . . . . . . .21.7

Oil Absorption . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.35 to 40
P a n t ~ e rstates
~~
Sicorin is an electrochemical inhibitor and suggests its use in combination with zinc
phosphate.
VIL SUMMARY
*Chromate pigments are toxic substances that are closely

regulated. Users are urged to follow all applicable health,
safety and environmental requirements in applying, handling or disposing of these materials.
*Based on their toxicity and the precautions required by
law for their use and disposal, SSPC has proposed to withdraw all SSPC specifications for paints which use lead
pigments.
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
From the efforts of investigators to understand the

secrets of corrosion inhibition, various schools of thought
have developed their own theories and explanations. The
coatings industry must maintain a certain practical attitude toward the results from these investigators. Of
necessity it cannot ignore the effect of the binder, or resin,
or oil that carries the pigment.
A ~ p l e b yElm76,
~~,
Clay and
Ashworth and
Evans79,Barraclough and HarrisonBoand MayneBi performed physicochemical tests that often included some type of organic or
inorganic binder to form a protective coating that will protect our bridges, tanks, automobiles and the myriad of
other items.
In summary, Evans considers the chromate ion to act
because of its oxidizing power. Uhligs2ascribes the inhibitive mechanism to the effects associated with absorption of the unreduced ions. Pryor and Cohena3ascribe the
action of molybdate and tungstate ions as arising from
film repair, even though the molybdate and tungstate ions
are weaker oxidizing agents than the chromate ions.
tate from liquid or gas, or whether these continue to grow

by addition of single molecules or by aggregation of the
precipitated units.
So what does the future hold concerning new pigments for anticorrosive paints? For one thing waterthinnable binders and pigments compatible with them will
be large market factors. Much of our knowledge of the
mechanism of anticorrosive pigments is based on studies
of oleoresinous film formers. The water solubility or water
dispersion of alkyds, epoxies, etc. creates a new class of
film formers and as a result will require new studies to explain their pigment-vehicle anticorrosive mechanism.
Equally important is the issue of pigment toxicity. Our
knowledge of the corrosion inhibitive mechanism of nonlead, non-chromate pigments in aqueous media is extremely limited. The present non-lead or non-chromate
pigments leave much to be desired. In the next five to ten
years we will see the development of a whole new class of
commercially available, anticorrosive compounds. These
compounds now exist - it is just a question of some
modifications in order to put them to use.
J. Paul Hogan said, Its what you learn, after you
think you know it all, that counts.
VIII. CONCLUSION
Today, most industries are experiencing numerous
and rapid changes, many of them influenced by concerns
about pollution and toxicity. The list of scientific cont r i b u t o r s has become long and varied. Maybe
Shakespearea4was peering into his crystal ball when he
wrote, O for a Muse of fire that would ascend the
brightest heaven of invention.
There is magic about research. It is planned,
calculating progress. When improperly planned it is extravagant and wasteful, but the one item more costly than
research is no research.
Barnetta5 aptly stated the problem when he wrote
Probably the weakest point in our knowledge of pigments
is that we do not know how our pigments are formed, how
many molecules combine to make initial units to precipi-

147
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8627940 0003595 B B 5
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
REFERENCES

chapter: AI Beitelman, Stephen G. Cantrell, Alex Chasan,
Theodore Dowd, Raye Fraser, Carl Fuller, Tom Ginsberg, Leonard
Haynie, A.R. House, W.G. Huckle, Sid Levinson, Charlie R. Lewis,
Jr., Joe Mazia, Robert C. McClelland, Marshall McGee, Gordon D.
McLeod, Ray McMaster, John Montle, Chuck Munger, John Perchall, Lother Sander, L.M. Sherman, V.P. Simpson, William
Spangenberg, Armand Stolte, Hank Stoner, Verne J. Todd,
William Wallace, Duane T. Werkman and Rufus Wint.
1. K.C. Bailey, The Elder Plinys Chapters on Chemical Subjects,

Edward Arnold, London, p. 61, 101; 1932.
2. J.E.O. Mayne, Corrosion Technology, pp. 286-290, Oct. 1954.
3. J.E.O. Mayne, and D. Van Rooyen, Journal of Applied Chem.
4, pp. 384-394, July 1954.
4. Appleby, A.J. and J.E.O. Mayne, Journal of Oil & Colour
Chemists Assoc., pp. 59, 69, 1976.
5. J.E.O. Mayne, and E.H.J. Ramshaw, Applied Chemistry, Vol.
13, p. 553, 1963.
6. F. Fancutt, and J.C. Hudson, Journal of Iron and Steel lnstitute, p. 154, 1946.
7. J.E.O. Mayne, Journal of Oil and Colour Chemists Assoc., pp.
183-199, March 1957.
8. J.E.O. Mayne, The Mechanism of the Protection of Iror and
Steel by Paint, Anticorrosion, pp. 3-8, Oct. 3, 1973.
9. Asbeck and Van Loo. Critical Pigment Volume Relationships Industrial & Eng. Chem., Vol. 41, p. 1470, 1949.
10. Eickhoff, Unpublished information.
11. F. Fancutt, and J.C. Hudson, The Work of the Protective
Coatings (Corrosion) Sub-Comm: British Iron & Steel
Research Assoc., Journal of Oil and Colour Chemists
Assoc., Vol. 35, No. 396, Aug. 1962.
12. A.J. Liebman, Mechanical Surface Preparation See/ Structures Painting Council Manual, Vol. 1, p. 8, 1954.
13. J.O.M. Bockris, Modern Aspects of Electrochemistry Butterworth Scientific Publications, London, p. 180, 1954.
14. J.A.V. Butler, Trans. Faraday Soc., Vol. 19, pp. 729-734, 1924.
15. K.J. Vetter, Electrokinetics Academic Press, New York, 1967.
16. J.F. Bosich, Corrosion Prevention for Practicing Engineers
Barnes and Noble Inc., New York, 1970.
17. Clive Hare. Corrosion and the Preparation of Metallic Surfaces of Painting. Federation of Soc. for Coating
Technology, Unit 26, 1978.
18. Unpublished information.
19. A.J. Eickhoff, L.M. Kebrich, and J.G. Wills, Red Lead-Alkyd
Resin Reactions. lnd. & Eng. Chemistry, Vol. 37, p. 399, April,
1945.
20. L.A. ONeill, and R.A. Brett. Chemical Reactions in Paint
Films Journal of Oil & Colour Chemists Assoc., Vol. 52, pp.
1052-1074, 1969.
21. S. Buckman, et al., figment Handbook, John Wiley and Sons,
New York, Vol. 1, pp. 935-946.
22. R. Benedikt, On Some Salts of Boric Acid, Ber. Deut. Chem.
Ges., Vol. 7, pp. 700-704, 1874.
23. E.M. Levin, and H.E. McMurdie, The System BaO.B,O, J.
Am. Ceram. Society, Vol 32, No. 3, pp. 99-105, 1941.
24. US. Patents 3,033,700 and 3,060,049.
25. U S . Pat. 2,668,122.
26. Eickhoff and Pitrot, Basic Lead Silicochromate Anticorrosive
Pigment, Industrial 8. Eng. Chem., Vol. 51, p. 57A, August
1959.
27. W.C. Spangenberg. Private communication.
28. Harvey Bennett, Private communication.
29. Mayne and Ramshaw, Jour. Applied Chem., Vol. 13, p. 553,
1963.
30. U S . Patent 3,677,783. A basic zinc molybdate.
31. U S . Patent 3,353,979.
32. Pliny, Historia Naturalis, 34-54;35, 20C AD 77.
33. A.J. Eickhoff, Anticorrosive Pigments, Chapter 4 of Organic
Protective Coatings by Von Fischer & Bobalek, Reinhold Pub.
Corp.
34. Jordan & Whitby, Sixteenth Bulletin Res. Assn. of British
Paint, Colour & Varnish Mfgrs., Teddington, England, 1936.
35. A.J. Eickhoff, ti W.E. Shaw, Principles of Protecting Metals
with Organic Coatings. Corrosion, Oct. 1948.
36. W. Beck, Reaction Change of Red Lead Films Schweig.
Arch. Angew. Wiss. Tech., Vol. 8, pp. 45-52, 1942.
37. H. Wagner, Korrosion & Metalschutz, Vol. 20, p. 221, 1944.
38. J.E.O. Mayne, J. Oil & Colour Chem. Assoc., Vol. 34, p. 473,
1951.
39. J.E.O. Mayne, The Mechanism of the Protection of Iron &
Steel by Paint. Anti-Corrosion, pp. 3-8, Oct. 1973.
40. Ibid., pp. 3-8.
41. J.E.O. Mayne, and E.J. Ramshaw, Appi. Chem. Vol. 10, p. 419,
1960.
BIOGRAPHY
Arnold J. Eickhoff, who has

retired, was a technical consultant in surface preparation and
steel painting problems. He
graduated from the University of
Arizona with a B.S. in chemistry.
He first became interested in
protective coatings at the National Bureau of Standards in
Washington, D.C.
During World War II he was
concerned with marine corrosion
problems. After 26 years with
NL Industries he became Head of the Pigments and Coatings Section at the Research Laboratory.
Mr. Eickhoff was a consultant for the Steel Structures Painting
Council and chairman of a committee to develop specifications for
a latex metal primer and latex topcoat. He holds memberships in
the American Society for Testing and Materials,the American Chemical Society, the Federation of Societies for Paint Technology, and
the National Association of Corrosion Engineers. He is accredited
by NACE as a Corrosion Specialist.

148
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--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
S S P C C H A P T E R * 4 * 3 93
= 8627940
42. D.L. Hawke, & W. Shaw, Unpublished observations.

43. A.C. Elm, Paint Oil t Chem. Rev., pp. 16-32, 38, Aug. 19, 1948.
44. E. Lalor, Pigment Handbook, John Wiley and Sons, New York,
Vol. 1, pp. 851-859.
45. US. Patent 2,701,772 (Feb. 1955).
46. G.H. Cartledge, The Pertechnetate Ion as an Inhibitor of the
Corrosion of Iron and Steel. Corrosion, Vol. 11, pp. 335t-342t,
August, 1955.
47. C. Perrier, & E.J. Segre, Chemistry Phys., Vol. 5 , p. 712, 1937.
48. Pryor and Cohen, J. Electrochemical Soc., pp. 100, 203, 1953.
49. G.H. Cartledge, The Mechanism of the Inhibition of Corrosion by the Pertechnetate Ion, J. of Physical Chemistry, Vol.
59, p. 979, 1955.
50. US. Patent 2,525,107, Oct. 10, 1950.
51. Rosenbloom, Industrial 8, Eng. Chem., Vol. 45, p. 2561, Nov.
1953.
52. L.R. Whiting, Wash Primers, Magazine Corrosion, June, 1959.
53. A.J. Eickhoff, Unpublished information.
54. E. Davy, Communications to the Fifth Meeting of the British
Association, p. 34, 1835.
55. H.A. Gardner, Anticorrosion Paints for Steel Hulls, Scientific Section Circular, No. 49.
56. Percy, Metallurgy, John Murray, London, p. 524, 1861.
57. Mayne and Van Rooyen, Jour. Applied Chemistry (London),
Vol. 4, p. 384, July, 1954.
58. U.R. Evans, Metallic Corrosion, Passivity and Protection,
Longmanc Green and Co., New York, p. 535, 1945.
59. Lampadius, W. Tech. Oekon, Chem., Einige Berner Pungen fur
Farbenfabrikanten, Vol. 4, p. 443, 1829.
60. A.A. Brizzolara, et. al. Industrial and Eng. Chemistry, Vol. 29,
p. 656, June 1937.
61. A.J. Eickhoff, Unpublished data.
62. M.P. Wood, Rustless Coatings for Iron & Steel, Trans. Am.
Soc. Mech. Eng., 16, p. 671, 1895.
63. H.G. Cole, & H. Le Brocq, Journal Appl. Chem., Vol. 5, p. 149,
1955.
64. Burns & Schuh, Protective Coatings for Metals, New York, pp.
299-301, 1939.
65. J.B. Harrison, et al. J.O.C.C.A., Vol. 45, p. 571, 1962.
66. Barraclough et al. J.O.C.C.A., 341-355, April, 1965.
67. J.K. Gentles, J.O.C.C.A,, Vol. 46, p. 850, 1963.

68. R. Pantzer, Anti-Corrosion, pp. 3-7, June-July, 1975.
69. J.E.O. Mayne, Paints for the Protection of Steel: A Review of
Research into Their Modes of Action British Corros. Jour.,
Vol. 5, p. 106, 1970.
70. S.L. Davidson, J. Oil and Colour Chem. Assoc., Vol. 58,
435-442, 1975.
71. R. Pantzer, Anticorrosion, pp. 3-7, June, July, 1975.
72. R. Pantzer, Deutsche Farben-Zeitschrift, p. 13, 1975.
73. J.E.O. Mayne, Current Views on How Paint Films Prevent
Corrosion J. Oil and Colour Chem. Assoc., pp. 183-199,
March, 1957.
74. J.E.O. Mayne, How Paints Prevent Corrosion, Corrosion
Technology, pp. 286-290, Oct., 1954.
75. Appleby and Mayne, The Relative Protection Afforded by
Red Lead Dispersed in Linseed Oil, Tung Oil, Oiticica and a
Long Oil Alkyd Varnish, J. Oil and Col. Chem. Assoc., pp. 59,
69-71, 1976.
76. A.C. Elm, The Mechanism of Action of Metal Protective
Paints Paint, Oil and Chemical Review, Aug. 19, 1948.
77. Clay and Cox Chromate and Phosphate Pigments in AntiCorrosive Primers, J. Oil and Colour Chem. Assoc., Vol. 56,
pp. 13-16, 1973.
78. Ashworth and Proctor. The Role of Coatings in Corrosion
Prevention - Future Trends, J. Oil and Colour Chem. Assoc.,
Vol. 56, pp. 478-490, 1973.
79. U.R. Evans, Metallic Corrosion, Passivity and Protection,
Chapter X.
80. J. Barraclough and J.B. Harrison, New Leadless Anticorrosive Primer, Jour. Oil and CoIour Chem. Assoc., pp.
341-355, April, 1965.
81. J.E.O. Mayne, The Mechanism of the Protection of Iron and
Steel by Paint, Anticorrosion, pp. 3-8, Oct., 1973.
82. H.H. Uhlig, Metal Inter-Interfaces, A Symposium, Am. Soc.
Metals, pp. 312-335, 1951.
83. M. Pryor, and M. Cohen, Journal. Electrochem. Soc., Vol. 100,
p. 203, 1953.
84. King Henry V., Prologue, Line 1.
85. C.E. Barnett, Industrial and Eng. Chemistry, Vol. 41, p. 272,
Feb. 1949.
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

000359b 711
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8627940 0003597 658
93
CHAPTER 5.1
PAINT APPLICATION
by
Sidney 5. Levinson and Saul Spindel
TABLE 1
SUMMARY OF SSPC-PA i - Shop, Field &
1. Scope
2. Definition
Paint is not a finished product until it has been applied to the substrate. Therefore, proper application of the
paint is a critical part of the complete paint system. High
performance paint systems are especially sensitive to misapplication and may fail drastically, even more so than
conventional paint systems, which are much less sensitive
to application variables. Therefore, it is imperative that instructions be followed explicitly, particularly when applying expensive and sensitive high performance paint
systems. A detailed specification covering the general requirements of high performance paint application is given
in SSPC-PA 1, Shop, Field and Maintenance Painting, as
outlined in Table 1.
Surroundings may prohibit use of spray application
because of fire hazards or potential damage from overspray. Parking lots and open storage areas are common
examples. Adjacent areas or objects not to be coated must
be masked before spraying and the masking material must be removed afterwards. This takes time and, i f extensive, may offset the advantages of the rapid area coverage of spraying operations.
3. Pre-application Procedure
3.1 Materials Handling & Use
3.2 Storage of Paint & Thinner
3.3 Surface Preparation
3.4 Pretreatments
3.5 Mixing & Thinning
4. Factors Affecting Application of Paint
4.1 Temperature
4.2 Moisture
4.3 Humidity
4.4 Cover
4.5 Damage
4.6 Striping
4.7 Continuity
4.8 Thickness
4.9 Recoating
4.10 Tinting
4.1 1 Intercoat Adhesion
4.12 Contact Surfaces
5. Application Methods
5.1 General
5.2 Brush
5.3 Spray - General
5.4 Air Spray
5.5 Airless Spray
5.6 Hot Spray
5.7 Hot Airless Spray
5.8 Roller
Weather conditions are very important for good

results. Avoid painting below 45F or above 95F, if the
relative humidity is above 8O%, during rainy weather, when
wind velocity is above 15 miles per hour or i f freezing will
occur before the paint dries. If lacquer coatings, such as
those based on vinyl or chlorinated rubber resins, are used,
they may be applied at temperatures as low as 35F.
Brushing is ideal for small areas, edges or corners.
Roller coating is most efficient on large, relatively flat surfaces. Spraying is most suitable for large areas but works
just as well on irregular shapes such as bridge steelwork.
The surface should be completely dry and between
45F and 95F before painting. However, damp (not wet)
surfaces may be painted with some water-base or latex
paints, and certain other systems as recommended by the
coating manufacturer.
Lacquer products, such as vinyls and chlorinated rubber, which dry rapidly, should be applied by spray. Brush or
roller application may be extremely difficult, especially in
warm weather or outdoors on breezy days.
Each method of application has a different effect on
dried coating. Brushing tends to leave brushmarks and
rolling may cause stipple marks. Spraying, when done
properly, gives the smoothest and most uniform paint film,
6. Shop Painting
(Types, Coats, Contact, Welding, Damage, etc.)
7. Field Painting
(Cleaning, Touch-Up, Procedures, etc.)
a.
(Cleaning, Compatibility, Records, etc.)
9. Special Coatings
9.1 Conventional Types
9.2-9.6 Other Generic Types
1o. Drying & Handling
11. Inspect ion
12. Safety
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

150
Not for Resale
SSPC
C H A P T E R U S O L 93
= 8627940 0003598
594
though sagging can occur if too heavy a coat is applied.

The degree of training and experience of the personnel may influence the choice of method of application.
Spraying requires the greatest degree of skill. Rolling is
the easiest.
I. PAINT PREPARATION
Since paints are pigmented they can become nonuniform during storage. During long periods of storage, the
pigment, which is more dense than the vehicle, tends to
settle and sometimes cakes at the bottom of the container. The liquid component might separate and form a
thin layer at the surface, or it could form a skin, especially
in a partially full can.
Mixing is required to make the paint homogeneous
and uniform before use by stirring the vehicle, dispersing
the settled supernatant liquid, and removing all skins,
lumps and other large particles. The paint, if stored
at cold or hot temperatures, should be brought to a
moderate temperature for application. Two and three component paints must be carefully mixed just prior to use.
eFIGURE 2
Paint Shaker
Courtesy of Red Devil
- Union, Inc.
containers at intervals to prevent settling. Check seals to

be sure there is no leakage. Check dated products and
replace outdated materials.
A. MIXING
A mechanical mixer is preferred because it is faster
and produces a uniform mixture. If manual mixing is
necessary, dont use cans larger than two gallons.
If there is a skin on the surface of the paint, carefully
remove before mixing to avoid the formation of lumps or
gelled particles.
Depending on the size of the container, mixers are
available, from attachments for hand drills to large portable units, which can be used to mix 55-gallon drums of
paint. Most of these attachments are propellers with the
following typical dimensions:
H EAVY-D U ~ YELECTRI CS
FIGURE 1
Al R
Drum Paint Agitator

Courtesy of Quick Spray, Inc.
The paint also may be tinted with some added color, such
as for use as an intermediate coat.
Paint should be stored at a moderate temperature.
Rotate stock and use older material first. Also. reverse
- 1 1 to 36
- 2 to 8
- Up to h H.P.
These mixers may be powered by electric, air or portable

drills. Multiple propellers, (two or more stacked on the
shaft) are also used in larger containers, such as drums, to
achieve uniform mixing (Figure 1). Some propellers are of
expanding type so that they can be inserted through the
bung opening of the drum. During mixing they open to a
diameter of 8 inches. When mixing stops, the blades collapse allowing removal through the bung opening of the
drum.
Paint shakers can be used to remix containers of five
gallons or less without opening the cans (Figure 2). They
operate by an eccentric cam which shakes the can
vigorously. Most paint distributors have these units.
Avoid shaking partly full cans of latex paint. It can
cause foaming. Avoid splashing. Speed should be set as
low as possible to create moxement of the paint with only
a slight vortex, or central depression, at the surface. A
large vortex should be avoided, especially with latex
paints, since this will result in drawing in air and foaming.
151
Not for Resale
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Shaft Length
Propeller diameter
Horsepower
SSPC CHAPTERxS-II 93
8 b 2 7 9 4 0 0003599 420
Discard all paint beyond that time. When one component

is a powder, e.g., zinc, aluminum or bronze, be sure that the
liquid component is completely uniform before proceeding. Follow manufacturers instructions as to whether
pigment is added to the liquid component or the liquid
component is added to the pigment. Add very slowly while
mixing continuously until the paint is smooth. Avoid the
formation of lumps, which may cause clogging of spray
equipment.
B. THINNING
Do not thin the paint unless recommended by the supplier or needed for spray application. If the paint is cold, do
not add thinner to make application easier. Instead, bring
the paint to 50-90 OF. When thinning the paint, first be
sure that it is well mixed before adding the thinner.
Then continue mixing until the paint is uniform in consistency. Be sure to use a thinner that is recommended for
the product. Paint heaters can be used to reduce viscosity
for spray application, thus avoiding the addition of thinners. Observe safety precautions. Do not apply warm paint
to cold steel. Results are best if both are similar in
temperature.
C. TINTING
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Do not tint paint unless recommended by the supplier

or tinting is necessary to change the color for an intermediate coat. If tinting is done, first premix the paint.
Make sure the tinting color is compatible before adding.
The type and maximum amount should be determined by
the paint manufacturer. Mix mechanically and continue
until the paint is uniform in color with no streaks on its surface.
Tinting colors may be recommended to achieve
desired topcoat colors. Follow the paint manufacturers
directions explicitly since colorants may not be compatible with all types of coatings despite the designation
Universal. Do not use more than the maximum recommended by the manufacturer.
FIGURE 3
Rapid Paint Strainer
Courtesy of The DeVilbiss Co.
Foam is extremely difficult to eliminate and will result in

bubbles or craters in the applied paint film.
Scrape the bottom and lower sides of the container to
disperse all settled pigment. When mixed, the paint should
look uniform from top to bottom, showing no striations or
color streaks on its surface.
If manual mixing is necessary, pour some of the paint
into another clean container. The balance of the paint can
then be readily mixed, after which the removed paint can
be poured back and mixed in. Follow the same precautions
as in mechanical mixing with regard to the bottom and
sides of the container.
When mixing two-component paints, check and remix
each component individually. Then blend the two components at low speed until the mixture is completely
uniform in color. Often, the two components are supplied
in different colors so that a good mix can be readily determined. Do not mix more than a few gallons at a time since
the exotherm caused by the mixture may be so high as to
make the paint solidify in the can. Be sure to use the paint
within the pot life recommended by the manufacturer.
WALL
FIGURE 4
Typical Paint Brushes
Courtesy of E 2 Painter Corporation
Try to use the same batch number of topcoat in any

one area since there can be a slight color difference between batches. If different batches are needed, combine
batches as much as possible to avoid the possibility of
152
Not for Resale
SSPC CHAPTER*S.L
m Ab27940
93
0003600 T72
-LENGTH
Brush application requires the least amount of preparation before use and cleanup afterwards. Only the brush
has to be cleaned. However, brushing is slower than other
methods and should be used mainly for small areas and
for cutting in corners or edges. Brushing is also useful to
improve wetting of primers on difficult-to-paint surfaces.
There are two general designs of brushes which may
be used in painting steel: conventional and flat brush.
The most common brush used on steel structures is
the conventional wall brush, varying in width from 3 to
6 and with bristling varying in length from 4 to 7. Small
areas require narrower sash brushes, 2 to 3 wide. Irregular surfaces are best painted with oval brushes up to
2 in diameter (Figure 4).
The brush is constructed by cementing the bristling
ends in a setting compound then adding a handle. The setting compound and flat end of the handle are fastened
together with a metal ferrule. Strips or fillers are inserted
inside and at the bottom of the bristling. This forms a cavity that holds more of the paint and also reduces the total
volume of bristling, making it easier to spread paint and
reducing cost (Figure 5).
Bristling is controlled in length so the longest bristles
are in the center and their length is tapered toward the
outer bristles. This makes painting easier.
The flat brush is made up of short nylon or polyester
filaments, 1
long, attached to a flat base, about 4 x 7.
This allows for wider contact with the surface being
painted. A metal grip is attached to the other side of the
base. This brush holds about twice as much paint as a con-
OUT
S T R I P O R FILLER
FERRULE
HANDLE
FIGURE 5
Paint Brush Construction.
Courtesy of American Brush Manufacturers Association
color differences. Alternatively, i f colors of the topcoat are

found to be slightly diffferent from one batch to another,
finish using one batch at the edge or corner so that batchto-batch color differences will not be as noticeable.
D. STRAINING
Paints should be strained after mixing i f there is any
evidence of skins, lumps, color particles or foreign
materials. Straining is especially recommended i f paint
has been previously used and allowed to stand for any
length of time or if the paint is going to be sprayed. Strain
after completing all mixing, thinning, tinting or boxing.
Strain through a fine sieve (80 mesh) or a commercial paint
strainer (Figure 3).
E. TEMPERATURE
Temperature of paint may be excessively high or low
depending on storage or shipping conditions. If so, warm
or cool the paint to a temperature of 50-90 OF before mixing and use.
II. APPLICATION METHODS

There are five methods of paint application: brush,
paint pads, roller, mitt and spray.
The choice of method to be used depends on the type
of coating being applied, adjacent areas that might be
damaged by overspray and degree of skill of the personnel.
Whatever method is used, tools should be of first
quality and should be maintained in top condition.

FIGURE 6
Industrial Paint Roller and Tray
Courtesy of Arcco Paint Rollers, Inc.
153
Not for Resale
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
A. BRUSH APPLICATION
SSPC
8627940 0003601 907 M
C H A P T E R * S - L 93
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
FIGURE 8
Pipe Paint Roller
Courtesy of E Z Painter Corp.
Many brushes are made of blends of natural, nylon

andior polyester to combine the application qualities of
bristle, the wear resistance of nylon and the resistance of
polyester to water and high humidity.
It is important t o a s e high quality brushes and keep
them in top shape. Avoid brushes with horsehair or with
filaments that are not flagged. Conventional brushes
should be tapered from side to center. The brush should
feel solid with a good quantity of bristles and still be flexible. All bristles should be firmly set with no loose bristles.
Dip the brush into the paint to about half the bristle
length, then withdraw at the edge of the container in a partial wiping motion or shake to remove excess paint. Hold
the (conventional) brush at an angle of about 75 to the
work. Make several light strokes to transfer paint to the
surface. Spread the paint evenly and uniformly. Do not
press down on the brush. Pressing can create excessive
brushmarks or cause wiping off some of the paint. Paint
the adjacent area, completing the brush strokes into the
edge of the previously painted area. This prevents excessive pileup of paint in the lapped areas, which can
result in lap marks. Finally, cross-brush lightly to eliminate
any sag or brush marks.
Avoid poking the brush into corners and crevices. Instead, use the end of the brush and twist it slightly to get
the bristles into hard-to-reach areas.
Flat and oval brushes are used in a similar manner but
are held so bristle ends directly face the work.
FIGURE 7
Use of Roller Extension Poles on Water Tank
Courtesy of the National Paint & Lacquer Association & E z
Painter Corporation
ventional brush and applies paint more rapidly. It is

especially effective in forcing paint into crevices and
around projections. It also can be used with an extension
pole. Flat brushes require roller tray, are ineffective inside
angles, and are more difficult to clean. A flat brush also
drips more, adding to clean-up problems.
Two general types of bristling are used: natural
bristles and synthetic filaments.
Traditional paint brush bristles come from Chinese
hogs. These produce excellent paint bristles since the
ends of the bristles are flagged, or naturally split so they
hold a considerable amount of paint. Unfortunately, hog
bristles are very expensive and are not practical foi hot
water-thinned paints. Other animal bristles, such as horsehair, have been used but generally are inferior t o hog
bristles.
The oldest synthetic filament is nylon. Flagged ends
are produced by artificially splitting the filament tips.
Nylon is much more water-resistant than natural bristles
and works better with water-thinned (latex) paints since
nylon bristles do not soften excessively after prolonged
use. Nylon loses stiffness in lacquer solvent and alcohol
and should not be used with paints containing those
solvents.
Polyester filaments are widely available. They appear
more water resistant than nylon and soften less after prolonged use. They also are less affected by lacquer solvents.

8. PAINT PADS
Paint pads hold more paint and are faster than
brushes. They are almost as versatile for covering small
areas but require a tray and are more difficult to clean.
Because of their relatively low cost, they can be discarded
154
Not for Resale
SSPC C H A P T E R x 5 . L
93
8627940 0003b02 845
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
FIGURE 9
Pressure Paint Roller
Courtesy of Thomas Industries
after use. Their use on structural steel is limited. They consist of roller-type synthetic fabric attached to a foam
backed flat pad about 4 x 7 in size. The fiber length is
about 3/tsrr. A spring-loaded handle keeps the pad parallel to
the work. The handle is threaded to accept extension
poles.
FIGURE 11
Paint Mitt in Use
Courtesy of Bestt Roller, Inc.
C. ROLLER APPLICATION
Paint rollers are excellent for large flat areas and do
not require the skill of spray application. They hold much
more paint than a brush and are two to four times faster.
They require the use of trays (or grids in large containers), are more difficult to clean and are not as effective
in applying paint evenly and with good wetting on difficultto-wet surfaces, e.g., hand cleaned, rusted or pitted steel.
Roller cleaning is not critical since they are economical
enough to be discarded. Paint rollers consist of three major units: roller cover, roller handle and paint tray or grid.
1. Roller Covers
Roller covers vary in diameter, length, type of
fabric and fiber length (Table 2).
Diameter: Roller cover diameters may be 1% or

2% . The 1 diameter is most common.
Length: This may vary from 1 to 18. The 9
length is most common. A 2 x 9 roller will hold
twice as much paint as a 1 Ir x 7 roller and a 2%
FIGURE 10
Paint Mitts
Courtesy of Bestt Roller, Inc.

155
Not for Resale
SSPC C H A P T E R * 5 = 1 93 W 8627940 0003603 7 8 1
TABLE 2
CHOICE OF ROLLER FABRIC AND NAP
Type of Surface
Smooth
Rough
Flat finish-oil or
water-based
Polyester
Polyester
Paints containing
strong solvents
Special stapled covers
Enamels and gloss

paints
Woven
-Y2n
y2-y4r
Lambskin
% 8 -Y2
1k
-y,
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
A BC -
D
E
F
G
H
I
- Air V a l v e
- Pattern Control
Gun Body (or Handle)
- Fluid Packing Nut
FIGURE 13
Conventional air spraying with lh inch fluid hose and X inch air
hose.
Courtesy of DeVilbiss Company
NEEDLE V4LYE S r E u
0 ANNULAR
R NG AROUND THE
FLUID NOZZLE TIF
I0
(2i
@
@
CONTAINMENTHOLES
WINGS:.HORNSOR.EARS.
SIDE-PORT H O L E S
FIGURE 14
Air spraying at oil refinery, with pressure pot, provides control in
spraying small structural shapes.
ANGULAR CONVERGING n a E s
FIGURE 12
Construction of Air Spray Gun

156
Not for Resale
FIGURE 17
Airless Spray PumpAir Operated, Suction Hose Type
Courtesy of Graco, Inc.
Fiber Length (Nap) or Pile Height: The length of

fiber in roller fabrics used on steel surfaces varies
from IA to 3A. Longer fibers hold more paint, but
do not give as smooth a finish. Therefore, they are
used on rougher surfaces with faster drying paints.
FIGURE 15
Air spray painting at electrical power plant.
x 18 roller will hold up to 4 times as much paint, as

much as a quart if a long fiber fabric is used.
Fabric: The most common fabrics are polyester,
verel, nylon, mohair and lambskin. The choice of
fabric and fiber length (nap) depend on the type of
paint and the condition of surface, as shown in
Table 2.
CROSS SECTIONAL VIEW

OF AIRLESS SPRAY TIP
MATERIAL FLOW
UNDER HYDRAULIC
PRESSURE
RAY
j
GLE
(Controls Flow-Creates
High Velocity from Pressure)
FIGURE 16
Airless Spray Action
Courtesy of the Aro Corporation
Woven Fabrics (as opposed to knit) are available. They shed fewer lint particles, are designated
all paints or Enamel on the label and are better
than knit fabrics for gloss paints.
Core: The core of the roller may be made of plastic
impregnated fiber or wire mesh. Be sure the core is
resistant when using epoxies, vinyls, urethanes and
other materials that contain strong solvents.
FIGURE 18
Airless Spray Unit With Two Guns-Air Drive
Agitator
Courtesy of Nordson Corporation
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

157
Not for Resale
S S P C C H A P T E R * S - L 73
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
FIGURE 20
FIGURE 19
Airless Spray Unit
Dolly Mount, Air Drive
Courtesy of Alemite Division of Stewart-Warner
2. Roller Handle
The handle is made of stiff wire (app. l/4 " in diam.),
with a comfortable handle for holding the roller at
one end and bent at the other end to form an offset right angle. The angle end has a spring wire or
metal attachment to enable slipping the roller on
and off, yet holding it firmly during use. The end of
the handle is hollow and threaded so an extension
pole may be used. Extension poles as long as 16
feet are available to avoid the use of ladders
(Figure 7).
3. Paint Tray
Paint rollers must be worked in when loaded with
paint. The roller (on the handle) is partially inserted into the paint, then rolled on the ramp until
uniformly coated. Most trays hold about '/2 gal. of
paint. Some are large enough to hold several
gallons (Figure 6).
An alternative method i s t o use a large paint

FIGURE 21
Airless Spray Unit
- Suction Hose, Air Drive
Courtesy o1 Binks Manufacturing Co.
158
Not for Resale
93
8627940 O003606 490
PUMP UNIT
bucket, e.g., a 5-gal. can with a roller grid, on

which the roller is worked in. This allows the use
of rollers on ladders and scaffolds.
4. Pipe Roller
This special roller is made up of 2 to 5 narrow
rollers on a spring spindle. They readily conform
to contoured surfaces, such as piping. The size of
the pipe determines the number of segments required. The threaded handle allows the use of extension poles (Figure 8).
1. Pump-to meet
delivery and
pressure needs
2. Regulatorto control
pump operation
3. Fluid Outlet
fittings for
required hoak-up
For long hose lines
4. Drum Lidfor mounting pump
1. Pump Unit
5. Agitator-for
continuous agitation
of material
2. Fluid Hose
3. Fluid Header
(removed from pump)
4. Fluid Hose to guns
5. Air Hose from
compressor
6. Liftconvenient, quick
change of drums
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
SSPC CHAPTER*S.L
FIGURE 23
Air Driven, Drum Mount, Airless Pump With Agitator
For shorter, direct

hose lines
5. Fence Roller
Roller covers with extra long naps (11'4' ") enable
rapid painting of wire fence from one side. The
long nap surrounds the wire and coats it on both
sides at once.
6. Pressure Roller
Pressure rollers allow continuous painting by
steadily supplying paint from a pressurized tank
directly inside the roller. The roller cover is made
of a perforated metal core that enables paint to
pass from inside the roller. A valve controls
pressure either on the roller handle or the tank
(Figure 9).
1. Pump Unit
2. Fluid Hose to guns
3. Air Hose from

compressor
For heavy and

filled materials
7. Application
Roller application requires a very different technique than that required for brushing.
8. Loading by Roller
If a tray is used, fill it half full with the premixed
paint. If a grid is used, place it into the can (usually 5 gals.) of paint, setting it at an angle from one
side of the bottom of the can to the other side of
the can at the top. Dip the roller cover into the
paint until completely wet with paint. Then roll it
up and back along the tray ramp or the grid until
the paint is completely worked in. Before starting
to paint, roll the first load out on scrap paper to
eliminate any air bubbles trapped within the roller
cover fibers.
9. Applying the Paint
Place the loaded roller against the surface to be
1. Basic Pump Unit

2. Flow Control Valve
3. High Pressure
Fluid Hose
4. Air Supply Hose
FIGURE 22
Portable and Maintenance Painting Hook-ups

159
Not for Resale
SSPC CHAPTER*S.L
93
8b27940 O003607 327
D. PAINT MITTS
A paint mitt is ideal for painting odd-shaped objects,
such as pipes and railings, when spray painting is not
feasible. It consists of a lambskin glove with or without a
thumb. It is dipped in paint and applied to the surface
(Figures 10 and 11).
E. SPRAY APPLICATION
The fastest way to paint large structural areas is by
spray. Table 3 gives some idea of the relative efficiency
of different methods of application:
TABLE 3
TYPICAL AVERAGE AREA COATED PER DAY
Square Feet
Method
Brush
Roller
Air Spray
Airless Spray
Spray equipment also is versatile as shown by the

variety of equipment available:
a. Air spray (conventional)
b. Airless spray - Ambient and heated
c. Heated spray - Air and airless
d. Electrostatic spray - Air and airless
e. Two-component application equipment
FIGURE 24
Airless Spray Unit
650
1,200-2,600
2,000-6,000
3,000-8,000
- Electric Drive
Courtesy of Binks Manufacturing Co.
painted and roll the paint out in the form of a V or

W. Its size depends on the square area that eventually will be filled in around the V or W. A 7-inch
roller, for example, will cover an area about 3 x 3
feet. Then roll out the paint to fill in the square
area. Finish with light vertical strokes in the direction which produces the smoothest finish.
It is not necessary to press hard on the roller.
In fact, doing so will cause foaming and possible
cratering by entrapping air. Moderate pressure is
all that is required. Also, do not roll too rapidly,
since doing so will cause the paint to spatter. A
moderate rate of speed is best.
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
FIGURE 26
Electrostatic Airless Spray Unit
Dolly Mount, Air Drive, Heated
FIGURE 25
Airless Spray Unit
- Gasoline Operated
Courtesy of H. G. Fischer & Co.

160
Not for Resale
SSPC
CHAPTERx5.L
93
8627740 0003b08 263 D
1. Air Spray
The original method of spray application was by
air atomization. A compressor supplies air under
pressure via an air hose to a spray gun that
atomizes the paint to produce a fine spray which
is projected onto the surface. Paint is usually kept
in pressurized containers. From there compressed air forces the paint to the gun via a fluid
hose (Figure 12).
Air atomization of the paint can result in considerable overspray. Consequently, not only must
adjacent areas and objects be covered, but also
paint losses may vary from 20% to 40% on structural steel. The painter must wear some protection to avoid breathing paint mist.
EFFECT OF TEMPERATURE
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
ON A TYPICAL ENAMEL AND A TYPICAL LACQUER
FIGURE 28
Effect of Temperature
- Paint Viscosity vs Temperature

2. Airless Spray
Airless spray relies on hydraulic pressure rather
than air atomization to produce the desired spray.
An air compressor, electric motor or gas engine is
used to operate a pump to produce pressures of
Extension Spray Gun
FIGURE 27
FIGURE 29
Air Driven, Heated, Airless Spray Unit with Compressor

161
Not for Resale
SSPC C H A P T E R * S = L 9 3
6627940 0003609 L T T
1,000to 6,000 psi. Paint is delivered to the spray

gun at this pressure through a single hose. Within
the gun, a single paint stream is divided into
separate streams, which are forced through a very
small orifice resulting in atomization of paint
without the use of air. This recuits in more rapid
coverage with less overspray (Figure 16).
The following comparison (Table 4) demonstrates the differences between conventional and
airless spray:
Airless spray usually is faster, cleaner, more
economical and easier to use than conventional
air spray. The absence of atomizing air prevents
potential contamination from oil or water in the
compressed air, or from the cooling effect of
atomization in humid atmospheres. Airless spray
is for large areas and the airless gun has fewer ad-
CONVENTIONAL AIR SPRAY

**;
ENERGY RMUIREO
9.3 H P / GP.M
Mx)
HYDR&ULIC SPRAY
COLD AIRLESS
:NERGY REQUIRED
IIHPIGPM
PARTS AIR
i.
1.1
VISCOSITY
22 @
70'
5 9 ~ ~
FIGURE 31
Electrostatic Spray Units
- Electric Drive
HOT SPRAY
TABLE 4
HOT AIRLESS
CONVENTIONAL VS AIRLESS SPRAY
'NERGY REQUIRED
.32 H.P. I G.P.M.
VISCOSITY
150 @
70'mT
* *:
25 @ 150
VISCOSITY
150 d 70"
22 @ 170'
Coverage, sq.ft/day
Overspray, YO
Portability
Direct drive units
Hoses
Masking
Penetration of corners
& voids
Thinning before spray
Film build per coat
Moisture (Compressor)
Versatility
Paint clogging problems
Safety during cleaning
'FS''
FIGURE 30
Comparison of Spray Methods
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

162
Not for Resale
Conventional
Airless
4-8,000
20 to 40
Fair
No
2
Considerable
Fair
6-10,000
10 to 15
Excel lent
Yes
Usually 1
Moderate
Good
Usual
Lower
Possible
More
Slight
Excellent
Sometimes
Higher
None
Less
Possible
Poor
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--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
FIGURE 32
Wraparound Effect of Electrostatic Spray
justments than conventional spray guns. Different

spray patterns may require a change in nozzles.
Because of very high pressures, paint must be
thoroughly screened to prevent clogging of the
nozzles, and cleaning the equipment may be extremely hazardous unless proper precautions are
followed.
FIGURE 34
Two-Head Spray Gun
Courtesy of Binks Manufacturing Co
similar to that used i n conventional spraying

(Figure 17-23).
b. Hectric Driven Unit - The unit is selfcontained with its own explosion-proof electric
motor. Sizes vary from small units weighing about
40 Ibs to large units, which handle two guns yet
can be wheeled by one man up or down stairways
(Figure 24).
3. Power Sources
Airless spray units are available in a wide variety
of power sources:
a. Air Driven Units - The hydraulic unit i s driven
by compressed air using an air compressor
c. Gas Driven Unit - The spray unit is operated by

a gasoline engine for use in the field (Figure 25).
4. Mounts
Airless spray units vary in mounting or the method
used to admit paint to be sprayed.
a. Suction Unit - The spray unit is mounted on
wheels, and paint is aspirated in a hose or pick-up
tube that sucks paint from any container, including drums (Figures 21, 24, 28).
b. Pail-Mounted Unit -The spray unit is mounted
directly onto the paint container, e.g., a 5-gal. can
or 55-gal. drum (Figures 18, 20).
c. Dolly-Mounted Unit - The spray unit is

mounted on a wheeled dolly which also supports
the paint container. It is excellent for larger containers, e.g., 10, 20 or 30 gals (Figure 26).
d. Immersion Tube Unit - The wheeled spray unit
has a rigid tube at the bottom. The unit is tilted so
that the tube can be inserted into a 1- to 5-gal. can
of paint. Some units are modified so a unit and a
can of paint can be maneuvered together (Figure
24).
FIGURE 33
Two-Component Spray Gun Internal Mix

e. Drum-Mounted Unit
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- Large units, which can
CORRECT,
I
9
STROKE PULL TRIGGER
HOLD GUN PERPENDICULAR

TO SURFACE BEING SPRAYED
PULL TRIGGER STROKE
\'l
RIGHT
Less overspray and bounce back from corners

Less solvent fumes
Increased thickness per coat i f solids are increased
Faster dry
Smoother finish (No pinholes)
Improved paint adhesion possible except on
cold steel
Less power and air required
--r
FIGURE 35
Correct Handling of Air Spray Gun
Courtesy of Binks Manufacturing Co.
handle up to 4 guns, are mounted on a 55-gal.

drum of paint (Figure 23).
f. Self-Contained Unit - The container is part of
the spray unit the paint must be poured into
before use (Figure 25).
INSiOE
U3!!!&1
5. Agitators
Many pail- or drum-mounted units have built-in
agitators that keep the paint uniformly mixed during the spraying (Figures 18,23).
Strainers
Since paint cleanliness is critical in order to prevent clogging of nozzles, almost all airless spray
units have built-in strainers.
'I
\ Il
FIGURE 36
Spraying Inside Corners
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
9. Comparison of Spray Methods

Figure 31 demonstrates the advantages of airless
and heated spray.
10. Electrostatic Spray
Portable electrostatic spray units are ideal for
spraying odd-shaped metal objects like wire
fence, angles, channels, cable and piping. These
units produce a very high electrostatic charge, up
to 60,000 volts, which causes sprayed paint to
coat all exposed conductive areas more uniformly, including edges and areas opposite the object
(the wrap-around effect). Portable units use a
transformer that can operate on 115 v (Figures 31,
Extension Guns
Airless spray extension or pole guns, up to 26 ft.
long, are available to reduce the necessity of scaffolding or staging. Some have swivel heads to
enable spray coating of inaccessible areas
(Figure 27).
Heated Spray
Heating paint before spraying reduces viscosity
(Figure 28).Thinning is reduced and paint solids
are increased, enabling application of thicker
coats. Caution must be observed because most
solvent-thinned paints are flammable. Avoid applying heated paint on cold steel. Condensation
at the interface may adversely affect adhesion.
32).
The method has not yet been adapted for use
on exteriors of large steel structures. It has a
number of advantages and disadvantages vs. conventional spray equipment. Advantages include
(a) complete coverage of odd shapes; (b) lowest
paint loss of all spray methods; (c) less overspray;
(d) very uniform finish. Its disadvantages include
(a) vulnerable to wind; (b) equipment expensive; (c)
formulation critical; (d) slower operation; (e) only
thin coats can be applied; (f) possible shock
hazard; (9) expensive servicing; and (h) as yet unsuitable for LARGE steel structures.
- Spray units which preheat paint

to 12O0-2OO0Fare available. They are portable but
tend to be cumbersome because of the added
preheating unit (Figure 29).
a. Equipment
b. Advantages - Heated spray units have a

number of advantages over unheated units:
Faster application i f viscosity is reduced
Lower pressure required - under 1,OpO psi
Can spray at lower ambient temperatures but
avoid cold steel
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S S P C CHAPTER*5-3 93
*-13
I
11-
-9
a. Paint Viscosity - Adjust paint viscosity only

when necessary, and follow the manufacturers
instructions. Excessive thinning results in more
overspray, sagging, insufficient film thickness, insufficient hiding and inadequate protection.
1.
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= 8627940 0 0 0 3 6 3 2 794
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INSTRUMENTS LTD
MANCHESTER
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15,
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21,
b. Air Pressure - Always use the lowest air

pressure that produces the desired finish. Excessive pressure will increase overspray. It may
be necessary to increase pressure when paint is
viscous or the hose is longer than normal. With
conventional spray, turn off the atomizing air
valve and adjust the paint valve at the pot to
achieve a solid stream of paint about 24 inches
from the gun. Gradually open the air valve to
achieve the desired finish.
c. Spray Pattern - Conventional spray guns
enable an adjustment of the spray pattern by turning the air control valve. Turn i t clockwise for a
round pattern and counter clockwise for a fan pattern. With airless spray guns, the pattern can be
adjusted by changing the tip or adjusting the
Adjusta-Tip.
d. Spraying Technique - To achieve desired
coverage with a uniform coating with no sag, hold
the gun at the following distance from the work:
FIGURE 37
Wet Film Thickness Gage
Courtesy of Gardner Laboratory, Inc.
11. Two Component Spray Guns

These are special guns that enable the use of twocomponent coatings, which have very short pot
Iives.
TH IC KN ESS
Conventional - 6 to 8 inches
Airless
- 10 to 12 inches
Holding the gun too close will cause sagging
and irregularities in the film from spray pressure.
If it is too far away, the result will be dusting.
Some solvent will evaporate before paint reaches
the surface creating virtually dry paint particles
which cannot flow to the surface. The gun must be
perpendicular to the surface at all times and
should never be tilted. Tilting will cause one side
of the pattern to be closer to the surface than the
other side, causing non-uniform coating. Use a
free-arm motion, pulling the trigger after beginning the stroke and release it just before the end
of the stroke. Move i n a straight line, parallel to
the surface. Stop 1 to 2 inches from the edge.
When spraying an outside corner, hold the gun
facing the edge of the corner, then sweep along
the corner to cover both sides. On inside corners,
spray each side separately, sweeping along the
corner. Apply the paint to all edges prior to painting the entire surface (Figures 35, 36).
When painting a large area, start at the top
corner and spray to the end of the top area, (except for the edge), then return, overlapping the
first area just enough to form a uniform coating.
With conventional spray this will be almost half of
the first pattern, but with airless spray it will be
slight.
When spraying horizontal surfaces, start at
one side of the near edge and spray to the other
FIGURE 38
Elcometer Dry Film Thickness Gage
They are either made of two guns attached or

a single gun with the two components mixed
together while they are sprayed. In both types,
separate hoses are used and no mixing takes
place until the two spray streams merge just
beyond the nozzle. This prevents reaction of the
two components within the equipment (Figures
33, 34).
12. Spray Technique
The procedure for spray painting varies slightly
for each type of spray equipment and type of
paint. The following description for conventional
air spraying is essentially similar for all.
FIGURE 39
Inspector Dry Film Thickness Gage
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side of the near edge, then reverse direction working away from the near edge.
111. FILM THICKNESS

To do the job correctly, it is necessary to apply each
coating at the wet film thickness recommended by the
paint manufacturer. A practice area is recommended.
Measure the film thickness as the job progresses using a
wet film thickness gage (Figure 37).
When each coat has dried, use a dry film thickness
gage to check the actual thickness of the number of coats
applied versus the required thickness. This requirement is
most important for the complete system (Figures 38 and
39). Also see chapter on inspection.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

chapter: Earl G. Anderson, AI Beitelman, Alex Chasan, John B.
Conomos, Lawrence Drake, Arnold J. Eickhoff, Raye A. Fraser, J.
Roger Garland, Dan Gelfer, Tom Ginsberg, Russ Harmon, Leonard
Haynie, Robert L. Hooker, R. Kramer, Jay Leanse, Joseph Mazia,
Marshall McGee, John Montle, Clint Ryno, Melvin Sandler, L. M.
Sherman, Henry Stoner, Verne J. Todd, Ted Tomlin, William J.
Wallace, Duane T. Werkman, Virgil P. Williams, Rufus Wint, and
Joseph E. Ziegeweid.
IV. CLEANUP
All paint application tools and equipment must be
carefully cleaned. Dried paint i n the equipment will ruin it.
Remove as much paint as possible. With solvent
paints, clean thoroughly with a compatible solvent. Use a
detergent solution with latex paint. Clean two or three
times with fresh solvent (or warm mild detergent solution),
then wipe clean and dry. Well cleaned tools and equipment
will last longer and always be in prime condition.
Be sure to clean brushes down to the heel, since paint
tends to dry in this less visible area. This can make the
bristles shorter and less flexible. After washing, twirl to
remove excess water and comb to straighten the bristles.
Finally, wrap in paper or place i n a brush keeper and lay
flat until dry. Never allow a brush to rest on its bristles.
This can cause permanent damage.
If a roller is used, clean and wash the paint tray and
partially fill it with solvent (or mild detergent in water for
latex paints). Work the roller out on newspaper until most
of the paint has been removed. Then work i n the solvent (or
detergent) and roll on the tray ramp until worked in. Again
roll out on newspaper until all the solvent is removed.
Repeat twice with clean solvent or detergent. Take care to
discard the paper used to clean the roller because of
potential fire hazard. Stand roller on one end until dry.
Since some roller covers are relatively inexpensive, it may
be more economical to discard them (keep the handle).
Using a large container, wash the paint mitt used for
solvent paints in three changes of solvent or warm mild
detergent depending on the type of paint. The solventcleaned mitts should then be washed in mild detergent
solution. Rinse i n clear warm water, then hang up to dry.
Place clean solvent (or detergent solution) in pots and
pass through hoses and spray guns. Be sure to remove the
tip from airless spray guns and wash separately. Never immerse the gun in solvent because this can ruin the packing.
Clean with three changes of solvent (or detergent).
Then dry. When cleaning after spraying water-based paint,
be sure to finish rinsing with a water miscible solvent,
such as alcohol. Otherwise, some parts of the spray equipment may rust. Make sure that all hoses are flushed
thoroughly.
REFERENCES
1. Paints and Protective Coatings, Army TM 5-618,Navfac

MO-110,
Air Force AFM 85-3, U S . Government Printing Office,
Washington, D.C.
2. S.B. Levinson, Painting, Facilities and Plant Engineering
Handbook, McGraw Hill Book Co., N.Y., N.Y.
3. S.B. Levinson and S. Spindel, Recent Developments in Architectural and Maintenance Painting, Federation of Societies
for Paint Technology, Blue Bell, PA.
4. R.H. Reynolds, N.W. Karr, K. Buss, PDCA Craftsman Manual and Textbook, Painting and Decorating Contractors of
America, Fairfax, VA.
5. All About Painting Tools, American Brush Manufacturers
Association, Philadelphia, PA.
6. Equipment Selection for the Painting Contractor, Binks
Manufacturing Co., Franklin Park, 111.
7. Airless Spraying, Binks Manufacturing Co., Franklin Park,
111.
8. The ABCS of Spray Equipment, The DeVilbiss Co., Toledo,

OH.
9. Spray Gun Motion Study, The DeVilbiss Co., Toledo, OH.

10. Spray Painting Guide Thomas Industries, Sheyboygan,
Wisc.
11. Surface Preparation and Application Guide, Tnemec Co.,
Kansas City, MO.
12. Safety Precautions for Use of Airless Spray Equipment,
Civil Engineering Laboratory, Naval Construction Battalion
Center, Port Hueneme, CA.
13. W.F. Gross, Applications Manual for Paint and Protective
Coatings, McGraw Hill Book CO., N.Y., N.Y.
14. C.R. Martinson and C.W. Sisler, Industrial Painting, the
Engineered Approach, Reinhold Book Corp.
15. Contract and Plant Force Painting, Advantages and Disadvantages, Materials Protection, Vol. 7, No. 2, pp 39-42,Feb.
1968.
16. How ,to Pick a Paintbrush, Popular Mechanics booklet.
17. How to Use a Paintbrush, Popular Mechanics booklet.
18. How to Care for a Paintbrush, Popular Mechanics booklet.
19. Preserving Quality Paintbrushes, PDCA, July 1972,Painting and Decorating Contractors of America, Fairfax, VA.
*Completely non-rusting spray equipment should be used with

water-base paints to prevent rusting.
Try to leave the solvent in the system when possible to avoid
build-up of paint in the hose.
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8627740 0003bL4 567
20. Paint Brush Buyers Guide, American Brush Manufacturers
Association, Philadelphia, PA.

21. E.G. Anderson, Those Costly Paint Brushes, Caring for Your
Investment, PDCA, Nov. 1975, Painting and Decorating
Contractors of America, Fairfax, VA.
22. Roller, Kit, Paint, Federal Specification H-R-5506, General
Services Administration, Washington, D.C.

23. Volume II, Steel Structures fainting Manual.
24. fainting and Decorating Encyclopedia, Homewood, 111.
BIOGRAPHY
For biographies of Sidney U. Levinson and Saul Spindel, see

the chapter on Paint Materials.
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

167
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SSPC CHAPTER+5.2
93
8627940 0003635 4T3
CHAPTER 5.2
SCAFFOLDING
by
Sidney B. Levinson and Saul Spindel
I. TYPES OF SUPPORTS
The two major types of supports are
Ground supports: Supports or supporting systems
that rest on the ground or roadway, e.g., on a bridge.
Aerial supports: Rigging supported from above or attached to the steelwork.
A. GROUND SUPPORTS
The most common ground supports are ladders and
scaffolding. However, portable and self-propelled systems
are available. These may be much more efficient, depending on the job.
1. Ladders
There are three types of ladders: step ladders,

straight ladders and extension ladders. Ladders
are made of wood, aluminum or fiberglass. Wood
ladders are sturdy but heavy and subject to rot,
especially i f stored in damp areas. Aluminum ladders are lighter but electrically conductive and subject to corrosion. Therefore, aluminum ladders
should never be used near sources of electricity,
nor should they be stored or used in corrosive environments. Fiberglass ladders are light, safe from
electric shock and resistant to corrosion.
2. Step Ladders
These are made of two straight ladders hinged at
the top so they are self-standing when opened and
locked in place. Although higher ladders are available, no ladder higher than 12 ft, when opened,
should be used. Stepladders are not as sturdy as
straight ladders resting against a structural surface, and should be used only at relatively low
heights.
3 . Straight Ladders
Straight ladders are available in lengths up to
about 24 feet. They are used when working at low
to intermediate heights.
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Extension Ladders
The most common type of extension ladder is
made of two or three straight ladders connected so
they can be adjusted in length from that of a single
ladder to the combined length, less about 3 feet of
each that overlap. They are available up to 48 ft in
two sections and 60 ft in three sections.
Special Ladders
Ladder modifications are available to make these
ladders more useful:
a. Double Stepladder: The ladder has steps on

both sides so that either side can be used.
b. Combination Step-fxtension Ladder: The same
ladder may be used either as a step or extension
ladder. However, its height is limited to about 8
ft when used as a stepladder and 14 ft when
used as an extension ladder.
c. Trestle Ladder: A double stepladder has a
center vertical section, which can be raised to
support a horizontal plank or trestle. The maximum height available is about 20 ft. The use of
a trestle ladder on each side of a plank provides
a stable support.
Ladder Accessories
The following accessories make ladders more
useful and safe:
a. Ladder Jacks: These lightweight folding jacks

hook onto the rungs of the ladder and support
trestles or planks.
b. Planks and Stages: Planks and stages, usually
made of aluminum to decrease weight, rest on
the jacks. They are available in size from 8 ft x
12 in. to 39 ft. x 28 in.
c. Work Platform: A one-man platform can be attached to rungs of the ladder enabling work in
comparative safety (Figure 1).
d. Cable Hooks: These are attached to the end of
the ladder and can be hooked onto a cable or
any projection on the structure to improve ladder stability.
e. Pole Straps: The top of the ladder can be rested
against or strapped to a vertical pole, piping or
beam.
f. Pail Shelf: A working shelf can be hooked onto
the ladder rungs.
g. Ladder Shoes: All ladders should have special
shoes attached to the legs to prevent slipping.
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Some type of support or extension must be used when

painting operations are beyond normal reach. Often these
operations can be accomplished with extension poles with
paint rollers or extension spray guns. Extension devices
are not feasible during surface preparation, nor are they effective much beyond 20 feet. Consequently, some type of
support or rigging must be used. Although they provide access to otherwise unreachable areas and improve efficiency, their use also introduces hazards that must be
recognized and prevented.
73
= 86277LiO
0003636 3 3 T
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
a. Decks: These may be made of plywood,

aluminum or expanded metal. They can be hooked onto horizontal frame members to form the
work floor and add to the rigidity of the scaffold.
They are available in lengths up to 10 ft and
widths of 24 in. or more (Figure 2).
b. Outriggers: These are adjustable and attached
to high scaffolds to increase stability by increasing base dimensions.
c. Locking Casters: These make the scaffold a
portable unit, i f desired. They must be locked in
place while painting.
IO. Portable Support Systems

With some jobs it is possible to use a selfcontained ground or roadway support system. If
this can be done, the time saved can be considerable. There are two major types: boom lift and
scissors lift.
Either may be self-contained and propelled up
Ladder Platform
7 . Scaffolding
Built-up or portable scaffolds are much safer than
ladders. They also make work easier and faster.
There are two major types: stationary scaffolds
and portable scaffolds or lifts.
8. Stationary Scaffolds
Scaffolds were formerly constructed of wood at the
site. New types, based on use of metal tubular construction, are faster to erect, safer and more
economical since scaffold units can be used again
with no danger of splitting or waste.
Scaffolds are usually constructed of specially
designed aluminum, or high strength (electrically
welded) galvanized steel tubing, connectors and
accessories. They are easily assembled to almost
any shape and height. They can be adjusted to
create a horizontal work surface on a stairway but
can be made narrow enough to be moved through a
doorway. Ladders and stairways can also be constructed as part of the unit, eliminating the
necessity of using portable ladders.
9. Stationary Scaffold Accessories
The following accessories improve the usefulness
and safety of these scaffolds.

Two Stow Scaffold with Casters

Courtesy of Perry Mfg. Co.
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m 8b27740 O003637 276 m

11. Power Source
The vehicle carrying a boom lift or scissors lift may

be operated by a variety of engines, depending on
the type of work required. Gasoline, diesel fuel,
propane or electrical units are available. Some
scissors lifts are mounted on portable trucks that
can be moved by other power sources.
12. Rigging Systems
It is often necessary or expedient to support the
work platform from above rather than below. This
is especially true when the work is too high to be
reached with ground supporting systems, e.g.,
above 80 feet. There are two major types: cable
supported units and suspended scaffolds and
st aging.
a. Cable Supported Scaffolds:These scaffolds are

suspended by one or two lifts which, in effect,
ride up or down a cable suspended from above.
The lift is operated by a worker riding the support and can be raised or lowered at will.
FIGURE 3
Hydraulic Boom Lift
- Self Propelled
Courtesy of JLG Industries
to 3 mph for job-site mobility, or they may be

mounted on a truck for mobility.
a. Boom Lift: The one-or two-person boom lift,
often called a cherry picker, is very fast and versatile. It is self-contained and can be driven or
towed from job to job. Units are available that
support up to 2,000 Ibs at heights up t o 85 ft,
and even greater loads at heights up to 45 ft.
They work at almost any angle horizontally, and
some work at angles well below and up to 75"
above the level of the truck.
The boom is usually lifted hydraulically, but
some are articulated in two booms to avoid
obstructions. Their major limitation is the work
area, which usually is large enough for only two
people. This is compensated for by manueverability (Figure 3).
b. Scissors L i f t : The lift is raised from the chassis
either hydraulically or electrically. The work
area is as big as 6 ft x 13 ft, larger than a boom
lift. It can be moved only vertically, limiting its
utility. Some units carry a load of up to 4,000 Ibs
at up to 40 ft (Figure 4).
FIGURE 4
Scissors Lift
- Self Propelled
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Single Point Stage: This support, also called a

work cage, which also rides on a single cable,
can be made small enough to allow only one
person to stand or even small enough to pass
through a 20 in. opening, e.g., in a tank. Addition
of sections on each side widen the cage, enabling two men to work comfortably (Figures 6
and 7).
Swinging Scaffold: This is also called a power
scaffold. It is usually supported by two cables,
one at each end, and can be as large as 39 ft x
28 in. (Figures 8 and 9).
Extendible Scaffold: Some scaffolds can extend
beyond 40 ft.
Swinging Platform: The use of four cables, one
at each corner, allows the use of large working
platforms (Figure 10).
d. Suspended Scaffolds: Suspended scaffolds are
often used beneath structures to be painted,
e.g., a bridge or overpass. Supports with flat
horizontal bars are attached to the bottom
flanges of the overhead beams. Sometimes,
wheels are attached to these supports to enable
the scaffold to be moved along the beam without dismantling. The scaffold planks rest on
and are attached to the horizontal bars of the
supports (Figures 10 and 11).
II. CHOICE
OF SUPPORT OR RIGGING
The choice of supports depends on a number of considerat ions:
FIGURE 5
Bosun Chair-Air Drive
Courtesy of Sky Climber
The construction steel to be painted, e.g., tank,

building, bridge, overpass, cables, etc.
Difficulty in getting to the work surface and moving
from one area to another.
b. Operation: Three methods of operation may be

available:
Manual: Hand manipulated ropes are used.
Electric: Either 110 or 220 volt motors are used.
Some units enable changing from one to the
other, depending on current available at the site.
Bosuns Chair: This chair holds one person and

is used where only one person can operate. The
worker has full control of the operation but has
no room for any special equipment. Equipment
must be tied to the chair (Figure 5).

FIGURE 6
One Man Work Cage Under Bridge Cable
Courtesy of Spider Staging Sales Co.
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--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Air Motor: The air may be obtained from the

compressor used for blast cleaning or spraying
(Figure 5).
Some motors enable change of speed up to
30 FPM, depending on the load. There are some
systems with no limit to the height of the cable
since the cable of these units runs through the
hoist assembly.
c. Supports: The support used depends on the curvature of the surface to be painted. Three
general types are used:
SSPC CHAPTERx5.2 93
= 8627940 0003619 049
The height of a structure above flat ground or highway.

The relative cost-effectiveness of the support.
Often it is more economical to use mechanical
devices instead of labor to install support systems.
However, the initial and operating cost of some
mobile equipment is very high and warranted only
when it can be used extensively.
111. SAFETY
Because support systems are dangerous, proper
precautions are of the utmost importance, especially with
moble equipment. Follow equipment manufact urers instruction and comply with federal, state, and local safety
codes. Also see safety references 1, 4, 5,6,8, and 9 at the
end of this chapter including SSPC-PA Guide 3 Guide to
Safety in Paint Application, Volume 2, Steel Structures
Painting Manual.
FIGURE 8
Swinging Scaffold
sills or underpinnings. The upright legs must be

plumb and securely braced to prevent swaying. Use
cross bracing as required by law.
4. Anchor scaffolds to the structure i f possible. If independent of the structure, guy Scaffolds at intervals no more than 25 ft horizontally and 15 ft
vertically. Use horizontal diagonal bracing at the
bottom and every 25 ft in height.
5. Provide guard railings 42 in. high, regardless of
height, on the full length and the ends of the scaffold along with mid-rails where required. They
should be made of tubular fittings, not cable or
rope.
6 . Provide access ladders to all work areas.
7. Be sure that all planking is of correct grading and
at least 18 in. wide. Make sure it is fastened in
place and will support the load with no significant
deflection. Add supports at the center of the plank,
if necessary. Test by using twice the anticipated
load.
8. Keep scaffolds as dry as possible and free of any
material or equipment that will make them slippery
or unsafe.
9. Do not climb on the braces.
10. When using scaffolds, never over-reach or stretch
beyond the units limits. Move the unit to get to
another location.
11. Avoid operations within 10 ft of a power line,
unless it has been shut down.
12. Do not ride on movable scaffolding while the unit is
in motion.
13. Casters on movable scaffolds should be at least 6
inches in diameter and must have breaks. Lock the
casters when the scaffold is stationary.
14. Do not attempt to move the scaffold without sufficient help.
A. STATIONARY SUPPORTS
The following precautions apply to scaffolds:
1. Use galvanized steel, high carbon steel or aluminum
tubing of equal strength in diameters up to 2 in.
2. Inspect all sections before use. Reject any defective or rusty parts.
3. Place supporting members on firm, rigid, smooth
B. PORTABLE SUPPORTS
The following precautions apply to boom and scissor
FIGURE 7
One Man Work Cage on Water Tank
lifts:
I . Allow only authorized and trained personnel to
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operate the equipment.
2. Never operate a malfunctioning machine.
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
3. Inspect the equipment completely before use.

4. Do not move the machine unless the lift is down
and locked in position and all outriggers and jacks
have been retracted.
5. Avoid tipping the machine when moving over
grades.
6. Do not operate the lift until the machine is stable
and any outriggers or jacks are fully extended until
they are in contact with the ground. Chock the
wheels.
7. Set jacks on a firm surface or use shorings on a
soft surface.
8. Be sure there are no obstructions, personnel or
equipment in the way before extending the boom or
moving equipment.
9. Never use a boom as a crane. Do not exceed the
FIGURE 10
Swinging Platform
rated capacity of the lift.

10. Never stretch or over-reach beyond the side of the
boom or scissor lift.
11. Post a lookout when reversing direction or when
the users view (on a boom) is obstructed.
12. Always keep your attention on the direction of
travel of a boom.
13. Maintain a distance of at least 10 ft from power
lines.
14. Do not allow personnel to go underneath a raised
lift.
15. Keep the platform deck clean and free of oil, mud
or any slippery substance.
16. Use extreme caution when entering or leaving the
platform. Use the gate and be sure the platform is
no more than one foot from a secure structure. Do
not walk or climb the boom or scissors to do so.
17. Do not attach any cable to the platform.
18. Do not use a ladder on the platform to reach a
higher elevation. Keep both feet on the deck.
19. Shut off all power controls before making any adjustments on the equipment.
20. If towing a mobile, but not self-propelled lift, keep
speed below 10 mph. Do not tow on highways.
C. RIGGING
The following precautions apply to cable-operated rigging:
1. Always read instructions before use. Be sure equipment is in good operating order. Stay below rated
capacity of the rig.
2. Stages, except when necessary to pass through a
manhole, should be at least 27 in. wide.
3. Check cable before use. Apply twice the rated load,
lift about 1 ft above ground. Note any slippage.
FIGURE 9
Swinging Scaffold on Bridge

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FIGURE 11
Suspended Scaffold under Highway
D. SUSPENDEDSCAFFOLDS
4. Equipment should have free-fall safety devices as

well as manual controls, in case of power failure.
The machine should be worm-geared and powered
in both directions. It must not move when the
power is off. In addition to the normal brake, power
driven units must have an emergency brake that
operates automatically when normal descent
speed is exceeded.
5. Guy or brace suspended scaffolds to prevent swaying.
6. Suspended scaffolds should have a guard rail (app.
42 in. high), an intermediate and toe rail along the
entire length on both sides and at both ends.
7. Wear a safety belt at all times when using rigging.
The belt should be attached to a lanyard and fallprevention device attached to a lifeline.
8. No more than two men should work on a stage or
scaffold designed for a working load of 500 Ibs, and
no more than three men should work on a scaffold
designed for a 750 Ibs working load.
9. Dont over-reach or stretch beyond the riggings
sides.
The following precautions apply to suspended scaffolds:

1. Inspect all equipment carefully before use.
2. Working surface must be at least 27 in. wide.
3. Guard rails shall be placed on either side of the
scaffold, at about 42 and 20 in. with 6 in. high toe
boards at toe level along its entire length and either
end.
4. Wear a safety belt at all times when working on a
scaffold. It should be attached to a lanyard and
fall-prevention device that is attached to a lifeline.
5. Do not over-reach the side of the guard rail.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
chapter: AI Beitelman, Richard C. Bower, Alex Chasan, Lowell
Hartman, Cletus Junk, Paul Knobloch, Robert C. Kramer, and
Mark Patterson.
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= 8627740
Others contributing to this chapter are listed under the illustrations and in the Reference section.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
REFERENCES
Operation and Safety Handbook, JLG Industries Inc., McConnellsburg, PA.
Paints and Protective Coatings, Army TM5-618, NAVFAC
MO-110, Air Force AFM 85-2, Government Printing Office,
Washington. D.C.
S.E. Levinson and S. Spindel, Recent Developments in Architectural and Maintenance Paintings, Federation of Societies for Coatings Technology, Blue Bell, PA.
PDCA Craftsman Manual, Painting and Decorating Contractors of America, Fairfax, VA.
Safety Requirements for Suspended Power Scaffolds, Scaffolding i3 Shoring Institute, Cleveland, OH.
Scaffolding Safety Rules, Scaffolding, Shoring and Forming
Institute, Cleveland, OH.
Spider Staging, Spider Staging Sales Co., Renton, Wash.
Safety Requirementsfor Scaffolding, American NationalStandards Institute, New York, N.Y.
SSPC-PA Guide 3 A Guide to Safety in Paint Application,
SSPC Manual, Volume 2.
BIOGRAPHY
For biographies and photos of Sidney B. Levinson and Saul

Spindel, see Chapter 4.1, Paint Materials.
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57T W
September 1993 (Revised)
CHAPTER 5.3
SAFETY IN PAINT APPLICATION

by
Sidney B. Levinson and Saul Spindel
I. INTRODUCTION
3. Paint Removers
Paint removal compounds may contain toxic and
dermatitic solvents or highly acid or alkaline compounds. Some also are very flammable.
4. Cleaning Solvents
Cleaning solvents may be toxic if vapors are inhaled, may be dermatitic if allowed to remain on
the skin, and may be flammable.
Every painting job exposes personnel to conditions

and situations that represent actual or potential danger to
themselves and others in the immediate area. The products and equipment used always present a potential
hazard. The nature of the environment, for example the inside of a tank, represents a hazard in itself, or the hazard
may be caused by operator carelessness or lack of information. If supervisory personnel and workers are always
aware of potential hazards, they minimize risks and improve morale and efficiency.
This chapter describes in general terms some typical
hazards painters are exposed to and precautions that can
be taken to minimize risks. It is not intended to provide
specific answers to specific questions of safety that arise
on painting jobs. Detailed guidance is available from a
qualified safety engineer or industrial hygienist, and from
publications listed in the reference section at the end of
this chapter. Each SSPC specification has a section on
safety, and SSPC-PA Guide 3 presents a safety checklist.
B. PAINT APPLICATION
1. Paint Materials
Most paint solvents, many pigments and some
binders are toxic. Essentially, all solvent-thinned
paints also are flammable. However, most paint
materials are quite safe if used with proper
precautions.
2. Spray Equipment
Paint application is carried out rapidly with
pressure spray equipment. Airless spray equipment uses pressures that can be as high as
thousands of pounds per square inch. This equipment can be extremely hazardous if handled
carelessly.
3. Support Equipment
Ladders, scaffolding, staging, work platforms,
lifts, bosun chairs, and other support equipment
may be used to reach inaccessible areas. Improper use, inadequate Set-ups, and defective
parts may lead to serious accidents.
4. Environment
Painting conditions may be more hazardous than
anticipated, especially with solvent-thinned
paints. Solvents can accumulate to dangerous
levels within an enclosed area. Other hazards are
always present, such as support equipment and
mechanical equipment in the work area. Local
contaminants may also be present.
II. KINDS OF HAZARDS

Painters are subject to many kinds of accidents: electric shock, falls, suffocation, explosion, falling objects, inhalation of solvent or other chemicals and fire. i n addition
to accidents, hazards to health can result from using toxic
materials. Typical examples follow.
A. SURFACE PREPARATION
Equipment and materials used for surface preparation can be hazardous if used carelessly.
1. Blast Cleaning
Without proper precautions the high pressures used
in blast cleaning can cause injuries. The extremely
high pressures associated with water blasting can
cause serious injury if not treated with respect. Abrasive materials may cause harm at high or even
moderate pressures, and continuous exposure to
the dust may result in lung disease.
2. Steam Cleaning
The high temperatures and pressures reached
during steam cleaning can be very hazardous but
are quite safe if handled properly.
C. DEGREE OF HAZARD
Risks faced in any paint job vary considerably,
depending on the job location and the materials and equipment required. Painting a bridge railing at street level
presents a relatively minor hazard, but using an airless
spray on a scaffold suspended 100 feet in the air or prepar-
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ing the surface inside an enclosed area may present a

much more serious hazard. It is important to be aware that
hazards exist. Proper precautions must be taken to reduce
the possibility of an accident or over-exposure to solvent
vapors.
Administration (NIOSHIMSHA). The degree of respiratory

protection required depends upon the kind and concentration of contaminants that workers will be exposed to, as well
as the duration of their exposure. To choose respiratory protection appropriate for a given contaminated environment,
consult an industrial hygienist. Specifications for respirable
air should be taken from FEDSPEC BE-A-1034.
D. PAINTING CREW
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
There is an element of risk even with well trained

workers. However, lack of training, inexperience or inadequate knowledge of hazards by any painter can result in a
threat, not only to himself but to other workers in the painting area. No safeguard can guarantee safety where there
is ignorance or carelessness. Thus, every worker must be
made aware of all hazards and the proper precautions
necessary. Short cuts should be avoided because time
saved will very often be more than lost i f one accident occurs. Safety schools are recommended.
111. SAFETY MEASURES

A. GENERAL
FIGURE 1
Abrasive Blasting Helmet
A continuous and enforced safety program is mandatory to provide protection against potential hazards. All
personnel must be made aware of hazards and the precautions against them.
Disregard of any safety measure increases the potential danger and the odds that an accident will occur or
health will be impaired because of excessive exposure to
an unsafe environment or situation.
Courtesy: SoGo-JO Safety Hood Co.
Abrasive Blasting Helmet

The helmet covers the head and shoulders. Ventilation is supplied by fresh air blowers so the
worker is not exposed to abrasive media or dust.
(See Figure 1.)
Dust Respirator
The face mask has removable cartridges that
remove dust only. (See Figure 2.)
Chemical Cartridge Respirator
The face mask either contains removable cartridges or is connected to containers with activated carbon cartridges. The cartridges absorb
solvent, chemical fumes and vapors. (See Figure
B. GENERAL HEALTH, SENSITIVITY

AND ATTITUDE
All personnel should be in good health and required to
have a periodical physical checkup. Illness increases
susceptibility to health hazards. Anyone sensitive to paint
materials should avoid the use of cleaning solvents and
paint removers and should use less irritating paints, .e.
the water-based types. Anyone sensitive to heights should
not be allowed to work on elevated structures or equipment. Careless people should not be on painting crews.
3.)
Air Fed Helmet or Respirator
This respirator is similar to but lighter than a
blasting helmet because no protection against
blast media under high pressure is needed. The
respirator covers the head and shoulders and
fresh air is pressure fed. It enables personnel to
work in confined areas, such as tanks. (See Figure
C. ENVIRONMENT
The general environment and working conditions i n
any work area should be evaluated for hazards, and safety
precautions should be taken before starting work. Before
workers enter an area, they should be protected by
whatever devices, procedures, or clothing are necessary to
enable safe work in complete confidence.
4.)
Air fed to the blasting helmets and air fed to

respirators must be clean, dry and free of oil or carbon monoxide. A separate air supply should be
used. Do not attach air respirators to the same supply of air as spray guns. Keep diesel engine exhaust
at least 25 feet from compressor intake. Compressed breathing air should comply with FEDSPEC
BB-A-1034.
D. RESPIRATORY PROTECTION
In hazardous areas workers must wear face masks or
helmet respirators approved by the National Institute for
Occupational Safety and HealthlMine Safety and Health

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FIGURE 2
Dust Respirator
Courtesy: Mine Safety Appliances
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E. EYE PROTECTION
Safety goggles should always be worn to reduce the
possibility of dust, fumes, or water under pressure striking
the eyes during surface preparation or paint application.
Goggles are not necessary if a helmet is used. Safety goggles should fit well and allow adequate peripheral vision.
FIGURE 3
Safety Helmet, Chemical Cartridge Respirator
Courtesy: Mine Safety Appliances
F. PROTECTIVE CLOTHING
IV. HEALTH HAZARDS
Protective clothing should be worn whenever there is

a chance of a hazard. Protective clothing includes:
Coveralls - including fireproof clothing;
Safety helmets (See Figure 3);
Steel-toed safety shoes;
Non-skid soles when working in enclosed areas
or where flammable vapors may be present;
Acid-proof clothing when handling acid cleaning materials in enclosed area;
Rubber gloves or plastic protection.
Do not store protective clothing that is saturated with
chemicals. It should be laundered or disposed of.
A. TOXIC MATERIALS
Typical toxic materials are solvent vapors or dust
from blast cleaning of spraying operations, which may
enter the body by breathing, swallowing or even absorption through the skin. Symptoms of excessive ingestion or
absorption include irritation of the nasal membrane,
headache, dizziness, rapid heart beat, loss of appetite,
nausea and fatigue.
i. Solvens
Most solvents are toxic to some degree, depending upon exposure. The degree of toxicity can be
measured by the Threshold Limit Value (TLV), expressed as parts per million (ppm) of solvent to
air, that an operator may be exposed to during an
8-hour working day with no ill effects. This varies
from a high of 1,000 for ethyl alcohol to a low of 50
G. BUDDY SYSTEM
Never work alone i n a hazardous area. At least two
people should work in the same area, and one should be
visible to the other at all times. This enables one to help
the other in the event of trouble.

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B. DERMATITIC MATERIALS
Dermatitic materials affect the skin. The skin
becomes irritated and can become infected if left untreated.
1. Solvents
Solvents have a tendency to dissolve and remove
natural oils and fats from skin, leaving it dry,
chapped and sensitive to infection. Aliphatic
hydrocarbon solvents, such as mineral spirits, are
not as irritating as stronger aromatic hydrocarbons or oxygenated solvents such as toluene,
methyl ethyl ketone or especially methylene
chloride, which is used in nonflammable paint
removers.
2. Binders
Some epoxy r e s i n s , a m i n e hardeners,
polyurethanes, solvent-thinned acrylics (not latex)
and polyesters may also irritate the skin to some
extent.
3. Other Chemicals
The following chemicals are corrosive and must
be handled with particular care.
a. Paint removers and brush cleaners containing
phenol.
b.Acid and alkaline cleaners for surface treatment.
c.The acid or catalyst component of wash
primers.
FIGURE 4
Air Fed Respirator

Courtesy: E.D. Bullard Co.
C. PREVENTION OF
The following precautions should minimize hazards.

They describe a common
approach to avoiding
contact,
for
alcohol and as lowas for Orne glycol
ethers. (See chapter entitled Paint Materials.) If
permissible exposure limits, as determined by an industrial hygienist, are exceeded, then respiratory
protection becomes necessary.
Use surface preparation techniques that minimize

dust whenever possible.
Consult the Material Safety Data Sheet provided
by the manufacturer. Use the material in conformity with the manufacturers directions.
* Use ventilation, where possible, to keep exposures to airborne contaminants below the TLV.
If this not possible, use respirators and other personal protective equipment recommended on the
2. Pigments
Some pigments are toxic. The most common contain lead, e.g., red lead, basic lead silico
chromate, chrome yellow and chrome green.
Precautions should be taken when applying or
removing paints containing these pigments.
MSDS.
3. Binders
A few binders are toxic to some degree i f exposure is excessive. Typical of these are epoxies,
amine hardeners, acrylics (not latex), polyurethanes and polyesters. Polyurethane paints
that contain certain isocyanate compounds are
Prohibit eating and smoking where ingestion of

toxic materials is likely. Provide areas for washing before meals, and for showering and changing at the end of the shift.
D. FIRST AID
strong sensitizers with very low permissible exposure limits. Once a person is sensitized and has
an allergic
he should not be subject to
further exposure to these vapors.
4. Additives
%
. ?x?
Paint additives, such as the organotin Or
organomercurial comPounds used to
fungicidal properties, are toxic if inhaled, absorbed through the skin, or ingested.
Keep a first aid kit available. It should be stocked with

fresh materials. All personnel should be able to give
emergency first aid.
Any worker who becomes ill or is injured on the job
should be examined by a doctor as soon as possible,
regardless of the apparent seriousness of the injury. Some
toxic materials do not take full effect for days. Report all
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HEALTH HAZARDS
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mishaps to the foreman or first aid station. OSHA material

safety data sheets should be available for all materials used.
V. GENERAL PRECAUTIONS
A. SIGNS AND BARRIERS
Use signs and barriers to isolate the work area and to
warn against smoking, flames, etc.
B. MANUFACTURERS INSTRUCTIONS
Follow the manufacturers specific instructions and
precautions for the handling of his product or equipment.
C. GOVERNMENT REGULATIONS
Be sure that all safety requirements, equipment and supplies conform to all applicable federal, state and local regulations. See Chapter 26.0 for more information on federal
health and safety regulations.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

chapter: AI Beitelman, Alex Chasan, Lowell Hartman, Morris L.
Hughes, Paul Knobloch, Ben Nieters and Preston Hollister.
BIOGRAPHY
Biographical sketches and portraits of the authors appear at

the end of the chapter entitled Paint Materials.
REFERENCES
1. Occupational Safety and Health (OSHA) Reference Manual,

Painting and Decorating Contractors of America, Fairfax, VA.
2. PDCA Craftsman Manual, Painting and Decorating Contractors of America, Fairfax, VA.
3. Operation and Safety Handbook, JLG Industries, McConnellsburg, PA.
4. Safety Requirements for Suspended Power Scaffolds.
Scaffolding, Shoring and Forming Institute, Cleveland, OH.
5. Scaffolding Safety Rules, Scaffolding, Shoring and Forming.
Institute, Cleveland, OH.
6. Handbook of Organic Industrial Solvents, Technical Guide
No. 6, American Mutual Insurance Alliance, Chicago, IL.
7 . TLVs - Threshold Limit Values for Chemical Substances and
Physical Agents in the Workroom Environment. American Conference of Governmental Hygienists, Cincinnati, OH, 1991.
8. Fire-Hazard Properties of Flammable Liquids, National Fire
Protection Association, Quincy, MA.
9. How to Handle Flammable Liquids Safely, Justrite Manufacturing Co., Des Plaines, IL.
10. Safety Precautions for Use of Airless Spray Equipment, Civil
Engineering Laboratory, Naval Construction Battalion Center,
Port Hueneme, CA.
11. A Manual for Painter Safety, National Association of Corrosion Engineers, Houston, TX.
12. SSPC-PA Guide 3, A Guide to Safety in Paint Application
Steel Structures Painting Manual, Vol. 2, 1991.

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CHAPTER 6
INSPECTION
bY
Kenneth B. Tator and Kenneth A. Trimber
that the more stringent the inspection requirements, the

longer it takes to complete the coating work. The direct
costs of inspection must be considered because the inspectors are specially hired, trained, and equipped with expensive instruments in order to verify the quality of the
work. Accordingly, inspection is often considered as an insurance against the possibility of a highly expensive
premature coating failure.
The purpose of this chapter is to outline the inspections required to assure quality coating work. In addition,
paint inspection equipment is described and summarized,
including advantages and disadvantages, calibration and
use. This chapter is presented in the chronological order of
the inspection sequence beginning with pre-surface
preparation inspections and continuing through final dry
film thickness and holiday testing. Inspection of the paint
itself is covered in the two separate chapters on quality
control.
An analysis of the reasons for premature coating

failure - deterioration of a coating system resulting in
rusting, pitting, chemical attack or other deterioration in most cases leads to a finding of either improper surface
preparation or deficient coating application. While there
may be potentially many other reasons for premature
failure such as poorly written specifications, choice of the
wrong coating or paint for a given environment, coating
misinformation, or a service environment more severe than
originally anticipated, it is estimated that approximately
75% to 80% of all premature coating failures are caused in
whole or in part by deficient surface preparation andior
coating appl cation.
It is said that a painter covers his mistakes. This is
unquestionably true. Unfortunately, after the surface has
been coated, it is exceedingly difficult to verify the adequacy of surface preparation - especially blast cleaning.
Furthermore, without the use of appropriate instrumentation, it is impossible to determine coating thickness or, in
many instances, even the number of coats applied.
However, during the course of application, these items as well as many others that might affect the ultimate
coating quality - can be readily witnessed and easily
verified. Accordingly, formal coating inspection, following
established guidelines or procedures, is mandatory on
many large projects (such as nuclear power plants) and is
often a requirement on smaller, critical applications such
as tank lining coating work. Where the consequence of
failure is expensive, the coated steel is inaccessible after
erection or the magnitude of painting great, formal inspection can often be justified.
It must be recognized that any inspection, even the
most casual kind, is an expense. Even during the performance of the work, fundamental inspection requires time. Inspection, in its simplest form, occurs when a painter stops
after a certain portion of his work is completed and examines it for adequacy. Has he missed any areas? Are
there any runs or sags? Is the blast cleaning pattern
uniform and the cleanliness adequate - or in the case of
hand or power tool cleaning, are there any loose mill scale
or rust deposits remaining? Formal inspection is more
costly. Inspection procedures must be written, and the
quality of work witnessed and documented on a periodic
(often daily) basis. The inspector must have access to the
work area, and be allowed sufficient time to complete his
inspection work. Often this must be done at the expense of
continuing coating operations - and although other tasks
can be done during the inspection period, the net result is
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I. THE FUNCTION OF THE COATING

INSPECTOR
Throughout this discussion the term inspector shall
be used to indicate an individual or a group of individuals
whose job it is to witness and document the coating work
in a formal fashion. While informal inspection may be done
by the painter, the painters foremen, or other persons
directly involved with the coating work, this type of inspection shall not be considered in the course of this discussion.
The inspectors purpose is to ensure that the requirements of the coating specification are met. His function is analogous t o that of a policeman: he enforces the
rules (specification) without exception even if he deems
them to be inadequate. The authorization to deviate from
the specification is the responsibility of the judge,
usually the specification writer, contract administrator, or
engineer in charge of the job. The inspector certainly may
venture his opinion and give recommendations to the
engineer, but cannot unilaterally deviate from the
specifications at the working level.
Besides specification enforcement, a thorough
coatings inspector provides a job documentation including a commentary on the type and adequacy of equipment at the jobsite, the rate of work progression, information regarding ambient conditions and controls, and
verification that the surface preparation, coating application, coating thickness and curing are as required. This is
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supplemented with any other information he deems of consequence to the quality and progress of the work.
The amount and type of inspection will vary according
to the size of the project and the type of application contract. There are a number of types of contracts, but for
simplicity two general categories, fixed price and costplus will be addressed.
Inspection under a fixed price application contract
may be oriented t o ensure that the contractor does not
cut corners in order to hurry the job. While an evaluation
of the equipment, work procedures, and sequence, etc. is
important, the equipment and methods by which the contractor accomplishes the job are essentially at his discretion, provided the requirements of the specifications are
met. When performing inspection services for a costplus application contract, a knowledgeable inspector
must be able to evaluate the contractors equipment for
adequacy and must be able to assess whether the rate of
progress is reasonable.
FIGURE 2
ELECTRIC PSYCHROMETER
utilizes a fan to draw air across
thermometer bulbs, providing the wet and dry bulb temperature
readings.
the work at various inspection points. The following points

will be reviewed along with the appropriate instruments
used for each.
I . Pre-Surface Preparation Inspection
2. Measurement of Ambient Conditions
3. Evaluation of Compressor (Air Cleanliness} and
Surface Preparation Equipment
II. SAFETY CONSIDERATIONS

Safety is paramount on any job. Coating inspectors
should be aware of basic safety requirements. Although
the inspector is not expected to be proficient in all safety
codes and regulations, common sense should certainly
prevail. If lighting, scaffolding, or equipment malfunctions
present safety hazards, the appropriate safety personnel
should be notified. Paint application inherently presents
some dangers because the solvents used are flammable
an because many objects to be painted are relatively high
or inaccessible. To paint these areas requires elaborate
staging or the use of spiders or swing scaffolding for accessibility. The knowledgeable inspector will assure
himself of the safety of these appurtenances before he
becomes involved. Other safety concerns are addressed
more specifically in SSPC-PA 3, A Guide to Safety in Paint
Application and the chapter on Safety in this volume.
111. INSPECTION SEQUENCE

Inspection often begins with a pre-job conference at
which the ground rules are set. The inspector is responsi.
ble for witnessing, verifying, inspecting, and documenting
FIGURE 1
SLING PSYCHROMETER used for measuring wet and dry bulb
temperatures in order to establish relative humidity and dew
point. The instrument is spun in the air to reach temperature
stabilization.

4. Determination of Surface Preparation Cleanliness

and Profile
5. Inspection of Application Equipment

6. Witnessing Coating Mixing
7. Inspecting Coating Application
8. Determination of Wet Film Thickness
9. Determination of Dry Film Thickness
10. Evaluating Cleanliness Between Coats
11. Pinhole and Holiday Testing

12. Adhesion Testing
13. Evaluating Cure
IV. PREWRFACE PREPARATION

INSPECTION
Prior to the commencement of surface preparation or
other coating activities, it may be necessary t o inspect t o
determine if the work is ready to be prepared and painted.
Heavy deposits of grease, soil, dust, dirt, cement splatter
and other contaminants must be removed. Removal of
such large oil and grease deposits prior to blast cleaning
assures that they are not redeposited onto freshly cleaned
surfaces. This removal is accomplished by following the
steps outlined in SSPC-SP 1, Solvent Cleaning. This is
particularly important when abrasive recycling, blast
cleaning methods are used so that the abrasive itself does
not become contaminated. Such contamination would be
deposited onto any steel subsequently cleaned with the
same abrasive.
The specification may require that weld splatter be
ground or otherwise removed and that sharp edges be
rounded. Laminations in plate steel, i f detected prior to
blast cleaning, should be opened. If deep enough, they
may require weld filling, and, if sufficient deterioration
has occurred to the structure, replacement of some
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S S P C CHAPTER*b.O
9 3 W 8 6 2 7 7 4 0 0003b30 7 0 T
V. MEASUREMENT OF AMBIENT
CONDITIONS
air temperature, relative humidity and dewpoint.
structural members, fish plating or other repair may be

necessary. Responsibility for such repair should be
specified in procurement documents but is not ordinarily
considered to be part of the coating contract.
As a prelude to most painting operations, taping,
masking and protection of adjoining surfaces not to be
painted must be accomplished.
NACES Visual Comparator for Surface Finishing of
Welds Prior to Coating, referenced by NACE RP O1 78, may
be used for inspection.
If the work involves maintenance painting, a determination of the percentage of rusting in an area will be
helpful. It should be made in accordance with SSPC-Vis 2
Standard Methods of Evaluating Degree of Rusting on
Painted Steel Surfaces. In addition, the coating type
should be ascertained in order to assure compatibility with
subsequently applied coats. Although there is no quick
fool proof field method for determining the type of
coating present on a structure, a chemical test series referenced by ASTM test method D 5043, based on work done
by the U S . Naval Civil Engineering Laboratory, is available
for general field studies. Alternately, and perhaps best, is a
test patch application of the new coating over the old, two
weeks or more in advance of production painting. The test
patch is then examined for adhesion, signs of wrinkling, lifting, or other evidence of incompatibility. A more conclusive
approach is to send coating samples to laboratoriesfor quick,
inexpensive determination of generic type (by infrared spectroscopic analysis).
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
FIGURE 3
DIGITAL HYGRO-THERMOMETER - gives instant readout of
While this is not specifically an inspection hold-point,

it is implicit that surface preparation and coating work be
done only under suitable ambient conditions of
temperature, humidity, and dew point. For most catalyzed
coatings, specific minimum temperatures must be met.
Many zinc-rich coatings require certain minimum
humidities as well. The inspector should be cognizant of
weather forecasts, particularly if coating work is to be
done outdoors.
Other ambient conditions that might affect painting
operations should be noted such as potential industrial or
chemical airborne contamination, water spray downwind
from a cooling tower, leaking steam or chemical lines, and
contamination from normal plant or adjacent operations.
Often, a heater or dehumidifier is used to control ambient conditions for painting operations. Ideally, a heater
should be indirect fired so it does not contaminate the surface with products of combustion. Ventilation, if required,
should provide for sufficient air flow and adequate ventilation of all areas where work is being performed. Most
solvents are heavier than air; thus, the dangers of explosion and flammability are greatest in low-lying areas. Control of airborne contaminants such as dust and abrasive
must also be effective in order to prevent contamination.
While much of the above is inspected visually with the
acceptance criteria governed by safety requirements and
common sense, the ambient conditions of air temperature,
relative humidity, and dew point are determined using instrumentation. This includes psychrometers (Figures 1, 2,
and 3) or instruments that give direct read-out recording of
humidity (Figure 4) or dew point. Measurements with these
instruments are taken before the work begins each day
and periodically throughout the day. A suggested
minimum frequency is every four hours, or sooner i f
weather conditions appear to be worsening.
The psychrometer consists of two identical tube thermometers, one of which is covered with a wick or sock that
FIGURE 4
RECORDING HYGROMETER - relative humidity and air
temperature are recorded on strip charts to provide permanent

daily or weekly records.
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stabilizes. Stabilization occurs when three consecutive

readings of the wet bulb remain the same. At this time both
the dry and wet bulb temperatures are recorded.
When using the fan-operated psychrometer, the wet
bulb sock is saturated with water and the fan is started.
Approximately two minutes are required for stabilization,
and one need only observe the wet bulb thermometer and
record both temperatures when the wet bulb temperature
remains unchanged.
FIGURE 5A
FIGURE 5B
U.S. WEATHER BUREAU TABLES - a book of tables for converting dry bulb and wet bulb temperatures to relative humidity and
dew point.
FIGURE 7
DIGITAL THERMOMETER
for direct readout of surface
tempera ture.
When the instruments are used in air temperatures

less than 32 degrees Fahrenheit, the accuracy of the
readings is questionable. The wet bulb thermometer will
drop below the 32 degrees Fahrenheit temperature to a
certain point (e.g. 27 degrees Fahrenheit) then "heat up"
rapidly to the 32 degrees Fahrenheit freezing point. Quite
often when using a sling psychrometer, this will take place
during the whirling of the instrument; therefore, a wet bulb
temperature of 32 degrees Fahrenheit may always be obtained. When using the motor-driven psychrometer, one
can observe the wet bulb temperature drop below freezing,
then rise rapidly to 32F. However, the low value may still
be incorrect. Thus i f the temperature is below 32"F, the
ambient conditions will have to be established by other
means. This could be accomplished by obtaining the
humidity on a direct read-out instrument using
sophisticated equipment or even inexpensive humidity indicators available for home use. The ambient temperature
will still be obtained using a standard thermometer. These
two values can then be used to determine the wet bulb and
dew point temperatures by plotting out this information
"in reverse" on the charts or tables described below.
After the dry bulb and wet bulb temperatures are
determined, a psychrometric chart or table is used to
determine the relative humidity and dew point
temperatures of the air. Charts require plotting the dry
bulb and wet bulb temperatures on different lines and interpolating the relative humidity and dew point from their
intersection.
The US. Department of Commerce Weather Bureau
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
is saturated with water. The covered thermometer is called

the "wet bulb" and the other is the "dry bulb". The dry bulb
gives the ambient air temperature while the wet bulb
temperature results from the latent heat loss of water
evaporation from the wetted sock. The faster the rate of
water evaporation, the lower the humidity and dew point.
There are generally two types of psychrometers: the
sling psychrometer, shown in Figure 1, and the fan or
motor-driven psychrometer, shown in Figure 2.
When using the sling psychrometer, the wet bulb sock
is saturated with water, the instrument whirled rapidly for
approximately 20 seconds, and a reading of the wet bulb
quickly taken. The cycle is repeated (spinninglreading
without additional wetting) until the wet bulb temperature
FIGURE 6
SURFACE TEMPERATURE THERMOMETER
for establishing
temperatures of substrates during blast cleaning and painting.

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8627940 0003632 582
Psychrometric Tables (Figure 5) consist of individual

tables for relative humidity and dew point. To use the
table, the wet bulb temperature is subtracted from the dry
bulb temperature and the difference found along the top
row of the table. The dry bulb temperature is found down
the left column and the intersection of the two is either the
humidity or the dew point, depending upon which table is
used. Other tables, such as the U.S. Department of Commerce, NOAA-WSTA B-0-6E (5-72), Relative Humidity and
Dew Point Tables, include the relative humidity and dew
point on the same table.
FIGURE 9
SSPC VISUAL STANDARDS - Photographic
reference standards for
abrasive blast cleaned
steel. Color print standards
illustrate four degrees of
blast cleaning (SP7, SP6,
SP10, SP5) over four rust
grades of steel.
readout. Only a few seconds are required for a temperature

readi ng to s t a bi Iize.
With any of the instruments used for determining ambient conditions and surface temperatures, the readings
should be taken at the actual locations of the work. For
general readings, however, one should consider the coldest point on the structure because a surface
temperatureldew point relationship problem will occur
there first. Air and surface temperature considerations are
also important to ensure that coatings are not applied outside of their temperature limitations - in areas too cool or
too warm. Accordingly, readings for this purpose should
be made at the coolest or warmest areas.
Typical requirements for ambient painting conditions
are given in SSPC-PA 1.
FIGURE 8
Nozzle Orifice Gage (right)
measures nozzle orifice
and indicates CFM of air required for the size.
Hypodermic Needle Pressure Gage (left) measures
air pressure at nozzle by inserting needle through
sandblast hose.
Dew Point is defined as the temperature at which

moisture will condense. Dew point is important in coating
work because moisture condensation on the surface will
cause freshly blast cleaned steel to rust, or a thin, often invisible film of moisture trapped between coats may cause
premature coating failure. Accordingly, the industry has
established an arbitrary dew pointlsurface temperature
safety factor. Final blast cleaning and coating application
should not take place unless the surface temperature is at
least five degrees Fahrenheit higher than the dew point.
Although, theoretically, a surface temperature just infinitesimally above the dew point will not permit moisture
condensation, the safety factor of five degrees Fahrenheit
has been established to allow for possible instrument inaccuracies or different locations where readings are
taken.
Different field instruments are used for determining
surface temperature. One of the most common is a surface
temperature thermometer (Figure 6), which consists of a
bimetallic sensing element that is shielded from drafts.
The instrument includes two magnets on the sensing side
for attachment to ferrous substrates. Two or three minutes
are required for temperature stabilization of this instrument. Other field instruments for determining surface
temperature are direct reading thermocouplelthermisters
(Figure 7). These instruments have a sensing probe
touched to the surface, resulting in a direct temperature

FIGURE 10
SURFACE PROFILE COMPARATOR - consists of a lighted
magnifier and reference disc (shown) for visually comparing the
anchor pattern of blast cleaned steel. Reference discs are available for sand, grit, or shot abrasives.
185
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SSPC
SSPC
CHAPTER*b.O
93
8627940 0003633 419

ment - the compressor should be appropriately sized and
have a suitable volume to maintain the required air
pressures. Equipment suppliers have charts and data
available which are excellent aids for determining required
sizes of compressors, air and abrasive lines, nozzles, and
so forth.
FIGURE 11
Keane-Tator Comparator in use to measure surface profile.
Courtesy: KTA-Tator
VI. EVALUATION OF SURFACE PREPARATION

EQUIPMENT
The air compressor and other equipment used for
blastcleaning and any hand or power tools should be inspected. The inspector need not have an extensive
technical background on the equipment, but should be
familiar enough with i t to determine its suitability. A brief
summary is provided below, but more detailed information
is available in the chapters on Surface Preparation in this
volume and in the Commentary on Surface Preparation in
Volume 2.
FIGURE 13
DIAL SURFACE PROFILE GAGE
a depth micrometer that
measures the depth o valleys on the steel surface after blast
cleaning.
Courtesy: Elcometer, Inc.
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
The compressed air used for blast cleaning, blowdown, and spray application should be checked for contaminants. Adequate moisture and oil traps should be
used on all lines to assure that the air is sufficiently dry
and oil-free so it does not interfere with the quality of the
work. A simple test for determining air cleanliness requires holding a clean white piece of blotter paper approximately 18 inches from the air supply downstream of
moisture and oil separators. The air is permitted to blow on
the blotter paper for a few minutes followed by an inspection for signs of detrimental amounts of moisture or oil
contamination on the blotter. Obviously, i f there is no
discoloration on the blotter, the quality of the air is excellent, while streams of moisture and oil running down
the sheet indicate unsatisfactory air.
Unfortunately, the point where good air becomes bad
is difficult to determine. However, by use of the blotter
paper (or a clean cloth, handkerchief, or paper), one can
make his own judgments as to the air quality. A thorough
inspection of the surface after blast cleaning for signs of
moisture or oil contamination should be made and these
results correlated with the results of the blotter test. In addition, the proper functioning of in-line moisture and oil
traps can be evaluated on a comparative basis from the
results of the blotter test. For work requiring that absolutely no moisture or oil be permitted in the compressed air;
FIGURE 12
TESTEX PRESS.O-FILM TAPE
used to make a precise reverse
replica of the surface profile, which is measured with a spring
micrometer.
A. AIR COMPRESSOR A N D AIR CLEANLINESS

When an air compressor is used - for blast cleaning,
power tool cleaning, or the operation of spraying equip-

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= 8627940 0003634 355

There is a great variety of abrasives available for blast
cleaning. The size, type, and hardness of the abrasive have
a significant impact on the surface profile and speed of
cleaning. Steel shot and grit, because they can be recycled, are most commonly used for rotary wheel blast cleaning. Where permitted by law, sand is a very common
abrasive for most field operations. Various slag abrasives,
due to lesser hazards from silica, are also widely used, particularly in tanks, ship holds and other relatively confined
areas. Sand and slag are disposable abrasives and should
not be recycled, whereas most metallic abrasives, such as
iron and steel shot and grit, aluminum oxide, and expensive abrasives such as glass beads can be recycled if
fines, paint, rust and mill scale can be adequately
separated from the abrasive stream. Metallic and nonmetallic abrasives are reviewed in detail in other chapters
of this volume.
It is most important that all abrasives be clean and
free of moisture. Abrasives should be stored off the
ground, protected from moisture and the elements. Only
sand or slag that has been washed at the manufacturing
and packaging plant should be used. The washing should
be done using fresh water only; if brackish water is used,
chloride contamination of the cleaned surface can result,
with subsequent rust bloom in humid environments.
Although there is no inspection apparatus for determining the cleanliness of the abrasive used, a visual
inspection must be made to assure that it is not damp or
contaminated. When abrasive recycling systems are used,
a simple test for the presence of oil or grease contamination should be made. Drop some of the abrasive (e.g. a teaspoon full) into a small vial of water (pill bottle size) and
shake vigorously. Inspect the top of the water for a film of
grease or oil which will be present if the abrasive is contaminated. Dirt and dust in the abrasive can be assessed
in the same manner. Small abrasive fines will be held by
surface tension at the meniscus, and a dirty abrasive will
color the water or cause turbidity. However, water-soluble
contaminants such as salt will not be detected using this
test. If water-soluble contaminants are present, a litmus
paper test of the water in the vial will tell i f they are acid or
alkaline. If neutral, add a drop of 5% silver nitrate solution
to the water. The formation of a white precipitate will indicate the presence of chlorides. Alternatively, allow the
water to evaporate and look for salt crystals.
FIGURE 14
ZAHN CUP
plication.
- for measuring the viscosity of coatings prior to ap-
oil-less compressors and sophisticated air drying equipment are available.
B. BLAST CLEANING MACHINE

The blast cleaning machine mixes the abrasive with
the air stream. The abrasive metering valve regulating the
flow of abrasive into the air stream is perhaps one of the
most overlooked but important considerations affecting
the work rate. Generally, too much abrasive is injected into
the air stream, resulting in both decreased production and
increased abrasive costs. The machine should be
equipped for dead man capability so that it can be shut
down from the nozzle in the event the nozzle is dropped. It
should also be equipped with moisture and oil separators,
or external separators should be provided. Since the tank
of the blast cleaning machine is a pressure vessel, it
should be constructed according to pressure vessel codes.
D. FORCED AIR AND ABRASIVE HOSES

Sharp constrictions or bends in these lines should be
eliminated, and they should be kept as short as possible to
avoid friction and loss of pressure. For the same reason,
internal couplings should be avoided. For safety purposes,
the couplings should be wired together to assure secure
closure, and the blast hoses should be equipped with
static wire grounding.
FIGURE 15
WET FILM THICKNESS GAGE
measures coating thickness
during application by progressively deeper steps marked in mils.
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--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
C. ABRASIVE
SSPC CHAPTERxb.0 93
8b27940 0003635 291

E. BLAST CLEANING NOZZLES AND
NOZZLE PRESSURE
A great variety of nozzle sizes, types, and lengths are
available for cleaning purposes. The specific nozzle
chosen will depend upon the specific cleaning job. Venturi
type nozzles provide a higher abrasive velocity than
straight barrel types of the same orifice size. In general,
the longer the barrel, the larger the orifice and the faster
the cleaning rate. Cracked nozzles and worn nozzles, even
i f not cracked, will reduce the rate of blast cleaning. As a
rule of thumb, a nozzle that has been worn beyond 25% of
its original inner diameter (I.D.) should not be used. A nozzle orifice gage (Figure 8) is available from equipment suppliers for determining the orifice size after use. The
number etched on the nozzle housing indicates the size
when new. Nozzles are designated in sixteenths of an inch.
Therefore a Number 8 nozzle is equivalent to '12 inch.
The amount of air pressure at the blast nozzle is a
determining factor in cleaning rate production. The optimum nozzle pressure is 90 to 100 psig. The blasting air
pressure should be determined at the nozzle rather than at
the gage on the compressor because there will be pressure
drops in the system due to hose length, bends, restrictions, blast pot, and moisture traps. Air pressure at the
blast nozzle can be determined using a hypodermic needle
air pressure gage (Figure 8). The needle of the gage is inserted through the blast hose as close to the nozzle as is
practical. The direction of needle placement should be
toward the nozzle. Pressure readings are taken with the
nozzle in operation (abrasive flowing). At the same time, all
other pneumatic equipment using the same compressor
system must be in operation.
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
FIGURE 16
INTERCHEMICAL WET FILM THICKNESS GAGE
F. ROTARY WHEEL BLAST CLEANING

EQUIPMENT
FIGURE 17
MIKROTEST MAGNETIC PULL-OFF DRY FILM THICKNESS
GAGE non-destructively measures the thickness of coatings
applied to ferrous substrates.
Many fabricating shops and painting sites are

equipped with rotary wheel blastcleaning equipment in
order to effectively prepare a surface for painting. The
number of wheels directly affects the area that can be
cleaned, and the type of structural shapes that can be
cleaned. Adjustments can be made to direct the blast pattern from each wheel to the desired location in order to
provide a uniform cleaning pattern. The rate of speed
through the machine determines the degree of cleaning;
the slower the material goes through the machine, the
FIGURE 18
ELCOMETER 21 1 THICKNESS GAGE
operates on the same
principle as the Mikrotest for non-destructive coating thickness
measurements.

FIGURE 19
ELEKTRO-PHYSIK PENTEST (Top) and ELCOMETER (bottom)
PENCIL PULL-OFF GAGES.
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SSPC CHAPTERWb-O 93
8627940 0003636 128
the abrasive used, the pattern and degree of prior rusting

and numerous other factors unique to each project. As a
result, jobsite standards are often developed to reach agreement. Sections of the structure (or test panels of a similar
nature) are prepared and all parties involved ultimately select
one of the panels or areas that is representativeof the desired
end result. A complete listing of available standards is
provided in the Commentary on Surface Preparation included
in Volume 2.
COUNTERWEIGHT
FIGURE 20
POSIPEN PENCIL PULL-OFF GAGE
REFERENCEMARK
greater the degree of cleaning. Details are given in the

chapter on centrifugal blast cleaning in this volume.
Complex structural shapes are particularly hard to
clean using automated equipment. The interior of box
girders, enclosed shapes, and shielded members can not
be cleaned, unless cleaning is done prior to fabrication. In
many instances, fabricators will employ handheld blast
cleaning equipment in tandem with the automated equipment to reach the inaccessible areas.
G. OTHER METHODS OF SURFACE

PREPARATION
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Methods such as vacuum blast cleaning, water

blasting with or without sand injection, wet blast cleaning,
hand and power tool cleaning will not be discussed here.
FIGURE 21
VII. DETERMINATION OF SURFACE

PREPARATION CLEANLINESS AND PROFILE
A. CLEANLINESS
When a certain surface preparation method is

specified, the intent is that it be employed over 100% of
the area, not just the readily accessible areas.
Cleanliness after surface preparation is also very important. Residual traces of abrasive must be blown, swept,
or vacuumed from the surface prior to prime coating. It is
also important to ensure that dust is removed from the surface prior to painting, particularly the fine film of dustlike spent abrasive often held to the blast-cleaned surface
by static electricity. Any scaffolding, staging or support
steel above the area to be coated must be blown down and
cleaned to prevent abrasive dropping onto the freshly
cleaned surface, or later contaminating the freshly primed
surface. Concurrent blast cleaning and painting should
not be permitted unless the blast cleaning is adequately
isolated to prevent contamination of the freshly painted
surf ace.
The surface profile should also be measured or
estimated. Note that the profile or roughness of a blastcleaned substrate is different than, but closely related to,
surface cleanliness.
All surfaces should be inspected after surface

preparation to assure compliance with the specification.
The SSPC Surface Preparation Specifications describe the
appearance of various types of surface preparation
methods, percentage of the surface area to be cleaned,
type of residues permitted to remain on the surface, and so
forth. It is important that this inspection be timely, in order
to avoid any rusting of cleaned surfaces prior to priming.
The written definitions are supplemented by SSPCVis-1-89, which photographically depict the surface appearance of various grades of blast cleaning over four initial mill
scale and rust conditions of steel (Figure 9). The standards
are visually compared with the prepared surface to determine
the degree of cleanliness. Other visual standards for surface
cleanliness evaluation include the NACE coupons, and the
International Organization for Standardization (ISO) Standards. Agreement on the desired appearance of a cleaned
surface using commercially available standards is often difficult to achieve because of shadows and hues caused by

189
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I A P T E R x b . 0 93
8 b 2 7 9 4 0 0 0 0 3 b 3 7 Ob4 D
B. NSPECTING SUF FACES FOR SALT

--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
cor
TAM I NAT1ON
An inspection of the surface may be required to

determine if it is chemically clean, free of salt contamination.
1. Evaluating the Surface
Two approaches are described. First, a review of
existing conditions prior to or immediately after surface preparation can identify areas where contamination may be present. Second, one of several
methods could be used to sample the surface after
surface preparation so that the extent of salt contamination can be estimated.
a. Review of Conditions - Existing conditions before
surface preparation that would lead an inspector to
suspect that salt contamination is present include:
heavy rusting and pitting at locations where the coating film has broken down; heavy blistering of a lining, abuse of the structure by chemicals or salts,
e.g., splash or spillage of chemicals and salts in an
industrial plant. The use of deicing salt on a bridge
is also likely to lead to salt contamination. Identifying areas of concern before surface preparation can
help limit the need for subsequent sampling of the
surface to those locations believed to be contam inated .
A common indicator of salt contamination
which occurs after the surface is prepared is rapid
rerusting in the absence of condensing-moisture.
Most often such flash rusting will be associated with
pitted or previously rusted areas on the structure.
In some cases, the rerusting is more uniformly distributed. This may indicate that the use of abrasives
or the surface preparation process itself has imparted chemical contamination to a surface. A simple
water extraction test, ASTM D 4940, can be used
to help determine if an abrasive is contaminated.
b. Sampling Techniques - Several techniques are
available to acquire samples for analysis in order
to determine if an abraded surface is chemically
clean. All depend upon a surface extraction of soluble salts. In almost all instances a pure deionized
water supply is used to extract the salts from the
steel surface. Salt retrieval methods used to determine surface concentrations of salt on ferrous
metals fall into three general classes:
Swabbing or washing methods;
Cell retrieval methods; and,
Total Extraction Methods.
The first two methods can be used in both
laboratory and field settings, while total extraction methods, such as the use of boiling deionized
water to extract salts from a steel sample, are generally only useful when performed in the laboratory
and will not be discussed further.
1) Figure 22 shows the swabbing method. An
area of corroded steel has been marked off after abrasive blast cleaning of the surface. The

FIGURE 22
The swabbing method for obtaining samples to determine the
extent of salt Contamination.
surface can also be cleaned by scraping or

chipping off heavily rusted scale and cleaning
with abrasive embedded discs.
Surgical grade cotton swabs moistened
with deionized water are used to remove salts
from a known area of the structure. The method
requires that the operator wear surgical latex
rubber gloves to prevent cross contamination
of the surface or the retrieved sample by salts
naturally present on the surface of the skin.
As an alternative to swabbing, a washing
technique may be used. This method typically
involves rinsing a prepared area of steel of
known dimensions with deionized water until
no further increase in the run-off water is noted. All run-off water is collected and analyzed.
FIGURE 23
Using a magnetically attached limpet cell to obtain a sample.
2) Figure 23 shows an extraction using a limpet cell. The cell itself is constructed of
machined plexiglas plastic plate and includes
a conductivity meter to permit immediate reading of fluid conductivity and a syringe to pump
fluid into and out of cell. The cell shown adheres magnetically to the structure.
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93
= 8 6 2 7 9 4 0 0003638
teristics of each method and the conversion of

retrieved salt levels to actual surface concentration
est i mates.
Based on retrieval studies conducted in the
SSPC laboratories the following performance
characteristics are suggested for each extraction
met hod:
a. Swabbing Method - Between 15 to 35% of all surface salts extracted;
b. Rigid Limpet Cell Method - Between 45 to 60%
of all surface salts extracted;
c. Bresle Method - Between 45 to 60% of all surface salts extracted.
The interpretation of the results of analysis is
the subject of much debate among coating professionals.
Actual target levels depend upon the type of
coating to be used, the service environment of the
structure and other engineering factors, for example, the presence or absence of cathodic protection.
Target levels should be set forth in the contract
documents or governing specifications. A draft technical update covering salt recovery and identification methods is being developed by SSPC and other
levels of chemical cleanliness are being defined in
SSPC-NACE Joint Task Groups. The I S 0 has also
been developing standards for assessing and quantifying surface cleanliness.
FIGURE 24
Bresle cells can also be used for sampling.
The cell surface area is known and a set

volume of deionized water is flushed in and out
of the cell space to wash the salts from the steel
surface. After a short period of time, normally
about one to two minutes, the water is withdrawn from the cell and stored for further
analysis.
Samples may also be collected using a
Bresle cell. a small adhesive oatch which expands when filled with sample liquid. Figure 24
shows a Bresle cell. Distilled water is injected
into the cell with a hypodermic needle. The
liquid is then retrieved from the patch and tested. There are no published reports yet on the
effectiveness of the cell. The cell can hold only
about 5 ml of sample, less than can be obtained
with some other methods.
2. Analyzing the Samples
Water samples from either swabbing or cell extractions can be analyzed in one of two general ways.
The samples can be assayed for conductivity, using a simple cell arrangement or an analysis to identify the presence of individual ions can be
performed. Specific Ons Of greatest interest are
chloride, sulfate or ferrous. Commercial test kits are
available for full extraction and analysis of these
species. For more information on these tests, see
the bibliography at the end of this chapter for articles on this subject published in the Journal of Protective Coatings and Linings.
FIGURE 25
Inside of Mikrotest Gage with components corresponding with
those in Figure 21.
Courtesy: GilbertlCommonwealth
c. PROFILE
The profile anchor pattern or roughness is defined as
the maximum average peak to valley depth (or height)
cused by the impact of the abrasive onto the substrate. A
White Metal Blast can have a 1, 2, 3,.or 4 mil profile;
likewise, a Commercial Blast can have a 1, 2, 3, or 4 mil
profile. Specifying a certain blast cleanliness says nothing
of the profile requirement. It must be addressed separate-
3. Interpreting the Results

None of the methods described will retrieve all the
salt present on a contaminated surface. The proportion retrieved varies from method to method. Factors that affect the amount of salt retrieved include
the method of retrieval, the performance charac-
, _ _
191
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SSPC CHAPTER*h.O
93 W 8627940 O003639 937
Surface profile is important because it increases the

surface area to which the coatings can adhere, and provides a mechanical anchor, resulting in good adhesion. As
a general rule, thick coatings require a deeper surface profile than thin coatings.
Profile determinations are generally made in the field
or shop using one of three instruments: a surface profile
comparator, a depth micrometer, or a replica tape.
Magnetic measurements of surface profile have been attempted with little success. More sophisticated laboratory
methods include a profilometer and a depth measuring
microscope. SSPC has developed a standard method of
measuring profile using a microscope. This is included in
the SSPC Study Surface Profile for Anti-Corrosion
Paints. While all methods are worthy of consideration, only the fieldlshop instruments will be discussed.
The most common comparator is the Keane-Tator Surface Profile Comparator (Figures 10 and ll), which consists of a reference disc and a 5-power illuminated magnifier. The disc is held magnetically against the magnifier,
through which test surface and disc segments can be
viewed simultaneously. The reference disc has five
separate leaves or segments, each of which is assigned a
number representative of the profile depth of the particular
leaf. Each disc is a high purity nickel electroformed copy
of a master. The master disc was measured microscopically by the SSPC to establish the profile depth.
The reference disc is compared with the surface
through the 5-power magnifier. The leaf or leaves which
most closely approximate the roughness of the surface are
considered to be the profile of that surface. For example,
the profile might be 2 mils, or perhaps from 2 to 3 mils if
the surface roughness appears to lie between the 2 mil and
3 rnil leaves.
There are three surface profile discs available. The
one to use for measurement depends upon the abrasive
used. Different types of abrasives may result in a different
profile appearance, although the depths might be identical. For example, shot is round when compared with the
more angular grit. In order to achieve similar profile
depths, the shot by virtue of its shape will generally result
in greater lateral distances between peaks than will grit,
resulting in a lower peak count per given area. The optical
effect provides an illusion that the shot-blast-cleaned surface is deeper than the grit-blast-cleaned surface even
when they are identical. Therefore, it is essential that the
correct comparator disc be selected for the abrasive used.
The designations for three discs available with the instrument are for sand, s; for metallic grit or slag, G E ; and
for steel shot, SH. The numbering system on each leaf consists of a number followed by a letter designation, then
another number. The first number represents the profile
depth of that leaf, the letter represents the abrasive used,
and the final number represents the year that the master
disc was formed. For example, 1S70 indicates that that
leaf was prepared to a 1 rnil profile using sand as the
abrasive and that the master disc was formed in 1970.The

year that the master disc was formed is only significant i f

it were to be replaced at a later date.
The Clemtex Coupons are another type of profile
reference standard similar to the comparator discs. They
are stainless steel coupons individually blast cleaned and
measured for profile depth. IS0 also provides a visual profile comparator.
Another field instrument useful for determining
average profile depths is a depth micrometer (Figure 13).
The depth micrometer consists of a conical pin which projects out from a large flat base approximately the size of a
nickel. The instrument is calibrated on a mirror or plate
glass by turning the entire scale ring so that the zero
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
FIGURE 26
PLASTIC SHIMS - for calibrating dry film thickness gages.
FIGURE 27
NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF STANDARDS AND TECHNOLOGY CERTIFIED COATING THICKNESS CALIBRATION STANDARDS for magnetic pull-off gage calibration.
lines up with the pointer. Theoretically, when the instrument is firmly placed on the blast cleaned substrate, the
base will rest on the tops of the peaks and the pin will
project into a valley. By taking a number of readings, an
average profile can be obtained. It is important to pick the
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VIII. INSPECTION OF APPLICATION

EQUIPMENT
instrument up and place it down for each reading, rather

than drag it across the profile; otherwise, the point will
become blunted, yielding erroneous readings.
Surface profile can also be determined by using
replica tape (Figure 12). The Testex Press-O-Film Replica
Tape consists of an emulsion film of microscopic bubbles
attached to a uniform, 2 mil film of mylar. The tape is
pressed onto the blast-cleaned surface, emulsion side
down, and the mylar rubbed vigorously with a blunt instrument, such as a swizzle stick or burnishing tool. The peaks
of the profile will break the bubbles and ultimately touch,
but not alter, the thickness of the mylar, as the mylar is incompressible. The tape is removed and measured using a
light-weight, spring-loaded micrometer, which provides a
reading from the upper or outermost surface of the mylar
to the high spots on the emulsion which were not totally
crushed (corresponding with the valleys of the profile). The
total micrometer reading is adjusted for the thickness of
the mylar by substracting 2 mils from the results to provide
a direct reading of the maximum average profile. The tape
is available in coarse for profile measurements from 0.8
up to 2.0 mils and X-coarse for measurements from i.5
to 4.5 mils.
The replica tape will allegedly retain the impression
indefinitely, provided it is stored in a cool area with no
pressure applied. Conceivably, replicas of profiles could
be kept on file permanently for future reference.
It is important that the inspector realize that each of
the above methods has its drawbacks. For example, the
comparator is subjective, and persons using it could be
biased by the results of others. The peaks of the profile
may be too close together to permit the projecting pin of
the Surface Profile Gage (depth micrometer) to reach the
valleys, or the surface might be irregular or wavy, holding
the base of the instrument slightly above the plane of the
profile, giving erroneously high readings. The replica tape
The inspector must also be familiar with the methods

and equipment used for coatings application. A brief summary is presented here, but more detailed information is
provided in the chapter on paint application of this volume
and in Volume 2.
EXTENSION
REFERENCE
COATING
FERROUS SUBSTRATE
FIGURE 28
Operating principle of Pencil Pull-Off Gage.
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
A. SPRAY APPLICATION EQUIPMENT

Spray equipment is classified as either conventional
(air atomized) or airless. With air atomization equipment,
the paint is fed through the fluid line at relatively low
pressures, and compressed air is directed at the fluid
stream through an air cap to atomize it. Adjustment of the
fluid stream and air pressure enables the painter to adjust
the spray pattern. Only the minimum pressures necessary
to adequately atomize the paint should be used. The proper fluid cap and needle must be chosen, as well as a corresponding air cap size. Because the compressed air
mixes with the coating, filters should be used to ensure a
clean air supply.
In airless spraying, very high hydraulic pressure
(1000-3000 psi) is used to atomize the paint through a
precision-ground spray tip, much in the same manner as
water is dispersed into droplets when passing through a
garden hose spray nozzle. In an airless spray gun, generally, variations in the spray pattern can be attained only by
changing the spray tip (fluid orifice), although some adjustable tips are now available. Consequently, choice of
the appropriate tip, as well as variation of fluid pressure
can result in a wide range of spray patterns suitable for
almost any application.
The coating manufacturers application instructions
usually recommend the appropriate spray tips and caps
for conventional and airless application of their material.
This, however, is only a recommendation and under certain
conditions, other tip or cap combinations may be more ap-
cannot be used for profiles exceeding 4 % mils, or i f there

is any dirt or dust contamination on the surface. Such contamination will be picked up and incorrectly read as additional profile depth by the micrometer. Finally, it is important to realize that there may not be exact correlation
among each of the above methods because each takes in a
different peak count or surface area for its measurement.
Therefore, it is advisable that all parties concerned agree
on the instrument that will be used to determine the surface profile and not deviate from it. Because of the controversy in agreement in surface profile measuring
methods, equipment or technique, manufacturers will occasionally supply a profile reference coupon representative of the roughness necessary for their product or alternatively specify the use of a specific instrument. The SSPC
has prepared a report on profile, its origin, measurement,
control and effect on coating performance. It is entitled
Surface Profile for Anti-Corrosion Paints. Methods for
measuring surface profile are given in ASTM D 4417 and
NACE RP 0287. The technology of surface preparation is
covered in a series of separate chapters in this volume.

ADJUSTMENT
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propriate. Care should be taken when cleaning the tip or

caps as the orifice can be easily damaged.
FIGURE 30
POSITECTOR 6000 - digital gage measures coating thickness
FIGURE 29
ELCOMETER 345
on ferrous substrates. Similar model measures coating thickness over non-ferrous metal substrates using eddy current
principle.
- digital gage measures coating thickness
on ferrous substrates. Similar model uses eddy current principle to measure coating over non-ferrous metal substrates.
should be available and functional on conventional spray

pots. The pressure release valve should also be operative.
The conventional pot should be equipped with diaphragm
pressure regulators, making it possible to control both air
and fluid pressure to the spray gun from the pot.
The predominant malfunction in spray guns is attributable to lack of cleanliness, both of the spray gun
itself and of fluid lines. Paint chips or agglomerations and
most blasting abrasive particles are of sufficient size to
clog the small diameter orifices, resulting in gun stoppage
or clogging.
Additionally, cleanliness of mixing pots, spray pots,
spray lines, spray guns or other application equipment is
important and necessary for good paint application. Dirty
equipment can cause new paint to become contaminated
with old. Dislodged particles can clog the spray gun or
even result in the deposition of incompatible traces of
previously applied material in the new paint film.
Cleanliness of all spray application equipment should be
verified prior to, or no later than, the time of mixing of the
paint. Otherwise, resulting clogged paint equipment may
cause the loss of the coating material due to expired pot
life or the presence of contamination.
IX. MIXING OF THE PAINT MATERIAL

This is probably one of the most important operations, as improper mixing or thinning will affect the
coatings ability to resist the environment. However, mixing is not always specified as an inspection hold point in
painting operations. Regardless, there should be some
means to assure that all components of a multicomponent paint system have been added, that mixing is
thorough and proper and that any required induction times
have been met. Leaking or damaged containers should not
be used, particularly with catalyzed paints as some of the
components necessary for complete cure may have leaked
out and proper proportioning may not be obtainable. Containers with illegible labels should not be used. Mixing
should be done until the paint becomes smooth,
homogeneous, and free of surface swirls or pigment
lumps or agglomerations. Many paints settle out upon prolonged storage, so boxing of these paints is beneficial to
ensure that all pigment settled on the bottom of the container is incorporated in the mixed paint.
B. SPRAY POT
The spray pot should be clean and in working order
prior to use. Many types of paints, particularly zinc-rich
primers, require the use of an agitated pot (one equipped
with a stirring paddle) in order to keep the paint components in suspension. Air and fluid pressure gages
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

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When adding zinc dust to the vehicle of zinc-rich

primers, it is a usual practice to sift the zinc dust through a
screen into the liquid portion while mixing. This helps to
reduce a major problem when spraying two-component
zinc-rich primers; that is, gun clogging caused by pigment
agglomerations that are not properly dispersed upon mixing. For such heavily pigmented coatings, it is also important that the spray pot agitator is keeping the pigment in
suspension.
Preferably, only complete kits of multi-component
paints should be mixed. If this cannot be done, the
manufacturer must be consulted to assure that partial mixing of their material is permitted. If so, it is imperative that
the components be carefully measured.
Thinners are often required and should be well mixed
into the paint material. The type and amount of thinner
should be in accordance with the coating manufacturers
FIGURE 32
QUANIX 2300 - digital gage measures coating thickness over
non-ferrous metal surfaces.
1 through 5. The manufacturer can be consulted as to the

orifice size to use for his material, and the time in seconds
for the volume of properly thinned material held by the cup
to pass through the orifice. For example, the manufacturer
might stipulate that the material should be thinned such
that it will pass through a No. 3Zahn Cup in 20-30 seconds
at a given liquid paint temperature.
The clean cup is fully immersed in the coating
material and withdrawn quickly. A timer is started at the
precise moment that the top of the cup leaves the level of
the liquid. The material will flow steadily through the
orifice. When the solid stream breaks at the base of the
cup, the timer is stopped instantly. It is important to hold
the cup one or two inches above the surface of the liquid
so that the cup will remain in the solvent atmosphere and
away from all drafts. The amount of thinner is adjusted
accordingly so that volume of paint held by the cup will
flow through the orifice within the stipulated time range.
Viscosity measurements of this type are of value for
quick field determinations of thinning and will reveal if
significant changes in the viscosity occurred from pot to
pot of material. However, the paint applicator himself is
generally the best judge of proper thinning ratios to assure
that he can apply a smooth wet coat without runs or sags.
Additionally, the viscosity qf some high build thixotropic
coatings cannot be measured with the Zahn Cup, but other
viscosimeters can be used. In this case, the manufacturer
should be contacted for a recommendation.
FIGURE 31
QUANIX 2200 - digital gage measures coating thickness on
ferrous substrates.
recommendations. The amount of thinner used should be

recorded by the inspector, as any thinner reduces the
volume of solid contents of the mixed paint.
Measurement of viscosity assures that proper thinning ratios are used and that the thinning has not been
changed significantly from pot to pot. A common viscosity
cup (Zahn), as shown in Figure 14, is simply a small cup of
known volume with a precisely sized orifice in the center.
Generally five orifice sizes are available and are numbered
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

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and other areas where atmospheric contamination is present. Often water washing between coats or application of
the topcoat within a minimum time interval is necessary.
Otherwise, contaminants often invisible to the unaided eye
may be coated over, leading to premature coating failure.
Deficient and excessive coating thicknesses in multicoat systems should be observed. In cases where a topcoat is applied over a generically similar (non-rust inhibitive) primer, deficient primer thickness can be built
up by additional thickness of the topcoat. However,
where the primer contains rust inhibitors or is a different
generic type, an additional coat of the primer or previously
applied coating must be used before the topcoat can be
applied. Another common practice is to use coatings of a
different color, or to tint each coat. This is an excellent aid
to the applicator and inspector to assure that complete
coverage is achieved. Upper thickness limits are also
specified in some cases. When paint thickness exceeds
the specified thickness, the excess should be removed by
grinding, sanding or blast cleaning as appropriate.
Removal is usually followed by reapplication of a thin coat
to seal irregularities. Excessive or unsightly runs, sags,
drips, streamers, and other film deficiencies should be
brushed out during application or removed after drying.
This again is done by grinding, sanding, or in extreme
cases, blast cleaning.
FIGURE 33
QUANIX 1500
- digital gage measures coating thickness over
ferrous and non-ferrous metal substrates.
X. COATING APPLICATION
Besides surface preparation, the actual coating application is the most visible aspect of the coating work.
After surface preparation, it is the most important aspect
as well. It has been said that the best coating specification is no better than the man behind the spray gun. Accordingly, the coating inspector should be knowledgeable
of the various application techniques. These are briefly
reviewed below, but detailed information is available in the
chapter on Paint Application of this volume and in Volume
z.
When spraying with conventional (air atomized) equipment, the spray gun should be held from six to eight inches
from the surface and maintained perpendicular to the surface throughout the stroke. For airless application, the
distance should be from 10 to 14 inches. At the end of each
pass, the gun trigger should be released. Each spray pass
should overlap the previous one by 50%, and where possible, a cross hatch technique should be used. This requires
a duplicate series of passes at 90 to the first to ensure
complete and uniform coverage.
In brush application, the brush should be dipped approximately two-thirds of its bristle length into the coating.
The bristle tips should be brushed lightly against the side
of the container to prevent dripping, maintaining as fully
loaded a brush as possible. Brushing is more effective
than spraying for working paint into depressed irregularities, pits or crevices. However, care should be
taken to ensure that the coating is not brushed out too
thin.
Other application methods include rolling, using mitts
or pads, dipping, electro-static spraying, powder coating
(using fluidized bed or electro-static spray), and, increasingly, roller coating using automated facilities for flat
sheets. Each has its own specific technique as described
elsewhere in this volume.
XI. WET FILM THICKNESS DETERMINATIONS
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Wet film thickness readings are used to aid the

painter and inspector in determining how much material to
apply in order to achieve the specified dry film thickness.
Wet film thicknesses on steel and most other metallic
substrates are considered guideline thicknesses, with
the dry film thickness being the thickness of record.
However, when coating concrete or non-metallic
substrates, the wet film thickness is often the accepted
value because dry film thickness can be determined only
by destructive means.
Besides ensuring proper application technique, additional care is necessary when inspecting coating work at
fossil fuel power stations, chemical plants, coke plants,

FIGURE 34
MINITEST 1OOF - digital gage measures coating thickness over
ferrous metal substrates.
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ensure the accuracy of the readings.

The Interchemical thickness gage is a narrow wheel
with two outer rings of the same size and an off-set inner
ring. The instrument is rolled across the surface and
withdrawn. The wet film thickness is that point where the
coating no longer wets the inner ring.
Wet film thickness gages are of value only if one
knows how heavy a wet film to apply. The wet film
thicknessldry film thickness ratio is based on the percent
solids by volume of the specific material being applied.
The old theory of doubling the desired dry film thickness to
determine the wet film to be applied is only correct if the
solids by volume of the coating material is 50%.
The solids by volume of the coating material is information readily available from the manufacturer and is
commonly included in their product data sheets. The basic
formula is DRY FILM THICKNESS = WET FILM THICKNESS X yo SOLIDS BY VOLUME. A more workable variation
of the formula showing the required wet film thickness for
the desired dry film thickness is as follows:
WET FILM THICKNESS =
Yo SOLIDS BY VOLUME
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
DESIRED DRY FILM THICKNESS
FIGURE 35
MINITEST 4000 - digital gage measures coating thickness over
ferrous metal substrates. Similar model measures coating thickness over non-ferrous metal substrates.
The wet film thickness gage is generally a standard

notch configuration (Figure 15), although circular dial
gages are also used (Figure 16).
The notch type gage consists of two end points on the
same plane with progressively deeper notched steps in
between. Each step is designated by a number representing the distance in mils or microns between the step and
the plane created by the two end points. The instrument is
pressed firmly into the wet film perpendicular to the
substrate and withdrawn. In every case, the two end points
will be wetted by the coating material, and in addition
some of the steps in between. The wet film thickness is
considered as being between the last wetted step and the
next adjacent higher dry one. For example, i f the 3 step
is wetted and the 4 step is dry, the wet film thickness is
between 3 and 4 mils. If none of the steps or all of the steps
in between the end points are wetted, it is necessary to
turn the gage to a different face, as the wet film thickness
is outside of that particular range.
When using this instrument, it is necessary to stay
away from any surface irregularities that could distort the
readings. If determinations are being made on curved surfaces, it is important that the gage be used along the
length of the curve rather than across its width, as the
curve itself could cause irregular wetting of the steps. The
gauge must also be cleaned thoroughly after each use to

FIGURE 36
ELCOMETER 300 - digital gage measures coating thickness
over ferrous metal substrates. Similar model measures coating thickness over non-ferrous metal substrates.
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thickness increases nearly 2 mils.

Because the use of the wet film thickness gage is
dependent on the solids by volume, and the solids by
volume is considered as the in can percentage, it is
essential that wet film thickness readings be taken as
soon as a film is applied to the surface. Actually, during
spray application, between the time the material leaves
the gun and reaches the surface, some of the solvents will
already have evaporated, changing the percent of solids by
volume slightly. But for practical applications, this change
is not too significant. However, the longer one waits before
taking a reading, the less accurate that reading becomes.
For highly pigmented coatings (such as zinc-rich), or very
fast dry coatings, wet film thickness readings may be
unreliable.
FIGURE 37
TOOKE SCRATCH GAGE
for determining dry film thickness by
cutting a cross section through the film and viewing it under magnification.
DESIRED DRY FILM THICKNESS

WFT =
o/
(100%
SOLIDS BY VOLUME
+ /o THINNER ADDED)
For example, assume a material contains 78% solids by

and is to be applied in one coat to a dry film
thickness of 8 mils. Without thinner added, the required
wet film thickness is determined as follows:
WFT =
- = 10.25 mils
0.78
If the coating in the same example is thinned 20%, the new

required wet film is calculated as follows:
WFT =
8
0.78
1.2
- = 12.3 mils
(0.65)
This, without thinning, 10.25 wet mils are required to obtain 8 mils dry. After thinning, however, the solids by
volume drops from 78% to 65% and the required wet film

Dry film thickness readings on steel substrates are

commonly taken using magnetic gages. For non-ferrous
metallic substrates, eddy current equipment is used.
Calibration of magnetic thickness gages should be done in
accordance with SSPC-PA 2, SSPC Method for Measurement of Dry Paint Thickness with Magnetic Gages.
Although the standard is written for magnetic gages, many
of the principles of operation and calibration techniques
apply to the eddy current instruments as well.
Determination of the thickness of each coat in a multicoat system should be an inspection hold-point. When using magnetic gages to measure multi-coat systems, the
average of the first coat must be determined prior to application of the second coat. Readings taken after the second coat is applied will obviously be the total thickness of
the two coats combined, and the specific thickness of the
second coat can only be determined by subtracting the
average thickness obtained from the first coat reading.
The second coat thickness cannot be determined precisely, however, because it is highly unlikely that specific
readings taken on the second coat will be over an area of
the first coat that is exactly the first coat average.
Therefore, with magnetic gages it is nearly impossible to
Specifically determine the thicknesses O f Coats applied
after the
and One must rely On averages onlyIt is often a good idea, where practical, to provide a
means to indicate coating thickness in areas where it is
either thin or thick, so appropriate repair can be done by
the coating applicator. Possible methods are brush application of a light tinted coat of the same paint, compatible felt tip marking pens, chalk or other material that can
be readily removed or graphic plotting and notation on
charts and records.
Thickness readings are taken to provide reasonable
assurance that the specified or desired dry film thickness
has been achieved. However, it is not possible to measure
every square inch of the surface. SSPC-PA 2 states that
when using magnetic gages, five separate spot
measurements should be made over every 100 square feet
in area. Each spot measurement consists of an average of
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
The above formula is accurate provided the solids by

volume of the material is accurate. The percentage will
change, however, if any thinner is added to the coating.
When thinner is added, the total volume of the material is
increased without any corresponding increase in the
amount of solids. Therefore, the thinned material will
result in a lower percentage of solids by volume. Thus,
when comparing thinned versus unthinned material in
order to achieve a comparable dry film thickness, a heavier
wet film application of the thinned material will be required. The following formula, which incorporates the
new solids by volume, should be used to determine the
required wet film thickness when the material is thinned:
XII. DRY FILM THICKNESS
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--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
To operate, the scale dial is turned clockwise and the

magnet brought into direct contact with the metal
substrate (through the coating or non-magnetic barrier).
Then the scale ring is turned counterclockwise, increasing
the spring tension, which applies a pulling force onto the
magnet. Ultimately, the spring tension overcomes the attraction of the magnet to the substrate, lifting the magnet
from the surface. The spring tension is calibrated so that
the point where the magnet breaks contact with the surface can be equated to the distance of the magnet from
the surface. This distance is read directly from the scale
dial in mils (or microns). The calibrated spring tension is an
inverse logarithmic relationship of the distance between
the magnet and the substrate (e.g. the greater the spring
tension required to remove the magnet, the thinner the
coating).
Note that the thickness reading shown on the scale
ring when the magnet breaks contact with the surface
represents the gap between the magnet and the substrate.
This gap is considered to be the coating thickness.
However, it could also be comprised of voids, rust, embedded contaminates, etc. Therefore, one must include a
thorough visual inspection during the work to ensure that
the coating is applied over a clean surface and does not
become contaminated during drying.
The Mikrotest, Positest, and Elcometer 21 1 Gages
should be calibrated, or at least calibration verified, prior to,
during, and after each use to assure that they are measuring accurately. Calibration methods are described in SSPCPA 2, Measurement of Dry Film Thickness with Magnetic
Gages, which defines the pull-off instruments as Type 1
gages. Calibration test blocks similar to those supplied by
the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST),
which are chrome and copper plated steel (Figure 27) must
FIGURE 38
Modified version of the TOOKE GAGE with all three cutting tips
mounted on the instrument body and three bulbs to improve
lighting.
three gage readings next to one another. The average of

the five spot measurements must be within the specified
thickness, while single spot measurements are permitted
to be 80% of the specified thickness. The single gage
readings, however, making up the spot measurement, can
underrun by a greater amount. For example, a specification calls for 10 to 12 mils. The five spot measurements
(each a cluster of three gage readings) are as follows: Spot
1 (10, 11, 12; average 11); Spot 2 (7, 8, 9; average 8); Spot 3
(12, 12, 12; average 12); Spot 4 (7, 12, 11; average 10); Spot 5
(12, 13, 11; average 12). This measured area would be acceptable because the average of the five spots is 10.6 mils
and within specification. According to SSPC-PA 2, unless
otherwise specified, the 8 mil spot measurement would be
acceptable because no single spot measurement . . .
shall be less than 80% of the specified thickness (8 mils
is exactly 8O%), and the 7 mil reading is acceptable
because single gage readings . . _ may underrun by a
greater amount.
Dry film thickness instruments fall into four basic
categories: magnetic pull-off, magnetic-constant pressure
probe, eddy current-constant pressure probe, and destructive. Each of the four categories are addressed separately.
A. MAGNETIC PULL-OFF
The magnetic pull-off type gages include the Mikrotest
(Figure 17), the Positest, the Elcometer 21 1 (Figure 18), and
the Pencil Pull-Off (Figure 19 and 20) type gage.
Basically, a Mikrotest, Positest, or Elcometer 21 1 Gage
consists of a lever running through the center of a scale dial
which houses a helical spring. The scale dial is located at
the fulcrum point of the lever. One end of the spring is attached to the lever and the other end to the scale dial. One
side of the lever contains a permanent magnet while the opposite end contains a counterbalance (Figures 21 and 25).
FIGURE 39
A hand-held spring loaded micrometer useful for measuring the
thickness of coating chips.
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Another type of magnetic pull-off gage based on a

similar principle is the pencil pull-off gage (Figures 19,
20 and 21). Basically, the instrument housing is similar
to a large pencil with a magnet at one end. An
extension spring is attached to the magnet and to the
top of the instrument housing. The instrument is held
perpendicular to the surface and the magnet brought into
contact with the substrate. As the housing is lifted, the
magnet remains attached to the substrate until the spring
tension overcomes the attraction of the magnet, popping it
from the surface. The tension on the spring required to lift
the magnet is read from the scale in mils or microns
(Figure 28). This instrument can not be adjusted, although
calibration should be verified. In this case, however, a
calibration correction curve is necessary if the instrument
does not read correctly on the shims. The preferred
method for verifying calibration is the use of calibration
test blocks. The pencil-style gages provide a quick check of
coating thickness, but considerable judgment is involved in
determining the point at which the magnet breaks from the
surface.
There are some precautions necessary when using
any instrument that has a magnet. First, the magnet is exposed and therefore susceptible to attracting iron filings,
steel shot or grit particles. The magnet must be cleaned of
any contaminants during use, or the contaminant will incorrectly be read as coating thickness. This i s extremely
important in shop work where grinding is employed. The
resulting iron filings often necessitate that the magnet
and coating surface be cleaned before each thickness
reading. If the instrument is used on a soft film, allowing
the magnet to sink into the surface, a thinner coating
thickness will be recorded. This i s because the coating
itself may be tacky, holding the magnet beyond the point
where the spring should have lifted it from the surface, or
FIGURE 40
Pocket-sized 30X microscope with integral light source useful for
examining coatings.
be used to verify the calibration of Type 1 Gages. The use

of plastic shims is not permitted. It is essential that the instrument is calibrated in the desired thickness range of use.
If a coating is being measured in the thickness range of two
to four mils, one would not use a gage calibrated at 15 to
20 mils.
Calibration using the National Institute of Standards and
Technology (NIST) plates is accomplished by first adjusting
the instrument to read the thickness stated on the calibration blocks in the desired range of use. Next, take a gage
reading of the bare, uncoated substrate after blast cleaning
(or other surface preparation). The instrument will generally
read between one and two tenths of a mil up to 1 mil or more
over the bare steel. Therefore, any coating thickness readings taken must be corrected by this bare steel base reading in order to determine the coating thickness above the
peaks of the profile. Adjust subsequent thickness readings
by subtracting the magnetic base reading. For example, if
the instrument is calibrated to a 4 mil NIST Standard, and
a 1/z mil magnetic base reading on bare blast cleaned steel
is found, a paint thickness reading of 3% mils indicates that
the true thickness above the peaks is actually only 3 mils.
If one chooses not to physically adjust the instruments as described above, it will be necessary to
develop a calibration correction curve using the instrument scale as an arbitrary scale. For example, a five on the
scale may be equivalent to three mils, a ten equivalent to
seven mils, and so on.
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

d
1I
'
), 1
A'
8'
n
FINISH C O A T
FINISH C O A T THICKNESS
PRIMER C O A T THICKNESS
PRIMER COAT
FIGURE 41
Measurement principle of the Tooke Gage.
the coating under the depression caused by the magnet

actually will be thinner. In this case, place a plastic shim
on top of the surface to prevent the magnet from deform-
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ing the coating and subtract the shim thickness from any
subsequent readings. In addition, i f there are any vibrations in the area of instrument use, they could cause the
magnet to be popped from the surface prematurely, giving
an erroneously high thickness reading. The instrument
should not be used any closer than 1 inch to an edge of the
surface. In addition, residual magnetism in the structure
on which the coating is measured can have an adverse effect on the readings.
The scale dial type instruments have an additional
human error problem during use. It is easy to continue to
turn the dial beyond the point that the magnet has lifted from
the surface, giving an incorrect thickness reading. It is imperative that the dial be stopped as soon as the magnet lifts
from the surface. Automatic versions of the Mikrotest have
addressed this problem by incorporating a self winding
mechanism which automatically retracts the thumb wheel.
Therefore, it is necessary to stay at least three inches

away from any nearby iron or steel object, or the instru-
B. FIXED PROBE MAGNETIC FLUX GAGES
FIGURE 42
View through Tooke Gage Microscope. The interface of the
coatinglsubstrate is one division to the left of .O6 on the scale.
Coating thickness is measured from this point to the left ending
at the black bench mark at -05.
The fixed probe or magnetic flux type gages are

described in SSPC-PA 2 as Type 2 gages. They include the
Elcometer 345 (Figure 29), Positector 6000 (Figure 30), Quanix 2200 (Figure 31), Quanix 1500 FE (Figure 33), Minitest
200F (Figure 34), Minitest 4000 (Figure 35), Elcometer 300
(Figure 36), and others. The Type 2 gages also must be verified for calibration prior to use. Calibration verification is accomplished using the non-magnetic shim method (described
below) or the NIST calibration plates described previously.
When calibrating using the plastic shim method, verify the
shim thickness with a micrometer. Hold the shim firmly on
the bare clean(ed) substrate and measure it with the thickness instrument. If the instrument does not read the shim
thickness, adjust the gage according to the manufacturers
instructions. Some gages cannot be field calibrated. Check
the calibration by using shims of lesser and greater thickness to determine the range of accuracy. The instrument is
now ready for use for measuring thicknesses within that
range over the same substrate and surface preparation. If
a section of the bare substrate is unavailable, blast clean
small steel test panels (e.g., lhtrx 4 x 6) to obtain the same
or similar anchor pattern, protect them from corrosion using
a dessicant, VPI Paper, or other suitable means, and use
the panels for calibration. The instrument will correctly record
the thickness of the coating material. Any effect of surface
roughness is calibrated into the instrument because it was
adjusted over the bare steel, thus eliminating the need for
a magnetic base reading correction factor.
The magnetic flux gages experience some of the
same problems as the pull-off gages: 1) lower than actual
thickness readings on soft or tacky films; 2) necessity of
staying away from the edges during use; and 3)difficulty in
keeping the magnet clean. In addition, because the instruments are based on flux principles, they are vulnerable
to the effect of flux leakage from the instrument to nearby
ferrous masses, causing the instrument to be ineffective.
FIGURE 43
TINKER-RASOR LOW VOLTAGE WET SPONGE HOLIDAY DETEC.
TOR
used for finding pinholes and holidays in non-conductive
paint films up to 20 mils thick when applied to conductive
substrates.
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
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ment calibration must be readjusted in these specific

areas. If used inside a tank or vessel, they should be
calibrated inside the vessel to compensate for flux
leakage. The probe of these instruments must also be kept
perpendicular to the coated substrate during use; otherwise, incorrect readings will result.
Another means of destructively measuring the

coating thickness is the use of either a depth micrometer
or a standard micrometer. The depth micrometer can be
used by removing a small section of the coating down to
the substrate, permitting the base of the instrument to rest
on the coating while the projecting pin is adjusted to the
substrate. Alternatively, a sample of the coating can be
removed from the substrate and the thickness measured
using a standard micrometer. The coating chips could also
be returned to a laboratory for microscopic thickness
determinations. The Tooke gage could also be used for
this purpose. When viewing the edge (cross section) of a
disbonded chip, each division of the microscope is
equivalent to 1.0 mil.
C. MICROPROCESSOR-CONTROLLED GAGES
Computer chips are now commonly incorporated into
dry film thickness gages. A hand-held microprocessor with
digital thickness display is available with its physical operation similar to the magnetic flux gages above (Figure 36).
D. EDDY CURRENT GAGES

Eddy current instruments measure the thickness of
non-conductive coatings on non-ferrous metal substrates.
Included with this type of instrument are the Quanix 2300
(Figure 32) and Quanix 1500 (Figure 33). The probe of
these instruments is energized by alternating current,
inducing eddy currents in the metal. The eddy currents
create opposing alternating magnetic fields within the
metal, modifying the electrical characteristics of the probe
coil. The extent of these changes is determined by the distance of the probe from the substrate and is shown on a
meter as coating thickness. The eddy current instruments
are calibrated using the plastic shim method.
XIII. CLEANLINESS BETWEEN COATS

Where more than one coat is to be applied, a proper
inspection hold point is the determination of the
cleanliness of the surface immediately prior to application
of the next coat. In addition to dirt and dust, quite often dry
spray, or overspray, will cause a problem. All should be
removed because the presence of these contaminants
can result in reduced adhesion between coats and porosi-
E. DESTRUCTIVE TEST INSTRUMENTS

Destructive thickness testing includes the use of the
Tooke Gage (two models are shown in Figures 37 and 38),
Micrometers (Figure 39),or microscopes (Figure 40). The
Tooke Gage consists of a 50X microscope that is used to
look at slits in the coating made by precision cutting tips
supplied with the instrument. The principle of the Tooke
Gage is basic trigonometry. By making a cut through the
coating at a known angle and viewing perpendicularly to
that cut, the actual coating thickness can be determined
by measuring the width of the cut from a scale in the
eyepiece of the microscope. The instrument can be used
for determining the thickness of underlying coats in multicoat systems and eliminates many of the drawbacks of the
magnetic instruments caused by magnetic fields, proximity to edges, irregular surfaces, magnetic effect of the
substrate, profile, and so forth. The instrument can be
used on coating thicknesses up to 50 mils provided the
coating is not too brittle or elastic for a smooth cut to be
made.
Cutting tips of different angles are available. They are
designated as either l X , 2X, or 1OX. The tip used determines the thickness equivalent for each line in the
microscope eyepiece. The number of lines corresponding
with the coating is divided by the number of the tip used.
Therefore, 1 line when using the 1X tip is equivalent to 111
or 1 mil; 1 line with the 2X tip is YZ or .5 mil, and 1 line with
the 1OX tip is or .1 mil. Thus, i f the coating cross-section
covers 7 lines and the 2X tip is used, the thickness is or
3.5 mils (Figures 4 1 and 42).
FIGURE 44
USING A LOW VOLTAGE WET SPONGE DETECTOR
to locate
discontinuities in non-conductive coatings applied to conductive
metal substrates.
Official U.S. Navy Photograph
ty, rendering the coating less resistant to the effects of the

environments. The surface should also be inspected for
any adverse contamination from the environment (e.g.
residue from chemical facilities, salt, etc.)
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

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XIV. PINHOLE AND HOLIDAY DETECTION

After all the coats of paint have been applied, the inspector should verify that the appropriate clean-up is done,
and that any abrasions, nicks, or scrapes are repaired as
required.
Often holiday, pinhole, or spark testing is used to find
the nicks, scrapes, and pinholes in the coating film, particularly if the coating is intended for immersion service.
Holiday testing may be required after application of either
the next to last, or last coat of paint. Usually when such
testing is specified, it is done before final cure of the
coating has occurred so that any repair material applied
will successfully bond to the underlying coat.
Pinhole and holiday detectors are three general types:
low voltage wet sponge (Figures 43,44 and 45), DC high voltage (Figures 46, 47 and 48), and AC electrostatic types.
The low voltage wet sponge holiday detectors are
used for finding discontinuities in non-conductive
coatings applied to conductive metal bases. The low
voltage detector is suitable for use on coatings up to 20
mils in thickness. The basic unit consists of the detector
itself, a ground cable, and a sponge electrode. The around
cable is firmly attached to the bare substrate and the
sponge electrode is saturated with tap water. The electrode is moved across the entire surface, the water permitting a small current to flow through the pinholes down to
the substrate. Once the current reaches the substrate, the
circuit is completed to the detector unit and an audible
signal can be heard indicating that a pinhole or discontinuity is present. When coatings are in the range of 10 to
20 mils, a non-sudsing wetting agent (such as Eastman
Kodak Photo-FIO) may be added to the water to increase
the wetting properties. If the coating system is found to be
outside of the 20 mil thickness limits, high voltage holiday
detection equipment should be used.
High voltage detectors basically function on the same
operating principle as the low voltage described above, except that a sponge is not used. The instrument consists of
a testing unit capable of producing various voltage outputs, a ground cable, and an electrode made of conductive
materials such as neoprene, brass, or steel. High voltage
units are available up to 20,000 volts and more. High
voltage detectors are used for non-conductive coatings applied to conductive substrates. The ground wire is firmly
attached to a section of the bare substrate and the electrode is passed over the entire surface. A spark will jump
from the electrode through the air gap down to the
substrate at pinholes, holidays, or missed areas,
simultaneously triggering audible andlor visual signaling
device in the unit.
For exterior pipeline work, many times the ground
wire of the holiday detector is permitted to drag across the
earth provided the pipe itself is grounded to the earth.
However, the preferred method of testing is to attach the
ground wire directly t o the substrate whenever possible.
When using high voltage holiday detectors, it is important to use only the voltage level recommended by the
coating manufacturer for the coating thickness. Other-
FIGURE 45
K-D BIRD DOG LOW VOLTAGE WET SPONGE HOLIDAY DETECTOR
utilizes a wetted sponge and ground wire to find pinholes
and holidays in dry paint films applied to conductive substrates.
FIGURE 46
SPY HIGH VOLTAGE HOLIDAY DETECTOR
for uncovering
flaws in thick film systems. Voltages are available up to 22,000
volts DC. A spark jumps from the electrode through the coating at
deficient areas.
wise, damage to good coating could occur. A rule of

thumb is to apply 100-125 volts per mill of coating for thicknesses in excess of 20 mils.
When testing conductive linings applied over steel
substrates (.e. conductive rubber linings), the AC Tesla
Coil type electrostatic testers are generally used. The AC
tester has a variable voltage output (preferably, the voltage
is indicated) but does not require the use of a ground wire.
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

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adhesive appears to soften and cause premature failure of

the coating systems.
The unit constantly emits a corona which is blue in color,

but when a break in the lining is passed over, a white spark
will jump to the substrate at the holiday or imperfection.
Note that surface contaminants or dampness may also
cause a color change or spark; therefore, it is advisable to
clean and retest questionable areas to confirm that a
break in the lining is present.
XVI. EVALUATING CURE

When a coating is to be used i n immersion service, the
XV. FIELD ADHESION TESTING

Occasionally, there is a need to test the adhesion of
the coatings after application. There are different types of
adhesion testing methods used from the simple penknife
to more elaborate testing units. The use of a penknife
generally requires a subjective evaluation of the coating
adhesion based on some previous experience. Generally,
one cuts through the coating and probes at it with the
knife blade, trying to lift it from the surface to ascertain
whether or not the adhesion is adequate.
A modified version of this type of testing is the crosscut test. The cross-cut test consists of cutting an X, or a
number of small squares or diamonds through the
coating down to the substrate. Tape is rubbed vigorously
onto the scribes and removed firmly and quickly. The
cross-hatch pattern is evaluated according to the percentage of squares delaminated or remaining intact. The X
and cross-cut tape adhesion tests are described in
ASTM D-3359, Measuring Adhesion by Tape Test.
There are also instruments available for testing the
tensile adhesion strength of coatings. They apply a value to
the adhesion strength in pounds per square inch, thus
eliminating some of the subjectivity of the above tests. Instruments for tensile testing include the Elcometer, Patti
(Pneumatic) and the Hate (Hydraulic) Adhesion Testers
(Figure 49). The adhesion testers consist of the test unit itself and aluminum or stainless steel test stubs. The pull stubs
are cemented to the coating surface using an adhesive. After the adhesive has cured, the piston or claw of the test instrument is placed over the pull stub. The test unit applies
a pulling force on the pull stub, ultimately breaking it from
the surface. The point of the break is read from the scale
on the instrument in pounds per square inch. This method
is described in.ASTM D 4541. Not only is the numerical value
of importance when using this instrument, but also the type
of break. For example, there is a significant difference in the
test results if one finds a clean break to the substrate or between coats, compared to finding a cohesive break within
a coat. Many times one may experience a failure of the adhesive. If this occurs, it establishesthat the coating tensile adhesion strength is at least as good as that pressure that broke
the adhesive.
It is generally recommended that the two-component
type epoxy adhesives be used in preference to the single
component fast drying cyano-acrylate types. When testing
zinc-rich coatings, for example, it has been found that the
thin cyano-acrylates have a tendency to penetrate and
bond thezinc particles together, resulting in a much higher
tensile pull than should be expected. In other cases, the
FIGURE 47
TINKER-RASOR HIGH VOLTAGE HOLIDAY DETECTOR
used
for non-conductive coatings applied to conductive substrates.
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

FIGURE 48
D.E. STEARNS HIGH VOLTAGE HOLIDAY DETECTOR - used
for non-conductive coatings applied to conductive substrates.
applied coating film must be allowed to dry cure for a given

length of time prior to being placed into service. This dry
cure time is generally shown on the manufacturers product information. Alternately, forced-heat curing may be
used to reduce the time between curing and service.
Determining the cure of coatings is generally difficult.
ASTM D1640 outlines one method, but there are no universally reliable field tests for such purposes. Solvent rub
tests can be used, as well as sandpaper tests. When most
coatings are suitably cured, rubbing them with sandpaper
will produce a fine dust. If the sandpaper gums up, depending upon the coating, it may not be cured properly. Certain phenol-containing coatings may discolor upon
heating - and the cure of phenolic tank lining coatings is
often determined by comparison of their color with color
reference coupons supplied by the coating manufacturer.
Because a coating is dry or hard does not
necessarily mean it is cured. In fact, for most coatings,
hardness is not synonymous with cure. The only coating
types for which this is true are the solvent deposited
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coatings such as the chlorinated rubbers and vinyls. Even

then, residual retained solvents (and moisture in water
emulsion coatings), under certain atmospheric conditions
8627940 0003652 370 W
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The authors and editors gratefully acknowledge William Corbett's update of this chapter. Both William Corbett and Steve Pinney provided photos. AI Beitelman, Robert Doyle, Arnold Eickhoff,
Lewis Gleekman, Joseph Guobis, Ronald Hamm, John D. Keane,
Jay Leanse, Charlie Lewis, Jr., M. Lichtenstadter,Marshall McGee,
Stan Mroz, Melvin Sandler, L. M. Sherman, and William Wallace
participated in the review process.
BIOGRAPHIES
FIGURE 49
TENSILE ADHESION TESTERS
Pneumatic (back left), Elcometer (back right), and Hydraulic (front). Pull stubs positioned
in front of each model.
of temperature andlor humidity may take a long time to

escape from the paint film. Final attainment of film properties will be acquired only upon satisfactory loss of these
entrapped solvents. In some cases this evaporation process may take as long as two or three weeks or more.
XVI I. CONCLUSIONS
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
There i s a wide variety of inspection instruments

available for use t o assure the adequacy of the ambient
conditions, surface preparation, wet and dry film
thicknesses, and final coating continuity. The instruments
all have advantages and disadvantages, but the overriding
factor i n their successful use is the knowledge and ability
of the individual using them. It is important that the instruments be cared for, calibrated, and used properly.
However, instrument inspection i s only part of the total inspection process. It must be combined with a good, common sense visual inspection for detection of misses,
skips, runs, sags, surface contaminants, overspray, dry
spray, and any other defects objectionable for the service
intended. Proper instruments, specific knowledge, common sense and good judgment are required for good
coatings inspection.
Finally, all results of any inspection should be
thoroughly documented in writing to verify that the
s p e c i f i e d requirements have been met. F u t u r e
maintenance or the removal and maintenance of a failed
coating system may be dependent on the factual reporting
of every phase of the work.

Kenneth B. Tator is the

President of KTA-Tator, Inc., a
consulting engineering firm
specializing in industrial protective coatings. A registered
professionalengineer, Mr. Tator
is the USA Delegate to the International Standardization Organization TC351SC12 Surface
Preparation Committee. He is
active in the National Association of Corrosion Engineers, the
American Societv for Testina
and Materials,the'society for Pint Technology, and the Steel Structures Painting Council. Mr. Tator holds an MBA from Columbia
University and a B.S. in Chemical Engineering from Lafayette College. He is the author of numerous publications and has presented
technical papers at many association meetings and corporate
seminars
Kenneth A. Trimber is the
Vice-president of KTA-Tator,
Inc., a coatings consulting firm
based in Pittsburgh, PA. He is
also the Vice President of KTA
Services, Inc. and the Manager
of its KTA Environmental division. Mr. Trimber began his employment with KTA on a
part-time basis in 1968, and became a full-time employee after
his graduation from Indiana
University of Pennsylvania in
1974. He is active in many technical societies involvedwith protective coatings and serves on the Steel Structures Painting Council (SSPC) Board of Governors. He is Chairman of the SSPC committees on Surface Preparation and Visual Standards, and is Vice
Chairman of the Lead Paint Removal Committee.
Mr. Trimber is also the Chairman of American Society for Testing and Material: D l which deals with all paints and protectivecoatings. He has authored numerous papers on coating evaluation,
surface preparation, inspection, lead paint removal, and coating
failure analysis. Mr. Trimber authored the Industrial Lead Painf
RemovalHandbook, which serves as the text for SSPC Lead Paint
RemovalTutorials. He was the 1988 recipientof the SSPC Outstanding Publication Award for the development of a system for classifying the condition of bridge coatings, and was given the SSPC John
D. Keane Award of Merit as the Protective Coatings Specialist of
the 1980s.
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REFERENCES
1. William F. Gross, Applications Manual for Paint and Protecfive Coatings, McGraw-Hill Book Company, New York, NY,
1970.
2. Paul E. Weaver, Industrial Maintenance Painting, 3rd Edition,
National Association of Corrosion Engineers, Houston, TX,
1967.
3. Blast-Off, Clemco Industries, San Francisco, CA, 1970.
4. Kenneth B. Tator, and Kenneth A. Trimber, Coating Inspection Instruments, Plant Engineering, Sept. 19 and Oct. 3,
1974.
5. K.A. Trimber, and C.A. McCartney, Importance of Coating
Application Inspection and Instruments Available for Use,
presented at NACE 14th Annual Liberty Bell Corrosion
Course, Sept., 1976.
6. D.M. Berger, and S.E. Mroz, Instruments for Inspection of
Coatings, Journal of Testing and Evaluation, Vol. 4, No. 1,
pp. 28-39, Jan., 1976.
7. Kenneth B. Tator, and Kenneth A. Trimber: Coating (Paint)
Inspection Instruments, Types, Uses, and Calibration,
Paper Number 254, NACE Corrosion 80.
8. NACE Standard RP-01-78Recommended Practice - Design,
Fabricatiorl, and Surface Finish of Metal Tanks and Vessels
to Be Lined for Chemical Immersion Service, December,
1977.
9. NACE Standard RP-02-74 Recommended Practice - High
Voltage Electrical Inspection of Pipeline Coatings Prior to Installation, August, 1974.
10. SSPC-PA 2 - Method for Measurement of Dry Paint
Thickness With Magnetic Gages.
11. NACE - TPC Publication No. 2 - Coatings and Linings for
Immersion Service, Chapters 2 and 4, Houston, TX.
Weaver, Steel Structures Painting Council, Surface Profile
for Anti-Corrosion Paints, Pittsburgh, PA, 1976.
13. Bernard R. Appleman. Painting Over Soluble Salts: A Perspective. Journal of Protective Coatings and Linings. October 1987,
pp. 68-82.
14. KennethA. Trimber. Detection and Removal of Chemical Contaminants in Pulp and Paper Mills. Journalof Protective Coatings and Linings. November 1988, pp. 30-37.
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CHAPTER 7.1
QUALITY CONTROL OF PAINTS AS MANUFACTURED

by
John
F. Montle and
Mary Ann Stephens
The purpos of quality control of paints - as

manufactured - is to assure the paint manufacturer that
materials supplied are acceptable to the consumer.
Materials must be consistent from batch to batch and
must have satisfactory appearance, stability, application
characteristics and performance. To achieve these objectives, a quality control program must be designed that is
significantly more comprehensive than merely evaluating
the coating materials produced.
The primary function of quality control for coating
manufacturers is to assure overall quality and performance. Such a program encompasses significantly more
than batch quality control testing for uniformity of
material. The quality control group should have responsibility for all phases of manufacturing concerning quality.
This includes raw materials, the manufacturing process
and the finished coating materials through packaging,
filling and shipping.
The purpose of testing every batch manufactured is to
assure reproducibility of various paint and coating
materials. This is the basic purpose of quality control from
a coatings manufacturers standpoint. The quality control
tests must be selected and run on every batch of coating
materials produced to assure that a given batch is reasonably consistent with batches previously produced. The
quality control laboratory is responsible for evaluating the
material only in accordance to standards and specifications indicated by the coatings formulator. It is the
responsibility of the coatings formulator to build quality
into the formulation and develop quality control instructions through proper selection of significant quality
control tests. These facets are essential if the materials
manufactured are to be suitable for field use.
Another factor that varies considerably, depending
upon the type of market for a particular coating, is quality
control of compliance with existing customer specifications. It is critical that those specific quality control tests
be run. However, merely verifying that a coating meets existing specifications is not necessarily sufficient quality
control testing. Testing for a given specification might indicate reproducibility as manufactured, but this may still
be insufficient to ensure the suitability of a product. Frequently, additional quality control tests have to be designed by the coatings manufacturer to guarantee the
products suitability for use, in addition to tests designed
to meet specifications (see Appendix).
Quality control tests are elected i provide consistency in manufactured products. Therefore, test values
and ranges for satisfactory performance are not necessarily valid over the the entire shelf life of the coating
material. Many test values change with age. For example,
drifts in viscosity can occur, but are not necessarily indicative of any change in the products suitability. Tests should
be designed to maximize detection of errors in manufacturing andlor variations in raw materials. Examples of
common ones are shown in the Appendix.
Proper selection of quality control range values is as
important as selection of the proper tests. While ranges
should be as tight as necessary to guarantee reproducibility, they should be wide enough for practical purposes.
While the assigning of original test values is based on
previous experience and skill of the formulator, the test
values should be continually monitored so the ranges
are proper.
Frequently, standard quality control tests, such as
shown in the Appendix, are sufficient for many paints and
coatings that are manufactured for general use. However,
special tests are frequently designed for specialized
products and critical raw materials that have unique enduse applications. It is advisable to use standard ASTM or
Federal Test Methods whenever possible. However, standard tests that will measure those parameters critical to
proper end-use of a specific coating material are not
always available. Therefore, a significant amount of
laboratory time and effort must be spent developing
special quality control tests.
I. CONSIDERATIONS IN CONTROLLING
QUALITY
A. QUALITY OF FORMULATIONIPRODUCT
DEVELOPMENT
1. Consumer Needsfperformance Characteristics
When a coating is formulated, the first step is to
define the product characteristics, which are
usually predetermined by its purpose. The purpose of a formulation can be as simple as providing a competitive product or as complex as
providing the means to answer a need that has
puzzled the market for decades. Understanding
the use and purpose of a coating is the first prob--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

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lem of a coatings engineer, since this is the beginning of the formula design. The criteria may be
based on either the wet material (perhaps predefining application characteristics), or the dry
material (involving a coatings reaction to its environment), or both (a sprayable coating that is
highly abrasion-resistant). So, investigating and
understanding the end-use and purpose of a
coating is primary in designing it.
2. Response to Needs
ProducSystem
Effectiveness
Once the performance characteristics are understood, the next phase in formulation development
is to formulate and evaluate the coatings
generated to meet these requirements. In some
cases, the experimental phase consists only of
several candidates; in other cases, hundreds of
possibilities are tested. Optimizing the required
criteria as well as associated factors such as
ease of manufacture, cost, application properties,
gloss, etc., are all considered. The final product
must have all the required properties and satisfy
the end-use requirements of the customer.
As candidates are created, investigated and
eliminated, tests should be continuous to verify
conformance to wet and dry coating requirements. Coating materials may be subjected
to simulated use testing, involving coating integrity under many environmental conditions, or under
physical stress. Coatings may also be continuously analyzed for wet properties to meet
specifications or demands for shelf stability or
application properties. Consideration must also
be given to the coatings system in which the
coating will be used; whether it is intended as a
primer, intermediate, or finish coat and how this
affects other coatings that may be used with it.
It is essential to devise and employ methods
of simulating use and testing of coating material
under many circumstances to ensure the material
has met design purposes.
3. Design of Inspection/Conformance Criteria
Satisfying performance characteristics completely is impossible unless the proposed design ensures repeated duplication of properties under
normal circumstances. Beyond specifying instructions for combining ingredients, the formulator must specify the type and quality of raw
materials, all pertinent facts concerning combination and incorporation of these raw materials
along with intermediate and final test methods
and tolerances. Instructions for labeling, handling
and storing coating material must be determined,
and specified and detailed procedures given on
use and application.
In designing tests for new coatings, controls
must be based on predictions rather than statis-

tics, since many variables exist. Tests must be

designed to test all variable properties that could
affect usability or performance. Test results
should make it obvious when the product i s not
meeting end-use requirements and should assure
that upon completion, if stored, handled and used
properly, the coating material performs as intended.
E. QUALITY OF RAW MATERIALS
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1. Selection for Suitability

Selection of proper raw materials is essential in
optimizing selected properties of the finished
product. Selection is normally dictated by past experience with material, what properties it has imparted, the quality and consistency with which i t
has been received, the ease and safety of use, and
cost. Selection of materials that the formulator
has had no previous experience with is more difficult, but these can be screened in the design
development phase. Other criteria in selecting
component materials must include considerations of long-term availability, and delivery and
quality of packaging to assure stability. Additional considerations, such as compatibility
among various raw material components within a
formulation, must also be taken into account.
Alternate suppliers for key raw materials should
be evaluated thoroughly to assure consistent,
qual ity avai labi I ity.
2. Establishing Acceptance Criteria
When a raw material is suitable for use, its
parameters must be defined to assure the
material is of consistent quality. Only in this way
can duplication of the original design be possible.
It is necessary to determine which properties of
the raw material are essential to the quality of the
product. These properties must be definable and
measurable so that the requirements can be communicated to the supplier prior to purchase. Decisions must be made on whether the properties are
critical to the finished product and must be tested
upon receipt, or spot-checked at random, and
checked for appearance. It must be determined
whether it is necessary to check the condition of
the container to satisfactorily preserve the quality
of the material. Communicating the criteria for acceptance to the suppliers of these raw materials
helps assure that the material received meets
specification standards.
3. Testing for Conformance
Having established criteria and tolerances, it remains only t o subject selected materials andlor
lots of materials to actual inspections. It is
necessary to provide inspection personnel with required equipment, acceptance standards and test
procedures, and instructions. Many times, the
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
S S P C CHAPTER*7.L
8 6 2 7 9 4 0 0003656 TL6 W
test procedures are standards that the industry

routinely uses to test the particular material. In
other cases, tests are unique to the material or a
simulation of the end-use of the material. This is
the point at which a decision is made whether or
not the raw material is fit to provide the required
end properties of the coating product. This step is
no more or less critical than the previous one
defining the tolerances of this measure of acceptability.
Clear, non-ambiguous instructions to production

personnel leave no room for erroneous interpretaitions. The input from quality control testing
should be communicated to production workers
as affirmation that the job is being done properly.
Problems should be discussed with these people
since they have firsthand experience on each
batch. Many production units have an assigned
technician to work with the formulator to determine the process equipment, check point testing,
batch sequence of raw materials, and final acceptance criteria. In the case of resin manufacture,
sequence of raw materials, time, and temperature
controls must be monitored. It should not be
overlooked that appropriate training can prevent
many problems in quality.
4. Quality Data Analysis

Analysis of quality data generated through
raw material testing or experience is important to
continuance of quality in the raw material and
finished product. Coupled with analysis of finished goods test data, statistical analysis provides information necessary to adjust raw material specifications to improve the quality, properties or stability of the finished product. It provides
objective data on the reliability of raw materials
andlor suppliers and makes qualification or disqualification an easy task. It also simplifies selection of quality raw materials to be used in products yet to be developed. This data provides feedback and closes the loop between specifying and
using.
3. Instruments and Controls

Continuous monitori ng and i n-process test i ng
must be planned and executed to assure that
batch making is proceeding properly. Temperature monitoring can provide information on the
rate or progress of a chemical reaction or be used
as a guideline to judge the phase of the mixing
process. Viscosity checks can monitor development of thixotropic agents throughout the batchmaking process. Periodic fineness of grind tests
are essential in determining proper dispersion of
pigments and fillers added in the process.
In addition to demonstrating that a batch is
progressing as planned, monitoring and inprocess testing may detect problems occurring in
batch-making. If testing is done at critical points
of the process, any problems discovered can be
identified and remedied. In-process batch adjustments, dictated by test results, are a reliable
method of assuring that the batch meets established quality criteria. Modifying a completed
batch for conformance is far more difficult and
frequently less successful than in-process adjustments.
The reliability of measuring and test equipment is of utmost importance to quality. Proper
use and care of scales and meters must be communicated and monitored as necessary. Regular
checking and calibration of test equipment are
necessary to guarantee reliable test results.
C. QUALITY OF MANUFACTURE
1. Equipment and Processes
The ability of coating material to conform to
finished specifications can be affected. by the
method of manufacturing. Trial and error during
product development normally provides the basis
for equipment use and selection, but the formulation type usually eliminates certain methods of
manufacture. Use of pilot plant facilities for large
scale simulation tests is also helpful in selecting
appropriate equipment for production. Optimum
batch size must be determined during the first
several batches produced, since the process can
be more or less efficient depending on the
volume. Once criteria are established, each batch
must be checked to affirm that the grind, viscosity, color and other properties are within specification. As equipment technology improves, it is
necessary to re-evaluate the manufacturing
method for many standard products. Continuous
improvement in manufacture helps increase the
efficiency and may reduce the cost of a quality
product.
D. QUALITY OF FINISHED PRODUCT

i. In-Process Inspection and Adjustment
In-process inspection points provide the opportunity to assess progress and quality of the
coating material as it is being manufactured. If
deviations are discovered at the critical points,
modifications can be made and the batch making
can continue. It is possible to identify most
critical points during the formulating stage. With
experience, in-process tests can be added as re-
2. People and Procedures

Training of production workers is a key consideration i n quality control. The ability of a worker to
recognize when something is out of the ordinary
may prevent a batch from proceeding to the next
quality control test point without corrections.

209
Not for Resale
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
SSPC C H A P T E R W . ~ 73
SSPC C H A P T E R * 7 . L
93
8b27940 0 0 0 3 b 5 7 952
vironments, immersion in chemical solutions,

resistance to ultraviolet light and other tests
measuring the physical integrity of the coating.
Normally, these types of tests are run during the
final stages of the formulation design phase, and
properties required are built into the formulation.
Verifying conformance can be done on initial
batches produced and then routinely tested on
batches chosen at random.
quired to reduce failure, to meet final test requirements or reduce the necessity of making
batch adjustments at inconvenient points. Some
additions can be made only at certain points during the batch making; trying to achieve a fine
grind of added pigment in a portion of the batch
that has very low viscosity, for example, is impossible. Being cognizant of appropriate test
points, parameters and tolerances simplifies the
task of making successful in-process batch adj ustments.
4. Handling, Storing and Shipping

How the product is handled after batch completion is an important consideration from a quality
standpoint. Adequate packaging assures that the
product is protected from contamination. Packaging must be specified so the product remains
stable at specified temperatures. The shelf life of
a product depends on how successfully it can be
isolated from the environment and is ascertained
by the actual storage history of the product. Normally, lower temperatures maximize the useful
life. Temperature must be considered during shipping, which may be long enough to adversely affect shelf life.
Environmental control assures that a quality
product, once manufactured, can be maintained
until used.
2. Final InspectionIConformance to Specificqtions
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
It should be evident that if quality is not built into

product formulation, the selection of raw materials, and the manufacturing procedure and instructions, it is impossible to build it in at the inspection stage. The function of final inspection is
for verification. Pertinent in-depth testing should
be used to verify that the batch has been manufactured properly and according to procedures
and meets specifications for the finished product.
The most important properties to verify on
almost every coating material are batch-yield, to
verify that the volume produced conforms to the
theoretical batch volume; batch weight per gallon,
to verify that the material produced exhibits the
same density as the theoretical calculation of the
component ingredients; appearance, to verify that
the batch has been mixed properly, and contains
no contamination; fineness of grind, to verify that
the ingredients have been adequately dispersed.
Verifying these properties assures that formulation instructions have been followed with
respect to type and quantity of raw materials added and mixing and grinding during the manufacturing phase. Further wet properties verification
includes tests of the following types: viscosity,
application properties, film build and sag tests,
wet opacity, dry or cure time, usable pot life, percent solids, percent pigment, percent vehicle, and
flash point. Additional wet properties tests may
be run, depending upon the type of coating material and specifications.
Dry properties verification frequently includes hiding power, gloss, hardness of film, and
color, as well as additional inspection depending
upon coating type and required specifications.
Further testing frequently is performed as applicable to test the coating for end-use properties.
E. QUALITY OF SERVICE
3. Testing Through Simulated Use

Frequently, pertinent testing includes verification
of end-use properties. Adhesion of the coating to
a specified substrate or t o another coating i s important; flexibility of the coating in a particular application may be specified, or resistance to a certain type of abrasion may be required. Among
other end-use tests are weathering in various enCopyright The Society for Protective Coatings
210
Not for Resale
1. Opportunities for Improvement

With each batch of coating material shipped, the
coating manufacturer has an opportunity to test
the effectiveness of the quality control system.
Communication from the user is the most valuable information that a manufacturer can obtain to
assess the success of quality control. The whole
system, from inception based on end-use suitability, can be finally tested and critiqued by the user.
All complaints must be investigated and the
source of problems determined so that quality
control measures can be investigated and, when
required, adjusted.
Efficient use of quality data provides
knowledge necessary for a dynamic control
system with potential for improvement with each
problem.
2. Success o f Recommended Application

To close the loop of the quality control system,
the success of each product in each application
must be communicated to the engineer and formulator to be used as data for designing or improving products.
SSPC CHAPTER*7-L
93
m 8627940 0003658 899
APPENDIX: TYPICAL QC TESTS*

Numerous tests are used for evaluating and monitoring quality control of paints and coatings; the examples shown
here are merely typical and illustrative and not intended to be inclusive.
Federal Standard
141
A)
Viscosity (consistency)
D 2196
Brookfield Viscosity
Stormer Viscosity
#4 Ford Cup
Zahn Cups
Gardner-Holdt Tubes
B)
4281
4282
4271
Density (weight/gallon)
4184
41 83
41 83
41 83
D 891
D 891
D 4400
4321
4331
2121
4401
D 823
D 1296
D 344, D 2805
Film Characteristics
D 1640
D 523
D 3134*
Drying Time
Gloss
Color (Pigmented Coatings)
F)
D 1475
D 891
Application Characteristics
Levelling
Brushing Properties
Spraying Properties
Dipping Properties
Reducibility & Dilution Stability
Odor
Hiding Power
E)
562
1200
1084
1545
D 1210
Weight/Gallon Cup
Pycnometer
Westphal Balance
Hydrometer
D)
D
D
D
D
Dispersion (grind)
Hegman Gage
C)
ASTM
Physical Characteristics of Film

Flexibility (Elongation)
- Mandrel
6222
6222
- Conical Mandrel
Hardness - Pencil
- Sward Rocker
- Indentation Hardness
- Durometer
Abrasion Resistance - Falling Sand
- Tabor Abrasor
Adhesion
6212
6191
6302
6303
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

21 1
Not for Resale
D 522
D
D
D
D
522
3363
2134
1474
D 2240
D 968
D 1044
D 2197
SSPC C H A P T E R 8 7 . 1 93
8 6 2 7 9 4 0 0003b59 725 W
Federal Standard
141
G)
H)
Appearance in Container
General Condition
Coarse Particles and Skins
Skinning (partially opened container)
Storage Stability (filled container)
3018
404 1
4022
4032
4052
Resistance (performance)
Immersion
Humidity
Salt Spray (Fog)
Accelerated Weathering (open arc)
(Q. U .V.)
I)
D 2090
D 185
D 154
D 1849
41 O1
Compositional
Volatile & Non-Volatile Content
Pigment Content (centrifuge)
Water Content - reflux
ASTM
D 2369
D 2698
601 1
6071
6061
6151
6152
D 2247
B 117
D 822
*ASTM test similar, but not identical, to Federal Test Method. **Prepared by Bernard M. Krarnper
53
Note: Test methods vary. All parties should agree upon the accuracy and precision required.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

chapter: Dr. Bernard Appelman, AI Beitelman, Leon Birnbaum,
Alex Chasan, Thomas A. Cross, Theodore Dowd, Leonard Haynie,
Robert Klepser, I. Metil, William Pearson, Walter Pregmon, Dale E.
Radde, Melvin Sandler, Verne Todd and William J. Wallace.
BIOGRAPHY
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
John F. Montle is Vice

President-Technology of the
Carboline Company, responsible for new products development, testing and technical
assistance. Upon graduation
from Washington University of
St. Louis in 1958with a Bachelor
of Science degree in chemical
engineering, Mr. Montle joined
Carboline Company, where he
has been engaged in research
& development work on protective coatings for 35 years. He is a member of the National Association of Corrosion Engineers (Chairman of Task Group T-6G), the
Subcommittee on American National Standards Institute N101.2,
American Society for Testing and Materials D33, the Federation of
Societies for Paint Technology, and is on the Executive Committee
and Board of Governors of the Steel Structures Painting Council.
He has 40 publications and papers on zinc-rich coatings, nuclear
power plants, formulation, scanning electron microscopy and film
density.

Mary Ann Warner currently

serves as a Technical Service
Engineer for Carboline Company. She acts as research
analyst, specification writer and
advisor between the development laboratory and end-users.
Mrs. Warner graduated from the
University of Missouri, St. Louis
with a Bachelor of Science
degree in mathematics and a
strong background in chemistry.
First joining Carboline Company
in 1973, she has worked as a
Laboratory Group Leader, Quality ControllQuality Assurance
Manager and Quality Specialist. Following four years of field sales,
she accepted her current position.
REFERENCES
1. Paint Testing Manual, (GardnerSward) S.T.P. 500. ASTM,

13th Edition, 1972.
2. Manual of Coating Work for Light-Water Nuclear Power
Plants, ASTM, 1st Edition, 1979.
3. Phillip B. Crosby, Quality is Free, McGraw-Hill Book Co.,
1979.
212
Not for Resale
93
m 8627940 0003660 447 m

CHAPTER 7.2
QUALITY ACCEPTANCE OF PAINTS AS RECEIVED BY THE USER

by
John R. OLeary and Garland W. Steele
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Testing received products, referred to as acceptance

testing, is the responsibility of the purchaser. The purpose
is to determine that the quality of a manufactured product
meets specified requirements. Acceptance testing maintains the integrity of procurement procedures when purchases are made on the basis of low bid.
Specifications accompanying a paint purchase or request for bid should reference the purchasers acceptance
plan and should be discussed with the paint manufacturer.
The acceptance plan should include, but not necessarily
be limited to, the following:
Labeling requirements - information that identifies the product, and other data such as manufacturers name, batch number, type of paint, grade
(spray, brush, rolled), amount and type of thinning
solvents, percent total solids by volume (for use in
wet film thickness calculations);
inspection of finished product - acceptable and
unacceptable conditions of the paint at the time of
sampling, such as settling, skins, etc;
Sampling - the number of samples that will be
taken, the location and method of sampling;
Testing - the frequency of tests, number to be conducted, procedure and time to conduct test;
Method of identifying tested and approved
materials; and
Action available to the manufacturer when test
results indicate material does not meet acceptable
limits.
It is not believed advisable to accept material with
marginally failing test results. Acceptance of marginally
failing material, even at a reduced price, could suggest
that the property being measured is irrelevant; that the
purchaser recognizes the specification requirement is unrealistic; or that the limits have been set without regard to
variables (material, manufacturing, sampling and testing).
Waiving specification limits, regardless of how small the
deficiency, encourages laxity in the manufacturers quality
control.
Realistic specification limits can be established
without costly and time consuming experimental projects.
Specifications can allow tolerances acceptable to the
manufacturer and purchaser. Specifying target values,
rather than limits, and using the manufacturers tolerance
can sharply reduce failures without sacrificing quality.

I. ACCEPTANCE SAMPLING
Obtaining unbiased samples is the most important
phase of the acceptance procedure. If samples are not an
unbiased portion of the batch, no amount of testing can
reliably indicate characteristics of paint. Extreme care
during sampling must be exercised. The sampler should be
familiar with the product, have knowledge of the manufacturing process and be aware of the importance of
sampling techniques.
Sampling containers should be at least one pint,
preferably glass or metal, with an air-tight lid. Containers
must be clean, dry and nonreactive with paint. The container, when filled, should have no more than 6 percent air
space.
Sample containers sent to the laboratory should be
packaged for shipment and fully identified. Manufacturers
name, batch number and the date of sampling should be
written on or attached to the container. Other information,
such as quality control test results, destination, color,
date of manufacture, order numbers, etc., should be with
the sample or sent separately, i f requested by the
purchaser.
A. SAMPLING FROM STORAGE TANKS OR

VATS
It is recommended that sampling be done by a purchasers representative during pouring. Safety or other
considerations may require sampling by an employee of
the manufacturer. In this case, sampling should be
witnessed by a purchasers representative.
During filling, samples of sufficient size should be
drawn from the first one-third, the second one-third, and
the last one-third of the pour. These samples should be
tested individually by the supplier to determine uniformity.
If test results such as weight per gallon, viscosity, and
fineness of grind fall within specification limits, it can be
a,ssumed the material has been properly mixed and sampled. Quality control test results should be available to the
purchasers representative. After the manufacturers tests
are completed and the results are acceptable to the
purchaser, the three samples are divided to form duplicate
or triplicate samples, one to be sent to the purchasers
laboratories for analysis, one to be retained by the
purchasers representative, and one for the manufacturer.
213
Not for Resale
STEEL STRUCI'URES PAINTING COUNCIL APPLICATION RECOLID

Pano1 No.
Looation
Exporure
Araooiitod Temts
P r o j m t No.
Supervised by
Suriaoe
REDUCTION
Matarialm
Protreotment
1.t
coot
2nd Coat
3rd Coat
Pmint name
Ssoond pari
Thinner uaed
Vol.
%
. of paint
Vimoooity
Dato Painted
Method Uoed
Air T e m ~ o r a t u r e
S u rfaoe Temperatura
PAINTING DETAILS
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
Eumidity
Weathor
Woifht per f d .
Wmiiht Belor,
Weilht Attar
Paint Ured
7
1
I
I
Film Thioknoormeao.
Workin$ Proputiso
Paokade Condition
PROPERTIES
FIGURE 1
Steel Structures Painting Council Paint Application Record.
using a sampling tube or other suitable device. When this

sampling procedure is used, the supplier must ensure that
the paint remains uniform until it is canned or packaged.
If the supplier wishes acceptance testing conducted

before paint is poured into cans or drums, samples should
be obtained at the top third, middle third and bottom third,

21 4
Not for Resale
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Color
T E S T NO.
NO.
PROBLEM
PAINT
NO.
LOCATION
SUBSTRATE
COLOR
PURPOSE OF T E S T
REMOVE0
XPOSED
IO
EXPOSURE
VFRT.
4 so
12
i5
18
21
24
27
30
33
36
39
42
45
48
Si
54
57
60
i2
I5
18
21
24
27
30
33
36
39
42
45
48
51
54
57
60
8
6
4
2
O
IO
8
6
4
2
O
FIGURE 2
Front side of Federation of Societies for Coatings Technology single panel form.
FEDERATION OF SOCIETIES FOR COATINGS TECHNOLOGY
1315 WALNUT ST., PHILADELPHIA, PA 19107
'This form has been cancelled. No replacement is available.

--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

215
Not for Resale
SSPC CHAPTERm7-2 93
I Sf
COAT
= Bb279q0 0003bb3
N O COPT
3 R D COAT
156
4 T H COPT
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
PREPPRPTION OF THE SURFACE----.

PROTECTION OF THE BACK
________
I
REMARKS:
~~~
FIGURE 3
Back side of Federation of Societies for Coatings Technology single panel form.
AMERICAN SOCIETY FOR TESTING MATERIALS
1916 RACE ST, PHILADELPHIA, PA 19103

216
Not for Resale
SSPC CHAPTERa7.2 93
8627940 0003664 O92
B. SAMPLING FROM CONTAINERS
Methods in the following tables are commonly used.

Most test methods listed are quantitative in nature.
Methods like gas chromatography and infrared spectroscopy also lend themselves to the qualitative finger
print technique. Infrared Spectroscopy - Its Use In The
Coating Industry, published by the Federal Society for
Coating Technology, is an exceptional reference for infrared analysis. Many other instrumental methods are
available for testing and identifying paints and constituents. Another excellent reference for a variety of
methods is Part 10 of GardnerlSward, STP 500.
If containers are filled before the purchasers

representative arrives, or i f sampling is done at destination, two containers from each individual batch are randomly selected. Because of the likelihood of settling upon
standing, thorough and careful agitation by mechanical
means andlor boxing is recommended before sampling.
The exception is paint that is formulated to be nonsettling. To test the effectiveness of agitation, pour half of
mixed material into an empty container of equal size and
determine the weight per gallon for each half. If results do
not deviate more than 0.5 percent, it may be assumed that
the material is adequately mixed. Some paints, notably
latex, tend to trap air bubbles when stirred vigorously. Entrapped air should be allowed to escape before weight per
gallon is determined. To minimize the time needed for this,
excessive agitation should be avoided.
When agitation is not possible and the container size
facilitates shipping, two unopened containers should be
sent to the purchasers laboratories for complete analysis.
Paints that are not ready-mix and are multi-component should be sampled as agreed between the purchaser and manufacturer.
TABLE 1
PHYSICAL TESTS*
Paint Property
Preparation of Panels
Preparation of Tin Panels
Viscosity (KU)
Weight Per Gallon
Fineness of Grind
Water Content
Coarse Particles and Skins
Drying Times:
Set To Touch
Dry For Recoating
Dry Hard
Pigment Content
Vehicle Content
Non-Volatle Content
Adhesion
Brushing Properties
Spraying Properties
Exposure Tests of Paints
on Metals
Salt Spray Resistance
Accelerated Weathering
II. ACCEPTANCE TESTING (LIQUID PAINT)

Most methods are standardized by paint technologists and measure characteristics or physical properties of paint. Results of paint testing depend on test procedures; therefore, it is critical that standardized test procedures be used and agreed to by the manufacturer and
purchaser. Test procedures listed in this section include
physical, chemical and instrumental test methods.
Paint testing is standardized by the National Paint
and Coatings Association, The American Society For
Testing and Materials, and The Federation of Societies for
Coatings Technology.
Those interested in testing the composition or properties of coatings should have the following references.
Federal Standard 141, Paint, Varnish, Lacquer and
Related Materials, Method for Testing; American Society
For Testing Materials, Paints 6.01, 6.02 and 6.03, which contain tests for paints, pigments, resins and other raw materials; and Garner/Sward (STP 500) Paint Testing Manual,
published by the American Society for Testing and Materials, an excellent source which contains many tests for physical, mechanical, chemical and appearance properties of
paints and coatings.
Paint tests should be done under controlled
laboratory conditions. Standard procedures often specify
temperature and relative humidity. Test conditions have a
profound effect on some properties while on others they
will have little or no effect. When it is not practical to test
under controlled conditions, the exact test conditions
should be recorded. In case of dispute or disagreement
between laboratories, the test should be conducted under
the ASTM standard conditions.
4281
4184
41O1
4041
ASTM
D 609
D 609
D 562
D 1475
D 1210
D 95
D 185
D 1640
D 1640
D
D
D
D
2371
2371
2369
3359
4321
4331
6160
D 1014
6061
B 117
D 822
6151
6152
Leafing
4451
D 480
7233
Flexibility
6222
D 522
Recoatability - The paint film shall not be lifted by a succeeding specified coating.
Compatibility - Manufacturers recommended volume of
paint and thinner shall be mixed without curdling, livering, separating, or otherwise affecting the paint except
to thin it.
Storage Stability - No gas pressure shall build up after
30 days storage at 75OF (24OC) f 5OF ( 3 O C ) .
Water Resistance - The paint shall show no visual deterioration, other than discoloration after two days immersion
in distilled water.
*Test methods vary. Ail parties should agree upon the accuracy & precision required.
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

Federal
Test
Method
217
Not for Resale
SSPC C H A P T E R + 7 . 2
93
8627940 0003665 T 2 9
TABLE 2
CHEMICAL TESTS
Paint Property
Test Method
Chemical Resistance
Liquid Dryers
Drying Oils
Aluminum
Aluminum Silicate
Barium Sulfate
Basic Carbonate of Lead
Basic Lead Silico-Chromate
Basic Sulfate of Lead
Calcium Carbonate
Calcium Sulfate
Chrome Green
Chrome Orange
Chrome Yellow
Chromium Oxide Green
Clay
Copper
Copper Oxide
Extenders in Colors
Iron Blue
Iron Oxide
Leaded Zinc Oxide
Lit hopone
Magnesium Carbonate
Magnesium Silicate
Mercuric Oxide
Mica
Molybdate Orange
Para Red
Red Lead
Silica
Strontium Chromate
ASTM D 1308
ASTM D 564
ASTM D 555
ASTM D 480
ASTM D 718
ASTM D 34, D 715
ASTM D 1301
ASTM D 1844
ASTM D 1301
ASTM D 34
ASTM D 34
ASTM D 126
ASTM D 126
ASTM D 126
ASTM D 126
ASTM D 36, D 718
ASTM D 283
ASTM D 283
ASTM D 126
ASTM D 1135
ASTM D 768, D 50
ASTM D 34
ASTM D 34
ASTM D 34, D 717
ASTM D 34
ASTM D 284
ASTM D 716
ASTM D 126
ASTM D 970
ASTM D 49
Titanium Oxide
Toluidine Red
UItramarine BIue
ASTM D 2701, D 1394

ASTM D 970
ASTM D 1135
Water Soluble Salts

White Lead
Yellow Iron Oxide
ASTM D 2448, D 2455

ASTM D 1301
ASTM D 768
Paint Property
Test Method
Zinc
Zinc
Zinc
Zinc
ASTM
ASTM
ASTM
ASTM
D 34
D 521
D 34
D 444
TABLE 3
I NST R UMENT TESTS

Paint Property
Test Method
Instrument
Dry Opacity
Gloss
Color
Vehicle
Identif ication
ASTM A 2805
ASTM D 523
ASTM D 2244
Reflectometer
Glossmeter
Colorimeter
ASTM D 3168
ASTM D 3271
Infrared Spectro
phometer
Gas Chromatograph
ASTM D 3271
Gas Chromatograph
ASTM D 2621
Infrared Spectro
phometer
Solvent
Identification
Vehicle Solids
Identification
The listed methods can be obtained from the following:

Paint Testing Manual, GardnerSward, STP 500
American Society for Testing and Materials
1916 Race Street
Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19103-1187
Federal Test Method Standard No. 141
Superintendent of Documents
U.S. Government Printing Office
Washington, D.C. 20402-9325
ASTM D 34, D 719

ASTM D 1845
ASTM Standards
American Society For Testing and Materials
1916 Race Street
Standardization Documents Order Desk
700 Robbins Avenue
Building 4, Section D
The following cancelled specifications have been removed from this

table: D 50, D 135, D 767, D 2742, and MIL-L-14486.
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

Oxide
Powder
Sulfide
Yellow
218
Not for Resale
SSPC CHAPTERJ7-2 93
TEST NO.
8627940 O003666 965
PROBLEM -.OH
LOCATION
___COLOR
EXPOSURE
PINEL OR PAINT NO.
INSPECTED BY
S
VERT.
DATE
45.
PROPERTIES
REYARKS
FIGURE 4
Federation of Societies for Coatings Technology multi-panel Record form.

FEDERATION OF SOCIETIES FOR COATINGS TECHNOLOGY
1315 WALNUT CT.. PHILADELPHIA, PA 19107
111. ACCEPTANCE TESTING: OUTDOOR

EXPOSURE TESTS ON PAINTED METAL
conductive material should be used as a barrier between

the panel and rack. Racks should not project shadows
across test panels. Test panels should be placed on the
rack so shadows are not cast from one panel to the next,
rain water will not drip or flow from one to another and
water will not splash from the ground onto the panels.
There are two types of outdoor exposure tests: service

tests, in which painted portionsof structures are tested;
and field tests, in which panels prepared in a laboratory
are exposed to an environment similar to conditions of a
service test. Each type has advantages and disadvantages. Field tests are more easily standardized and are the
focus of this discussion.
A useful guide for testing methods is in the American
Society for Testing and Materials D 1014, Standard Method
of Conducting Exterior Exposure Tests of Paint on Steel.
This describes the metal used for panels, size of panels,
panel conditioning, field positioning and monitoring of
panels, and evaluation procedures.
B. TEST PANELS
Panels may contain many of the same features as
structures to be painted, but not in such a way as to
obscure performance on flat or scribed surfaces. Mill
scale, sharp edges and corners, angles, crevices, welds
and rivets are commonly encountered in steel structures,
and some types of test panels contain these features.
Each panel should have an individual and permanent
coded identification mark stamped on the back. Panels
can be fabricated by the testing organization or purchased
from a number of commercial firms.
A. RACKS
Racks used to hold panels for field tests can be constructed of any sturdy material. If racks are metal, a non--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

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SSPC CHAPTER*7.2
93
= 8627940
C. PANEL PREPARATION
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Panels can be initially conditioned by degreasing and

rusting. Panel rusting should be to the same degree as the
substrate and when possible, should be in an environment
similar to that in which shop or field paint is exposed.
When field paint is used in a marine environment, rusting
by salt should be considered. If paint is intended primarily
for maintenance, panel rusting before cleaning should be
severe. If the paint is for new structures, slight rusting is
appropriate.
After rusting, panels are cleaned in a manner encountered in the shop or field by hand cleaning, power tool
cleaning, blasting, steam or hot water jets to remove salt,
or other acceptable means. Paint application should be
similar to that encountered in the shop or field. Paint film
is measured (SSPC-PA 2) after thorough curing and examined visually with a magnifying glass. The dry film
thickness and minor flaws of each coat on each panel are
recorded on a form, such as shown in Figure 1. Panels with
paint flaws that might influence performance may be discarded or i f of interest to the purchaser, may be included in
the evaluation. A minimum of four panels are typically prepared for evaluation of each paint or paint system, one to
be retained as a reference, three to be installed on the
racks. Blast-cleaned panels need fewer replicates because
of more consistent performance.

chapter: AI Beitelman, Robert Brady, Paul Campbell, Richard
Drisko, Parker Helms, Marshall McGee, I. Metil, William Pearson,
Eugene Praschan, Melvin Sandler, John R. Saroyan and William
Wal Iace.
BIOGRAPHY
The late John R . OLeary

was Assistant Director of the
Materials Control, Soil and Testing Division of the West Virginia
Department of Highways. He
was employed by the Department beginning in 1963 in the
capacity of Head of the Coatings
and Corrosion Section.
He was a graduate of Western Illinois University with a BS
in Education in Mathematics
and Colorado School of Mines
with a Geological Engineering
degree. He was a registered professional Engineer in the State of
Illinois and West Virginia and a member of the American Society
for Testing and Materials and the National Association of Corrosion Engineers.
D. FIELD EVALUATION
BIOGRAPHY
Garland W. Steele, P.E.,

President, Steel Engineering,
Inc., has over 37 years
experience in highway engineering. He received his BA degree
from West Virginia State College
and is a registered professional
engineer in the States of West
Virginia and Virginia. He is a
member of the American Society
of Civil Engineers, the National Society of Professional
Engineers, the American Society for Testing and Materials
(ASTM), and theAmerican Concrete Institute. During his thirty years
with the West Virginia Department of Transportation (1955-1988),
he served as a member and chairman of many technical sections
in the American Association of State Highway and Transportation
Officials and the Transportation Research Board. He is currently
a member of the ASTM Board of Directors.
His major field of interest is in construction, maintenance, and
operation of transportation systems with special emphasis on quality. His many papers and publications involve a wide range of subjects including statistical research, statistical quality assurance,
probability specifications,certificationfor materials acceptance, computer applications,technicians certificationprograms, polymer modified concretes, data handling systems, and performance
specifications.
Periodically, field evaluations of test panels are made.

No less than two per year are recommended. The evaluation team can include people who have had experience in
paint performance evaluations. Rusting, as per SSPC-Vis
2 (ASTM-D 610) is usually a primary criterion in evaluating paints for protection of structural steel using
pictorial standards. Properties such as chalking, checking,
cracking, rusting, blistering, and others that are deemed
important to the evaluation team should be given ratings
from 10, representing the initial condition (perfect), to zero,
representing complete failure. Ratings for each property of
each panels should be recorded on forms such as those
shown in Figures 2, 3 and 4. The use of the forms in
Figures 2 and 3 is described in ASTM-D 1150, which also
contains the tabulation listed below of pictorial reference
standards.
ASTM-D 4214
ASTM-D660
ASTM-D661
ASTM-D 772
ASTM-D672
ASTM-D610
ASTM-D 714
Chalking
Checking
Cracking
Erosion
Flaking
Rusting (SSPC Vis 2)
Blistering
Pictorial reference standards can also be found in the Exposure Standards Manual, published by the Federation of
Societies for Coatings Technology.
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

0003bb7 8TL
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Ab27940 0003bb8 738
REFERENCES
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
1. ASTM Standards, Parts 27, 28, and 29 American Society for

Testing and Materials.
2. Federal Test Method Standard No. 141, Paint, Varnish,
Lacquer & Related Materials: Methods of Inspection, Sampling and Testing.
3. Henry ,A. Gardner and G.G. Sward, Paint Testing Manual,
ASTM STP 500, 13th Edition, 1972.
4. Quality Assurance Through Process Control and Acceptance
Sampling, U.S. Department of Transportation, Federal Highway Administration, Washington, D.C., April 1964.
5. Statistical Quality Assurance Workshop Proceedings, U S .
Department of Transportation, Federal Highway Administration, 1968.
6. Testing of Paints, Oil and Colour Chemists Association
Paint Technology Manuals (No. 5), London, England.

221
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SSPC CHAPTER*B.O
73
8 6 2 7 9 4 0 O003667 b 7 4
CHAPTER 8
COMPARATIVE PAINTING COSTS

By G.H. Brevoort, S.J. Oechsle, M.R. S h e
painting contractor or applicator. In this manner, specifics

of the particular job can be dealt with, and the estimate
reflects all aspects that might otherwise be missed.
The cost of each alternate should be considered on a
total project rather than a per square foot basis for several
reasons. First, the magnitude of the work can be recognized and reflected in the cost estimate. Secondly, certain
aspects of the work are better evaluated on a whole project
basis. Different surfaces probably have different costs per
square foot (structural steel, tanks, piping, valves, etc.).
Certain elements of the estimate such as productive labor
operations (abrasive blasting, coating application, etc.)
lend themselves to a square footage basis for production
rates. Support operations and equipment generally are expressed in terms of productive labor requirements (e.g.,
one pot tender for every two productive workers during
the abrasive blasting and priming operation). And finally,
some operations are most appropriately expressed in
terms of the total project, such as move-in and move-out,
rigging, and similar operations.
Since the purpose of protective coatings is primarily

economic, no practical treatise on painting structural steel
is complete without a discussion of comparative costs.
The specifier must have access to basic information
and procedures identifying candidate systems that are
suitable in the specific environment, costing each, making
a selection and justifying the choice.
Because there is considerable literature on coatings
cost evaluation, this chapter deals primarily with
hypothetical practical examples of alternative costs.
Assumptions regarding paint life are very conservative and
apply mainly to severe environments. Values for interest
rates, labor, materials, salaries, overhead, energy, etc. have
been assumed to make illustration possible. In some examples the time-value of money is neglected with the tacit
assumption that interest rate is currently balanced by inflation rate. Maintenance examples are based, whenever
possible, on new but sound industry practice, such as repainting when SSPC-Vis 2 Rustgrade 7 or 8 is reached or
when 10-15% repainting is required. Cost factors in surface preparation are reviewed in a separate chapter.
Cost data represent the authors best estimate for
1992-93, and are intended only to illustrate methods of comparing alternatives. Prices and costs in specific areas should
be secured from local paint suppliers and contractors.
A. ELEMENTS OF COSTS
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
1. Labor
Labor should be figured on a person-hour or
person-day basis for the project based upon the
operations performed. Typically, these include
cleaning, abrasive blasting, application of each
coat of paint, pot tending (for abrasive blasting),
helping rigging, removing spent abrasive and
supervising. Productive operations are calculated
on the basis of labor production rates applied to
each surface area classification involved.
Classifications might include large structural
shapes, small structural shapes, miscellaneous
steel (handrails, ladders, etc.), piping, valves,
equipment, vessels and so forth.
Following is a description of typical labor
support categories:
a. Pot Tender - Assists abrasive blasting
operators to adjust abrasive blasting pots, refill
pots and frequently assists priming operations.
The ratio of pot tenders to blasters depends on
equipment involved and labor restrictions. A
single tender should be able to handle at least two
pots. When bulk abrasive is used, pot tending is
much less time consuming; frequently, the crew
foreman doubles as pot tender.
Subjects covered in this chapter include Elements of

Field Painting Costs (She); Cost Factors in Coating Selection (Brevoort); and Types of Contracts (Oechsle).
I. ELEMENTS OF FIELD PAINTING COSTS

When selecting paint or a protective coating system, a
study of comparative costs of the systems is usually made.
Typical choices involve generic types of coating, number
of coats, shop or field coating and surface preparation
met hods.
The cost of labor, equipment and material is constantly changing. A coating system considered too expensive
today may become economically attractive if material
costs rise faster than labor, or if a technological improvement reduces the required labor. The number of circumstances to consider are too great to list individually.
Coating steel involves the condition of steel, geographic
location, accessibility, size of the project, specifications
and other factors.
One preferred method for evaluating and selecting a
coating system is to secure a detailed analysis and cost
estimate from an experienced coatings estimator such as a
@Portions of this text copyrighted 1993 by NACE International. All Rights Reserved by NACE; reprinted by
permission.

222
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b. Abrasive Handlers
Handle spent abrasive,
when required. Most frequently abrasive handlers
are used to remove the abrasive from inside a
vessel or from the immediate work area;
sometimes, the abrasive must be hauled to a
remote dump site. Abrasive removal is normally
figured on a pounds per hour or tons per day
basis. The rate is determined by the distance the
abrasive has to be moved, the obstacles in the
way, and the equipment.
c. Helpers - Number varies with the requirements of the project. Helpers may be used to
mix paints and assist in moving rigging; spray
painters frequently take care of these operations
when working on the ground but not when working
off staging. The need and degree of use of helpers
should be evaluated on a case by case basis.
d. Riggers - Deployment, placement and removal
of equipment enabling workers to gain access to
surfaces to be cleaned and coated. This normally
includes hanging suspension scaffolding and
cages, erecting scaffolding, etc. The most efficient rigging method should be evaluated for each
case; it is frequently dependent upon the operations to be performed (Le., abrasive blasting versus hand or power tool cleaning).
e. Supervisors - Field supervision. This is normally figured based on the number of crew days
and supervisors required. A single supervisor
seldom has more than 8 to 10 workers. A working
foreman may be employed on crews of up to about
6 persons.
Once the person-hours for each labor operation are determined, the labor cost can be determined by multiplying the person-hours by the
hourly rate for each classification of worker. The
person-hour rate is the labor cost plus an overhead fee. Labor cost is the sum of wages, fringe
benefits, travel pay and subsistence. Companies
differ in how they handle fees on labor and the
other components of the total system cost. One
method is to apply only payroll taxes, insurance,
small tools and expendables to the labor cost;
labor cost is then accumulated with equipment
and material cost and profit and overhead is applied to all of it as a group. Some firms consider
payroll taxes and insurance as part of labor cost
instead of fees, but the difference in methods is
not significant for the purpose of comparison.
There is normally a difference in wages paid to
skilled and unskilled labor. Blasters and painters
receive more than helpers. Many unions require
premiums for wages on such items as abrasive
blasting and spray painting, working with epoxies
and other exotic materials, working more than
fifty feet in the air and so forth. Supervision
normally receives the highest hourly rate.

8b27940 O003670 396
2. Equipment
Equipment required for individual jobs varies with
type of job, size and configuration of the structures, type of surface preparation, type of paint or
coating, etc. Following is a description of typical
operations and the equipment required.
a. Abrasive Blasting and Priming - Compressed
air for the abrasive blasting is determined by the
nozzle size and other factors, figuring 350-450
CFM per nozzle for aiypical job. Blast pots, hoses,
nozzles and helmets (with appropriate air lines
and filters) need also to be figured. Spray equipment for priming would be figured as indicated
below; since a large source of compressed air
Wou Id al ready be avai Iab Ie, addit ional compressed
air would not be needed for spraying primer after
abrasive blasting.
b. Conventional Spraying - Spray pots are
figured as required; the larger pots can handle two
spray guns. If compressed air is not otherwise
available, a small compressor may be needed.
c. Airless Spraying - Airless pumps are figured
as required. Production sized units can normally
handle two guns unless the material is highly
viscous or other circumstances warrant. A power
source (electrical or compressed air) needs to be
used for the pump.
d. General - All jobs need a pickup or larger
trucks to haul workers, equipment, and materials.
Additionally, the project may require rigging
cages, lifts, scaffolds, or similar items. Offices,
change rooms, storage rooms, sanitary facilities,
etc., may also be required.
The cost of equipment is figured on the
number of days each piece of equipment is used
at reasonable rental rate. Even if the firm owns all
of the equipment, it should recognize and allow
for recovering the investment in that equipment.
Items costing at least several hundred dollars are
normally considered rental equipment.
Supplies associated with rental equipment
are either allowed for in the rental rates or are
themselves rental items. Included in this category
are hoses, nozzles, guns, abrasive blasting
helmets, fuel, and so forth. Local rental firms or
published sources such as the Rental Rate Blue
Book can be used to determine rental rates.
Rental rates are normally based upon continuous
charge during the possession of the equipment
with 5-day, 40-hour weeks. The renter normally
furnishes fuel and the operator.
3. Materials
a. Abrasives - The cost is figured by applying a
consumption rate to the number of abrasive
blasting person-hours or person-days figured. For
abrasives such as sand, slag, and many mineral
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SSPC C H A P T E R U 8 . 0
SSPC CHAPTER*B.O
73 H 8 b 2 7 9 4 0 0 0 0 3 b 7 1 222 D
abrasives, one-quarter to one-half ton is used per

hour. The higher consumption rates would be expected on large jobs with continuous operating
bulk equipment. The cost of abrasives can vary so
greatly that the cost of the entire coating system
can more than double i f changing from one of the
lesser expensive when the abrasive is not recycled. Delivery costs of abrasive can also be a major cost factor in remote locations. When
estimating costs, the abrasive supplier should be
contacted for a price to avoid serious errors in the
total system cost.
b. Paint andlor Protective Coatings - The quantity of each paint or coating is determined by
dividing the surface area to be covered with that
material by the practical coverage. The practical
coverage is the theoretical coverage less a loss
factor, typically 20-30%. The quantity of solvents
required for thinning and clean up should be
figured, typically this is about 20-30% of the quantity figured for paint. The quantity of each material
is multiplied by the cost per unit and taxes and
freight charges added in, for the total paint cost.
4. Cost Summary
The costs individually calculated for labor, equipment and materials are added together and a fee
for overhead and profit applied to give a total
system cost. When considering alternatives to be
undertaken by the same firm, the amount of the
fee for overhead and profit is not important to
determine relative costs. On the other hand, i f an
owner is considering alternatives involving work
by different vendors or himself and a vendor, differences in fees by the different organizations
might be significant.
B. AN EXAMPLE
Consider cleaning and painting the exterior shell of a
new 200 foot diameter x 48 foot high storage tank. The
calculated square footage is 30,159. If the first alternate is
a near white blast (SSPC-SP IO), 3 dry mils of inorganic zinc
and 5 dry mils of polyamide epoxy, the system cost could
be estimated as follows:
TABLE 1: Summary of Assumed Costs for Example of Storage Tank Coating

NOTE: The following 1992-93data and cost calculations are presented as examples only and are not intended for use on actual jobs. Costs vary by location, job, and time. Secure estimates locally on the specific job involved.
*Assumed Labor Costs:
Journeyman wage
Foreman wage
Fringe benefits
MIN*
$15.00/hour
$17.50/hour
$ 4.00hour
Assumed equipment costs (fueled):

750 CFM Compressor
Four-nozzle blast pot with all
hose, hoods, nozzles, etc.
Airless spray rig with
hose and 2 guns
Spider
Pickup truck
MAX
$22.50/hour
$25.00/hour
$ 7.50/hour
USE
$19.00/hour
$21.00/hour
$ 5.501hour
$180.001day
$100.00/day
$ 35.001day
$ 30.00lday
$ 30.001day
Assumed abrasive cost:
$60.00/ton
delivered
Assumed coatings cost:

Inorganic zinc - $35/gallon - theoretical coverage 300 sq. ft./gal. @ 3 mils
Polyamide epoxy - $18/gallon - theoretical coverage 160 sq. ft./gal. @ 5 mils
Thinner for both - $8/gallon
Assumed internal company costs
Taxes and insurance
60% of wages
Tax
Social Security
Federal Unemployment tax
State Unemployment tax
Liability
Workers Compensation
Overhead and profit
35% of total labor, equipment and material
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Summary of Assumed Costs for Example of Storage Tank Coating (Cont'd)

Assumed production rates:
Blast @ 100 sq. ft./hr.
Prime @ 300 sq. ft./hr.
Finish @ 500 sq. ft./hr.
Rig (from experience)
Foreman (working) 1:4
302 worker
101 worker
60 worker
16 worker
120 worker
TOTAL
hours
hours
hours
hours
hours
599 worker hours
Pot tender and helper were not figured separately because with this small crew the foreman could fulfill
those functions.
The labor cost would be as follows:
Journeyman 479 @ $19
Foreman 120 @ $21
Fringes 599 @ $5.50
=
$9,101
$2,520
$3,295
$14,916
$ 6,973
$21,889
Subtotal =
Taxes & Insurance @ 60% (Wages only)
TOTAL LABOR
After blasting and priming is completed, the large compressors could be exchanged for smaller compressors, but since the finch coating will be done in such a short period of time, this is impractical.With a 5-person
crew working 8-hour days, the job will be done in 15 working days: Therefore, the equipment is:
2 units x 15 days @ $ 180
15 days @ $ 100
15 days @ $ 30
750 CFM Compressors

Blast pot
Airless spraying rig
Spider
Pickup truck
TOTAL EQUIPMENT
Materials cost:
Abrasive - V z ton per worker hour
302 x
(25% loss)
Practical
Coverage
225
120
Theoretical
Coverage
300
160
Thinner - 385 gallons x 20%
Coating
Zinc-rich
EPOXY
Gallons
Required
134
251
=
77
'1'2
@ $60
=
=
$10,200
$ 9,060
=
=
Price
$35
$18
$ 8
Total coatings
Abrasive from above
5,400
1,500
1,050
1,800
450
$
$
$
$
$
=
=
cost
$ 4,690
$ 4,518
$ 616
=
=
$ 9,824
$ 9,060
= $18,884
Subtotal
= $ 944
Sales tax 5%
TOTAL MATERIALS = $19,828
Price Summary
Labor
Equipment
Material
$21,889
$10,200
$19,828
Subtotal
Overhead & Profit @ 35%

TOTALCOST
$51,917
$18,171
$70,088
'Labor rates for the Northeast
would be required for abrasive blasting equipment and less

abrasive would be used. The cost of the coating materials
in the second alternate is less also.
The second alternate at $40,000 is lower in initial cost;
but is it the most economical in the long run? Perhaps not.
The analysis must be continued: What is the ultimate service life of each alternate (.e., how long before the system
fails and has to be blasted off)? What maintenance costs
will be entailed during the service life and when will they be
incurred?
If the system were being compared t o a system of commercial blast (SSPC-SP 6) and three 2.5 mil coats of alkyd, the
calculations could result in a price of, say, $40,000. The
second alternate would be less for the following reasons:
Abrasive blasting t o a commercial blast is faster than
to a near white. Spraying alkyd is slightly easier and faster
per coat than either inorganic zinc or epoxy, plus the
millage is lower per coat. The fact that this is a three-coat
rather than a two-coat system would be substantially
washed out by the increased production rates. Less time
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93
8627940 0003673 O T 5
A. PRELIMINARY COST ISSUES
This example leads into the other portions of this

chapter which deal with identification of candidate paint
systems, expected service life, and economic evaluation
and justification.
The analysis of coating alternatives begins with the
determination of cost using either currently available,
specifically applicable cost data or a detailed cost
estimate. The maintenance cost and projected service life
must also be considered, weighing the value of monetary
expenditure over time.
Some common questions, factors and influences that

the specifying engineer will encounter are discussed on
the following pages.
Why Attempt Cost Calculations?
We live in a world of costs, numbers and
justification. Decisions on most matters and
materials are made on the basis of cost savings
and economics. To make good selections - and
have them accepted by management - the specifying engineer must include a sound economic
analysis.
II. COST FACTORS IN COATING SELECTION

Identifying and justifying acceptable paint and protective coating systems for a given environment is difficult,
and often neglected. If the project is a new plant, specifications often cal for hand (SSPC-SP2) or power-tool (SSPCSP 3) cleaning, a shop primer and one or two topcoats of
alkyd applied at the jobsite. Sometimes an old specification from a previous job is simply pulled from the file,
renamed, and used on the current job without consideration of whether or not it is acceptable in the new environment.
Frequently, the coatings engineer is nonexclusive and
has other areas of responsibility. Paint and coating selection cost estimates and justification for new construction
or maintenance can be a confusing and difficult task for
the nonexclusive coatings engineer. It need not be.
The purpose of this cost guide is to help coating
engineers understand basic cost elements, show how to
calculate approximate applied costs and outline procedures for arriving at an intelligent coating selection
based on fact with supportable detail. Use of the guide can
help clarify coating selection and increase effectiveness.
It must be emphasized that this cost guide is just that
- A GUIDE. It is not intended as an infallible or absolute
cost source. It is not meant for use in calculating actual job
costs, nor as a tool for negotiating with contractors and
fabricators.
The cost guide gives the specifier a simplified means
of calculating total applied costs based on current
material, cleaning and application costs. The cost information has been supplied by representative U S . applicators
and paint suppliers. The base cost produced by the guide
is for structural steel on the ground at the jobsite, with
costs for jobsite touchup i f shop priming is considered.
Percentage factors also are included to convert base costs
to in-place costs.
The cost guide gives nonexclusive specifying
engineers a method to help them identify candidate
systems for a given environment. It establishes a procedure for calculating approximate applied costs and for
estimating expected service life and cost per year for each
proposed system. The use of the guide facilitates comparison, selection and justification of a suitable system.
Why Paint At All?

Unfortunately, without a protective coating, steel
rusts and corrodes at varying rates depending on
environment andlor climate. An alternative to
painting is to specify thicker steel to compensate
for corrosion loss. Assuming a twenty-year plant
life, if the corrosion rate of the steel in a particular
environment is above 2 mils per year, painting is
less expensive than increasing steel thickness.(7)
Aesthetics, too, are an important reason to
paint. Any structure simply looks better painted.
While some people discount painting for appearance, it is, in fact, an important consideration
in most cases.
Importance of Initial Painting
Once a structure is in operation, it is sometimes
impractical, if not impossible, to blast clean, spray
or to get sufficient down time to do an adequate
maintenance painting job. In most cases, the
original painting is the only time in the life of the
structure when the job can be done effectively and
economically. Therefore, the initial coating selection is of critical importance. The alternative is
costly andlor ineffective maintenance for the life
of the structure.
Design For Total Structure Life
Whether for new construction or maintenance the
coatings engineer should consider the total cost
and number of paintings required for the design or
total life of the structure. If the design life is three
years, a coating system should be selected that
will last only that long. However, if the design life
is 20 years, a long-life system requiring a minimum
number of maintenance paintings make sense.
See below, Required Life (Design Life) for more
details.
To be cost-effective the immediate painting
must be evaluated from both a short-term, immediate economic viewpoint as well as the
long-term, total-structure-life viewpoint.
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8627940 O003674 T3L

within the period the fabricator can accept, and
that the coating manufacturer is in agreement. On
a practical basis, touch-up the final coat after all
repairs and welding are completed.
8. Galvanizing YS. Zinc-Rich Coatings
Galvanizing and zinc-rich coatings, with their
galvanic action, have revolutionized steel protection. Galvanizing with 1 % ounces of zinc per
square foot is equivalent in thickness to 2.5 mils
dry of a zinc-rich coating. From a protection
standpoint, they are about the same. Galvanizing
via a "bath" treatment is more easily applied to
small parts, gratings, etc. However, facilities are
not always close to the job, and vat size can be a
limitation. Heat resistance is somewhat below the
melting point of zinc (75OoF-399"C).
Compared w i t h galvanizing, z i n c - r i c h
coatings are more easily applied to existing structures in place. They tend to weather better in
marine and coastal environments, and accept top
coats more readily(5.e),
They are less expensive on.
large structural members, and inorganic zincs
have heat resistance somewhat above the melting
point of zinc (750F-399"C).
On a cost basis, the break point is approximately 275 ft.Vton. Galvanize if the area is
greater; coat with zinc-rich if it is less.
9. Cost Per Square Foot YS. Per Ton or Total Job
Basis
It is impractical, and generally unnecessary, for
the specifying engineer to attempt a take-off and
total job estimate. For system comparison and
selection, cost per square foot can be estimated
through use of this cost guide in sufficient accuracy for an intelligent decision.
To convert to typical painting cost per ton
size, multiply cost per square foot by 250. For
large structural members, use 100-250 ft.2/ton; for
medium 200-300 fL2lton; for light structural,
300-400 ft.Vton; and trusses 350-500 ft.21ton.
10. Delay Topcoating?
Many new construction projects run over budget,
and i t i s not uncommon for construction
managers to search for items that can be delayed
until after start-up when maintenance dollars are
used instead of capital dollars. U S . tax classifies
maintenance painting as a deductible expense; and,
thus, a delay in topcoating could represent a
reduced cost. To the uninformed construction
manager, topcoat application might appear to .be
a good candidate for this.
If top coating is selected for delaying,
"midstream" after the specification has been written and priming has been accomplished, and i f
the primer does not protect adequately for the extended period or in the environment, a major problem can result. The specifying engineer must be
5. Why Blast?
Hand (SSPC-SP2) or power-tool (SSPC-SP3) cleaning does not remove mill scale. In severe environments, mili scale pops off in one to three
years and takes the coatings with it. Blast cleaning is the most practical and effective means of
cleaning the surface. It removes mill scale and
creates an anchor pattern, which is essential for
good paint adhesion. While commonly considered
more expensive than hand or power-tool cleaning,
shop blasting can cost less, since it lengthens the
service life and reduces the cost per year.
6. Field YS. Shop Blasting and Priming
On new construction, shop blasting is considered
to be about half the cost of field blasting. This
means that where a minimum of 250 tons of steel
is involved, shop blasting can be done for less
than the cost of hand andlor power-tool cleaning
in the field. See Table 5 and 6 for direct comparisons. This assumes the fabricator has centrifugal
wheel-blasting equip ment.
More important than the cost, shop blasting
and priming allows and justifies application of a
suitable protective coating system at the one time
in the life of the plant when the job can be done effectively and economically. Application is easier
on the ground, spray loss is reduced and personal
safety enhanced. Job-site conflicts, scheduling
difficulties and comprised applications common
on most construction projects are greatly reduced
or eliminated.
Selection of abrasion-resistant primers, such
as inorganic zincs, plus use of wood dunnage for
shipping, should be included to reduce in-transit
damage and job-site touch up.
7. More Than One Coat In the Shop?
Painting can be controlled better i n the
fabricator's shop than at the job-site. Theoretically, the entire system or primer and intermediate
coat can be applied in the shop. When it is impractical to apply coatings in the field, such as an expansion of an operating facility in a highly corrosive environment, total shop application is
desirable.
Before the decision is made to apply totally
or partially in the shop, it should be recognized
that many steel fabricators have limited capability to hold steel for extended periods. Some shops
are not enclosed or heated. Frequently, a maximum of only 24 hours can be tolerated by the
fabricator for blasting, painting and loading.
If applying totally or partially in the shop, be
certain the steel fabricator selected can effectively shop apply all coats. Make sure the coating
system selected will dry and cure adequately
227
Not for Resale
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
SSPC C H A P T E R x 8 . 0 93
8 6 2 7 7 9 0 0003b75 778
aware of this possibility, and if it is likely to occur,

select a coating system with a primer that resists
the weather and environment for an extended period. The engineer should be sure to include immediate and adequate touch up of scars, bolts and
decontamination of the primer prior to application
of final coats so rusting and undercutting would not
occur.
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
For each system used or considered, simply list the timing, number, and cost of painting operations required to protect the structure for its projected life. This should include
such items as original painting, touch-ups, touch up and full
coats, and full repaintings. The cost of each painting operation should be calculated in three categories:
1) At current cost levels.
2) At net future value levels - current cost with inflation
included. How much will it cost, in inflated dollars in
the year scheduled?
3) At net present value levels - t h e present worth of the
inflated cost (NFV) in monies today invested at current interest rates.
For example, a current cost of $10 today inflates to
$12.76 in five years, assuming 5 percent inflation; $12.76 is
the NFV. The formula for calculating this is:
11. Do Prejudices Exist?

Often the specifying engineer is confronted with
preferences/prejudices by projectiplant personnel
or client representatives concerning types of coatings or suppliers, .e., inorganic zinc, epoxy, can
only afford alkyds, cant afford or tolerate blast
cleaning, etc. These prejudices may or may not
represent acceptable systems or conditions. Include
them in the analysis and make certain the recommended system is sound and its selection based on
facts with supporting detail.
12. Maintenance Procedures
See Typical Maintenance Painting Practices
below:
NFV = Current cost x (1 + i)

(1)
(i = inflation, n = years)
To calculate the NPV, or What the $12.76 is worth today invested at current interest rates for five years?, use
the following formula:
Typical Maintenance Painting Practices

The sequencesfollowedby users
in maintenancepaintingvary widely.
For come, the only criterion is, Does
it need painting?
In reviewing the subject with a
number of painting contractors, the
consensus is that most users generally follow these painting sequences:
original painting,
spot touch-up and repair,
Operation
Approximate
Life
maintenance repaint (spot prime

and full coat), and
full repaint.
NPV = NFV x
1
or $7.92 (2)
(1 + i)
$7.92 invested today at 10 percent for five years = $12.76.
While interest and inflation rates are constantly changing, the decision on coating selection is usually based on current rates. By making these calculations for each system,
the true cost and number of painting operations can be
compared.
Life of the repaintingsteps will vary

accordingto whether the ldeal/Optimum or Practical approach is
used.
The following is an example of
the approximate results.
Cosi If Original
in Field
Cost If Orig.
in ShoplField
I ideaUOptlmum Fkpalnting and Maintenance Sequence:

I Life
Original Cost
Original Cost
Initial Painting
Table I
Touch-up
50% of I
25% of Orig.
40% of Orig.
Maint. Repaint
75% of I
55% of Orig.
70% of Orig.
Full Repaint
100% of 1
115% of Orig.
150% of Orig.
P Practlcal Repalntlng and Malntenance Sequence:

P Life.
Original Cost
Original Cost
Initial Painting
Table 1
Touch-up
25% of P
40% of Orig.
50% of Orig.
Maint. Repaint
40% of P
70% of Orig.
80% of Orig.
Full ReDaint
100% of P
115% of Oria.
150% of Oria
Painting
occurs
O year
Steps for Calculating an Economic Analysis

of a Coating System
8th year
121h year
18th year
For each candidate system (use

a separate sheet for each), draw
a time line for the projected life
of the structure.
For each system, mark on the
time line when all painting operations will take place: original
painting, touch-up, maintenance
repainting, and full repainting.
Insert their current costs.
Using the current inflation rate,
calculate and recordthe NFV for
all painting operations.
O year
12th year
15th year
19.8th vear
13. Economic Analysis and Justification

This subject is sometimes misunderstood for paint
and coating systems. Capital items require intricate
analysis to identify full financial impact. Paint and
coating systems are basically expense items without
salvage value or depreciation considerations. Relatively few calculations are required to compare one
system with another and to measure each systems
true cost in comparable dollars reflecting the time
value of money.

Using the current interest rate,

calculate and record the NPV (of
the NFV) for all painting operations.
For each system, total the sum
of the three categories (current
cost, NFV, and NPV).
Comparethese values, particularly NPV, for a direct comparison of each systems true cost
in monies today.
A system may be cheaper to install initially, but if it has

a shorter life and requires frequent repaintings, its financial
cost can be measured, and the impact on plant disruptions
must be recognized.
228
Not for Resale
m 8627740 0003676 804
See the example of a present value analysis below.
2. Field Painting Costs

Regional US 1992 costs for cleaning and paint application at the site are included in Table 6. Note
the factors at the bottom of the table to convert (1)
to in-place costs depending on type of structure and
surface, and (2) to per-ton costs.
Example of Present Value Analysis

Economic Anaiyas Wwksheel
Total Psnbng Cost Per Sq Ft lor &her Plant Life

Shree-CoaiEWXVPnmedHB EDOXV.CPB EiQhi-Year SVRem Lile
~
ShapiField/Flsld
Years
15
10
20
25
30
3. Shop Painting Costs (See Table 5 )

For steel fabricators with automatic wheel-blasting
equipment, Table 5 gives regional U.S. 1992 costs
for cleaning and painting at the shop. Note that
usually a minimum of 250 tons is required to obtain
competitive costs. After 1992 these costs should be
inflated by the inflation rate since 1992.
4. Paint and Coating Materials Costs (See Table 4)
Current 1992 material costs for most commonly
used generic types of coatings are included in this
table. Typical dried film thickness (DFT) per SSPCPA 2 for each type are shown, as well as theoretical and practical costs. After 1992 inflate at current
inflation rates since 1992.
5. Worksheet A
Use this worksheet for all systems to be applied at
the job-site. Note conversion factors at the bottom
to convert costs (1) to a per-ton basis and (2) from
structural steel on the ground to specific surfaces
or structures in place.
6. Worksheet B
Use this worksheet for all systems to be shop
primed with touch up and top coating in the field.
Note the same conversion rates at the bottom of the
worksheet.
7. How to Make a Coatings Cost Analysis
a. Step 1: What system(s) will work in the environment involved? Identify the specific environment
and contaminants and begin with Table 3 - Estimated Service Life. Review the system(s) that will
work in the environment and examine their longevity. Select the ones that have the longest life, but
include, for comparison and analysis, other systems
that are popular or thought to be economical. Be
sure your analysis includes the effect of surface
preparation on expected life. Include, if possible, a
comparison of thensamegeneric system with different cleaning grades. If you are confronted with
prejudices/preferences by projectlplant or client personnel, include their systems for economic comparison and analysis.
b. Step 2: On new construction compare field painting vs. shop priming. As outlined before, if a minimum of 250 tons of steel is involved, shop blasting
and priming is about half the cost of the same work
at the site. The job is done more efficiently and many
of the normal jobsite conflicts and compromises are
eliminated. Shop application usually gives better
results. For the candidate system(s) selected in Step
1, include in your analysis a comparison of each
c ~ m )
,Original
Painting
Touchup
Year 8
Maintenance
Repaint Year 12
Full Repaint
Year 18
Touchup
Year 26
caro 8
+$l71
y170
$1 22
12 61
IO70
16?8
Prnmnp j
B!!s
t
897
cuimnl IS)
NFVmils )
Furure ~ a i u r ) ~ U
m
3
am
,!adurn
On new capital projects, coating costs are often capitalized, which will require considerations for depreciation, taxes, etc. These are not necessary for maintenance work.
When required, however, the same present value analysis
should be conducted to make the coating selection, and the
analyses turned over to project management for further financial treatment.
B. HOW TO USE THE COST GUIDE

Before proceeding it is suggested that the reader review
the tables and worksheets presented below.
1. Estimated Service Life (Table 3)

How long will the coating system last? The answer
depends on t.he particular users approach to, and
philosophy of, maintenance painting. Is protection
alone important, or is appearance a consideration?
Is painting looked at as a necessary evil, or is costeffective protection the approach?
The guide supplies system life estimates for
two maintenance approaches, ldeal/Optimum
and Practical: (See Table 3)
IdeallOptimum life is the time until initial
breakdown (three to five percent) of the top-coats
occurs, before rusting begins, when first maintenance painting takes place.
Practical life is the time until five to 10 percent breakdown occurs, active rusting of the substrate occurs, and Rust Grade 4 is present.
Most users follow the Practical approach,
thinking it is the cheaper or that they cannot afford
or be bothered by painting sooner. A comparison
of the two approaches, however, will nearly always
show the ldeal/Optimum approach to be the more
cost-effective method (Table 2). Simply stated, once
aggressive rusting and coating breakdown occur,
it is more costly to repair, and protection is reduced.
(See Table 2 for comparisons.)
229
Not for Resale
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
S S P C C H A P T E R * B = O 73
system with both field and fabricator shop applications.

c. Step 3: Prepare worksheets (A, B or both) on all
candidate systems.
d. Step 4: Calculate the long-term cost and number of painting operations over the structures life,
by preparing a present value analysis for each candidate system as outlined above.
TABLE 2
Typical System Costs, Life, Cost Per Year, Long-Term Costs, and
Number of Paintings Over a 35 Year Structure Life
ldeal/Optimum
Life
TOTAL INSTALLED COST
LONG-TERM COST
surf.
Prep.
Initial
Installed
cost
Years
Life
2-coat HB surf.
tolerant epoxy
SP6
$2.14
$0.27
$ 8.04
2-coat HB surf.
tolerant epoxy
SP2
1.76
$0.29
9.06
2-coat HB surf.
tol. epoxylure.
SP6
2.13
0.36
10.96
l-coat HB surf.
tolerant epoxy
SP6
1.60
0.32
10
10.96
l-coat HB surf.
tolerant epoxy
SP2
1.23
0.41
16
13.23
System
cost/
Yearl
fi2
No.
Ptgs.
Total Cost
@ Current
Cost Levels
Practcal
Life
LONG-TERM COST
TOTAL INSTALLED COST
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
cost/
Yearl
No.
ft*
Ptgs.
Total Cost
@ Current
Cost Levels
12
$0.18
$ 9.32
1.76
0.20
9.66
SP6
2.13
0.24
11.71
l-coat HB surf.
tolerant epoxy
SP6
1.60
7.5
0.21
10.56
l-coat HB surf.
tolerant epoxy
SP2
1.23
4.5
0.27
14
12.76
surf.
Prep.
Initial
Installed
cost
2-coat Hl3 surf.

tolerant epoxy
SP6
$2.14
2-coat H8 surf.
tolerant epoxy
SP2
HB surf.
System
2-coat
Years
Life
tol. epoxylure.

230
Not for Resale
SSPC CHAPTER*8.0
73
8627740 0003678 687
TABLE 3
Estimated Service Life(') (in Years, Before First Maintenance Painting)
of Protective Coatings, Zinc-Rich Coatings, Galvanizing, and Zinc-Metallizing Systems
6.0
6.0
I
P
I
4
6
6
9
7
10.5
2
3
6.0
4.0
4.0
60
6.0
4.0
I
P
I
P
I
2
3
3
4.5
2
3
3
45
4.5
4
6
3
4.5
4
6
2
3
3
4.5
3
4.5
4
6
4
6
5
7.5
7.5
7
10.5
4
6
6
4
6
6
40
P
I
P
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
6,O
6.0
P
I
7.5
7.5
5.0
5.0
10.0
mo
8.0
8.0
P
I
P
I
I
P
I
P
I
P
I
P
I
P
I
P
12.0
12.0
12.0
7.0
7.O
10.0
10.0
6.0
6.0
6.0
6.0
6.0
35.
HBEpoxyPnmer/
HB EWXY

8.0
9
7
10.5
1
15
2
3
3
3
45
3
45
4
9
3
45
5
75
6
9
13.5
5
7.5
7
10.5
9
12
4
075
1
15
1
15
I 5
2.25
N
N
N
N
05
075
1
15
1
15
$5
2.25
3
45
4
6
3
4.5
5
7.3
3
45
5
75
6
9
8
12
2
5
N
375
N
5
N
75
N
55
N
825
N
05
N
075
N
1
N
15
N
1
N
15
N
1.5
N
2.25
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
05
N
0.75
N
1
N
15
N
1
N
15
N
i 5
N
2.25
N
2
N
3
"
4
3
N
4
5
N
3
N
45
N
5
N
75
N
2
N
3
N
4
N
6
N
5
N
7
5
N
13.5
105
5
7
7
105
8
12
N
N
6
9
8
12
4
6
6
9
7
1051
I
P
11
16.5
10
15
9
135
10
15
10
15
9
135
8
12
9
i35
P
I
P
12
18
11
165
10
15
21
T65
4
6
P
i
9
11
16.5
75
9
13.5
9
6'
9*
5
7
7
10.5
7'
1
P
12
15
10
15
9'
1
P
I
P
I
P
I
P
I
P
I
P
4
6
6
9
7
10.5
6
9
7
10.5
7
P
12.0
65
7
9
05
4.5
4.0
6.0
45
5
6.0
45
5
75
6
9
1
15
2
3
I
P
I
6.0
I
P
10.5
3
45
5
6
6
9
5
7.5
6
6
.
3
45
5
7,5
6
9
5
75
6
6
9
6
9
2
3
4
6
5
7.5
4
6
5
7.5
5
7.5
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
5
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
05
O75
1
1.5
1
15
t,5
225
15
1.5
225
N
N
N
N
10.5
5
7.5
7
10.5
8
12
2
3
4
6
4
6
6
9
4
6
8
12
10
15
11
16.5
4
6
7
105
7
075
1
i 5
1
1.5
1.5
225
15
1
15
15
225
3
45
4
6
3
45
5
75
3
45
4
6
5
75
6
9
3
45
3
45
5
75
2
3
4
6
5
75
7
~
105
5
75
7
105
7.5
6
9
1
1.5
2
3
225
12
10
15
7
10.5
9
13.5
11
16.5
17
255
13
19.5
10
15
135
05
3
3
4.5
2
3
3
4.5
1
15
2
3
2
3
3
45
3
4.5
4
6
4
6
6
9
3
4.5
5
7.5
6
9
8
12
4
6
6
9
8
12
105
9
N
N
N
05
075
3
4.5
135
4
6
7
105
7
105
9
135
8
12
9
135
9
135
11
155
2
3
4
6
4
6
6
9
5
7.5
6
9
6
9
8
12
5
7.5
7
10.5
8
12
10
15
11
165
14
21
11
165
13
195
N
N
9
135
12
13.5
105
16
24
12
18
9
13.5
N
N
N
N
10
11
16.5
9
135
18
27
14
21
11
16.5
5
73
10.5'
3
4.5
5
7.5
10
15
'
1
10.5'
1
16.5
2
3
4
6
5
7.5
4
3
4.5
6
9
7
105
5
7.5
6
9
6
12
9
13.5
N
N
N
N
d
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
25
3.75
45
675
5.5
8 25
05
075
1
1.5
N
N
N
N
0.5'
3
45
5
75
6
9
05
075
1
1.5
l
15
1.5
225
N
N
N
N
0.5
O75
l
15
l
15
15
225
3
3
4
6
3
45
5
75
3
45
5
75
6
9
N
12
4
6
6
9
7
i05
10.5'
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
6
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
5
4
75
6
N
N
"
7
5
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
231
Not for Resale
4
6
6
9
6'
9.
'
12
45
4
6
5
75
10
15
15
4
10.5
7'
7
9'
3
4.5
5
75
6
9
5
6
6
9
6
9
5
7.5
5
7.5
15
18
19
13
285
195
12
30
1
16.5
2
18
1
i65
2
18
2
18
3
45
5
7.5
9
135
15
4
21
5
75
7
10.5
8
12
7
10.5
8
12
8
12
0
15
3
4.5
5
75
6
9
5
7.5
6
9
6
9
300"'
SSPC
CHAPTER*B-O 93
Bb2794O 0003679 513
TABLE 3 (cont.)
Estimated Service Life(')(in Years, Before First Maintenance Painting)
36.
37.
38.
39.
40.
3
2
41.
42.
43.
44.
45.
46.
47.
HB Epoxy Pmner/
H Epoxy
Epoxy Primar/
HB Epoxvl
HB Epoxy
Epoxy Primar/
li3 Epoxy/
Epoxy
HB Epoxy Pnmerl
-IC
Urethane
HB Epoxy h e r /
~ a y l t cUrethane
Epoxy PrimerlHB
EpoxyiAcrylUre
Epoxy Pnmer/HB
Epoxy/Acryl Ure
HB Epoxy Primed
Polyester Ure
HB Epoxy Primed
Polyester Ure
Epoxy Pnmeri
HB Epoxy/
Polyester Ure
Epoxy Primer/
HB Epoxy/
Polyester Ure
IOHB Epoxy
10
8.0
10.0
10
6
10
10.0
6.0
6.0
7
10.5
8
12
I
P
10
15
13.5
13.5
I
P
5
7.5
6
9
7
10.5
4
6
5
75
6
9
7
10.5
5
75
I
P
8.0
10
8.0
I
P
I
P
52.
53.
2
3
54.
55.
56.
57.
58.
59.
3
3
60.
61.
62.
83.
3
3
64.
6%
66.
67.
68.
69.
70.
71.
2
2
3
3
2
Ursthane
IOUHB Acryltc
UfbNiaflE
IOUHB Acryl Ure/
H0 Acrylic Ure
IOZiB Acryl Ure/
H3 Acrylic Ure
alvNB Epoxy
GalviHB Epoxy/
1.40Epoxy
Zinc Metallizing/
HB Epoxy
Zinc Melaliizingl
HB Epoxy/
HB Epoxy
IOUHB Epoxy/
Poiywter ufa
IOUHB Epoxy/
Polyester Ure
GahW poxyt
Pdyestw Ure
IOUHB Epoxy/
Acrykc Ure
IOUHB Epoxy/
Aciyhc Ure
GahNB Epoxy/
Aaylk Ure
IOUWaterborne
Aeryltc
IWaterborne
Actyl=
Epoxy .TlncJ
HB Epoxy
Epoxy ZncJ
HB Epoxy
Epoxy Zinc/
HB Epoxy/
HB Epoxy
Epoxy Zinc/
H Epoxy/
HB Epoxy
Epoxy Zinc/
H Acryls Ure
N
N
7
105
N
N
9
13.5
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
7
105
9
135
8
12
10
15
4'
6'
4'
6.
7"
1oJ"
7'
10 s
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
7
10.5
N
N
6'
9'
6'
9'
6'
6'
9'
6
'
'6
I
P
I
I
P
I
P
10
15
11
16.5
12
18
13
19.5
10
15
11
16.5
12
18
13
19.5
13.S
1oW
15#
11#
16.W
9#
11.0
IOutrB Auyltc
N
N
8
12
N
N
10
15
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
8
12
10
15
9
135
11
16.5
9
13.5
N
N
I
P
IOIRtB Epoxy/
HB Epoxy
IOtliB Epoxy/
HB Epoxy
N
N
8.0
loz/HB Epoxy
50.
8
12
10
10
11.0
7.0
I
P
I
P
10
6
7.0
11.0
I
P
I
P
7.5
6
- 9
7
8#
I%
9#
13.M
10%
1M
1I #
16.M
e#
12#
9#
10
11.0
PCKL
7.4
i?
PCKL
11.4
P
I
10
9.0
P
I
16.5
13
19.5
12
18
14
21
13.H
11x
16.M
1W
15#
1%
18#
12
18
13
19.5
13
19.5
11
16.5
12
18
12
18
9
13.5
lo#
15#
Il#
16.S
1It
16.M
P
10
13.0
9.0
10
9.0
PCKL
9.4
6
10
9.0
9.0
P
I
P
I
P
I
P
I
P
PCKL
9.4
I
P
6.0
10
6.0
I
P
I
P
6
10
6
10
7.0
7.0
11.0
11.0
7.0
10
9#
13.W
101t
1%
10#
15#
7#
10,5#
Ba
12#
7
1W
P
I
P
I
P
15
9
13.5
10
15
11
15.5
I
P
12
16
io#
9
13.5
7#
10s
I
P
w1
1%
9#
13.#
1M
5
7.5
4'
6'
4'
6'
3'
4.53'
4.5'
6'
10.5'
9'
6'
7'
10.5'
3'
7.5'
3'
45'
69'
6'
94.
6*
7'
10 5'
4"
6'
6'
9.
6'
9'
9*
4'
6'
4^
6'
7'
10.5'
7'
10.5'
3'
4.5'
6'
9'
3'
4.5'
5'
7.5".
6"
6
5
7.5
4.5
4
4.5
15
11
16.5
13
6
9
12
10.5
18
13
6'
t2
9.
ta5
6+
3.
4.5*
6'
11
16.5
13
10.5'
9.
19.5
3'
4.5'
5'
t2
105
5
75
8
9
7
105
'
3
4.5'
3.
4.6*
6'
9"
6'
9'
44
4.
6"
6'
9'
7'
t0.5'
12
13.5
12'
4'
B'
N
N
N
N
6'
9.
6'
rt"
6'
9'
7'
10.5'
3"
4.5'
3'
4.5'
3'
4.5'
3'
4.5'
4"
5'
6'
3*
4.5'
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
232
Not for Resale
8
12
8'
12'
9'
6
9
4'
'
7'
t0.5
9'
6'
15
75
6
9
7.5'
5'
7.5'
8'
12'
6'
10
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
8
12
N
N
9'
'
9'
6
'
9'
7'
10.5*
7'
10.5'
__.

N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
8
12
8.0
9
135
8
12
49.
7
10.5
10.5
I
P
I
P
7.0
8
12
7
10.5
9
7
10.5
6.0
7.0
8
12
10.5
9
7
10.5
6.0
5
7.5
N
N
I
P
8
12
6
9
N
N
9
7
10.5
8
12
5
75
6
5
7.5
6
9
7
10.5
5
10
48.
51.
6
9
7
10.5
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
12
6
9
7
10.5
8
12
10
7
10.5
8
12
8
12
9
13.5
75'
12
18
13
9"
9*
9'
T"
6'
9'
18
14
21
10,5'
7'
18.5
12
$8
10
15
11
9.
6'
9.
3'
3'
4.5'
4.5'
3'
4.5'
4'
3'
4 5"
Y
.
7 5'
57.5-
6
'
4'
6'
7
16.5
12-
9
45'
th5
10.5'
f8
4.
6'
tS
2885
30
15
22.5
i0
15
S S P C C H A P T E R t 8 . 0 73
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
72.
TABLE 3 (cont.)
Estimated Service Life") (in Years, Before First Maintenance Painting)
Epoxy zw
74.
3
3
10
15
11
165
13W
12
18
I
P
11
165
Epoxy md
Hfl Acrylic Ure/
H3 A c ~ ~ lUre
lc
11.0
w w md
ww
110
10
Hfl Acrylic Ure/

M Acryiic Ure
75.
70
10
hytto Ure
73.
86277YO O003680 235
90
HB EwwI
3'
45'
6.
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
3.
4.5"
9'
4'
6'
7"
105'
1M
15#
6'
9'
7'
10s
N
N
9#
13W
7'
105'
6"
9'
12
18
1M
1%
6'
105"
9+
10
15
11
165
6
9
8#
6'
12#
9.
9
#
V
135#
9'
5
4
75
6
6
5
9
75
8
7
12
105
8n
12#
9#
4*
fi*
6'
7"
9"
10.5'
13.5
10
15
16
4
19
285
11
16.5
13
19.5
13.#
N
N
6.
7
10.5'
11
16.5
21
31 5
15
22.5
15#
N
N
N
N
7'
10.5"
6'
11
16.5
19
28.5
13
9'
N
N
N
N
7.
10.5'
6^
12
9'
t8
20
30
14
21
N
N
N
N
N
N
5
75
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
4
6
N
N
6"
9'
6.
9.
4
6
5
7.5
7
10.5
12
18
13
19.5
9'
19.5
8#
300""
12#
911
10#
3OOm
300"
9#
13.S
300")
tO#
300q*i
Polyswer tke
76.
iroxy
aw
10
90
Ure
77
78.
Epoxy tirae/HB
EpoxyiACryfic Ure
90
90
Ure
79.
80.
81.
82'
60
H0 Vinyl
Vinyl Pnmerl
H 3 Vinyl
Vinyl Rimer/
H3 vinyl/
HB Vinyl
Vinyl &mer/
I
P
I
P
I
P
50
100
100
10
HB vinyu
105
9
135
I
P
I
P
10
15
135
il
165
12
18
12
18
W
13.SX
lo#
15#
10
Y
10s
P
1055
7.5
6
9
8
12
8
12
18
10.5'
7'
10.5'
5
7.5
6
9
8
12
13.5
to
15
N
N
N
N
N
N
27
13
19.5
105
8
12
10
15
9
13.5
N
N
14
21
11
16.5
5'
7.5'
6
'
6'
9
'
5'
7 5';
N
N
N
N
N
16
24
17
25.5
17
25.5
13
19.5
14
21
26
27
8
12
18
13
195
13
195
10
15
135
10.5
12
19
28.5
10
15
11
16.5
15#
3M1""i
12x
9#
13.W
5
75
3OOw'
140-160q~i
140-16o"o'
140-15o"i
12
140-160"
13.5
H3 Wnyl
83.
84.
85,
93.
110
IOZRt6 Vlny
H3 vinyl
IOUHB WnyU
WB Vbyt
GahrMB WnyV
w Vinyt
Coal Tar Epoxy
10
11.0
PCKL
11 4
P
160
I
P
94.
CoalTarEpoxy
10
16.0
ga
99,
1
1
InorgaokTKIc
6
10
6
30
30
30
P
P
?m. f
IrmrganieZinc
OrmnicZjnc Rich
5'
7.5'
'
'9
6'
9'
5 " s
7.5'
8
12
12
9
735
li#
t3#
4
6
75'
si 8
10
15
11
165
13
15
5
7 9
7
105
8
12
N
N
N
9
135
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
10
9
15
135
9
10
15
135
N
N
N
N
11
9
16.5 135
N
N
6 # W
N
N
7.5'
5"
7.5'
8
12
9
13.5
N
N
N
9
'
7
10.5
8
12
N
N
8
I2
9
13 5
19
20
16
11
165
16
17
4
9#
13.S
i# 140-160""'
1%
1#
1#
8
12
9
13.5
Il#
12#
3#
7#
6#
I7
4#
27
30
17
20
12#
14
34
5.0
P
P
13
16
11#
14#
N
N
N
N
N
N
20
25
200"
740.1,wO'
740-1.000
250-300"
(Vinyl B CR)
250-300"
Ep0.W
140-le@
[Vinyl & CR)
7400
740"
Definitions of Environments:
SEACOAST MARINE = Within five miles of coassalt water and no industrial plants or
fumes present.
SEACOAST HEAVY INDUSTRIAL = Within five miles of coastisall water and in presence
of heavy industrial plants with high levels of fumes and fallout.
CAUSTIC = Caustic soda up to 50 percent concentration, with splash, spills, and fumes.
ACID = Minerai acids at approximately 10 percent concentration, with splash, spills, and
fumes.
FRESH WATER = Immersion at ambient temperature.
SALT WATERIBRINE = Immersion at ambient temperature.
AMMONIA = Ammonia splash, spills, and fumes.
CHLORINE = Chlorine splash, spills, and fumes.
SOLVENTSIGASOLINE = Aromatic hydrocarbons, selected esters, gasoline. and alcohol
splash, spills. and fumes.
MILD = Rural or residential with no industrialfumesffallout.
MODERATE = Industrial plants present but no heavy contamination by industrial fumes
and fallout.
SEVERE = Heavy industrialand chemical plant area with high levels of fumes and fallout.
Notes:
Life shown is for protection only, not cosmetic appearance.
N-Not recommended.
'-Assuming topcoats are intact. and zinc is not exposed.
#-Assuming
pH is within 5.5to 10 range.
~'i"ldeal1Optimum"life is defined as the time until the first maintenance paintingttouch-up
should occur, when three to five percent breakdown of the topcoats occur, before active
rusting begins. Normal maintenance repainting cycles include: original painting ("I" iife),
spot touch-up at end of "I" Me, spot prime and full coat after an additional 50 percent of
"I" life. and a full system repaint after an additional 75 percent of '"I"system life. This can
vary f15 percent, depending on local conditions and timing of inspectionirecognition of
topcoat breakdown.
i2Colorswill darkeniyeliow, and loss of gloss will occur.
~3~Thermoplastic.
Softens at 160F. but protection remains. Will pick up dirt when softened.
l']Grades of cleaning are geared to SSPC standards:
SP-2 = hand wire-brushing; SP-3 = power tool cleaning; SP-6 = commercial blast (SA-2
or NACE-3);and SP-10 = near white blast (SA-2 112 or NACE-2).
IWFT. Minimum Dried Film Thickness in mils. 1.0 mils = 25.4 pm.
")Maintenance Schedule/Approach. I = IdealIOptimum; P = Practical.
PIA minimum SP-10 (SA4 112 or NACE-2) is required for immersion service.

N
N
200"
14p1w
PCKL
5
140-1W'i
fEP0XY)
N
h
140.160"
233
Not for Resale
SSPC CHAPTER*8.0
93
Ab27940 0 0 0 3 b 8 1 171
TABLE 4
Typical Material Costs of Paints and Protective Coatings
Approx. Cost per Sq. Ft. Q Typical DFT
Prpct.
Min.
Coatlng
Acrylic, Waterborne Primer
Acrylic, Waterborne Topcoat
Alkyd Primer'
Alkyd Gloss Topcoat'
Alkyd Silicone
Coal Tar Epoxy Standard*
Coal Tar Epoxy C200"
Chlorinated Rubber Primer
ChJorinatedRubber HB Inte&/Top
Chlorinated Rubber Topcoat
Epoxy Primer'
Epoxy HB Primer'
Epoxy HB IntermediateBopcoat*
Epoxy Topcoat'
Epoxy, Waterborne
Epoxy, HB Surface Tolerant'
Epoxy, Ester, Frimer
Epoxy, Ester, Topcoat
Latex Emulsion, Primer
Latex Emulsion, Topcoat
Universal Primer, 1-pack
Urethane, Elastomeric Solvented
Urethane, Aromatic HB Primer'
Urethane, Aliphatic Acrylic"
Urethane, Aliph. HB Acryl Inter/Top'
Urethane, Aliphatic Polyester'
Urethane, Moisture-CuredAluminum
Vinyl, Solution Primer"'
Vinyl, Solution HB IntermedBop'"
Vinyl, Solution Topcoat"
Vinyl Ester
zinc Rich, Inorganic'
Zinc Rich, Organic
Zinc Rich, Moiare-Cured Urethane
spray
BN8hf
DFT
Theor.
Ptaet,
Rgll
3.0
$0.070
0.083
$0.100
5.119
$0.078
3.0
2.0
2.0
0.036
0.040
0.051
0.040
0.044
2.0
8.O
8.0
0.076
0.104
O.lt5
0.075
0.109
0.166
0.237
0.062
0.037
0.080
0.089
2.0
4.O
1.5
2.0
0.057
0.149
0.164
0.107
0,053
0,092
0.084
0.1 16
0.128
0.083
0.184
0.0e9
0.041
0.114
0.114
0.089
0.095
5.060
i36
0.047
0.106
0.149
0.041
0.079
0.073
0.116
0.032
0.061
2.o
0.104
0.029
0.055
0.051
2.o
0.054
0.061
0.077
0.087
1 .O71
4.0
4.O
2.o
3.O
5.0
1.5
2 .o
2 .o
0.042
u.
0.755
20.0
5.0
2 .o
4.0
2
0.080
.o
2.5
2.o
4.0
1.5
20.0
3.0
3.0
3.0
0.155
0.214
0.104
0.207
0.073
0.145
0.091
0.076
0.075
0.130
0.145
0.109
0.107
0.207
0.072
0.103
0.640
0.092
0.116
0.9f4
0.131
0.1ta
0.169
0.165
0.089
0.057
0.060
0.068
NA
0.167
0.081
0.161
0.101
0.084
0.083
0.161
0.580
NA
NA
NA
NA
'Available in high-solids versions. Application costs and the cost per mil square foot are about the same as for the low-solids versions.
'"Becoming available in high-solids versions. Application costs and the cost per mil square foot are about the same as for low-solids versions.
Notes:
Costs are approximate based on 1992 data secured from representative U.S. paint and coating suppliers. DFT = Dried film thickness in mils (I mil = 25.4 pm).
Spray Practical = 30% loss. RoWBrush Practical = 10% loss. NA = Not applicable; must be applied by spray.
TABLE 5
Shop Painting Costs per Sq. Ft. Including Labor, Equipment, and Related Costs
(No Material Cost Included)
For
Typical mix of sizes and shapes
Large structural
Medium structural
Light structural
Light trusses
100
200
400
500
Notes:
Costs shown are approximate, based on 1992 data secured from representative US. steel fabricators. Steel plate cleaning costs are about 20 percent less than prices
listed above for structural steel. Costs shown are for steel fabricators having centrifugal wheel blasting equipment. For steel fabricators without centrifugal wheel blasting
equipment or for those using conventional air blasting, costs will approximate field blasting levels shown in Table 6.
To convert to cost per ton see above.
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

234
Not for Resale
93 D 8h27940 0003682 O08
SSPC CHAPTER*B-O
TABLE 6
Field Painting Costs per Sq. Ft. Including Labor, Equipment, and Related Costs
(No Material Costs Included)
U.S.A. Fkrglons
Cleaning Grade
East
en^
Gulf
West
SF-2 Hand Cleaning

SP-3 Power Tool Cleaning
$0.47
0.63
I .o2
0.52
0.80
0.95
1.20
$0.45
0.60
1.o2
$0.55
0.65
1.o2
$0.50
0.50
0.50
0.80
0.95
1.15
0.85
I .o0
1.20
0.22
0.25
0.25
0.20
Hi Press. Wa?er/Steam
Chan prior to Surf. Prep.
0.33
0.35
0.35
0.35
Water Slurry Blast
1.20
120
1.25
1.30
0.22
O 25
0.25
0.25
0.30
0.30
O 25
0.30
0.35
0.30
0.35
O 30
O 16
0.16
0.15
SP-11
SP-7
SP-6
SP-1O
SP-5
Power Tool-Bare Steel

Brush-Off Blast
Commerciaf Blast
Near White Blast
White Metai Blast
Water Wash Prior to
Surface Pteparation
Applicatkm
One-Pack by BrusWRoHer
One-Pack by Spray
TwOPack Epoxies, by Spray
TwoPack Urethanes, by Spray
Zinc Rich Primers, by Spray
Touch Up on the Ground'
o 18
0.20
0.27
0.33
O 33
0.18
O .65
1 .o2
0.60
O .85
1.o0
1.20
0.18
0.25
o 30
*Assuming 10 percent of surface needing touch-up, calculate touch-up rate times total square footage of
exposed steel.
Notes:
Costs shown are approximate, based on 1992 data secured from representative U.S. painting contractors.
Costs shown are for calculating the base price of new steel cleaned and painted on the ground at the job
site.
,-
follow
dtrecttons on Worksheets A and 6, using
the faflowing percentage factors:
Follow instructions on Worksheet A,

using the following percentage factors
Yultlply
Field
Labor by
For
Simple structures 40-11high >
125%
Elevated tanks, intricate

structures, or structures
>%-fi high
>
15048
Ground tanks
>
Piping: 1-2 in.

4-6 in
12 and 24 in
48 in.
>
>
>
90%
1%
100%
95%
90%
Multiply
*/w
Cost by
For
Uaintenance.
For
Multiply
by
Typical mix of sites and
Ltght rusting, pitting, and >

paint breakdown
(SSPC * vis 1
(Europ Std. Re 5-6)
(SNAME T&R 21, Figure 5)
Heavy paint breakdown, r
severe rustrng and pitting
(SSPC VIS. i-D)
(Europ Std Re8)
(SNAME T8R 21,
Rgures 3 and 6)
Extremegy heavy paint
>
films above 20 mils with
extreme breakdown a d
substantial pitting and
rusting
(SNAME T&R 21, Figure 7)
100%
Adherent Millscale
>
(CSPC - VIS 1-A)
Flaking/Rusting Millscale >
(SSPC vis 1-8)
100%
-e)
shapes
250
Large structurai
1O0
Medrum stfflctural
200
Light structural
400
Light trusses
500
120%
135%
90%
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

:-
235
Not for Resale
SSPC CHAPTER*-O
Work Sheet A
Project Name 8, Location
93
8 6 2 7 9 4 0 0003bA3 T 4 4
- All Surface Preparation and Painting in Field
oil Storage Tank, St. Louis
New Construction
Maintenance
Material Cost Practical' (Table 4)

DFT
Type
Primer
3
~-
Acrylic Waterborne
Intermediate
. 1O0
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Topcoat
CostlSq. Ft.
,119
Total DFT
219
Acrylic Waterborne
Total New Construction

(1) Material Cost
Labor, Equipment, and Related Costs
SP
BlastlClean (Table 6)
Prime Coat (Table 6)
Intermediate Coat (Table 6)
Topcoat (Table 6 )
Total base labor or New Construction

labor for steel with adherent millscale:
New Const.-flaking/rusting millscale, multiply

blastlclean cost by 90% and re-total labor costs.
$
(blc) x 90% = $-.
Re-totaled labor
Installed Cost:
$1.00
(2) or (3) x *Yo2
Recap-Total
Installed Cost
(b/c)
$ -
.20
.20
1. o c
Total Base Labor

(2) New Construction Labor
wlAdherent millscale
-or(3) Total New Construction
Labor-Flk millscale
.go
(4) Total Installed

Labor and Equipment
Material Costs (1) from above
219
Material Cost
Labor and Equipment Costs (4) from above
$ -
90
Labor & Equipment
Total Installed System Cost per Square Foot
1.119
(5) Total Installed

New Construction Cost3
Maintenance Painting: Multiply total installed cost (5) by percentage below'
$1.119(5) x
120
0%'
EnvironmentlLife (Table 3)
moderate
-1.34
7.5
Cost Per Square Foot Per Year3
,179
Total Installed
Maintenance Cost3
Years life
(Cost
Life)
*30 percent spray loss, 10 percent loss by brushlroller.

IMainfenance: Light rust, pits, and paint breakdown, no change.
Heavy paint breakdown, severe rusting and pitting, 120 percent total installed cost.
Extremely heavy paint films above 20 mils with extreme breakdown and substantial pitting and rusting, 135 percent total installed
cost.
2For installed prices: simple structures less than 5 0 4 high, 125 percent of field labor; elevated tanks, intricate structures, structures
greater than 50-ft high, 150 percent field labor; ground tanks, 90 percent of field labor. Piping: 1 to 2 in., 150 percent; 4 to 6 in., 100
percent; 12 and 24 in., 95 percent; 48-in., 90 percent; typical mix of sizes, 100 percent of field labor.
TO convert to a typical ton mix of sizes and shapes cost, multiply by 250; for large structural, 1OOX; medium, 2OOX; light, 400X; light
trusses, 500X.

236
Not for Resale
SSPC
CHAPTER*B*O 93
Work Sheet B
8627940 0003684 980
- Shop Blast and Prime, Topcoat(s) in Field

Simple Span
Project Name & Location
- Highway Bridge - Detroit,
Michigan
Material Cost Practical. (Table 4)
Type
Zinc Rich - inorganic
Primer
3
~-
Intermediate
Topcoat
Epoxy Polyamide
CostlSq. Ft.
DFT
Acrylic Polyurethane
,131
$ -~
,114
. 104
.O13
362
.33
.27
.16
.16
.25
.25
Touchup (10% of shop-applied coatsprimer, primerlintermediate, etc.)

Total DFT
-~
9
(1) Total Material Cost
Labor, Equipment, and Related Costs

SP
6 Blast/Clean (Table 5 - shop)
Prime Coat (Table 5
- shop)
Primer Touchup (Table 6
- field)
Intermediate Coat (Table 5
- shop; 6 - field)
Intermediate touchup, if inter, shop applied

(Table 6 - field)
Topcoat (Table 6 - field)
Recap
Field Labor
.30
Subtotal, Field Labor
.30
.71
1.31
(2) Total Labor and Equipment Costs
.18
1.49
Material Costs (1) from above
36
Labor and Equipment Costs (3) from above
5-
1.49
Labor & Equipment
1.85
Total Installed
Installed Costs: Multiply Field Labor and Equipment Costs only

by O/O shown below'
5 .71 field labor x 25%

=
Installed Cost
Total Installed System Cost per Square Foot2
16.5
EnvironmentlLife (Table 3) m a r i n e (deice salt)
Cost Per Square Foot Per Year3
,112
Material Cost
Years life (to first maintenance)

(cost - Life)
*30 percent spray loss, 10 percent loss by brush/roller.

'For installed prices: simple structures less than 50-ft high, + 25 percent of field labor; elevated tanks, intricate structures, structures
greater than 50-ft high, +50 percent field labor; ground tanks, -10 percent of field labor. Piping: 1 to 2 in., +50 percent; 4 to 6 in.,
as is; 12 and 24 in., -5 percent; 48 in., -10 percent; typical mix of sizes, as is.
2To convert to a typical ton mix of sizes and shapes cost, multiply by 250; for large structural, 1OOX; medium, 200X; light, 400X; light
trusses, 500X.

237
Not for Resale
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Recap-Total
(3) Total Installed Labor and Equipment
SSPC CHAPTER*B-O
93
8627940 O003685 817
111. TYPES OF CONTRACTS, BIDS, AND

PROPOSALS
figured in. Most major construction firms are concerned about estimating construction labor costs
two and three years hence.
Considering current levels of inflation, never before

has there been such a problem of outage costs (or downtime) as currently in the 1980s.
Because of this volatile and changing situation, many
different contract and proposal forms are being used to
reflect the inflationary and changing conditions and to
give adequate protection to both client and contractor in
business awards.
Listed below are the main types of proposals and contracts currently being used with an explanation of each. To
organize this subject, U S . government terminology and
definitions will be used with a relation to commercial practices where applicable.
3. Fixed Price With Redetermination

Calls for the subsequent negotiated adjustment, in whole or in part, of the originally
negotiated (base) price. Consistent with the particular form of price redetermination clause
selected, contract price should be adjusted upward or downward, and retroactively or prospectively, or both.
RFP can be negotiated to a realistic current
price but not for later periods of performance.
Retroactive After Completion: Fixed price cannot be negotiated initially; amount so small or
time so short any other contract type is impracticable.
This form of contract is often used in industry
for special equipment or services and sometimes
in the construction industry for special equipment
or emergency services.
A. TYPES OF BIDS AND PROPOSALS

1. Request for Proposal (RFP)
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
These are solicitations of written offers on

negotiated requirements. This usually encompasses a written or verbal request to various firms
to submit a written proposal for the job at hand.
2. Invitation for Bid (IFB)
These are soliciting bids on formally advertised
requirements. The resulting contract will always
be a Fixed Price Contract.
4. Fixed Price incentive Contract

A fixed price contract providing for adjustment
of total target profit and establishment of contract price by a formula based on the relationship which the final negotiated total cost bears
to the total target cost.
Where cost uncertainties exist and there is the
possibility of cost reduction by giving contractor:
( I ) a degree of cost and responsibility, and
(2) a positive profit incentive.
B. TYPES OF CONTRACTS
After award, contracts generally fit into one of the
following categories:
1. Firm Fixed Price Contract
Provides for a price not subject to any adjustment by reason of cost experience of the contractor in performance of the contract.
The IFB must have definite design or performance specifications that are not expected to
change in the life of the contract.
The owner and contractor must agree on fixed
price at inception.
2. Fixed Price Contract Escalation
Provides for the upward or downward revision
of stated contract price upon occurrence of certain contingencies specifically defined in the
contract.
The IFB must have definite design or performance specifications.
Used where market or labor conditions are expected to be unstable over an extended production period. Conditions are industry-wide and
beyond contractor control. Contingencies must
be specifically defined in the contract.
This form is used extensively in the construction industry - often with some modification. The
industrial owner will often request a firm, not to
exceed, figure or bid, a price with the escalation

This form of contract is used by industry, but

will generally carry a penalty for poor performance as well as an incentive for good performance.
5. Cost and Cost Sharing Contracts

A cost-reimbursement type contract under
which the contractor receives no fee or a costreimbursement type contract under which the
contractor receives no fee and is reimbursed for
an agreed portion of its allowable costs.
Normally development or research projects
jointly sponsored by Government and contractor where contractor anticipates commercial
benefit in lieu of fee under the contract.
This form is not used by industry. As a rule, a
supplier will contract at a reduced price to get a
prototype installation in service. R 8, D is usually
complete except for field test.
6. Cost Plus Fixed Fee Contract (CPFF)
A cost-reimbursement type contract providing
for payment of a fixed fee to the contractor. The
fixed fee, once negotiated, does not vary with
actual cost but may be adjusted as a result of
any subsequent changes in the work or services
238
Not for Resale
tiveness over variation in costs throughout the

full range of reasonable foreseeable variation
from target cost.
This contract type is not normally used in industry. The contract must be sizeable in order to
make overseeing the contract worthwhile.
9. Time and Material (T & M ) and Labor Hour (L-H)
Contracts
Provides for purchase of property and services
on the basis of direct labor hours at specified
hourly rates (including direct and indirect labor,
overhead and profit) and material (T & M); direct
labor hours at specified hourly rates (including
direct and indirect labor, overhead and profit)
and no material (L-H).
to be performed under the contract.

Generally a research or other development effort when the task or job can be clearly defined,
a definite goal or target expressed, and a
specific end-product required.
Negotiated estimate of costs; fee fixed initially
except for change in the work or services required.
A completelapprovedlcontractor accounting
process is required. This is the least desirable
type contract from the owners point of view.
There is the least responsibility for costs from the
contractors point of view. However, this contract
form is becoming common in industry.
This format can be improved, from the
owners standpoint, by fixing certain items of
cost. The ability to fix any item will depend on the
specific work to be accomplished. In some cases,
material, equipment, mobilization, and demobilization lend themselves to this approach.
IO. Letter Contract

A written preliminary contractual instrument
authorizing immediate commencement of
manufacture of material, or the performance of
services including but not limited to preproduction planning and procurement of
necessary materials.
Situation requires immediate binding agreement so work can begin but time does not permit negotiation of a definitive contract.
7. Cost Plus Fixed Fee and A ward Contract (CPF F A)

A cost reimbursement type contract providing
for payment of a fixed fee to the contractor plus
an award fee. The fixed fee, once negotiated,
does not vary with actual cost but may be adjusted as a result of any subsequent changes in
the work or services to be performed under the
contract. The award fee is determined monthly
based on defined criteria established in the
negotiating process. Typical criteria would be:
Costs, Schedule and Quality.
Award fee is based on performance and is an
agreed percentage of fixed fee, based a rating
on each criteria.
Now being used in the Nuclear industry where
the job or task can be only generally defined
and the schedule is uncertain.
Negotiated estimate of costs; fee fixed initially
and award process agreed to, except for major
change in the work or services required.
A complete approved accounting process is
required. This is a more desirable contract format
than the CPFF. Generally, the qualified contractor
will reduce his fixed fee anticipating that his
performance will result in a substantial award.
Cost reduction, meeting schedules and quality all
gain under this system.
8. Cost Plus Incentive Fee Contract (CPlF)
A cost-reimbursement contract with provisions
for a fee which is adjusted by formula in accordance with the relationship which total allowable
costs bear to target costs.
Generally for development and test when incentive formula can provide positive incentive for
effective management.
The formula should provide incentive effec-

This is a unique procurement system. It p r o

vides added flexibility in awarding contracts that
include important technical consideration. The
owner has the freedom to weigh factors other
than price (Step one) and award to the lowest acceptable bidder (Step two).
With present day increases in technical and
performance requirements on many coating and
lining contracts, i t becomes critical that the
239
Not for Resale
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
This concept or a variation thereof is often

used in industry for emergency services.
11. Indefinite Delivery Contract
A fixed price contract for delivery or orders or
calls.
Generally for single type parts or items where
quantity and time may not be known.
This form of contract is often used in industry. Can be set up as annual purchase or time
purchase of any type other than labor or service
which would fall under the T & M or L-H contract.
12. Two Step Formal Advertising
The owner will request, in step one, technical
proposals based on design and performance requirements, operational suitability and ease of
maintenance, the need for special skills and
facil it es.
The contractor responds and his technical proposal is evaluated.
Acceptable proposers are asked to price their
proposal only.
Award is made to the low bidder.
SSPC CHAPTER*B*O 9 3 W 8627940 0003b87 b9T W
owner use every means to get the best application

at the lowest price.
The owner would normally set up a small
group of personnel from Purchasing, Engineering
and Maintenance or any combination that can
best evaluate a technical proposal.
The owner has a further advantage in that the
contractor may submit more than one proposal.
The owner can then take advantage of improvements in the state of the art or an entirely
new approach to the specific problem.
Keep in mind that the technical proposal
becomes the statement of work under which the
contractor must produce. It is difficult to complain about a statement of work or specification if
the contractor prepared the document.
It is extremely important that a technically
qualified group be established to evaluate contracts. Table 7 can be used as an aid in this evaluation. If only one contractor is qualified, the contract should be negotiated after his proposal has
been priced.
If more than one contractor has submitted
proposals, be certain that each has bid on identical conditions and types of proposals.
It is suggested that an evaluation recap sheet
be created that becomes a permanent part of the
purchasing record. This will protect the owner
against future claims that the award was made in
a biased manner.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Steve Dobrosielskiprovided cost updates for the revised chapter. M.R. Sline contributed to an earlier version. The authors and
editors gratefully acknowledge the active participation of the following in the review process for the original version of this chapter:
M. Batchelder, D.G. Beebe, J. Brock, J. Brown, Bill Chandler, D.W.
Christofferson, D. Davis, J. Davis, Dick Drisko, Noel Duvic, P.J.
Foehl, Raye Fraser, Tom Ginsberg, R.L. Goetz, Ron Hamm, Dale
Harp, M.W. Howie, H.H. Jacobs, G.N. Kirby, C. Leavitt, M. Lichtenstadter, Jim Lisa, J. Macrae, A.W. Mallory, Marshall McGee, C.T.
Main, J. Oeschle, C. Reed, D. Reese, M.W. Repasky,Jon Rodgers,
G. Schirmer, L. Sherman, W. Stanford, T. Stein, Ken Tator, Verne
Todd, F. Trotter, R . Vansant, and W. Wallace.
BIOGRAPHY
Gordon H. Brevoort is a
43-year veteran in the heavy
duty paint and protective coatings industry. He is well known
for his work in creating the
Paint and Coatings Selection
and Cost Guide which has
been published biennially
through NACE since CORROSION 79 and which he has computerized into SpecMate-1 and
SM1 customizer for industrial
plants and SpecMate-2 for
bridges.
For a number of years, Mr. Brevoort has been active in the
National Association of Corrosion Engineers, and the Steel Structures Painting Council (SSPC), and has conducted Coatings Economics Tutorials for SSPC at their annual meetings and at their
industry Seminars. He received SSPCs 1988 COATINGS EDUCATION AWARD at that years Annual Meeting.
Mr. Brevoort has worked for a number of major suppliers to
the Industrial Maintenance Protective Coatings and Rail Finishes
Markets.
Mr. Brevoort is president of Brevoort Consulting Associates,
Inc., which he formed in 1985 and which offers a broad range of
technical, marketing, and business management services to the
paint and coatings industry.
IV. SUMMARY
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
A knowledge and basic understanding of field and

shop applied paint and coating costs is necessary to properly choose the painting system that provides maximum
benefits for a given structure.
The corrosiveness of the structure must be known.
The expected plant life of structures should be known.
At the one time in the life of a structure when a proper
protsctive coating system can be selected, justified and
applied, poor decisions are frequently made. Usual
reasons are initial cost considerations or failure to use
cost and service life data.
This chapter presents elements of field painting
costs, current cost data, an expected life table, cost
worksheets, justification procedures and a definition of
contract forms that can be used on actual jobs.
To protect clients and sub-contractors from inflation
and changing conditions, understanding and use of
special contract forms designed to deal fairly and predictably with these changes is highly recommended.
The ability t o effectively communicate with management in economically justifying a painting system requires
a basic knowledge of cash flow, discounting practices and
tax benefits by the corrosion engineer.

Professional Estimator. He has held chairmanships at various

levels in National Association of Corrosion Engineers, the
American Society for Testing and Materials, the American Society
of Professional Estimators, and the International Maintenance
Institute.
(A picture and biography of Jack Oechsle are given at the end

of the chapter on Thermal Spraying.)
240
Not for Resale
SSPC C H A P T E R * B = O 93
B b 2 7 Y O 0 0 0 3 b 52b
REFERENCES
1. Abrasive Blasting Guide for Aged or Coated Steel Surfaces.
T&R Bulletin 4-27. (New York, NY: The Society of Naval and
Marine Engineers).
2. Bernard R. Appleman, Economics of Coatings. Journal of
Protective Coatings and Linings, March 1985, pp. 26-33.
3. Wallace P. Cathcart, Warrants or Guarantees in the Rail Car
Industry for Lining and Painting. Journal of Protective Coatings and Linings, July 1988, pp. 52-56.
4. European Scale of Degree of Rusting for Anti-Corrosive Paints.
Photographic Material Supplied by The Corrosion Committee
of The Royal Swedish Academy of Engineering, Stockholm,
1961.
5. Financial Compound Interest and Annuity Tables, Table 5, Fifth
Edition, (New York, NY: Financial Publishing Co., 1970).
6. S. Frondistou-Yannas, Coating & Corrosion Costs of Highway
Structural Steel, FWHA Report No. RD-79-121, March 1980.
7. Walter W. Kaminski and J.R. Allen, What is InspectionWorth?
Journal of Protective Coatings and Linings, August 1984, pp.
30-35.
8. J.D. Keane, W. Wettach, W. Bosch, Minimum Paint Film
Thickness for Economical Protection of Hot-Rolled Steel Against
Corrosion. J. Coatings Tech., 44, No. 533, June 1960.
9. J.D. Keane, Evaluation of Coatings in Potable Water Tanks.
Materials Protection, 7, No. 4, 1968.
1O. J.D. Keane, Protective Coatings for Highway Structural Steel.
Steel Structures Painting Council/National Cooperative Highway Research Project Report 74, 1969.
11. C.G. Munger, Petroleum Industry Use of Zinc-Rich
Coatings. The Zinc Institute National Zinc-Rich Coatings
Conference, Chicago, Illinois, pp. 77-81, December 4, 1974.
12. R.I. Pamer, Corrosion Protection of Chemical Industry Facilities with Zinc Rich. The Zinc Institute National Zinc-Rich
Coatings Conference, Chicago, Illinois, pp. 34-37, December
4, 1974.
13. A.H. Roebuck, et al, Economics of Zinc Coating Systems for
Corrosion Protection. Journal of Protective Coatings and Linings, July 1984, pp. 20-25.
14. Standard Method of Evaluating Degrees of Rusting on Painted Surfaces SSPC-Vis 2-8 and ASTM D610-85 Steel Structures
Painting Council, Pittsburgh, PA and ASTM, Philadelphia, PA.
15. Steel Structures Painting Council, Good Painting Practices,
Volume 1, chapter 8 (Pittsburgh, PA SSPC).
16. R.K. Swandby, How to Analyze Costs of Painting a New Plant.
Chemical Engineering, 62, May 28, 1962, p. 115.
17. J.J. Van der Veken, Cost-Effective Maintenance Via Quality
Control. Journal of Protective Coatings and Linings, September 1985, pp. 40-45.
18. D.E. White, P.A. Johnson, P.M. Charlton, R-O-W Vegetation
Control: The Never-Ending Process. Electrical World, August
1986, p. 41.

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
1O.
11.
12.
13.
SUGGESTED READING MATERIAL

Anonymous, Estimating Guide, Painting and Decorating
Contractors of America. 12th Edition, 1980.
Anonymous, High Maintenance Costs Call for New Approach
to Protective Paint Work, Construction News, March 16, 1978.
Anonymous, Rising Costs Favor Long Life Paints. Finishing
Industries, August 1978.
Anonymous, The Painting and Decorating Contractor 1977
New Construction Profile and Estimating Guide. McGraw-Hill
Information Systems Company, 1977.
Abel Banov, Maintaining With Urethanes. American Painting
Contractor, February 1980.
Gordon H. Brevoort, and A.H. Roebuck, Costing Considerations For Maintenance and New Construction Coatings. Paper
No. 335 at NACE Corrosionl92.
J.E. Haskins, Jr., Maintenance Painting Costs. Plant
Engineering, February 1980.
John D. Keane, Protection of Structural Steel Work: Some U S .
Experience and Practice Corrosion in Civil Engineering,
Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers, pp. 31-57,
February 21-22, 1979.
Brian Mills, Selling Management a Cost Effective Painting
System, NACE Symposium on Protective Coatings, September 25, 1979.
J.W. Perchall, Economical Coating Protection for Fabricated
Steel & Plate. Canadian Structural Engineering Conference,
1978.
A.H. Roebuck and L.L. McCage, Coating Economics.
Materials Performance, October 1976.
Bill Sisler, Industrial Painting Costs. American Painting
Contractor, August 1979.
J. Weber, The Economics Significance of Corrosion and its
Prevention, Engineers Digest, September 1977.
P.E. Weaver, Industrial Maintenance Painting, NACE 1973.
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
14.
241
Not for Resale
SSPC C H A P T E R U S - O 93
= 8 6 2 7 7 4 0 0003bBS
4b2
CHAPTER 9
SHOP PAINTING OF STEEL IN FABRICATING

PLANTS
by
W. J . Wallace. Jr.*
*Anupdate o f the first edition chapter written by Jonathan

Jones, former chief engineer for Bethlehem Steel, and
Joseph Bigos, formerly Senior Fellow at Mellon Institute.
structure, a different system may be adopted, which involves a considerably greater initial cost, anticipating that
few if any repairs will be required until the lapse of years
makes general repainting necessary. The choice between
two such systems, or of some intermediate system, will be
made partially on the basis of estimated annual cost over
a long term, and partially, perhaps, upon other circumstances important to the owner of a particular structure.
Such estimates of total annual costs are beyond the scope
of this chapter.
Also beyond the scope of this chapter is a detailed
discussion of surface preparation or the technology of current alternative shop primers. These are covered in
separate chapters.
I. INTRODUCTION
The purposes of shop painting structural steel are
to protect it from corrosion for a limited time until it is
erected in its final location, and to provide a sound base
for the complete paint system.
Shop painting is the painting done by the fabricator at
the place of fabrication and before shipment to the site of
erection. Some fabricators go so far as to send the steel to
shops that specialize only in blast cleaning and painting.
The process includes the surface preparation, pre-treating,
and application of paints; also, the supplying of all labor,
material, and equipment, as well as the drying and protection of the painted surfaces.
The three principal aspects of shop painting are (1)
the preparation of the surfaces; (2) the choice of paint; and
(3) the procurement, storage, mixing and application of the
protective material. In recent years most of the paint
specifications generated for shop painting have specifically listed the generic type of paint material to be used. The
developments which have led to present general practice
in structural and steel fabricating shops will be discussed
in this section; specialized aspects will be covered more
fully iri later sections.
The first two of these items may vary greatly in costs;
they are, however, only the first steps in the total protective system to be given the structure; therefore, the
economic choice of one method or material as against
another can be made only when the total system is studied
and specified. It is not within the province of this chapter
to debate the economic advantage of one total system as
against others, although some factors that have a bearing
in that direction are mentioned. Such economics can be
calculated only when the life of the complete paint system
is known; this life is dependent upon the use and environment of the structure, as well as upon the cleaning and
painting in the shop.
To illustrate the foregoing: for a given structure a
painting system may be adopted that involves a rriinimum
first cost, anticipating that there will be considerable
repair of weak spots over the first few years of service life,
until a stabilized condition is reached. Or. for a similar
A. PREPARATION OF SURFACE
The existing practices described below are fairly
representative of structural steel fabricating plants. This
country contains thousands of fabricators of structural
steel, from small tovery large, and exceptions could doubtless be found to practically any statement that could be
made about shop practice. An initial expression such as
In general or For the most part should, therefore, be
assumed to precede most of the statements that will be
made.
Structural steel as it leaves the hot-bed at the rolling mill is covered with layers of oxides of iron, necessarily
formed while the hot steel is exposed to the atmosphere.
This coating of mill scale varies from steel to steel, from
product to product, and frequently over different portions
of the same rolled piece. Assuming that the steel has been
rolled on specific orders from fabricators, and not for
storage at the mill, it will be promptly loaded and shipped,
with this mill scale virtually intact; there may, however, be
exceptions, as when mill scale is shaken loose in the process of straightening a beam or bar that acquired a curvature while cooling.
Large portions of the mill scale, usually firmly attached to the steel, are difficult to dislodge, and if held intact under a reasonably good paint system in atmospheric
exposure should be a source of added protection in mild
non-corrosive environments. Other portions of the scaled
surface, however, frequently are quite susceptible to
atmospheric attack, because they are soon penetrated by
water and air. With the ensuing formation of rust they are
still further penetrated, and if this mill scale is not removed
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

242
Not for Resale
93
8b27940 0003690 184
it will be a source of trouble under even the most adequate

of paint systems.
Since the many steel shapes arrive at the fabricating
shop from various mills and at various times, there may be
a considerable waiting period in the shop receiving yard
before the material enters the shop for fabrication. In the
shop, the steel passes through a myriad of operations that
crack and remove the mill scale. Consequently, by the time
the members have been completely fabricated and are
ready for painting, the surface of a single member may
vary (and almost certainly the surfaces of the many
members making up a structure will vary) from surfaces
containing the original tightly rolled mill scale, to surfaces
on which the mill scale is cracking or badly cracked, to surfaces where considerable rusting has already taken place.
This variation of surfaces inevitably faces the fabricator
when the work is ready to be cleaned and painted.
In the past, some specifications had permitted steel
to be shipped, erected and weathered before painting.
Such practice has long been eliminated in favor of shop
cleaning and painting; the resultant paint system has a
longer life than it would have if it were painted over weathered steel from which all the rust was not removed.
Many structures, particularly tier building frames,
must be shipped without paint because they are to be
encased in concrete after erection. The cleaning required
at the shop is only a simple manual wire brushing to
remove scale and corrosion products already evident; a
slightly rusted condition at the time the concrete is poured
around the steel is generally considered to be in no way
detrimental. Many other structures, particularly the frames
of manufacturing buildings, while not encased in concrete,
will be permanently enclosed within walls and roofs, and
kept dry and warm. They also can be given a rapid manual
cleaning followed by an inexpensive shop coat of paint.
It has become mandatory to blast clean and shop prime
structural steel that is to be used in the construction of
motels, hotels, and office buildings, etc., since the shop
primed structural members are then coated with a fireproofing material prior to completion of the structure.
It is generally conceded that the breakdown of a priming coat would be delayed over the longest period of time
if, before painting, the steel were descaled, .e., all scale
whatsoever removed, which might be accomplished either
by pickling the steel before fabrication, or by sand or grit
blasting after fabrication.
Pickling could be performed only prior to fabrication,
as the pickling of a fabricated member would be impracticable on account of the sizes and shapes involved, and
also might be a failure because of the entrapment of acid
in the many interstices between component pieces. Furthermore, such pickling would lose much of its value
because of the rusting and contamination that would
occur in subsequent fabricating operations before the
paint could be applied. Thus, the prior pickling of the structural steel for bridges and buildings may be regarded as
practically non-existent at present.

Many steel fabricators use automatic centrifugalwheel blast cleaning equipment, while others use air blast.
In each operation the blast cleaning medium (metallic
shot, grit, or a combination) is recycled. These operations
have reduced the cost of shop surface preparation
considerably.
Sand or grit blasting, like pickling, must be followed
by prompt painting before the bright surface begins to
rust. In the case of sand or grit blasting, however, in contrast to pickling, it is practical to perform the operation
after the fabrication is complete.
B. SELECTION OF PRIMING PAINT

In the priming paint, the purposes of the pigment are:
(1) to interfere chemically with or to inhibit the solution
of iron and formation of rust in the presence of moisture
and (2) to minimize the amount of moisture and oxygen
penetrating the paint film to the substrate.
The purposes of the vehicle are: (1) to bind the pigment in intimate contact with the steel surface and (2) to
assist in excluding the invading moisture and oxygen.
For many years, fabricators acted on the assumption
that if they used exactly the paint that was called for by the
owners specification, and applied it conscientiously,
responsibility for its behavior thereafter lay with the
owner. But it is a fact that the fabricators are forced to
share the responsibility for the performance of the asapplied primer.
For many years, it was generally advertised and accepted that red lead (Pb,O,) and the more expensive lead
chromate were the best possible inhibitors. It was also
considered that linseed oil, either 100/~raw or with some
admixture of bodied oil, was the best possible vehicle to
carry the red lead. The Federal Government specification
for red lead in oil, therefore, was a popular specification
for steel structures. Various proprietary brand name paints
have appeared from time to time in competition and have
been specified for various reasons; but none achieved a
permanent status comparable to that of red lead in oil.
In the original treatment of this chapter, one of the authors
traces the development of Bethlehem Primer that was
the forerunner of the current Federal Specification No.
TT-P-86, Type II Red Lead Alkyd Paint.
The increased use of blast cleaning has led to an increased use of proprietary primer paints. These primer
paints, some of which are modifications of the red lead
have good protective qualities and, in the interest of production, faster dry times. Since the good wetting quality
of the long oils is not necessary with the blast cleaned
surfaces, the specification writers should be aware of the
fabricators shop facilities and specify primer paints that
do not impede the production process by being very slow
driers.
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II. GENERAL
General practice in a large number of steel fabricating

plants may be exemplified by the following summary of
practice. Detailed requirements are given in SSPC-PA 1,
Shop, Field, and Maintenance Painting.
The works drafting room prepares and sends to the
shop a paint sheet that digests from the job specification whatever the shop staff must know about the specified cleaning, the type or brand of paint, the ordered
quantity of paint and, i f special, the requirements for
application.
The drafting room also prepares and sends to the purchase department a requisition for the purchase of
paint, including specified type or brand, quantity, and
required dates of delivery. On a large contract, monthly
shipments may be requisitioned to ensure the use of fresh
material.
In recent years a large number of steel fabricators
have employed paint specialists to handle painting problems. The paint specialist reviews all specifications,
makes recommendations, issues painting instructions for
shop and field painting, and in general assists the various
operating departments in the paint application work.
The constant updating of the product information
sheets on the part of the paint manufacturers has virtually
eliminated the need for in-house testing on the part of the
fabricator. However, it is good practice to have some
personnel trained in the art of rudimentary testing of paint
materials, for instance for viscosity, flashpoint, dry time
(8stages), solids content, and settling.
Paint materials are stored in the paint house, and
when deliveries are made, each is identified and marked
for the contract on which it is to be used. This work is done
by the paint house attendant, who reports and maintains
records of all incoming and outgoing shipments. He also
dispenses all materials to the painters; and before a
painter can obtain any paint, he must state the contract on
which he is working. This is an additional check to ensure
that he is using the correct material. Record of the
gallonage used by each painter on each contract is also
made by the paint house attendant and forwarded to the
office daily.
As a preparatory painting step on the steel structures
contracts where exposure will be lengthy and severe, all
edges may be initially striped with the specified primer
and allowed to dry. This eases the problem of pull-back
that is apt to occur from edges and leaves a double coat in
these vulnerable places.
The paint for the prime coat is seldom thinned beyond
the packaged condition, and then only on the specific instructions of the paint manufacturer. All drums should be
mechanically agitated before the paint is issued and
during application.
The primer is applied by spray, except when the
customer prefers another method of application.
Paint is generally appliei in such a manner as to obtain a dry film thickness recommended by the paint manufacturer. Dry film thicknesses are measured using pull-off
or fixed probe magnetic gages such as a Mikrotest or
Elcometer. It is vital to remember that the magnetic gage
should be calibrated on a piece of steel blast cleaned in
exactly the same way as the steel to be painted.
Continuous inspection is important. Every piece of
painted steel should be inspected before it is moved from
the painting skids. A final inspection should be made
after loading to remove all marks and handling damage.
Records of these inspections should be maintained for at
least the guarantee period of the job contract.
The most important factor in obtaining long paint life,
with attendant protection of the steel, is proper preparation of the surface. Despite advertising to the contrary,
there is no magic paint that will eliminate the necessity for
a clean surface. Experience has proved that when steel is
completely descaled and free of rust, oil, grease, and other
contaminants, great variations in the composition of the
paint are possible without seriously changing the degree
of protection in atmospheric exposures. Paint life on such
completely cleaned steel may vary from two to five times
the paint life on poorly cleaned and rusted steel, depending of course, upon the paint system and the exposure. On
the other hand, many recorded cases show that paint
applied over clean, dry, tight mill scale has lasted as long
as paint over sand blasted or pickled steel. Such sound
mill scale is conceded to be a good base for painting if the
exposure is not very severe.
Lately, it has become a basic tenet of economic survival that the fabricator must have some recognized
method of shop surface preparation, or lose the work to a
competitor who can do shop surface preparation. There
are a few instances in which the cost of full field work is
justified, but even these instances require considerable
deliberation before electing to do all cleaning and painting
in the field.
Unfortunately, there is no guarantee that paint applied over mill scale will give satisfactory performance.
There is no method presently known that can determine
the suitability of the remaining mill scale for painting.
However, the mill scale that shows visible cracks after rolling or fabricating is almost sure to cause trouble later.
Despite careful cleaning, a certain amount of the mill scale
remaining will later loosen and carry away the applied
paint. In mild atmospheric exposure, the amount of mill
scale that loosens after proper cleaning and painting is
slight. In severe exposures, such as chemical environments or water immersion, mill scale should be completely
removed to guarantee against large scale lifting of the
paint.
As stated earlier, this problem is really one of eco.
nomics; the owner of the structure must decide how far he
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raw linseed oil, or one sufficiently rich in raw oil to provide

the desired wetting. It is believed that such a vehicle (when
used with proper pigments) is about as close to foolproof
as any available for shop primers.
Unfortunately, raw linseed oil has disadvantages in
shop primers that almost outweigh its advantages. It
attains its excellent wetting ability from its low surface
tension; by remaining fluid for a long time, it develops
good adhesion. For shop use, and in most cases in the
field, driers must be added to permit drying and handling in
a reasonable time. This cuts down the degree of wetting,
but because of its wetting ability, the raw linseed oilcontaining paints still have the best wetting characteristics of the recommended shop primers. Even with the use
of driers, raw linseed oil paints require 48 or more hours for
drying. It is not uncommon to have such paints dry on the
surface, but remain wet underneath for weeks. This is
hazardous for steel workers who might skin off the surface
and lose traction or slip. A second disadvantage of the use
of such paints is the poor resistance of raw linseed oil to
water or chemicals; this lack of resistance makes the
paints particularly vulnerable when they are placed in
service shortly after painting. Raw linseed oil paints are
currently considered poor for underwater exposure.
Before leaving this subject, a few remarks on pigments and other primers may be pertinent. Red lead has
proved itself to be unsurpassed as a pigment for heavyduty primers. Formerly, it was felt that the pigment should
be all red lead, and that as much red lead as possible
should be crammed into a gallon of paint even though the
paint was difficult to apply. The validity of these beliefs is
open to argument in view of the facts that have developed
in testing and evaluating of paints. The writers opinion,
based upon the results of many tests performed by a
number of organizations, is that just as good a primer can
be formulated by replacing a portion of the straight red
lead pigment by other pigments, such as basic lead silicochromate pigments. Two primers have already been mentioned; both of these have a pigment composed of 75% red
lead and 25% iron oxide. Test results indicate that they
perform as well as 100% red lead pigments. Other test
results indicate the red lead content can be decreased still
further by adding other pigments. Addition of mica to the
red lead and iron oxide does not seem to decrease the
performance, and might improve it for some services.
The addition of other pigments and extenders should
not be considered a lowering of quality as long as sound
formulation principles are adhered to. The iron oxide
decreases one fault of pure red lead paints: their poor
weathering resistance. If not covered by a top coat, red
lead primers will carbonate on long exposure to air and
turn a gray-white; however, the performance does not
appear to be adversely affected. Addition of the iron oxide
decreases this tendency and permits touch-up or shop
priming to be exposed to the weather for a long time without harm due to failure to recoat. Addition of mica or other
suitable extenders decrease the permeability of the paint
to water and oxygen.
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will go in paying for the increased cost of the best surface

preparation. It is not enough to point out the increased life
of the paint when applied over completely cleaned steel.
Experience has also proved that it is economically feasible
to clean by hand or by power wire brushes and paint over
the remaining mill scale when the structure will be exposed to mild atmospheres. Much of the tonnage of the
steel fabricated in this country today falls into this category. The extra years of protection afforded by better surface preparation may not always be justified. A paint
system that protects the steel for fifteen years may not be
economically sound when the structure must be repainted
every ten years for the sake of appearance.
In the final analysis, the owner must calculate the cost
of painting in dollars per square foot of surface per year for
the alternative paint systems that are suitable for use.
Note that the problem is based on surface area since
cleaning and painting costs depend directly upon the area
to be cleaned, not the tons of steel. The fabricator who
makes estimates and calculates such costs on the ton
must be certain that his figures are truly representative
because of the wide variation in square feet of surface per
ton of steel.
One cannot separate discussion of surface preparation from the priming paint. The two must be considered
together in deciding the type and degree of surface preparation or the primer that will be used. When the primer is
arbitrarily chosen, the surface preparation limitations are
fixed. For example, when a fast drying, poor wetting primer
is to be used, the surface preparation must include removal of mill scale, rust, grease, and oil. If the chosen
primer is a slow drying paint containing oil and adequate
rust inhibitive pigments and possesses good wetting
ability, then hand cleaning may suffice. The degree of
hand cleaning must be determined by the exposure and
service expected of the shop coat.
It is generally true that the shorter the drying time of a
paint, the less effective is its power to wet the surface,
although paints of equal drying time may differ greatly in
their wetting ability. Wetting of the surface, in turn, has
been found to be the most important factor in determining
the protection afforded by properly pigmented rust inhibitive primers over the less well cleaned surfaces. Poor
shop cleaning prior to painting leaves a surface with mill
scale, rust, oil, grease, moisture, soil, and other contaminants; the amount retained varies with the original condition and the thoroughness of the cleaning. For such service, the properly pigmented primer must have strong
wetting ability to penetrate through the film of oil, rust, etc.
While mill scale itself is non-porous, fabricating operations crack mill scale and permit water and air to enter and
begin rusting underneath the outer layer of the mill scale.
A good wetting primer will penetrate these cracks as well
as the underlying rust and will retard further corrosion and
subsequent mill scale lifting.
It is the opinion of many qualified engineers and paint
technologists that the vehicle of the primer applied over
hand tool or power tool cleaned steel should consist of
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to which hangers are bolted, will remedy most of the difficulty. Corrosion that does occur attacks the hanger or the
lug and does not weaken the pipe itself.
Riveted or bolted joints should be placed so that they
can be cleaned and painted. Too often, a line of rivets is
placed so close to a corner that it is almost impossible t o
clean or properly paint one side of the rivets or joints.
Sometimes the design does not permit sealing of joints by
rivets and rusting spreads the joint apart. More recently,
inorganic zinc primers are permitted on splice areas that
will be connected by bolts or rivets in the shop and field.
Pockets in fabricated members that can collect dirt
should be eliminated; roller shapes should be positioned
so that dirt and water are not retained. If it is necessary to
have the open side of a channel facing upwards, weep
holes should be cut into the web.
Many times angles or channels are placed back to
back, but are separated by a thin gusset plate or washers.
This leaves a space that is extremely difficult to clean and
paint. Furthermore, it traps soil and has a tendency to
remain wet, accelerating corrosion. Channels or angles
used for stiffeners should not be placed with the open
angle against the steel and left open at the top and sealed
at the bottom, since such a design permits water to accumulate. Such stiffeners should have a flat surface
against the wall t o be stiffened so that the crack may be
sealed with paint, as is done in placing stiffeners on webs
of plate girders.
When the structure is exposed to salt spray or contamination, or acid, or alkali, in fact any strong electrolyte,
it is particularly important that the designer eliminate
pockets or corners that may trap contamination and water.
Electrolytic action in such spots often causes sufficient
loss in section to cause failure of the member. When the
structure is exposed to periodic stresses, stress fatigue
coupled with corrosion can cause early failure at stress
values far below the design limitations. Corrosion at
localized spots may set up stress raisers which can cause
stress fatigue at the spot.
Other rust inhibitive pigments used extensively are

zinc chromate, lead chromate, zinc oxide, and zinc dust.
Zinc chromate and lead chromate are mixed with other
pigments for primers. The usual red oxide shop primer can
be greatly improved in its rust inhibiting ability by the
substitution of about one-third of the normal pigment
weight by zinc chromate. Zinc dust has great merit in a rust
inhibitive primer when used with zinc oxide in a proportion
of about 80 parts zinc dust to 20 partszinc oxide by weight.
When used with raw linseed oil, this primer has good
wetting ability but is also slow drying. For freshwater
paints, the zinc dust-zinc oxide combination is among the
best, particularly when the vehicle is a phenolic varnish
and the steel is sandblasted.
In recent years, vinyls, epoxies, inorganic zinc (one
and two package), organic zinc, and chlorinated rubbers
have been used as shop priming paints. In this same
period of time environmental regulations havecomplicated
the steel fabricating industry efforts t o achieve better shop
painting performance. For example, in many areas the
traditional paints containing red lead, chromates, and
large amounts of volatile organic compounds are no
longer permissible. The specification writer should be
aware of the laws and regulations governing paint, paint
selection, and the areas in which the paint is to be applied
and exposed.
Before discussion of specific procedures is begun, it
might be well to point out that proper application of paint
is no less important than choice of the proper paint. In
fact, a good paint poorly applied can be much worse than a
poorer paint that is well applied.
A. DESIGNING FOR BETTER PAINTING

It is unfortunate, but true, that many structures are
designed so that they cannot be adequately painted or
properly maintained after erection. The designer should
keep in mind the necessity of having weather-exposed
surfaces accessible for cleaning and painting. Where it is
impossible to provide accessibility, the member should be
completely sealed by welding, riveting or caulking. Corrosion activity in a sealed interior will use up the available
water and oxygen and then stifle itself. Therefore, it is not
necessary to provide protective coating in such hermetically sealed enclosures.
Gratings, decks and open flooring should be of a
design that eliminates crevices and cracks such as occur
when riveted, expanded grating is used. An example
(Figure 1) of a clean cut, open design is shown here;
however, even this grating may be difficult to paint. The
use of galvanized or fiberglass reinforced gratings is increasing because of the difficulty in painting and maintaining steel grating.
Collars for pipe hangers and similar projections cause
difficulty because they collect water and rust the pipe;
pitting may be severe in localized areas. It is difficult to
keep them painted or to seal the cracks because of expansion and contraction of the pipe. Lugs welded on the pipe,
FIGURE 1
Example of a clean cut design of grating to eliminate crevices
that trap contaminants and accelerate corrosion.
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SSPC CHAPTER*S.O
93
8627940 O003694 8 2 T
Steel should not be encased in concrete that contains

cinders since the acidic condition will cause corrosion of
the steel.
Designing to eliminate crevices is of particular importance in underwater structures. Flat areas, such as tank
roofs, should be designed to eliminate low spots which will
collect and hold water. Other details requiring precaution
in design are included in various chapters of this book, and
particularly in Chapter 25.
Frequently the consulting engineer, architect, or
owner specifies a paint system that the fabricator, because
of his previous experience, knows is inadequate for the
job. The fabricator should have a competent person look
over the specifications for each new job to decide whether
he can honestly endorse the specified system. He should
do this in his own interest since he may be held responsible in the event of a failure. Quite often he can have the
specification changed to include a material that he feels
confident will be better, or at least will not fail to perform
satisfactorily.
Sometimes through lack of knowledge, customers will
specify a paint to be used over a type of surface prepara
tion that is inadequate for the paint. Either the paint should
be changed or surface preparation improved.
Fabricators usually have a preference for a certain
type of shop paint. When the customer does not specify
the paint, the fabricator should consider the service and
exposure of the structure and decide whether his usual
shop cleaning and painting will be adequate for the job.
Better cleaning and higher quality of paint may increase
the cost estimate for the job; it is hard for the fabricator to
quote on expensive cleaning and painting while his competitors quote on poorer work. Here, preliminary negotiations with the customers may make the customer realize
that his specifications need to be changed so that better,
even though more expensive, painting is called for. If this
fails, the fabricator who wants to do the right thing must
hope that customers satisfaction or insurance against
paint failure will offset his decreased profit on the job.
Other design factors are covered in Chapter 25.
When a structure is exposed to severe attack, such as

salt water or a chemical atmosphere, design engineers
should specify complete scale removal. Mill scale in such
environments becomes the cathode in local galvanic cells
on the surface of the steel. The mill scale is protected by
sacrificing bare steel (perhaps at cracks in the mill scale).
Under this condition, the total amount of corrosion is
usually the same as for descaled steel, but corrosion is
concentrated at discontinuities in the mill scale. The result
is pitting, sometimes severe enough to perforate the metal
and cause a failure. When complete descaling is not feasible, adequate maintenance painting must be scheduled
since extra thickness for corrosion allowance may not
insure the structure against failure from localized
corrosion.
Noble metals such as copper, nickel, etc., should not
be fastened with steel rivets or bolts since galvanic action
will destroy the fastening while protecting the plates. On
the other hand, noble metals can generally be used as
rivets or bolts to fasten steel or iron. Here the galvanic
attack on the iron is distributed over a large area and little,
i f any, harm is usually done.
When dissimilar metals are to be in contact, the contacting surfaces should be insulated. Paint is usually
satisfactory for this purpose. When steel is to be in contact with a porous material that may be wet (such as
wood), the contact surface should be painted.
In general, anodic areas (steel) should not be painted
i f the cathodic area (copper, brass, etc.) is unpainted when
the galvanic couple is exposed to an electrolyte. Paint
both, or else the cathode alone; otherwise, a break occurring in the painted anodic area may quickly lead to failure
of the steel.
Steel that is encased or fireproofed with lightweight
concrete (aggregate) or other lightweight, porous, fire
retardant material (vermiculite) should be painted with at
least one coat of good quality rust inhibitive primer. When
conditions are severe, or humidity is high, two or more
coats of paint should be applied as the concrete may
accelerate corrosion.
When steel is enclosed in concrete of high density or
low porosity, and when the concrete is at least two to three
inches thick, painting is not necessary, since the concrete
will protect the steel.
Steel enclosed in masonry should be painted with at
least one coat of rust inhibitive primeras leaks in flashings,
condensation of water permeating the masonry, etc., may
cause localized corrosion.
Steel that is in partial contact with concrete is generally not painted. This creates an undesirable condition as
water seeps into the crack between the steel and the concrete. Corrosion may then occur and a sufficient volume of
rust may be built up to cause spalling of the concrete as in
the corrosion of reinforcing bars in concrete highways. The
only remedy known to the author is to chip or leave a
groove in the concrete at the edge next to the steel and
seal the crack with an alkali resistant caulking compound
(such as bituminous cement).

B. THE CLEANING AND PAINTING SHOP

Cleaning and painting costs can be kept to a minimum
by efficient layout and planning of the cleaning and painting shop (or shops, since some fabricators find it advantageous to separate these operations). Basic fundamentals
of sound industrial engineering should be adhered to in
establishing flow patterns for the work, eliminating crossover and backtrack as much as possible, and providing
adequate facilities for efficient operation (Figures 2-8).
A large portion of the painting costs in the fabricating
shop are attributable to handling; the direct cost chargeable to crane time, etc., is easily recognized. Just as large,
or larger, indirect costs are often occasioned by lost time
waiting for cranes, handlers, and back tracking for touch
up of damage done in handling. Operations should be set
up so that handling or moving is kept to a minimum.
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8627940 0003695 766 W
Continuous production lines should be set up whenever possible; i f the fabricated objects are more or less
uniform, and not too large, a mechanized conveyor (overhead, track, etc.) should be used to expedite handling of
the work. In general, mechanical equipment should be
used to the maximum degree possible and manual labor
kept to a minimum.
There is a trend, especially in shops that fabricate
small parts, to employ the automatic spray line in conjunction with electrostatic paint application. This innovation has been used to coat large diameter line pipe.
When continuous production lines are impractical,
semicontinuous lines might be feasible; such work can
sometimes be handled efficiently on carts or trucks running on small track. Extremely large beams and girders
can be set up on flat freight cars and run through a cleaning and painting shop that is built up on either side of the
track. This process is not to be confused with the poor
practice of loading fabricated steel on cars for shipment,
then cleaning and painting just prior to the shipment.
Whether the cleaning and painting shop is best
housed in the same building with the fabricating opera
tions is decided by the individual fabricator. Handling
costs are generally lower if they are in the same building.
However, the effect of the cleaning and painting operations on the remainder of the plant must be considered. If
blast cleaning is done in the shop, separate rooms or
cabinets are a must for efficient, safe operations. Even if
only hand or power tool cleaning is done, the effect of the
painting operations may warrant a separate building. Spray
painting has been eliminated in some plants because of
the complaints of other workers who object to the fumes,
even when no overspray carries to their portion of the
plant. To forestall such a contingency a spray booth, downdraft ventilation, or other positive measures are necessary.
All fabricating shops should have adequate facilities
for cleaning and painting under cover. In warm climates,
where the temperature does not drop below 40F (4"C), an
open-sided shed is sufficient, but the roof should extend

over the sides sufficiently far to prevent a driving rain from
ruining the paint job. In such open sheds, there is a danger
from high humidity in cool weather, or during rainstorms
and fogs. In cold climates, the paint shop should be enclosed and heated at least enough to keep the temperature
above 40F (4C). If practical, the temperature should be
kept up to 6570F (18-21 OC), for temperature and humidity
have considerable effect on the quality of the paint job.
Low temperature or high humidity slow the rate of drying;
it is very possible that under such conditions the painted
steel can be dried for the normal time and loaded for
shipment before i t has dried (or cured) sufficiently. The life
of a paint is affected by the atmospheric conditions to
which it is first exposed, particularly when it has not dried
completely.
Heating the paint shop and the paint in cold weather
is desirable for several reasons. Cold weather makes the
paint viscous and it will not flow properly; thus, it fails to
wet the crevices and cracks in the steel surface and the
adhesion is poorer. The cold paint is difficult to apply and
painters will not want to brush properly; brush marks remain in the paint film and are weak points because of the
thin film in the marks. Painters will thin the paint to compensate for its increased viscosity; the result is a dried film
of paint that is thinner than normal, and consequently
poorer protection.
In cold weather, moisture condenses on the steel,
even indoors, when the dew point of the air is reached.
When the air is heated, the humidity is usually increased.
Since the steel temperature lags behind the air temperature, it acts as a condenser and collects water on the
surface. Water wets the surface of steel and causes rust; it
is drawn into the cracks of the mill scale, under the edges
of the mill scale, and into the rust. Even on scrupulously
clean steel, a layer of water will be built up. Painting over
this water, which is generally impossible to detect, locks in
a potential corrosive medium. Rusting proceeds under the
mill scale, and eventually the mill scale lifts and ruins the
paint. Most cases of paint failure due to mill scale lifting
occur on steel that was fabricated, cleaned, and painted
during the winter.
Other facilities will be discussed under the various
headings that follow. In summary, when setting up or
changing the painting shop, use mechanical or automatic
equipment as much as possible; keep handling to a
minimum unless a completely mechanized handling
system is feasible; provide adequate and protected space
for cleaning, painting and drying.
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SSPC C H A P T E R * S * O 93
C. QUALIFICATIONS OF LABOR
In many shops, cleaning and painting are considered
jobs that require no skill, but a good job at minimum cost
can be done only by trained men who are qualified for the
work. The practice of random assignment, on a day-to-day
basis, of manual labor for cleaning and painting should be
eliminated. One reason for poor paint jobs is that some
FIGURE 2
Plate sand blasting in fabricating plant.
Courtesy: Chicago Bridge and Iron

248
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8627940 0003b7b b T 2
workers are led to consider it just another job.

Generally, however, the worker is basically proud of
his skill and ability; given an even break he will try to do a
job of which he is proud. He can be relied upon i f he is
educated to do good work and is provided the means to
do it.
Methods of training workers vary with the plants; most
often, training is by on-the-job methods, or through
apprenticeship when this is required by union rules. Some
plants have set up training programs that cover considerable ground and a long period of time. In such cases,
perhaps eight hours a week are devoted to instruction and
discussion; the remainder of the time is spent in doing
work, but the time for each type of job, or for each different
phase of activity, is programmed. At the end of six months,
or a year, the worker is promoted from apprentice, or
helper, to painter i f he passes a qualifying test.
Because of the increased cost of labor, and the
sophistication of the newer paint materials, most
fabricating shops use automatic blast cleaning equipment
and spray application of the paint. In those shops, and particularly in the field, where personnel are assigned the task
of blaster-painter there is a lack of skill due to fatigue,
especially when after spending most of the day blast cleaning, the person is now required to apply the paint.
Spray painting is not a strictly mechanical operation;
it requires more skill than brush or roller application, plus a
technical knowledge of the equipment. In using the newer,
fast drying paints, correct know-how in the application is
positively essential for their success. In recent years the
major manufacturers of paint spray equipment have sponsored week-long classes in the proper methods of equipment handling and spray painting techniques.
In the final analysis, the man who applies the paint determines its performance. No matter how good the surface
preparation or the paint, it is no better than the man who
applies it; always remember, even the best paints will fail i f
not properly applied. The painter must be aware of the importance of his work and proud of its quality; if he is doing
something against his will or for low pay it will be reflected
in poorer paint performance.
others will have only patches of mill scale remaining. If the

steel has been stored for a long time, rust scale may be
present on a portion of the surface area.
Oil will be present from handling, drilling, reaming,
etc. Grease will be present from the machinery lubricants,
crane drippings, etc. Carbonized residues from riveting and
welding operations may be present. Chalk marks, perhaps
drawing compounds, mill identification marks, piece
numbers, etc., will be present. Water soluble cutting compounds, or emulsions are sometimes present. Salt is sometimes present on the surface. Mud and dirt are often
present, as are hand prints.
The methods of surface preparation generally used in
the fabricating shops are as follows:
1. Nominal Cleaning
2. Solvent Cleaning
3. Hand Cleaning
4. Power Tool Cleaning
5. Blast Cleaning
6. Pickling
All, except for the first, are covered by Steel Structures
Painting Council Surface Preparation Specifications and
Commentary and will not be repeated in this chapter. As a
precautionary note, the reader should familiarize himself
thoroughly with the SSPC Surface Preparation Specifications and then take a hard, realistic look at the physical
capabilities of his workplace before committing himself to
a method of surface preparation that would be impractical.
Photographs of various methods of surface preparation are
presented for the readers familiarization.
IV. SHOP PRIMING

The basic requirements of shop primers have been
111. SHOP CLEANING AND PRETREATING

The cleaning of the surface has already been discussed in a general way; specific details are covered in the
chapters on mechanical and chemical surface preparation.
This section deals with specific operations in the fabricating shop. Fabricated steel ready for cleaning and painting consists of a varied assortment of surface conditions.
New steel (steel that has been shipped from the rolling mill
and has not weathered in the fabricators yard) will usually
consist of almost intact mill scale. Weathered steel will
vary from almost complete rust to almost intact mill scale,
depending upon how long it is stored in the fabricators
yard, and whether it is stored under cover or not.
The surface conditions of the usual rolled shape will
vary; perhaps one face may be completely rusted, while
FIGURE 3
Side view of centrifugal blast cleaning unit showing driving motor
and wheel housing. Work is cleaned as it passes the wheel only. A
fortyeight foot long cleaning chamber is provided, but most of
this space is a tunnel which serves only to trap abrasives and act
as a shelter.
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

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--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
cised that the second coat of paint is compatible with the

first, since inter-coat peeling may result i f adhesion is not
good; also, the solvent in the second coat must not be
powerful enough to lift the fresh primer.
Another method is to shopcoat the steel in the normal
manner and ship the steel to the job site. Before erection,
the steel is given a second coat of paint. The prime coat
should weather long enough to lift vulnerable mill scale.
Spot cleaning and touch up of these areas is necessary
before the second coat of paint is applied.
Unfortunately, painting of the steel in the field before
erection requires extra handling operations. But the extra
cost for handling is offset by the timely on-site paint
application.
When the period of exposure before field painting is
short, or when the surface preparation is of good quality,
the burden thrust upon the shopcoat is eased, and considerable variation in the primer is possible. Here, zinc
chromate primers show to advantage. Another alternative
is the application of inorganic zinc, epoxy, vinyl, etc., as
primers. However, caution must be exercised by the
specifier when he contemplates the use of these materials
as primer paints. They often require special surface preparation and application, and their suitability for specific
environments must be considered.
FIGURE 4
Illustration of a centrifugal wheel used for blast cleaning. Note
the extensive repair work which has been necessary on the
housing due to the wear from the abrasive.
discussed; it was shown that the most severe test of a

shop coat is long exposure without topcoats, such as on
steel for a large structure. Since the dried film thickness of
a good shop coat is only about two mils, it is not at all
surprising to find considerable failure of the paint after
long exposures. The type of exposure has much to do with
the manner in which the shop coat survives the interim
period before field painting. A heavy industrial atmosphere, marine atmosphere, high humidity, or chemical
environment will cause much more damage to the shop
coat than exposure in a rural atmosphere.
When it is known that the exposure will be long and
severe, several methods of circumventing probable failure
of the shop coat are possible. In the first method, two
coats of paint are applied in the shop. The first, or prime
coat, must be allowed to dry thoroughly before the second
coat is applied. This has the big disadvantage of tying up
large amounts of the drying and painting facilities of the
fabricator. Naturally, the fabricator will want to be paid, if
production of his plant is slowed down. Moreover, he will
not want to use this method because the real costs would
be enormous. The difficultv can be alleviated bv usina a
semi-quick drying paint as &,e second coat. Here, one can
take advantage Of synthetic type resins to Provide a more
weather resistant outer coat of paint. Care must be exer-

FIGURE 5
Exterior o a nozzle blast cleaning room showing two continuous
type feed tanks in the foreground along with control equipment,
and oil and water seDarators: abrasive recoverv eauioment is in
the background.
I
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that proprietary products may not work as well. In fact,

many of these paints could be improved if enough time and
money were spent for that purpose. Also, many proprietary
paints meet and often exceed these specifications.
No primer has been found suitable for general use for all
service. A minimum number of primers should be chosen
for standard operations by each fabricator to be used on
work for which no prime paint was specified. However, it is
a rare case when contract specifications are written that
allow the fabricator to choose the paint. Normally, the
contract specifications call for generic types of paint to
be shop applied. In a majority of cases brand names are
mentioned, accompanied by an or-equal clause.
A variety of paint materials, all of which can be used
as primer paints, are presented in Table I.Also included for
each paint is a description of the pigment, vehicle, and the
minimum surface preparation required for each paint. Most
of the paints shown in the table are very seldom specified.
Several others have been banned from use by one or more
federal agencies, and the use of many of these paints has
been severely limited by standards of these same agencies. It is the responsibility of the owner and his agent to
be aware of the regulations governing the use of certain
paints that could cause health and safety problems.
In selecting primers for shop coats, the following
points should be considered: (1) the corrosiveness of the
exposure environment, (2) the length of time that the steel
will be exposed, (3) the surface preparation that is acceptable or economical. Furthermore, the primers that are
suitable must be selected upon the basis of the drying time
available and the wetting ability required for the degree of
clean i ng contem plated.
FIGURE 6
Interior view of blast cleaning room shown in Figure 5. Note air
feed connection to operators mask for fresh air supply when actually blast cleaning. Solenoid control of blast stream by operator
is available but is not shown. Material passing through this room
is carried on a continuous conveyor.
B. SHOP PRIMING PROCEDURES

To obtain satisfactory performance of any paint,
proper application is essential. Detailed specifications for
proper application are found in Volume 2 of the manual;
A. RECOMMENDED SHOPCOAT PRIMERS

There are a tremendous number of primers availble
for steel; the extravagant claims made for some of them
are completely unsubstantiated in actual use. Others,
while well formulated and of high quality, show little or no
superiority over proven formulations when the primers are
compared in controlled tests. Any primer that is sold on
the basis that i t eliminates preparation of the surface
should be viewed with extreme caution. Before widespread
use it should be tested in service to determine whether it
will perform satisfactorily or meet the requirements of the
fabricator and the customer. Reports of investigations of
primers for structural steel shopcoats have been made by
many investigators.
The tables below list paints that have been used as
primers for structural steel. They have been chosen as
being representative of the types and classes of primers
that have proved themselves in actual service. Due to limitations, easily understood, many good primers have been
left out. Specifications for many of these paints are included in SSPC Volume 2, Systems & Specifications; the
others are easily procurable. The reader should not get the
idea that because a primer is not included it is not good, or
FIGURE 7
Pickling Set-up with three pickling tanks in the foreground. The
furthest tank is a sulfuric acid pickling tank, the second is a water
rinse, and the closest tank in the foreground is a phosphoric acid
treatment tank. Concentrated sulfuric and phosphoric acid are
stored in the iron tanks beneath the crane runway. Solvent cleaning of the steel takes place in the background prior to immersion
in the sulfuric acid tank. Drying and painting racks and skids are
shown in the foreground.
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

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and general instructions for application are included in

other chapters of this volume. It is also extremely
important to consult the paint manufacturer on details
regarding application of a particular paint. Details of application that are primarily of concern to the fabricator are
covered in this section.
i.Shop Control of Paint Properties
Some control system should be set up to check
the important properties of the paint. Procedures
for such checks are covered in chapters on quality
control. Probably the most important characteristics of paint that affect its application are viscosity, drying time, brushing properties, spraying
properties, and (in some cases) dipping properties.
Other characteristics, such as storage stability and hiding power, have an indirect but
important effect on application. Even where no
laboratory facilities are available to the fabricating
plant, some person should be sufficiently trained
to enable him to check the most essential of these
properties. The necessary equipment is basically
a viscosimeter (Zahn or similar type), a thermometer, a watch with a second hand, a scale for
weighing, and some facility for drying weighed
samples of paint when the percent of volatile
matter is to be checked. While critical checks and
tests should be conducted by competent laboratory personnel, the tests conducted by the shop
personnel can guard against acceptance of a
paint that is not in compliance with the specifications or the properties advertised by the manufacturer. Such crude checks will not reveal improper pigments, resins, or oils, or fraudulent
substitutions with intent to deceive. On large jobs
where considerable money is invested in the
cleaning and painting, the services of a commercial testing laboratory should be utilized if the
plant does not have an adequate laboratory.
Weight per gallon can be checked by taking a
filled one gallon or five gallon container and
weighing it, then deducting the weight of the
empty container. Small platform scales are
usually available around the plant that will weigh
to within one ounce in 25 pounds. Allowing an
error of two ounces from the true weight in the
weighing or over filling, the accuracy of such a
method of determining the weight per gallon is 1/2
of one percent. This will readily show whether the
paint meets the specification weight. When
samples are taken from large containers, the withdrawal of a representative sample requires diligent precautions.
Viscosity can readily be checked by dipping a
#2 Zahn viscosimeter in the paint, allowing the
viscosimeter to remain in the mixed paint for approximately 20 seconds to achieve temperature
equalization between the paint and the cup. With--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
draw the viscosimeter and simultaneously start

the stop watch. Time the flow of material through
the cup and stop the time when the flow of
coating interrupts the first time. The viscosity is
compared to the previously measured or specified
viscosity; since temperature affects viscosity, a
chart of viscosity versus temperature should be
prepared for each paint that will be used. This
method of measuring viscosity works relatively
well for usual shop paints, but should not be used
without due precautions for thixotropic materials.
Brushing, spraying, and dipping properties
are easily determined by actual application to
small panels; an experienced observer should
make the test. Drying times are determined by
exposing these panels in the shop or paint room.
Here, the shop has an advantage over the labora
tory because the determination is made under the
conditions in which the paint will actually be
applied. Since drying time is affected by temperature and humidity, the paint cannot always be
blamed for improper drying; it may dry in the time
specified when exposed to standard dry conditions (about 77" F or 25" C and 50% relative
hum idity).
Paints are thinned with varying proportions of
thinners; some paints have almost no thinner,
others may run about 50% by volume of thinner.
For example, when a paint that is 50 percent by
volume thinner dries, only about half the volume
of paint deposited on the steel as a wet film
remains in the form of dried paint (assuming little
evaporation takes place in the application). This
means that four mils of wet film must be deposited when specifications for such a paint require two mils dried paint thickness. The same
line of reasoning holds true for paints with more,
or less, than 50 percent by volume thinner. The
more thinner in the paint, the more wet film will
have to be deposited to achieve the specified dry
film of paint. Most paint manufacturers produce
paint ready for spray application without the need
of additional thinning. The standard nowadays is
airless spray application. Therefore, application
methods other than airless spray may dictate that
the paint be thinned. In any case, the manufacturer's recommendations regarding thinning
should be adhered to very strictly.
The fabricator is not interested in buying
large quantities of thinner that will evaporate,
causing health and fire hazards; therefore each
paint should be formulated with only the necessary amount of thinner to keep the resin in solution and to maintain the proper viscosity for
application. The volatile content of a paint can be
checked quite simply; for precise work, a drying
oven and analytical balance are essential. For a

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TABLE 1
TYPICAL PRIMER PAINTS FOR STRUCTURAL STEEL
PRIMER
PIGMENT
VEHICLE
MINIMUM
SURFACE PREPARATION
SSPC Paint 9
100% Titanium
Dioxide
Vinyl
Blast Cleaning
SSPC Paint 11
40% Oxide
40% Zinc Yellow
20% Extenders
Raw Linseed Oil

and Alkyd Varnish
(equal parts)
Hand Cleaning
SSPC Paint 13
60% Red or Brown

Iron Oxide
12% Red Lead
3 % Zinc Chromate
25% Magnesium Silicate
Raw Linseed Oil

Tung Oil Ester
Gum Varnish
Bodied Linseed Oil
Hand Cleaning
Alkyd Resin Solids

Mineral Spirit Thinner
Driers
Hand Cleaning
52% Coal Tar Pitch

48% Magnesium Silicate
Epoxy Polyamide
SSPC-SP 6, "Commercial
Blast Cleaning"
35% Rust Inhibitive
Chlorinated Rubber,
suitably plasticized
and stabilized.
'
SSPC Paint 15
SSPC Paint 16
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
SSPC Paint 17
Red Iron. Oxide

Magnesium Silicate
Inhibitive Pigment
Pigment
12% Tinting Pigments
55% Extender Pigments
SSPC Paint 20
Type I
Type II
87% Zinc Dust

93% Zinc Dust
SSPC Paint 22
Inhibitive Pigment
Epoxy Polyamide
SSPC-SP 6
SSPC Paint 23
Inhibitive Pigment
Latex
SSPC-SP 6
SSPC Paint 25
Zinc Oxide
Red Iron Oxide
Magnesium
Silicate
Mica
Linseed oil/
Alkyd
Hand Cleaning
SSPC Paint 28
Not specified
Water Borne
EPOXY
Blast Cleaning
Preferred
SSPC Paint 29
Minimum 50%
zinc dust in dry
film
Inorganic or
Organic
Blast Cleaning
Inorganic
Organic
TT-P-641
Type I
80% Zinc Dust

20% Zinc Oxide
Raw Linseed Oil

Oil
Hand Cleaning
TT-P-641
Type II
80% Zinc Dust

20% Zinc Oxide
Alkyd Varnish
Blast Cleaning or
Pickling
TT-P-645
50% Zinc Yellow

14% Titanium Dioxide
17% Zinc Oxide
19% Extender
Alkyd Varnish
Blast Cleaning or
Pickling
TT-P-636
50%
10%
10%
30%
Alkyd Varnish
Hand Cleaning
TT-P-31
60% Red or Brown

Iron Oxide
12% Zinc Oxide
28% Extender
Linseed Oil
(5 parts)
Spar Varnish
(1 part)
Hand Cleaning

Iron Oxide
Zinc Yellow
Zinc Oxide
Extender
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TABLE 2
SOURCES OF INFORMATION PERTAINING TO CLEANING AND
PAINTING HAZARDS
National Safety Council
1121 Spring Lake Drive
Itasca, IL 60143-3201
National Paint and Coatings Association

1500 Rhode Island Avenue, NW
Washington, DC 20005-5597
American National Standards Institute

11 West 42nd Street, 13th Floor
New York, NY 10036-8002
Painting and Decorating Contractors of America

3913 Old Lee Highway, Suite 338
Fairfax, VA 22030
National Fire Protection Association

1 Battery March Park, P.O. Box 9101
Quincy, MA 02269-91O1
Canadian General Standards Board

222 Queen Street, Suite 1412
Ottawa, Ontario, K1A 1G6
American Foundrymen's Society

505 State Street
Des Plaines, IL 60016-8399
U.S. Department of Labor

Occupational Safety and Health Administration
200 Constitution Avenue, NW
Washington, DC 20210
Chemical Manufacturers Association

2501 M Street, NW
U.S. Department of the Interior

Bureau of Mines
810 7th Street, NW
to check both weight per gallon and viscosity

since both improper thinning and mixing errors
may compensate each other. Since the sample of
paint will be small, a weight-per-galloncup should
be used.
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
simple and fairly accurate check, less sensitive

scales can be used. Photographic supply houses
sell small inexpensive scales that can be used for
fairly accurate work. About 5 to 10 grams of paint
are poured into a dried, weighed tray made of
folded aluminum foil (about 4" x 4"; the lid of a
quart can may be used, but the sensitivity of the
procedure is reduced); it must be weighed quickly,
since the solvent will start to evaporate immediately. If the paint forms skins in drying, a small
piece of wire should be weighed with the tray and
left in during drying; it is used to break up skins
that may form. The sample of paint is dried at
about 220" F (104" C) until the weight becomes
constant. The loss in weight of the sample is used
to calculate the percent of volatile in the original
sample of paint by weight. This can be recalculated into volume percent, when the type of thinner is known. Paints which deviate significantly
from specifications or known volatile content
should be checked by a more accurate method
before investigation of the reason for the
discrepancy.
Periodic checks should be made of paint
from painters' buckets or spray pots. Viscosity
checks will show whether paint has been excessively thinned or adequately mixed. It is best

2. Storage of Paint
When a paint order is accepted, it should be

stored until required. Fire insurance policies,
government regulations, and manufacturer's instructions dictate that paint materials be stored in
fireproof rooms at controlled temperatures. In
addition, most jobs call for temperature control of
the stored paint. The storage room should be kept
locked and only qualified personnel should be
authorized to remove paint or thinner. Upon receipt of a lot of paint, the job number of the paint
should be marked on each container. If the paint is
for general use, it should be marked accordingly.
In any case, stock on hand should be used first.
Containers of paint should be turned over about
once each month to help keep the pigment from
settling hard. On some jobs paints that have a
limited shelf life are specified. The expiration date
of these materials should be shown, and they
should be used as soon as possible or returned to
the manufacturer prior to expiration of the shelf
life.
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4. Thinning
The thinning of paint must be done by qualified
personnel under careful supervision. There is a
feeling among some paint users that paint should
be purchased and applied at the greatest coverage
per gallon possible. This belief is encouraged by
some paint salesmen who claim amazing square
feet per gallon coverage for their paints. The
reasoning is false and poor economy. Paint
should be applied at a coverage or spreading rate
that will ensure a dried film thickness capable of
protecting the steel. When too much thinner is
used, it may be impossible to obtain adequate
thickness of dried paint. Paints will run and sag if
the painter attempts to build up thick films with
overly-thinned paints; in such a case the only
remedy is to apply extra coats of paint.
The thinner used must be compatible with
the paint being used. If the wrong thinner is used,
it may throw resin out of solution and ruin the
paint. Most oil-base paints are thinned with
mineral spirits or V.M. & P. naphtha. The directions of the paint manufacturer or the specification should be followed regarding thinning of the
paint. Some of the newer paints with synthetic
resins require thinners composed of aliphatics,
aromatics, and ketones. These thinners should
never be used to thin oil-base paints. It is possible
to use aromatic thinners in oil-base paints;
however, extreme caution should be exercised i f
this course of action is planned.
Before paint is thinned for spraying, it should
FIGURE 8
Section of paint storage room showing power driven mixers connected to built-in stirrers in drums of paint which are in use.
Paints are drawn from spigots at the bottom of the drums when
required. In the center of the photograph note pressure regulating
equipment which is used to maintain an inert atmosphere of
nitrogen above paints when they are being circulated throughout
plant circulating system (which was not being used). Note electrical ground to paint drum shown on right. Mechanical equipment, on the left is available, for lifting heavy containers of paint.
The storage area should be kept warm in cold

weather to prevent the paint from freezing.
3. Mixing
The paint room should be equipped with mechanical mixing equipment; all pumps or motors should
be explosion-proof. It is essential that mixing be
thorough. After mixing, the container should be
checked for residual solid material remaining on
the bottom of the container. This solid material
should be broken free of the container, broken up
as much as possible, and the entire contents of
the container re-mixed until a complete homogeneity is attained. The process should be repeated as often as necessary to insure thorough
mixing.
The fabricator who uses drums of paint may
order them with a built-in mixer, to which is connected a driving motor or a hand crank when the
paint is to be mixed (See Figures 9 and 10).
When large quantities of paint are being
used, paint recirculating systems are available.
The paint is mixed continuously and stored in the
paint room. It is pumped through pipes to the
various stations where it is used; it returns
through another pipe to the original containers
and is constantly recirculated so that it does not
settle in the pipes. Control of the paint mixing and
thinning rests in the hands of the paint room
attendant. Such systems should be kept under an
inert atmosphere, such as nitrogen.
Where paint is to be supplied from drums for
brush painting, it should be kept in continuous
agitation and also under nitrogen while on demand. For this purpose, propellor-type mixers are
inserted in the drum of paint; these units are
FIGURE 9
Air driven motor connected to built-in mixer in drum of paint.
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--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
driven by electric or air motors. The small plant

that does not find it economical to go to
mechanical mixing equipment should purchase
paint in five gallon pails. The paint can then be
stored and mixed when necessary. Small mechanical mixers and shakers are also available for
5-gallon units.
SSPC CHAPTER*S.O
93
86279VO 0003703 b b 2
ally conceded that if application methods are

correct, either method is suitable. Brushing of the
prime coat of paint into the surface has a tendency to promote better wetting and adhesion;
this is offset by the thinness of paint in the brush
marks. Spraying, on the other hand, deposits a
more uniform coat of paint than brushing, but it
has a tendency to bridge over dirt and cracks, and
to be blown away from corners. When a difference
in performance has existed between spraying and
brushing there is usually some unrecognized
factor that has caused the discrepancy in performance. In cracks and crevices, around rivet
heads, on sharp edges, in corners, and similar
places, sprayed films are usually very thin, i f not
altogether missing. For example, it is not uncommon to find one side of sprayed rivets barely
covered by paint. Here, brushing is a definite
advantage, and a striping coat is recommended
prior to spraying. When brushing and spraying
result in equal thicknesses of dried paint over
properly prepared steel, there is no difference in
the durability of the applied primers.
Since spraying of paint is faster than brushing, the saving in cost of application makes its
use advantageous; there may be factors which
preclude its use, however, such as toxic hazard to
personnel. Despite opinions to the contrary, when
proper precautions are taken, the hazard from
spray painting is negligible. Some modern spray
paint systems are so efficient that it is not necessary for the operators to wear face masks.
New developments in paint application by
spray are making headway in fabricating plants.
The use of paint recirculating systems has already
been mentioned. Since so much thinner is wasted
in the synthetic resin paints, particularly those
that dry by solvent evaporation, some plants have
FIGURE 10
Typical drum handling equipment; drum holder is handled easily
by shop crane and drum may be tipped when desired to draw
paint. Tongs in foreground are used for handling drums of paint
by shop crane.
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
be spray-applied in the as-received condition to

determine the ease of application, flow, levelling
characteristics, film build, running and sagging,
and so forth. Modern spray equipment is capable
of atomizing most paints, and it may be that no
thinning will be necessary. The result is a greater
film build per application. As long as the thickness of the paint deposit does not become excessive, thicker coats of paint are advantageous.
In any event, the thickness of the dried paint film
must be adequate and should be controlled.
Thinning of paints for dipping operations is a
specialized operation that requires individual
recommendations. If dipping is to be done, the
advice of a competent paint company or specialist
should be solicited. Figure 11 illustrates a dipping
operation used to ease application of paints to
small, difficult to paint, fabricated assemblies.
5. Application Equipment
In some cases the type of paint t o be used will
dictate the method of application. However, paint
is usually applied by spray or brush. There is still
considerable controversy regarding the merits of
brush versus spray painting, although it is generCopyright The Society for Protective Coatings
FIGURE 11
Paint dipping setup. The tank of paint is raised by hydraulic jacks
and then lowered, rather than dipping the work into the paint.
Excess paint drips on the collecting trough on the left.
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switched to hot spray application. Here, the

amount of solvent is reduced to a minimum by
heating the paint and spraying it hot; the paint
dries faster and the build per coat is much greater
(Figure 12). This is a particular advantage when it
is difficult to get more than one mil of dried paint
per coat using conventional means.
Paint heaters may also be used for painting in
cold weather. However, there is a danger factor
involved. Caution must be exercised when applying hot paint over cold steel and vice-versa. A thin
layer of condensation is formed, and usually becomes entrapped at the paint-steel interface. This
is a cause of blushing (alkyds) and discoloration
(vinyls). If this practice is used, the paint should
be applied in thin films until the specified thickness is obtained. In a few plants, solvent recovery
systems have been installed; the economy of this
operation in the ordinary fabricating plant at this
time is questionable.
Developments in ventilating equipment have
made a marked difference both in working conditions and in plant appearance. Modern methods of
collecting overspray are to use either down-draft
ventilation or spray arrestors. In down-draft ventilation, the spraying takes place over or near a
grilled opening in the floor connected to a powerful exhaust system, while the overspray is sucked
into the system and collected. The principle of
operation is explained in Figure 13. The other
general type of system utilizes a painting booth;
air is drawn through the booth, picking up the
overspray in the process. In both these methods,
the air then passes through a water curtain or a
iilter to catch the paint before passing through the
exhaust fan. Paint may be reclaimed from the
separators, but its re-use for structural steel
priming is not recommended.
form on dipped articles are removed; application

by flow or curtain coating - in which the paint is
applied and allowed to drain off and is then collected in a sump and recirculated.
To speed up production and improve the
performance of paint, some plants have installed
drying ovens. Here, even paint on structural steel
can be dried in several hours. When the paint
requires a long drying time even at oven temperatures, the paint can be dried enough to permit its
handling and stacking. Figure 14 illustrates such
an oven.
Even some brush painting has been mechanized; for instance in the use of a rotary cupshaped brush for spotting rivet heads prior to
spraying. Fountain type paint brushes are available, in which paint is supplied through the brush
handle from a pressure pot.
6. Application of the Paint

The actual application of paint, whether by brush
or spray, requires plain common sense and experience. It also requires patience on the part of the
applicator, and more so on the part of management, so that this important part of shop work is
not done sloppily. The surface must be cleaned of
all dust, oil, or grease that may have been deposited after the cleaning operation. The critical
points should be stripe painted by brush with the
same paint as will be used for the prime coat. The
critical points are rivets, welds, joints, cracks,
corners, edges, interstices, and any other place
where the paint has a tendency to break down
first.
At this time, or even earlier, small areas
should be painted for transferring piece or identification marks. The paint should be the same as
the priming paint; after it dries sufficiently, piece
marks are transferred by (or checked by) an inspector or foreman.
The striping paint should be allowed to dry, if
possible, before the full prime coat is applied. If
this is not practical, as much time as possible
should be allowed for it to dry. It should at least
set to touch. Drying time for the striping paint
should not be so long as to cause rusting or
deterioration of the remainder of the cleaned
steel.
The prime coat of paint is then applied according to the instructions in the chapter on paint
application and the manufacturer's instructions. If
it is sprayed, the operator should be careful of his
technique. Fast drying synthetic paints may be
ruined if the gun is swung in an arc, or if it is held
too far from the surface and the paint is deposited
"dry." If the gun is held too close, the paint may
be too thick and run, sag, or curtain. Spray equipment manufacturers should be called upon to
FIGURE 12
Flow diagram through a paint circulating heater.
New developments that have been introduced into the fabricating plants include automatic spraying of paint - used when the work is
not varied; electrostatic spraying - in which the
paint particles are charged with electricity and are
attracted to the work, even around corners; electrostatic de-tearing - in which the tear drops that
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reach 40 or 50 percent. Because of this unknown

quantity, estimates of dry paint thickness from
paint consumed and area painted may be quite
erroneous and are more likely to be in error on the
dangerous side.
If precautions are not taken, the thickness of
the applied paint will vary between the easily
reached and the less accessible surfaces. Great
care should be exercised to coat the bottom surfaces of flanges, etc., with the correct amount of
paint. When the paint gun is held at an angle,
there will be a difference in paint deposited per
square inch across the cross section of the spray
pattern. Areas that are difficult to reach by brush
or spray should be examined with the aid of a
mirror under strong light.
The interiors of boxed members that are not
accessible after fabrication should be completely
painted before final assembly. In many cases, a
spray gun can be used to reach difficult areas.
Extension handles are available for lengthening the paint gun assembly in order to reach
inaccessible areas. Often, a brush will be needed
to coat edges, corners, or the blind side of rivets
that cannot be reached by the spray pattern from
the gun.
Contact surfaces for riveted structures
should not be painted, since the hot riveting
operation will destroy the paint. Destruction of the
paint is not serious as the rust inhibitive pigment
1
.
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DOWN DRAFT SPRAY BOOTH
FIGURE 13
Schematic diagram of a down draft spray booth.
Courtesy: Binks Manufacturing Co.
assist in instructing painters in spray techniques.

Parenthetically, spray equipment manufacturers
conduct schools to which operators can be sent
for training.
The thickness of the wet film can be determined with a wet film paint thickness gage
immediately after application. The competent and
experienced painter will take two or three wet film
thickness readings per piece of painted steel. He
should also know how to read the gage. For example, the painter is using a material that has a nonvolatile content of 50 percent and the specification calls for a dry film thickness of 2.0 mils. By
dividing 2.0 by 50 percent (2.0 - 0.50) the painter
will know that he needs a minimum wet film thickness of 4.0 mils to obtain the 2.0 mils dry film
thickness. The painter should place the "teeth" of
the gage against the painted surface perpendicular to the plane of the surface and, without
smearing or sideways motion, withdraw the
gage. If he sees that the tooth marked 4 is wet
and the next highest number tooth is dry, then he
reads the wet film as between 4 and 5 or 4 and 6
whichever is the next highest number. If 4 is not
wet, the painter should be instructed to apply
more paint. Dry film thicknesses should always be
checked as soon as possible so that errors can be
corrected prior to shipment of the painted steel. It
is impossible to obtain accurate wet film thickness readings on zinc-filled paints. Therefore, the
zinc-rich paints should be allowed to dry, measured, and repainted, if necessary, to obtain the
specified dry f i Im thickness.
The amount of paint lost by overspray may

FIGURE 14
Oven for force drying painted steel.
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will still be there, but the fumes that develop are

hazardous to workmen. When structures are
bolted together, the contact surfaces should be
painted, except when high tensile strength bolts
are used. Since these loose-fitting, bolted joints
depend upon friction of the contact surfaces, no
paint or other lubricant should be used between
the faying surfaces. Recent studies by the AISC
show that inorganic zinc paint is acceptable for
use on these surfaces. However, the contract
specifications will determine the course of action
to be taken.
Shop welds should be cleaned as thoroughly
as possible before painting to remove weld slag
and spatter. The use of anti-spatter compounds
has been successful in eliminating most of the
difficulty with weld spatter. However, when more
than one pass per weld is necessary, or when
welds meet, as in a corner, the first weld burns
off the anti-spatter compound. It then becomes a
matter of shop practice as to the removal of additional weld spatter, just so long as it is removed.
Weld spatter can be removed by hand or pneumatic chipping action. However, recent advances
in grinding tool design make it more profitable to
remove weld spatter by grinding.
When field welding is specified, the edge of
the steel is usually left unpainted for at least four
inches along the edge to be welded. In the field,
this edge must be very thoroughly cleaned and
painted after welding. This is a potential weak
spot in fabricated steel, since the edges are
usually badly rusted by the time fabrication is
completed. An additional reason for painting, or at
least the application of a temporary coating, is the
fact that the weld metal is a different metal than
the parts being joined, in effect a cathodic cell.
This surface must be cleaned as well, if not better
than the surfaces in the shop, and must receive
the same coats of paint as were applied in the
shop.
Edges of the steel left unpainted for field
welding or riveting may be protected temporarily
by a thin coating of lacquer, varnish, or weld
preparation paint, which will be burnt off by the
heat when welding or riveting. Caution should be
exercised when applying the weld-through zincfilled primers. These paints can and have caused
major problems when they are subjected to x-ray
and radiographic testing.
Machined surfaces should be protected from
rusting by an application of an approved rust
preventive compound. These compounds can be
applied by brushing, daubing or spraying, and may
be removed by mineral spirits in the field if
necessary. Application is illustrated in Figure 16.
After painting, the steel should be examined
000370b 371
FIGURE 15
Painting and drying racks for fabricated plate. Notice contact sur.
faces for field joints are left unpainted.
by a competent, experienced inspector. He should

require another application of paint over thin
areas; runs or sags should be worked out by
brush; a critical examination of rivet heads, welds,
edges, etc., should be made to be sure they are
adequately covered. Abraded or damaged areas
should be touched up.
7. Handling, Drying, and Storing of Painted Steel

Handling, drying, and storage of painted steel vary
widely in the different shops. Dry for handling
times quoted for paints are not significant
because of the difference in opinion regarding
how dry paint should be before it is handled. In
some plants, steel is handled immediately after
painting and placed in the storage area for drying.
If this is done, the storage area must be warm and
dry, and the steel should be touched up immediately where it has been scoured or abraded in
handling.
In other plants, the steel is allowed to remain
in place after painting until it is dry, perhaps 24 or
36 hours. Actually, i f it is a heavy duty primer, the
paint is not really dry, but dry only on the surface.
It can easily be skinned in handling. In any case, it
is good practice to rack, stack, or otherwise place
freshly painted steel so that there will be a flow of
air over the painted surfaces. Preferably, the air
should be warm, starting from the lowest point
(floor) and moving. This process will remove
solvent vapors, thus eliminating solvent washing
of the paint btefore the film is dried. In general, the
manufacturers recommendations regarding dry
time are the governing factor in most shop painting operations (Figures 16 and 17).
Regardless of the exact procedure used to
dry painted steel, the painted steel should be
dried in a warm, dry atmosphere - preferably
under cover, since rain or freezing can damage the
paint and necessitate its removal and repainting.
The maximum allowable time should be permitted for drying; the harder the dry, the better the
paint can withstand exposure to the elements.
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V. SUPERVISION AND INSPECTION

The entire shop painting should be under the supervision of an individual on the staff who has sufficient
authority to make changes in operating procedures,
material, equipment, and suppliers despite controversy
that might be heard from the shop. Fabricators have long
been reputed to have an aversion to cleaning and painting
steel. Their dislike of this necessity has been one barrier to
more progress in this field.
A. SUPERVISION
The top level supervisor must have a working
knowledge of paints, cleaning, painting, and corrosion in
general. If his knowledge on these points is limited, he
must know where to turn for sound advice and guidance.
Most of all, he must have an open mind and must be willing
to accept new methods that are technically sound. Unfortunately, a great number of the engineers, architects, and
fabricators have little knowledge of painting; they rely on
specifications that are outmoded, basically unsound, and
even impossible to achieve. The writer has run across
specifications in use today that were issued long before
the first edition of this work was first published. In those
days there was a general lack of technical expertise in all
phases of steel painting. More amazing is that despite the
advances made, architect-engineers still produce unworkable, incompetent and contradictory painting specifications. This lack of expertise may be due to an unwillingness to become current in the state of the art. Some of
these specifications are filled with such outmoded clauses
as all rust and millscale shall be removed by hand wirebrushing. Accepting a contract with unenforceable
clauses is likely to cause expensive litigation over a costly
paint failure. For his own protection, the fabricator should
have competent supervision over the cleaning and painting, from original estimates for bids until the steel is
shipped and erected.
Supervision of actual operations in the shop should,
of course, be in charge of qualified personnel. Here, the
lack of knowledge concerning the causes and prevention
of poor paint performance is acute. Education and training

are essential to instill in the minds of these personnel, and
top management personnel as well, a proper attitude
towards these operations. They, as well as the actual
painters, should be aware of the reasoning behind each
operat ion.
B. INSPECTION
Even when the customer inspects and passes on all
painting of his steel, the fabricator should provide his
own inspection system. Acceptance by the customers inspector does not relieve the fabricator of responsibility.
The fabricator who knows his painting system is good
must in turn educate the customer and his inspector. Many
times customers are arbitrary in insisting on procedures
that might be detrimental to performance of the paint.
Details of inspection are reviewed in a separate chapter.
The minimum inspection should cover the steel after
cleaning and prior to painting and after painting. Inspection of the actual cleaning and painting operations is
advantageous. No steel should be painted before it is
inspected; the inspector may be the immediate supervisor
on the job. The cleaned steel should be checked for:
FIGURE 16
Machined surfaces are usually coated with a rust-proofing
compound of grease consistency. This type of coating is being
applied to machined surfaces on the right, while in the center the
unmachined areas are being painted with the specified shop
primer.
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1) Oil or grease remaining on the surface: rubbing a

white tissue across the steel will indicate the
amount of residue; see (9).
2) Dirt, soil, chalk marks, etc., that are visible to the

eye.
3) Rust: the amount of rust remaining depends upon

the method of cleaning. Rust stains will be evident on the surface unless the surface is blast
cleaned to white metal or pickled.
4) Rust scale: no rust scale (flaky or stratified rust)
should be left on the steel.
5) Mill scale: all mill scale should be tight and not
removable i f the inspector recleans the surface in
the specified manner. (This is true of all these
items.)
6) Residue from cleaning operation: the surface
should be free of dirt, dust, or other residue from
the cleaning operation
7) Steel blast cleaned to white metal should be free
of any visible rust, mill scale, oil, grease, or any
other contaminant.
8) Pickled steel should be free of rust, mill scale,
pickling smut, harmful acid or alkali: the surface i f
tested with pH indicating paper should test at the
same pH as the last rinse.
9) Solvent cleaned steel should be free of detrimental amounts of oil or grease residue. The amount
tolerable will depend upon the wetting power of
the paint to be used. If alkali or cleaning compounds are used, the surface should be neutral or
at a pH of 7.5 or less. In no event should the pH of
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the surface exceed that of the fresh, clean rinse

water.
(i) Inaccessible surfaces: were they painted specified number of coats?
Substrate temperatures should be checked and

recorded. Some manufacturers have maximum
and minimum temperature (substrate) limitations
for application of their paint.
(j) Orange peeling of paint: paint poor or improperly

applied.
(k) Elasticity of paint: does paint curl properly when

undercut by a knife? If not, the paint may have
frozen during drying, or paint may have deteriorated in storage prior to use.
(i) Blisters, pores, crazing, cracking, etc.: paint or
application improper.
Profile depth of the blast cleaned surface should

be checked using acceptable instruments.
In general, the inspector should be sure that the work
has been done as well as possible and meets the intent as
well as the wording of the specification. Particular care
should be taken that no areas or spots have been missed.
He should check the tools of the workmen to see that they
are in proper condition, that brushes are effective, that
dirty solvent is not being used. If in the opinion of the inspector the steel has been cleaned as specified, but is still
in an improper condition for the paint and the expected
service (for example the mill scale is badly cracked but not
removable by hand cleaning), the owner should be advised.
If pretreatments have been applied, another inspection should be made. If cold phosphate has been used, the
surface should be dry and of a gray-white color. The
powdery deposit must be light; if it is excessive, it must be
removed by brushing. If any dark, sticky liquid (unreacted
acid) remains, it must be washed from the surface. When
wetting oils are used, the surface must be examined for
dry areas that require further oil; excessive oil should be
wiped from the surface; rust and scale loosened by the oil
should be removed; the wetting oil should be allowed to
set or dry for the specified time before painting. Wash
primer should be checked for thickness; it should not exceed the specified thickness, even if the underlying steel
shows through (this is normal). The wash primer should
not be white in spots; when dry, it should be tested for
adhesion to the steel by scraping it away with a knife. The
age of the mixed wash primer should be carefully checked
if it is the two-component type.
Painted steel should be inspected for the following:
VI. SAFETY AND HEALTH
(a) Dried paint film thickness: learn the correct

manner of using the instruments; paint over mill
scale and rust reads high if the instrument is
zeroed on bare metal; this is also true over rough
blast cleaned steel.
The fabricator should comply with the safety regulations promulgated by the various government agencies.
Information about protective devices, as well as flammability and toxicity data on paints and solvents can be
obtained from the U S . Bureau of Mines, and are reviewed
in a separate chapter.
The danger from toxic or fire hazards should be
always in the minds of the supervisors as well as the
workers. They are usually aware of the hazards from
mechanical equipment, cranes, ladders, staging, etc.; but
they do not realize the tremendous damage that may result
from a small quantity of vaporized volatile solvent as an
explosion hazard, nor do they appreciate the dangers to
health inherent in fume and dust exposure.
Lists of respiratory protective devices officially approved for most types of industrial exposures are available
from the U.S. Bureau of Mines.
Burning and riveting operations may create toxic
hazards if paint is decomposed; in addition to volatilized
toxic compounds such as lead, zinc, cadmium and
chromates, acrolein may be formed from decomposition of
the oils in the paint.
The hazards in using chemical compounds such as
acids and alkalies are generally known and precautions
should be taken to protect personnel from all contact, including spray, mist, spillage or vapor. The Chemical
Manufacturers Association has published adequate
methods for safe handling these.
(b) Dryness: check the condition of the paint to see

that it has dried properly and in a reasonable time.
(c) Completeness of coverage: no holidays; edges,
rivets, and welds satisfactory.
(d) Correct paint: was the right paint used?
(e) Brush marks, runs,sags, etc., should be eliminated.
(f) Wrinkling of dried paint indicates faulty paint or
too thick an application.
(9)Adhesion of dried paint: It should be tested by
knife, or by the method specified in the contract.
(hl
Identification
marks:
adequate?
are numbers correct and
FIGURE 17
Painting and drying shop with tracks and carts for handling
painted steel. The shop is heated in cold weather. When carts
reach the far end of the shop, they are placed on the incline on the
left and returned to the area in the foreground.
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A. SOURCES OF INFORMATION
Safety considerations are discussed in a separate
chapter. The protective clothing and equipment necessary
for the various operations is listed in publications of the
National Safety Council, the American National Standards
Institute, the National Fire Protection Association and
others. Insurance companies should be contacted for
technical advice on safety measures i f there is any
question.
The safety precautions necessary in cleaning operations are numerous; a highly recommended code for safe
practice is Code of Recommended Good Practices for
Metal Cleaning Sanitation issued by the American
Foundrymens Association.
Authoritative and detailed references for safety precautions for the many hazards encountered in the cleaning
and painting of steel are available from the sources listed
in Table 2.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
chapter: T. Dowd, R.L. Doyle, James Flaherty, Raye Fraser, Lewis
Gleekman, R.W. Hamm, Fred Lichtenstadter, A.W. Mallory, Robert
McClelland, Marshall McGee, Joe Mazia, William Pearson, Verne
J. Todd.
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CHAPTER 10
PAINTING OF RAILROAD BRIDGES

AND STRUCTURES
by
Raye A. Fraser
where salts are present, in designs where water can collect or in chemical atmospheres unless it is painted in the
same manner as conventional steel.' Galvanized steel is
becoming more common and is the preferred treatment for
new gratings, handrails and other small incidental items.
Improvements in surface preparation, in treating
cleaned steel, in applying paint and paints themselves are
made periodically. Sometimes, a less expensive method
with a shorter life is more economical than an expensive
Procedures and materials presented in this chaptgr

are guides only. Other methods and materials may be of
equal value. All known methods that have proved desirable
are included. Details of cleaning and painting in the shop
are not included since they are covered in other chapters.
In preparing this chapter current industry practices
were surveyed through a questionnaire circulated with the
cooperation of the American Railway Bridge and Building
Association (ARBBA) and Committee 15 of the American
Railway Engineering Association (AREA). Much of the
technical information has been supplied from work by the
Steel Structures Painting Council. Any reference to blast
cleaning refers to conventional dry sand blast cleaning.
FVater happed b! Jiructural mrmbers
I. GENERAL DISCUSSION
The cost of painting a structure can be estimated, but
the cost of deferring painting is much more difficult to
assess, particularly for railroad structures, though it is
clear that a good painting program is less costly than frequent steel replacement. In every location there is slow
rusting of unprotected ferrous metals representing loss of
sound metal. Since a single railroad may have several
thousand steel bridges, the situation cannot be allowed to
get out of hand. But painting programs of many railroads
have been restricted by a lack of funds in recent years, and
70% of those responding to the questionnaire indicated
maintenance painting was not sufficient to protect the
steel. Funds have been concentrated on a small number of
structures in particularly corrosive environments. The frequency of repainting ranged from 5 to 40 years, with an
average of 16.5 years. It is common to see railroad bridges
entirely covered by rust.
Most of these structures are in an environment where
the corrosion rate is slow. The menace of dripping salt
brine from bunker refrigerator cars has passed into
history. However, deep corrosion pits formed by dripping
brine are still present and are sites for active corrosion.
The main problems for most railroads are marine environments.
One line of attack is to attempt to use a construction
material that needs little or no corrosion protection. In new
construction many structures are built from concrete, and
others are a combination of steel and concrete with a
weathering steel. ASTM Type A-242 is also being used
alone in larger structures. Weathering steel is not suitable
T v p c s of creoirrs
Even
Effect of surface contours
PROBLEM
SOLUTION
FIGURE 1
A few design features to be a v ~ i d e d ' ~
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Thin coating
ond Iiablc to
damogc
cooti
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method with a long life. On the other hand, there is only

false economy in using inexpensive short-lived paints
when cleaning and application costs are the same.
The majority of bridge engineers realize the solution
to corrosion problems cannot be obtained with a magic
paint that is cheap, has great coverage, is easily applied,
requires no surface preparation and has a long life. There
is a never-ending search for better paints, but the potential
life of good paints is seldom reached because of improper
surface preparation and application. The fault is not
always that of the railroad, or painter, because adverse
conditions may make it impossible to do a good job. Paints
that do the best job possible under adverse conditions
should be chosen.
A. NORMALLY DRY (RURAL)
- ZONE
1B
Of all corrosive atmospheres and environments to

which railroad bridges and structures are subjected, the
rural is the mildest, its severity depending upon climatic
variations, particularly humidity. But even in a rural location, a structure may be subject to corrosive attack. For instance, one end of a long bridge may be exposed to a mild
rural environment while the other end may be exposed to
corrosive gases or mists from a chemical plant; or the
steelwork of a bridge above the trackline may be exposed
to a mild rural atmosphere while the floor system may be
severely attacked by the spray of de-icing salt slush from a
high-speed expressway passing underneath.
TABLE 1
Survey of Environmental Zones for Railroad Bridges
Location
- Interior
Zone 1A
Normally Dry
Zone 1 6
Normally Dry - Exterior (or rural)
Zone 2A
Frequently Wet by Fresh Water (splash,

condensation, immersion)
* 92.1 /o'
Zone 26
Frequently Wet by Salt Water (Marine or

de-icing salts)
Zone 3
Chemical Exposure
Design is an important part in corrosion prevention.

Narrow cracks and crevices that result in inaccessible surfaces, box members that allow only very limited access
and sections that trap water are to be avoided. Some other
undesirable features are shown in Figure 1.
5.6%
2.3%
One SSPC test in a rural environment is illustrated in

Figure 2b. In a rural atmosphere, only natural elements of
water and oxygen are subjecting the bridge to corrosion.
Therefore, i f oxygen and water cannot come into contact
with the steel, little or no corrosion occurs.
There is no paint or organic coating known that is
completely impermeable to oxygen or water, but increasing the thickness of the coating provides added resistance
to passage of water and oxygen through the coating to the
steel.
II. ZONES
The first consideration in any paint job is to determine
the environment in which the structure is exposed, keeping
in mind that different parts of a single structure may be
subject to different environments. Standardized environmental zones (defined by the SSPC) are widely
recognized as outlined in Chapter 1 of Volume 2 of the
Steel Structures Painting Manual and in Table 1 below:
The percentages in Table 1 are based upon the foregoing
survey and show that the vast majority of railroad bridges
are in Zone 1B. Figure 2 illustrates some of the many SSPC
tests conducted on railroad bridges in a wide range of environments.
Table 2 illustrates typical paint systems used in these
environments. These are discussed in Section VII-D.
Gradually, outer coats of even the best paint system

deteriorate and erode from exposure to sun and moisture,
exposing underlying coats or primer. This is a natural process and indicates that steel has been protected to the limit
of the paint system. The steel has not corroded and the
structure is ready for repainting, which requires only minor
cleaning, spot priming, and a new topcoat or two. If
deterioration is permitted, the exposed primer rapidly fails
and leaves steel unprotected. Rusting begins and failure of
the remaining paint is greatly accelerated. Now the cost of
suface preparation alone may be greater than the cost of
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repainting, had the repainting been done before the onset

of rusting.
When rust appears in pinpoints on the surface or
causes blisters under the surface, the paint has failed.
Such a shortening of the paint life is probably caused by
improper surface preparation, improper application, improper paint, or a combination.
FIGURE 2a
FIGURE 2d
FIGURE 2b
FIGURE 2e
FIGURE 2c
FIGURE 2f
FIGURE 2
The SSPC has conducted a number of extensive paint tests on railroad bridges in the past. Examples of these shown above, include:
(Figure 2a) test on Protecting Load-Bearing Surface of Steel Bridges on the Chicago-Great Western; (Figure 2b) Painting of Steel Bridges
for Mild Exposures on the Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fe Railroad System; (Figure 2c) Bridge Paints with Resistance to Salt Brine on the
Missouri-Pacific Railroad; (Figure 2d) Paints over Hand-Cleaned Steel on the Seaboard Cost Line Railroad; (Figure 2e) a series of tests of
Oil-Base and Urethane Paints on the Bessemer and Lake Erie Railroad from 1965 to the present time; (Figure 2f) Paint Systems over HandCleaned Steel. Other empirical paint evaluation tests were carried out with the cooperation of the Association of American Railroads on
the bridges of the Southern, Great Northern and Penn Central Railways.
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TABLE 2
TYPICAL RAILWAY BRIDGE PAINTING SYSTEMS'
ZONE ENVIRONMENT
TYPICAL SYSTEMS"
1A
Interior. normally dry

Steel used in dry
railroad buildings.
SSPC-PS 18.01, Latex Paint System

SSPC-PS 14.01, Steel Joist Paint System
TT-P-664, Primer Coating. Alkyd, CorrosionInhibiting, Lead and Chromate Free,
VOC Compliant
CANICGSB i.40-M89, Primer,
Structural Steel, Oil Alkyd Type
Finish Coat Optional
1B
Exterior, normally dry.

Includes many railroad
structures
See SSPC-PS Guides 1.00 and 2.00

Also SSPC-PS 1.09 Oil Base Paint System
or proven proprietary systems.
Surface Prep:
Commercial Blast Clean (SSPC-SP 6)
Primers:
SSPC-Paint 11, Alkyd-Linseed Oil Primer with

Red Iron Oxide, Zinc Chromate
TT-P-t 757, Primer Coating, Zinc Chromate,
Low-Moisture-Sensitivily
CANICGSB - 1.40 - M89. Primer. Structural Steel,
Oil Alkyd Type
Intermediate
Coats:
ToDcoats:
2A
Frequently wet by fresh Paint Systems:

water. Includes condensation, splash, spray
or frequent immersion.
ALTERNATIVE SYSTEMS"
SSPC-Paint 15 (Type I), Steel Joist Shop Paint
Surface Prep: Hand Clean (SSPC-CP 2) or Power Tool

(SSPC-SP 3)
Primers:
TT-P-1757, Primer Coating, Zinc Chromate,

Low-Moisture-Sensitivity
SSPC-Paint 25, Red Iron Oxide, Zinc Oxide,
Raw Linseed Oil and Alkyd Primer (Without
Lead and Chromate Pigments)
SSPC-Paint 101 (Type il), Aluminum Alkyd Paint

Any of the above primers, tinted.
SSPC-Paint 101 (Type I). Aluminum Alkyd Paint
TT-P-38, Paint, Aluminum, Ready Mixed
AASHTO M-69, Aluminum Paint
CANICGSB-1.69-MB9, Paint, Aluminum
SSPC-Paint 102, Black Alkyd Paint
SSPC-Paint 104, White or Tinted Alkyd Paint
TT-P-81, Paint, Oil: Ready-Mixed, Exterior,
Medium Shades
AASHTO M-68, Black Paint for Bridges
AASHTO M-70, White and Tinted Ready
Mixed Paint
CANICGSB - 1.59-M89, Enamel, Exterior, Gloss,
Alkyd Type
Surface Prep: Near White Blast Clean (SSPC-SP 10)

Primers:
SSPC-PS 12.00, Guide to Zinc-Rich Coating

Systems
MIL-P-38336, Primer Coating, Inorganic Zinc Dust
Pigmented, Self Curing
Topcoats:
SSPC-PS 4.02-4.05. Vinyl Painting System

SSPC-PS Guide 15.00
Chlorinated Rubber Painting Systems
SSPC-PS 13.01 Epoxy Painting System
Proven proprietary systems of either multicoat
or single high-build coat type
See SSPC Paint System Guides 4.00 (Vinyl),

12.00 (Zinc-Rich), 15.00 (Chlorinated Rubber),
PS 11.01 (Coal Tar Epoxy). PS 13.01 (Epoxy). or
proven proprietary systems.
Surface Prep:
White Metal Blast Clean (SSPC-SP 5) or

Near-White Blast Clean (SSPC-SP 10)
Surface Prep: White Metal Blast Clean (SSPC-SP 5)
Primers:
SSPC-Paint 20 or Paint 29 (Type i-inorganic)

Zinc-Rich Primer
MIL-P-38336, Primer Coating, Inorganic, Zinc
Dust Pigmented, Sell Curing, for Steel Surfaces
AASHTO M300 Inorganic Zinc-Rich Primer
1 GP-171M and amendment, Coating.
Inorganic Zinc
Pretreatment:
Topcoats:
The topcoat andlor a tie-coat shall be supplied

by the same manufacturer as the Inorganic
Zinc Primer
SSPC-Paint 27. Basic Zinc Chromate-Vinyl

Butyral Washcoat
Primers:
MIL-P-24441, Paint, Epoxy-Polyamide, General

Speciication for
MIL-P-15930, Primer Coating, Shipboard,
Vinyl-Zinc Chromate (Formula No. 120)
CANICGSB 1.122-M91 (Type I),Primer, Vinyl,
Anti-Corrosive Organic Zinc-Rich
System Specifications
(Example: SSPC-Paint 20. Type Il-Organic)
Proven proprietary systems
Intermediates: SSPC-Paint 8,Aluminum Vinyl Paint
SSPC-Paint 9. White (or Colored) Vinyl Paint
SSPC-Paint 8, Aluminum Vinyl Paint
SSPC-Paint 9, White (or Colored) Vinyl Paint
i-GP-182M, Paint, Vinyl, Exterior
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Topcoats:

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TABLE 2 (Continued)
ZONE ENVIRONMENT
28
Frequently wet by
salt water. Includes
condensation, splash,
spray or frequent
immersion
Chemical Exposure
TYPICAL SYSTEMS"
Paint Systems: See SSPC Paint Systems and Guides 12.00
(Zinc-Rich), 4.00 (Vinyl), 15.00 (Chlorinated
Rubber), 13.00(Epoxy), PS 11.01 (Coal Tar
Epoxy) or proven proprietary system.
Also see recommendations for Zone 2A.
ALTERNATIVE SYSTEMS"
Paint Systems: See Alternatives to Zone 2A.
Others as for Zone 2A. but the zinc base coatings

must be used with caution when conditions are
strongly acid or strongly alkaline.
Topcoats required.
(pH 5.5 or lower) Acidic - SSPC Paint System
Guide 4.00 (Vinyl).
(pH 5.5 to 10.5) - SSPC Paint System Guide
12.00 (Zinc-Rich)
(pH 10.5 or above) Alkaline - SSPC-PS 11.01,
Coal Tar Epoxy, SSPC Paint System Guide
13.00 (Epoxy) and 15.00 (Chlorinated Rubber).
'The following specifications have been removed from the revised table to reflect current practice SSPC-Paint 1 , SSPC-PS-1 04 - 1 08,SSPC-PS 4 01, SSPC-PS 7 01, TT-P-66,
TT-P-615, TT-P-636, MIL-P-15929, DOD-P-23236, AASHTO M-72, 1-GP-14, 1-GP-140, 1-GP-166, 1-GP-167, CISCICPMA 1-73a
"Ail coats of a paint system should be provided by the same supplier
B. FREQUENTLY WET BY FRESH WATER

ZONE 2A
C. FREQUENTLY WET WITH SALT WATER ZONE 2B
Water is the primary cause of corrosion. Without

water, corrosion would normally stifle itself, even with a
plentiful oxygen supply. Dangerous corrosion can occur
under some circumstances in the absence of oxygen.
Corrosion can occur when soluble matter dissolves in
water, such as the electrolytes formed by the solution of
salts or corrosive gases. In the absence of oxygen, the
damage is usually caused by galvanic action of mill scale
and steel, or rust and steel. Stray electric currents can do
great damage in localized areas, causing complete failure
of some steel work.
With a plentiful supply of oxygen, water becomes very
corrosive and the condition is accelerated by the presence
of salt or corrosive gases. If the structure is completely immersed, cathodic protection used in conjunction with
suitable coatings provides adequate protection in salt or
fresh water. The steelwork in the splash zone above the
water is the most difficult to protect as is witnessed by the
severe corrosion that takes place in the region just above
the waterline on pilings or groins. Here, the best practice
may be enclosing the vulnerable portion of the steel in
thick concrete. Problems encountered and possible solutions are discussed and summarized by La Que.2
The portion of piling driven into the earth below the
water does not corrode once available oxygen is used.
Oxygen seldom can be replaced, so that portion of the piling presents no problem. The section of the piling in the
mud is subject to corrosion because oxygen is usually
present in decaying organic matter and because of its constant turmoil and replenishment. In the water region, the
piling is also free to corrode, and the portion just above the
water corrodes quickly. It is best to design steel structures
to minimize the immersion. Other structures that are accessible for inspection, cleaning and painting can be protected at reasonable expense.
The protection of steel structures in marine atmospheres and those exposed to de-icing salts presents
severe conditions for railroad structures.
High humidity and salt are the culprits. Sea water consists of about 3 percent sodium chloride in water, along
with a number of other salts present in small quantities.
Common sodium chloride, salt, is one of the worst inciters
of corrosion when wet or in solution. Its electrolytic action
causes rapid corrosion in localized sites of steel and protects other areas. The result is pitting of the steel, weakening the structure more than if the corrosion occurred
uniformly over the entire structure.
This electrolytic corrosion can easily perforate a steel
member. Corrosion products create an alkaline condition
under the paint, which chemically attacks oil- and alkydbased paints, and they soon disintegrate and wash away.
The result is exposure of more steel, an increase in electrolytic action and more intensified paint deterioration.
This is a cycle that, once started, is very difficult and expensive to stop. The electrolytic action cannot take place
without moisture. High humidity drives water into the paint
film and keeps it wet, permitting the flow of localized electric current to corrode the steel. No organic protective
coating is impermeable to water.
There is no protective coating that adequately protects steel i f salt remains on the steel before it is painted.
The problem is solved i f no salt is allowed to come in direct
contact with steel.
Not all portions of a steel structure exposed to marine
atmospheres are uniformly attacked. Exposure varies from
complete immersion of steel piling, footings and groins in
sea water, to the much less severe exposure of high structures to salt-laden wind, rain and mists.
The severest attack is not on steel immersed in the
salt water but on steel in the splash zone just above high
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m 8627940
tide. Here, although steel is never completely immersed, it

is always wet, making it difficult to paint, and there is plenty of oxygen to corrode it. This portion of a structure has a
tendency to provide cathodic protection to the steel completely immersed in the sea water by sacrificing itself. An
excellent discussion of this situation is given by
H ~ m b l eEscalante
.~
and Iverson studied the protection of
steel pilings in sea ~ a t e r . ~
The right way to protect a structure exposed to marine
atmosphere is to begin at the design stage. The steel
should be blast cleaned and shop coated with a synthetic
resin paint that has proved capable of standing up against
marine atmospheres. If field coats are applied, any salt
contamination must be removed from the surfaces by
washing or steaming with salt-free water. Finish coats
must be resistant to salty atmospheres.
Maintenance painting of existing structures must include removal of salt contamination from painted or rusted
surfaces along with the rust and scale. Hand cleaning is
not adequate, but steam cleaning after thorough wire or
power brushing is effective. The primers and finish coats
must then be applied over salt-free surfaces. Another factor, not ordinarily encountered in fresh water, is the
abrasive action of sand on piling. At the sand line, where
the sand is moving because of wave action, any organic
protective coating is quickly cut through and protection is
very d i f f i ~ u l t . ~
D. CHEMICAL EXPOSURES - ZONE 3
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Steel in chemical or industrial atmospheres corrodes

much faster than in rural atmospheres. The life of any
paint can be shortened by chemical attack of corrosive
gases, mists and dusts found in industrial atmospheres,
though the rate depends upon the kind of chemical or industrial atmosphere and climate. While it is possible for
paint to have a shorter life in a rural atmosphere in Florida
than in an industrial atmosphere in Pennsylvania, paint
generally has a shorter life in an industrial atmosphere.
Accelerated corrosion in industrial atmospheres is
caused mainly by the presence of sulfur dioxide and trioxide. These gases, when dissolved in water, form acids;
and the dew, rain or mist in industrial areas is actually a
weak acid that acts as an electrolyte.
Soluble gases and salts ionize and penetrate protective coatings along with oxygen and water. The result is accelerated corrosion caused by direct chemical attack of
the steel and the electrolytic action set up. The paint film
itself may be damaged by the active chemical nature of the
contaminants.
The effects of corrosive industrial atmospheres are
evidenced in the early failure of galvanized iron in such exposure. The life of galvanized roofing may be cut 50% to
75% by the failure of a zinc coating to form a protective
layer of corrosion products as it does in rural or marine atmospheres. It is not surprising to find that galvanized roofing must be painted to obtain an economical life in industrial plants or in smoky atmospheres. Paint systems
0003735 3 8 4
used in rural atmospheres may be inadequate in industrial

atmospheres.
E. BURIED STRUCTURES
Buried structures are in the soil or are in contact with
soil under conditions in which oxygen can be replaced.
This exposure is very severe. Protection must be adequate
for many years because of the expense in excavating to
make structures available for repainting. This environment
is discussed in the chapter on pipelines.
All soils are not equally corrosive. Some soils are
neutral, dry and well packed, and little corrosion occurs.
Unfortunately, much of the steel along the railroads is subject to corrosive conditions when buried. Possibly the
worst condition is encountered when the steel is buried in
cinders. Cinders are acidic and, when wet, are very
destructive to any coating. Even galvanized iron fails rapidly in this environment.
Brine drippings and de-icing salts also soak into the
soil and have the same corrosive effect. Other contributing
factors are ladings and drippings from cars carrying high
sulfur coal.
Stray electric currents are encountered along railroad
tracks, particularly along electrified systems. Direct current can cause great damage where it leaves the steel and
enters the ground. To protect against stray currents (where
the amount of steel corroded is directly proportional to the
flow of direct current) steel must be insulated by a protective coating. Concrete permits flow of current, and disruption of the concrete is caused by the tremendous force exerted by the corrosion products on the surface of reinforcing steeL5 Even without stray current, spalling of concrete is caused by the rusting underneath the concrete
when the concrete is too thin, improperly made or applied,
or when water creeps in around the edge of the concrete
and rusts the steel.
Buried steel can be protected by application of thick
coatings such as coal tar enamels or asphalts, but under
very severe conditions steel is best protected by coating in
conjunction with cathodic protection. If possible, steel
should not be buried. Pipelines, conduits and other
steelwork should be supported above the ground where
it can be protected by conventional means.
When steel is buried, as in culverts, the nature of the
fill must be taken into account. Basic conditions should be
maintained. Cinders should not be used as a backfill, but
limestone may be used as a fill around the buried steel or
to support steel. Because fills are porous and act as a
sponge to maintain wet conditions around the pipe,
drainage provisions should be made.
For a further discussion of the effect of burial on steel
surfaces, see the chapter on protection of underground
structures and pipelines.
F. TIMBER AND TIE BEARING SURFACES

Damage that occurs to steel when it is in contact with
timbers and ties is usually aggravated by the fretting ac-
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inspecting and painting, great care be devoted to the

following:
tion of timber moving when under load or impact. Even

when no fretting action occurs, water is absorbed by the
timber or drawn into the crack between the timber and the
steel surface. Since those surfaces rarely dry out, conditions for accelerated corrosion are established. Overcoming fretting or galling action is difficult. It is almost impossible to anchor the ties sufficiently to prevent movement.
An SSPC study6 indicated that very few coatings
withstand the abuse suffered under the bearing surface
(Figure 2a). The exceptions were metallizing and inorganic
zinc coatings, both of which are able to withstand the fretting action for a considerable time.
Some railroads have had success with mastic pads
placed under the ties, but they must not absorb water.
Good results are obtained by using soft coatings with a
grease or heavy oil base that do not dry out. A coating used
under the ties should have some inhibitive chemical present to retard corrosion. When the contact is not subjected
to fretting action, protection is possible by more ordinary
methods.
1. Girders:
Tops of outstanding legs of inside bottom flange
angles; the vertical legs of the same angles; inside of web plates and stiffner angles, particularly
around the bottom of the outstanding angle where
it bears on the flange angle.
2. Floor Beams:
Tops, edges and undersides of top flange angles
and cover plates; top sides of outstanding legs
and vertical legs of bottom flange angles; webs
and gusset plates outside the rails.
3. Stringers:
Both sides of the outstanding legs of top and bottom flange angles and webs, particularly on the
side nearest the rail.
4. Laterals:
Outside of the rails along stringer connections
and lateral plates to girders.
5. Decks:
To facilitate maintenance and repair of the track,
bridges are often of the solid floor, ballasted track
type. Steel floor plates corrode and require protection or periodic expensive replacement. Dirty
ballast remains wet and accelerates corrosion of
floor plates. Waterproofing deck plates with
asphalt membranes is successful. Unless stringent precautions are taken, deck coverings are
not waterproof and the plates still corrode. Some
railroads have had success by asphalt coating
deck-plates and laying a slab of concrete over the
asphalt before the ballast is applied. Drainage of
accumulated water to keep ballast dry is of great
benefit when the drains can be kept open.
Maintenance men should see that drains provided
for the purpose of keeping structures dry are kept
open.
6. Superstructure:
It is practical to specify a different method of protection for the portion of a bridge above the track
line, where exposure is less severe.
111. TYPES OF STRUCTURES

Typical railroad structures that require painting are
bridges, fuel oil tanks, sand tanks, steel pipe, transmission
towers, smokestacks, trainsheds, track scales, radio
towers, flood light towers, catenary poles or docks, coal
docks, sanding stations, buildings, roofs and many other
miscellaneous structures.
A. BRIDGES
The greatest tonnage of steel that requires protection
is found in bridges of all sizes and types, including
trestles, viaducts and highway overpasses. There are more
than 94,000 steel bridges with an aggregate length of 1,800
miles that are being protected by railroads. Each bridge
must be considered in relation to exposure, service, difficulty of repainting, traffic and the cost of protection.
An idea of the magnitude and cost of painting bridges
can be obtained from the experience of the Southern
Railway.8 When painting a new bridge over the
Cumberland River near Burnside, Kentucky in 1950, it required 19,000 gallons of paint, which, at ten pounds of
solids per gallon, represents a load of 190,000 pounds. It
took 30 men six months to paint the bridge, and a normal
maintenance crew requires two years to repaint it.
Bridges usually get the best protection of any railway
structures because they are expensive and the investment
must be protected. Cleaning and painting costs on bridges
are so high that there is no point in using low-cost paints.
If structural failure of a bridge occurs, the damage done
and liabilities incurred are often greater than for other
structures. Bridges, therefore, should receive good corrosion protection and should be inspected at frequent intervals for possible damage because of corrosion.
A committee report of the American Railway Bridge
and Building Association (ARBBA) recommends that when
7. Steel piling:
Steel piling for bridges or trestles must be given
adequate protection which cannot be as thin as
ordinary paint films unless the surfaces will be
available for repainting.
8. Tonnage and Area:
Costs of bridges are almost always calculated on
a per ton basis; therefore, most records of the railroads usually contain accurate figures of the tonnage. However, cleaning and painting costs are
best based upon the square feet of surface area to
be treated, and those figures are not available in
most instances. Therefore, railroad personnel
usually calculate painting costs on a per ton
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93 W 8627940 0003717 157
basis. This practice is satisfactory as long as the

possible variance in the square foot of surface per
ton of steel is considered. In the final economic
analysis, cost per square foot is the governing
factor. To facilitate estimating costs and keeping
records, Table 3 is a guide to the surface areas requiring cleaning and painting on various types of
railroad bridges:
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Type of Bridge
used. A separate chapter discusses painting galvanized

surfaces.
Flashings, downspouts, eaves and rain conductors
may be galvanized iron and should be painted. Copper
does not require painting except when the unsightly stains
it causes on light coloured masonry or paints is considered detrimental. Aluminum flashing and downspouting
is being used more and more. It should not require repainting; but if it is to be painted, wash primer (SSPC-Paint 30)
should be used.
C. OTHER STRUCTURES
TABLE 3
Average Sq. Foot of Surface
Exposed Per Ton
Rolled Beam
90-150
Plate Girder
80-110
Pony Truss
105-120
Deck Truss
115-125
Thru Warren Truss
105-120
(a) Riveted Joint
110-125
(b) Pin connected
160-190
Thru Curved Chord Truss
105-125
For accurate work the actual surface should be calculated
from the surface of the component plates and shapes,
making allowance for the surfaces in contact.
~
B. BUILDINGS
Painting buildings made of masonry, plaster or wood
are outside the scope of this chapter, but many steel
buildings or component parts of buildings do require painting. Most require little special precaution because exposure is mild in the interior of most buildings. Interior
paints do not require the durable qualities of those used
on exterior surfaces; primers are less expensive than
heavy-duty primers used on bridges and exteriors; surface
preparation is less demanding; and repainting is done at
longer intervals. When appearance is a factor, enamels
give good results and long life.
Towers of light angle or lattice construction present a

large square footage of surface that is costly to clean and
paint. These structures should be galvanized and painted
before the galvanizing is lost. In painting signal standards
and bridges, glossy paints should not be used since they
reflect lights at night so that misinterpretation of signals
is possible.
1. Tanks
Interiors of fuel tanks do not require painting, except when oil or settled water is corrosive, or in
the vapor space above the liquid level. Sometimes, the bottom and the lower side are protected, perhaps with coal tar enamel. The exterior
of fuel oil tanks, storage bins, hoppers, etc.,
should be given the same protection as superstructures of bridges.
Interiors of bins holding sand and similar
material are difficult to protect because of the
abrasive action of the contents. If their contents
are not very corrosive, they can be given the same
protection as the exterior, but frequent repainting
may be necessary. If the contents are corrosive, a
paint resistant to the corrosive material and to
abrasion should be used.
Exterior steelwork of buildings should be given

durable protection. If the steelwork is enclosed in
masonry, an inhibitive primer should be applied to protect
steel from any condensation of moisture or leakage from
faulty flashings or roofing. Steel completely enclosed with
concrete does not require protection if the concrete is at
least two inches thick.
Most metal roofing on buildings is galvanized.
Galvanized roofing in severe service fails at the laps.
These laps should be protected when a new roof is laid by
a good paint or a mastic coating. As soon as galvanized
roofing shows the first signs of rusting, it should be
painted. Failure to do so results in greater cleaning costs
and a shortened life of the coating applied. New galvanized roofing cannot be painted unless special paints are

2. Steel pipe
Steel pipe or other steel to be buried requires
special treatment such as hot-applied coal tar or
asphalt coatings. For severe conditions galvanized culverts should be coated with an asphalt
coating or coal tar enamel. Interiors of culverts
should have a bituminous pavement to prevent
wearing away of the protective coating when the
flow of sand or gravel is severe.
3. Turntables
Turntables and trackscales should be protected

the same as bridges, when they are in a dry surrounding. If they are in damp pits, the paint
system used must be resistant to high humidity.
4. Fences
Fences are a costly item to repaint; they should
be galvanized originally and repainted before rusting makes their repainting very costly. Long nap
roller coaters are effective in lowering the cost of
painting fences.
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necessary to remove these materials, although scraping or

power tool abrasive cleaning is satisfactory when the soil
is dried or caked.
B. SHOP-FINISHED
This type of surface receives all its coats of paint in
the shop. If damage in handling is slight, then field touchup of the coating system can be kept to a minimum.
Average paint life

SSPC report.'O
YS.
4
6
Nominal Thickness. Mils
New steel that has not been shop-painted requires extensive cleaning. It is necessary that loose mill scale, rust
and the foreign matter be removed. The amount of loose
mill scale and rust depends upon the length and severity of
the weathering. Since the steel was not shop-coated, it is
assumed that the weathering is deliberate. Unless the
period of weathering is very long or conditions very severe,
there may always be some mill scale on the surface. This
adherent mill scale is tenacious and difficult to remove,
and it is not to be confused with the mill scale that has
been under-cut and is easily removed.
Unless this weathered steel is blast cleaned, the surface is poor for painting. Any cleaning method less effective than blast cleaning dooms the paint to a greatly
shortened life. If steel is not blast cleaned, it is much better to paint over tight mill scale before it gets a chance to
weather. A comprehensive analysis of the results of all
paint tests available to the Steel Structures Painting Council indicates that painting over rust, even though the rust is
thin and tight, results in shortened paint life. Rusting of
bare steel, even before blast cleaning, has also been
shown to reduce paint life in severe environments.
Therefore, steel should be blast cleaned and painted
before it has undergone any appreciable outdoor exposure.
According to the questionnaire, 50% of the railroads
responding specify shop priming with topcoating in the
field; 25% specify the entire coating system to be shop-applied; and the remainder specify the entire coating system
be applied in the field, presumably after erection.
1
lo
FIGURE 3
thickness (oil and alkyd paints). From an
Regardless of the type of structure, paint or other protective coating should be chosen with regard to the type of
exposure and the use of the structure.
Specific recommendations are given later, but one
point should be kept in mind. It is often better to sacrifice
some protection by standardizing on a few paints.
IV. SURFACES ENCOUNTERED

The condition of a steel surface to be painted
depends upon whether or not the structure is being
painted for the first time. Field painting new structures entails three basic types of surfaces.
A. SHOP-PRIMED
In shop-primed steel for field painting, spot cleaning
and touch-up priming are required. If shop painting is done
well and the paint is of good quality, little touch-up is
necessary. Rust that forms on scarred places is loose and
easily removed. If extensive rusting and mill scale lifting
has occurred, the shop coat has failed and the responsibility for the failure should be determined. The buyer cannot specify that only loose mill scale and loose rust be
removed and then expect to get a perfect paint job. It is inevitable that some remaining mill scale loosens, depending upon the period of exposure of the prime coat. Even
after application of the field coats, additional mill scale
loosens in spots and lifts coats of paint. This is becoming
less of a problem because most fabricators use a standard
practice of rotary wheel blasting all steel.
Soil may be found on steel resulting from dragging it
through mud, storing it on the ground and subjecting it to
other abuse. Oil drippings, grease, cement spatter, chalk
marks and other foreign matter found on steel must be
removed. Solvent and detergent cleaning are usually
D. MAINTENANCE SURFACES
Maintenance painting encounters all possible surface
conditions. Large amounts of rust (beyond Rustgrade 7 of
SSPC-Vis 2), indicate that painting has been deferred too
long. The cost of cleaning, when there are large areas of
rusty steel, may be as great as the total cost of painting
with one coat of paint applied in time. When paint is well
adhered and no rust has developed, a light brushing or solvent cleaning, followed by application of a single coat of
paint, livens the old paint and provides additional protection. Rusted areas require thorough scraping, wire
brushing or power tool cleaning followed by spot-priming
with an inhibitive primer. If the areas are large, blast cleaning and prime painting on the same day are recommended.
When the cost of scaffolding is high, it may be
27 1
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--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
C. FIELD-PAINTED
cheaper to get several extra years of life out of the paint by

allowing it to deteriorate further. The increased cost of
cleaning and spot painting at frequent intervals may be
less than the cost of scaffolding. When the paint must be
completely removed, blast cleaning is recommended.
Stainless steel and aluminum are encountered on occasion, and i f painted, require pretreatment before painting; otherwise, paint does not adhere (see SSPC-Paint 27).
The type of old coating is always a factor in
maintenance painting. Compatibility of the new paint with
the old is a prerequisite to satisfactory performance. Normally, no difficulty is encountered with most paints over
old, weathered paints, but there may be a tendency for the
new paint to lift the old coating, especially i f the old
coating has cracked or checked, or some paints may contain a solvent that acts as an efficient paint remover on the
old paint. Usually, a small test should be made by applying
a brushful of paint and observing its action on the old paint
before painting on a full scale is begun. If the coating is a
mastic type of coating, or grease, or non-drying oil, trouble
occurs unless the new coating is of the same type.
SSPC-PA Guide 4 is a guide to maintenance painting
and SSPC-PA 1 is a specification for applying paint in
shop, field, and maintenance situations.
A. MAINTENANCE SURFACE PREPARATION

Cleaning prior to painting has been the most
troublesome process in proper railroad maintenance painting. The value of proper surface preparation cannot be
overemphasized. There are numerous figures reported in
the literature relating surface preparation to coating
durability. One reportgissued by the Steel Structures Painting Council lists 37 references. One set of results from that
report is averaged in Table 4.
TABLE 4
Typical Effect of Surface Preparation on Paint Life*
Millscale
Rusty
Blast Clean
Wire Brush
Wire Brush
Semi-Rural
9.6
7.6
8.0
Marine
6.7
3.7
3.0
Exposure
___
Results after 8 years exposure of two prime coats plus topcoat

based on 25 widely different paint systems on 360 panels.
(10 = Perfect)
V. LABOR CONSIDERATIONS
Increasing labor costs make higher productivity imperative. On railroads, where paint gangs have been
eliminated, painting is being done by regular bridge and
building crews that also do other maintenance work. This
practice reduces painting skill.
Field painting is being contracted in many instances.
In this case, workers are usually experienced, but it is not
unusual for contractors to recruit labor locally. Too often,
both the contractor and his men are interested only in getting the painting completed as soon as possible and collecting fees. Consideration should be given to the integrity
and reputation of the painting contractor rather than
awarding contracts solely on the basis of the low bid.
According to the questionnaire, 40% of painting is
done by special paint crews, 25% by regular bridge crews,
and 35% is contracted. There is great variance, and the
percentages in each case ranged from O to 1OOoh for different railroads. There is a slight trend back to using
special paint crews.
Mechanized equipment, such as rotary power tools,
abrasive pads, brushes, pneumatic chippers, and airless
spray paint outfits, has increased labor productivity. By
reducing scaffolding costs large amounts of money may
be saved. Increased production may be achieved by more
effective work.
VI. OTHER CURRENT RAILROAD PRACTICES

Some aspects of mechanical and chemical surface
preparation and paint application have special relevance
to railroad practice.
There is such a variety of surfaces, environments and

materials that these figures should be taken only as a
general indication, but all references agree on several
points.
The more thorough the surface preparation,
the longer before repainting is required, regardless of
the coating or exposure.
More severe exposures (meaning usually more
moist) require a better degree of surface preparation.
Many coatings (.e., inorganic zincs) require a
high degree of surface preparation t o avoid
disastrous failure.
Methods of cleaning steel reported by the railroads in
the field are as follows:
1. Hand cleaning
using scrapers, wire brushes, chipping hammers,
chisels and other impact tools (SSPC-SP 2).
2. Power tool cleaning
using electrically or pneumatically driven power
tools such as rotary wire brushing machines,
sanding machines, power chipping hammers,
scaling hammers, scalers and a variety of
abrasive pads and grinding wheels. Radial or cup
wire brushes are satisfactory for use. Scalers may
be pistonless vibrating or rotary mechanical
scalers. Rotary abrasive cleaning pads are
available which are better than power wire
brushes (SSPC-SP3).
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sive; power tool cleaning will be more efficient;

but blast cleaning is often required to obtain a
satisfactory surface for repainting. If paint has
deteriorated to the point where it must be completely removed, sand blasting is most
economical. Removal of old paint by hand is time
consuming and ineffective. Power tools are an improvement, but labor requirements are still excessive. It is a difficult task to remove tight, welladhered old paint and the necessity or advisability of removing such paint should be examined.
When old paint is so thick that it tends to crack
and scale, it should be removed.
Blast cleaning is the best method to remove
all rust, scale and old paint from steel surface.
Loose mill scale and loose or non-adherent rust
are easily removed, but the degree of removal of
the more adherent rust and mill scale, as well as
old paint, depends upon the thoroughness of the
cleaning. Power tools remove much of the scale
and rust, but they have a tendency to drive rust
and scale into the surface. They do not remove
rust from pits and may cut the steel surface leaving sharp ridges or peaks on the steel. These
should not be allowed since the paint will fail
quickly over such projections.
3. Blasf cleaning
sand blasting, using compressed air and sand
(SSPC-SP 5, 10,6 or 7). (Field blast cleaning using
crushed iron, grit or shot is uneconomical unless
practically all of the grit can be recovered for
reuse.) These methods of cleaning, which are considered mechanical, are, in some cases, preceded
by chemical cleaning methods utilizing solvent
cleaners or other chemical methods such as
steam cleaning.
Cleaning in maintenance painting or cieaning of weathered steel structures prior to priming
may often be the most expensive of all the operations, and in turn, the major cost of cleaning is the
labor required. The work is usually tiring and
unpleasant; therefore, cleaning must be carefully
supervised and inspected.
Bridge ends usually are in the poorest condition. Accumulations of dirt, leaves, and other
debris collect on cover plates, flanges, angles of
braces and similar places, and must be removed.
Particular attention should be paid t o bridge
seats, bridge pedestals, shoes, base and sole
plates and expansion joints. Steel should be
washed off with water, preferably under pressure.
This wets the steel and delays painting, but in
most cases the debris or soil is wet anyway and
water has soaked into the paint. No painting
should be done until the surface is dry. Often
debris is blown off with compressed air aided by
light scraping, but this usually does not leave a
clean surface.
When there is heavy rust scale, it should be
knocked off with hammers, using chisels on the
difficult spots. This scale is porous and acts like a
sponge in holding water, resulting in faster corrosion. It cannot be protected by any type of
coat ing.
6. Choice
Hard and fast rules do not apply in choosing a
method of surface preparation. All methods give
satisfactory results under certain conditions. The
more severe the surface, the higher the quality of
cleaning necessary. There are some restrictions
placed on blast cleaning, but it is the preferred
method of surface preparation. The experience
and judgment of the engineer responsible for the
condition of the structure are necessary for a
satisfactory decision. The engineers decision
should be based on costs, practicality and the
demands of the paint to be used as primer. Cleaning should comply with the provisions of the Steel
Structures Painting Councils Surface Preparation Specifications; the particular specification
used should be modified if necessary to meet
local conditions.
Regardless of the method used to prepare
steel for repainting, it must be cleaned of residues
of salt, leachings, alkali, acid or other chemical
contaminants. Any protective coating applied
over such corrosive agents is doomed to an early
failure. It is not sufficient to remove such corrosive agents completely; strict precautions must
be taken to prevent recontamination of the surface before the primer is applied. Contamination
between coats of paint or before the paint is dry is
less detrimental, but should be avoided if possible.
4. Solvent Cleaning
When grease or oil are present, they should be
removed by solvents rather than by spreading the
contaminants over a large area by the cleaning
tools (SSPC-SP1). Power wire brushing, for example, spreads oil and grease over large areas causing poor adhesion of the paint.
When the surface is contaminated with deicing salts, salt from the sea, bird excrement, or
other corrosive agents, thorough washing with
fresh water or steam cleaning is necessary.
5. Spot Cleaning
In maintenance painting, the structure should be
repainted or spot painted as the first breaks in the
paint occur and rust is just starting to form. At
this stage, cleaning costs are minimized since
spot cleaning using hand tools is usually adequate. If extensive areas of the bridge are rusty,
hand cleaning is burdensome, tiring, and expenCopyright The Society for Protective Coatings
273
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SSPC C H A P T E R k L O - O 9 3
SSPC C H A P T E R * L O . O 73 W 8627740 0003723 b88

SSPC-PA 1 is a guide to Shop, Field and Maintenance
Painting, and SSPC-PA Guide 4 is a Guide to Maintenance
Repainting with Oil Base and Alkyd Paints. These are
helpful in the procedures involved in paint application.
1. When To Faint:
While cleaning can be done in most weather,
within limitations, weather affects paint application principally and therefore limits the season
during which painting can be done.
FIGURE 4
Single spider cages in use in the painting of bridge. (Northern
Pacific RR photo)
The effect of weather is very important to

successful application of paint, thus every supervisor should consult the weather forecasts before
scheduling work.
Proper mixing of paint is essential. Many

railroads purchase paint in five gallon pails. Hand
mixing of paint in five-gallon pails is satisfactory,
provided all settled pigment is put into suspension. Mechanical mixers give best and quickest
results. If large drums of paint are used, careful
supervision of the mixing is necessary, and
mechanical mixers are essential to get a uniform
mix. Sloppy workers pour off the top of the
paint, getting too much vehicle and not enough
pigment; when they get to the bottom of the drum,
the paint is almost all pigment, so they add thinner. Maintenance personnel should realize that
making the paint go farther is bad practice.
Pigment of paint in buckets, spray pots or
cans may settle during the application and should
be stirred at intervals. Mechanical stirrers on
spray paint pots are recommended, and they are
essential if the pots are greater than five gallons
in capacity. These mechanical mixers may be
hand-operated, or driven by air motors. Constant
mechanical mixing is required for certain paints,
such as those with a high zinc metal content.
Large drums of paint are easily fixed with airoperated stirrers. If electric stirrers are used, they
should be explosion-proof. Pumps used to pump
paint directly from the drum require auxiliary stirrers to keep the paint mixed.
2. Painting:
Paint failures occur primarily through improper
cleaning; secondly, through improper application;
and finally, through poorly chosen paint.
Actual paint application is normally by brush

or spray. A controversy still exists about which
gives better results. Both yield satisfactory
results if properly done.

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Painting should not be done outdoors in cold

weather, and it is the usual practice to discontinue painting during winter in the northern parts
of the continent. The lower temperature limit at
which most paints can be applied is not definite;
40" to 50F (4" to 10C) is considered to be the
lowest practical limit,' however, certain paints
may require a minimum as high as 60F (15.5%).
Paint becomes thick in cold weather, and painters
tend to use large quantities of thinner so it is
easier to apply. The result is a thin coat. In addition, no paint should be subjected to freezing
after application until it has dried.
Moisture has worse effects on paint life than
cool weather. The foreman or engineer responsible for the work has a difficult decision to make
when rain is imminent. Many foremen keep protected parts of the bridge in reserve for rainy
weather. The exposed portions are worked on
first; the sheltered portions can be worked on during high winds or rain.
Moisture harms paint when the relative
humidity is above 85% and the condensation
point has almost been reached. Painting should
be stopped when the dew point is within 5"F(3"C)
of the air temperature. A slight cooling, or a few
degrees lower steel temperature, causes condensation that may be invisible but still detrimental to
the coating life.
Hot dry weather does not affect painting.
Paint has a tendency to be less viscous, which
causes a thinner film, runs or sags; but these
problems can be overcome partially by not thinning the paint. No proof exists that it is detrimental to apply paint on hot steel at a temperature of
125F (52C) or over. Under such conditions,
however, catalyzed coatings may have an excessively short pot life.
SSPC CHAPTER*LO.O
93 M 8627740 0003722 5 1 4 M
Conventional air spraying is two to three

times faster than brushing, and the paint film
tends to be more uniform. Spray paint has a
tendency to bridge over tiny pits and cover surface dirt or oil on a poorly prepared surface.
Regardless of the method, the surface should be
dusted by brush or compressed air.
Paint must be applied evenly so no skipped
spots or holidays occur, and as uniformly as
possible without running or sagging.
training in sophisticated coatings are given responsibility

to apply these paints.
Some railroads have used grease or petrolatum
materials for many years and feel they are giving good,
low-cost service when properly maintained. Other companies feel they make bridge inspection difficult or unsafe
(due to slipperiness), and allow underfilm rusting to proceed undetected. It is a fact that they are very difficult to
remove from a surface, and once applied, the owner is
almost forced to continue using this type of material. A
considerable number of railroads use this type of product
on load-bearing top flanges when ties are being lifted and
time limitations make the application of conventional
paints next to impossible.
There is little use by the railroads of pretreatments
before painting, such as penetrating or wetting oils of the
drying type, phosphate treatments, or basic zinc chromate
wash coat priming.
The basic zinc chromate washcoat pretreatment
known as wash primer (.e. SSPC-Paint 27) is applied like
an extremely thin coat of paint. It is used over bare steel
and forms an outstanding foundation for many paint
systems. It can be used to prepare galvanized surfaces for
painting, but the instructions must be followed very
carefully. Wash primer permits many types of conventional
paint to be used over galvanizing. It is also used to provide
adhesion of paint to stainless steel and aluminum and
may be required by some vinyl paint systems.
Various chemical pretreatments using phosphoric
acid or phosphates as the main ingredients are on the
market. Often extravagant claims are made of their merit
on steel that is covered with mill scale, but a number of
tests have disproved such claims. In some cases their use
is detrimental. They are effective when the steel is descaled but has an extremely light deposit of rust, a condition that is rare on railroad structures.
A combination of brushing and spraying is

almost always necessary on railroad bridges even
when spraying has been selected as the best
method. The interiors of boxed members are difficult to paint.
Many railroads stencil the date of painting
and the paints used on the structure. This information is of value to the inspector, but is a
duplication of information that should be kept in
the records of painting. Such records are of great
value to the railroad i f a complete breakdown of
the costs is recorded along with the material
used, cleaning, labor requirements and rates, type
of surface and the life of the paint job. Only when
such records are kept up to date does the railroad
know the costs of painting and whether changes
in methods are really economical.
Application methods for asphalt-oil, bridge
cement, greases, emulsions, hot-coatings, etc.,
will differ from those of conventional paints.
C. CURRENT RAILROAD PAINTING SYSTEMS

The questionnaire revealed a wide variety of coating
materials are used on railroad structures. A large number
of railroads select different coating systems for different
environments. Some use their own specifications, and
many have settled on certain proprietary products. The
vast majority of coatings used are oil, oil-alkyd or alkyd
based, apparently due to the versatility of these types of
paints and their good performance in most environments.
Several railroads use the same coating materials in all applications but vary the number of coats to suit the situation, for example adding a third coat in a corrosive environment rather than switching to a completely different
system. Others are making limited use of epoxy, urethane
and inorganic zinc coatings. One proprietary product used
by several railroads for a number of years is of interest in
that it can give sufficient film build in one coat for most environments (5 mils dry film). Compared to previous surveys
there has been a marked decline in the use of red lead
primers.
There is a general reluctance to use coatings that require special care or precautions unless absolutely
necessary. Considering the conditions in the railroad industry under which paints are used, this is understandable. Generally, unskilled painters with too little technical
D. LIFE EXPECTANCY OF PAINTS

The life of any paint system is dependent on the surface preparation, paint application, climatic and atmospheric conditions and paint materials. There is an interest in determining the relative importance of each of
these factors under controlled situations in full sized field
tests. By holding one of these factors constant, and varying the others, comparative results can be determined. The
effect of film thickness was discussed in a report in the
June, 1969 Journal of Coatings Technology.10Some of the
results are summarized in Figure 3.
The expected life of good paint systems exposed to
clean, rural atmospheres is easily 10 to 12 years. The
possible variation is due to the condition of the steel
before painting and to the paints used. In such mild atmospheres, linseed oil paints remain elastic and durable
for long periods. In desert atmospheres, 15 years of life is
common. The expected life of good paint systems exposed
to industrial atmospheres is six to eight years, as an
average.
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SSPC CHAPTERaLO-O 93
8627940 O003723 450
stated previously, depends first on a well prepared surface, and secondly on proper application of the paint. A
very common failing is too thin an application; many times
the life of the coating would be prolonged several fold if
one more coat had been applied at a small additional cost.
The life of the coating also can be prolonged by the choice
of coating, particularly in the more corrosive environments.
Reducing the costs of application can be achieved
mainly by applying fewer coats. High-build coatings are
becoming more common, and i f the same dry film build
can be obtained with two coats rather than three coats of a
similar material, the savings are obvious. In some situations there may be savings in having faster drying paint,
Almost certainly less expensive surface preparation
means shorter coating life and results in no savings,
The cleaning of new steel at the fabrication plant can
be done at a much lower unit cost than in the field.
However, i f a particular specification for cleaning is used
that differs from the shop practice, an extra cost per ton is
charged.
The perfect coating does not exist and probably never
will. Be suspicious of materials for which the following
claims are made: (1) requires minimum or no surface
preparation, or (2) dries instantly, or (3) can be applied in
most or all weather conditions, or (4) tolerates damp surfaces, or (5) will double or triple your coating life. Advances
in coatings are being made, but great break-throughs are
rare. When presented with a new coating material that has
not been used before, you should, after careful consideration, field test if it appears promising. Do not be rushed into a quick evaluation. At least several years of study are required. The results of accelerated tests, such as salt fog or
condensation cabinet exposures, are of interest but are
sometimes misleading and cannot be relied on.
The use of scaffolding and rigging is a specialized
subject covered in another chapter. The cost of these
items can be considerable, but devices that reduce labor
costs generally prove economical.
The use of small, air operated winches along with
light timber frames fastened together with eye bolts permits easy hanging of scaffolding. Various types of
aluminum staging are also available which combine light
weight with strength (Figure 4).
Special trucks are now available with hydraulically
powered, aerial booms that are used to reach overhead
structures from roads or under structures from track. They
can be purchased with maintenance bodies to store supplies and equipment. Heights as high as 30 to 40 feet may
easily be reached without use of scaffolding. Such equipment is shown in Figures 5 and 6.
The life of paints exposed to marine atmospheres is

variable and unpredictable because of the variance in local
conditions. If a good paint job is obtained on clean, dry, uncontaminated steel, six to eight year's life should be obtained without difficulty in regions such as the Atlantic
Coast. Under severe conditions, much shorter paint life occurs on portions of the structure. In the Gulf Coast area,
2% to 3 year's life for paint is common unless topcoated
zinc-rich primers are used.
In actual field service, the maximum life of the paint is
seldom .realized due to failures that occur because of
rusting under the paint, mainly because of inadequate surface preparation. When the full life of the paint is realized,
failure will occur by a gradual weathering of the top coats
resulting in a chalking condition of the paint.
E. PAINTING EXPERIENCE AND COSTS
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Costs vary greatly. Each railroad has some idea of its

own costs, but in most cases they should be developed
more fully.
Major points to be considered are costs of setting up
at the job site; material costs including paint, cleaning
equipment, compressed air, staging or scaffolding; and
labor costs, which should be broken down into various
functions, Set-up, surface preparation and coating application. With labor costs it is better to work in worker-hours
rather than dollars. The actual costs can be converted to
dollars per ton or dollars per square foot from workerhours when required. In each railroad, many structures are
similar, so for quick reference costs could be kept on the
basis of a plate girder span of X length or a truss span of Y
length. Costs for other lengths or multiple spans can then
be easily calculated. Another interesting figure to keep in
the actual working hours per week or per job free of interruptions.
Even with good background figures, there can be
large variations due to the type of structure, location of the
structure, condition of the surface, weather conditions,
traffic patterns, etc. However, these variables are no excuse not to keep a careful record of all costs. On a typical
job where the entire surface was given a near-white blast
cleaning (SSPC-SP 10) the cost breakdown could be:
Materials - 20% (5-25);labor and equipment costs for
cleaning and Set-up - 60% (40-80);labor and equipment
costs for two-coat application of paint - 20% (10-40).
(Figures in brackets are possible ranges due to the above
variables.)
Typical cost analyses of painting alternatives are
given in a separate chapter.
F. OTHER RESPONSES
Questionnaire respondents indicated they were mainly interested in (1)longer paint life, (2) reducing costs of application, (3) reducing number of coats, and (4) better surface preparation. These are ahead of five other possible
answers to the question. All these factors obviously
reduce costs. To discuss these in turn, longer paint life, as

VII. RECOMMENDATIONS FOR PAINTING OF

RAILROAD BRIDGES AND STRUCTURES
New structures should be designed with a thorough
knowledge of the corrosiveness of the environment.'l The
following condensed summary of good practices is recom-
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SSPC CHAPTER*LO.O
93
= 8627740 0003724 397
mended for the consideration of those responsible for the

economical protection of railroad bridges and structures.
A. STORAGE AND HANbLING OF PAINTS

IN THE FIELD
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
It is desirable to have a separate temperature controlled building to store and mix paint materials. Paints
stored for a long time should have the position of the containers inverted often enough to prevent hard settling of
the pigment. The shelf life or storage life of paints may
vary with different products and should always be considered. Too long a storage period makes some paints unfit
and makes proper mixing difficult. It could use up any savings from large volume purchases. To mix paints, a
mechanical rotating machine equipped with paddles
which can be inserted into the containers to agitate the
contents thoroughly is very desirable. A broad paddle with
a lifting motion up through the vehicle should be used.
Paint should be thoroughly agitated. It is always advisable
to pour the paint from one container to another near the
end of the agitation process. When aluminum paste pigment is used, the pigment should be placed in a container,
and the vehicle added slowly as the mixing progresses.
Paint generally should be mixed without the addition of
thinners. In cold weather, a small amount of thinner may
be permitted for spraying.
Whether paint is furnished by the owner or by the contractor, it is desirable that paint for each day's use be
mixed on the job at the beginning of the day. If the work is
being done by contract, the owner's inspector should be
present to observe the mixing technique, and to see that
thinners are used only to the extent allowed by the
specif cat ions.
Paints should be stored in the original metal shipping
containers. The containers should be clearly marked to
show the type and color, specification number, quantity,
name of manufacturer, batch number, date of manufacture
and any other information desired, such as special application instructions.
FIGURES 5 AND 6
Special trucks with aerial booms can reach overhead structures
from roads or under structures from track.
B. SURFACE PREPARATION
It is essential that a clean, dry surface be obtained for
the paint. Blast cleaning is highly recommended for all surfaces. The three commonly accepted degrees of blast
cleaning are defined and described in SSPC-SP 5, White
Metal Blast Cleaning; SSPC-SP 6, Commercial Blast
Cleaning; and SSPC-SP 10, Near-White Blast Cleaning. In
most situations commercial blast cleaning will be sufficient, but there will be situations or coatings which will require near-white or white metal blast cleaning, normally
Zones 2A, 28 and 3. Because of the construction operations involved in building of a new structure, especially
bridges, there are special cleaning problems. Cement or
mortar may have dripped or spattered on the steel; oil from
hydraulic jacks, reamers, or drills may have dripped on the
steel or painted surface; steel shavings and other construction debris may be present. All of these must be
removed. If any field welding was done, special care must

be given in cleaning around the welds. The weld area must
have all peaks and rough edges removed and all weld spatter removed. When too long a period elapses between field
coats, dirt may need to be removed before the second field
coat is applied.
Cleaning before painting should be done in accordance with the applicable Surface Preparation Specifications in Volume 2 of the Steel Structures Painting Manual.
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D. PAINTING SYSTEMS
C. APPLICATION OF PAINTS TO STRUCTURES

IN THE FIELD
When painting is done by contract, it is common for
the railroad owner to furnish paint to the contractor,
especially when the railroads own specification paint is
used. The film thickness is critical and the use of a
thickness gauge, such as the Elcometer, is essential. Normally, prime coats should be at least 2 mils thick; intermediate and top coats should total 1 to 4 mils in
thickness.
On new work, the field bolt heads should be spot
painted as soon as possible, as should all scars, bruises,
rust spots, and thin spots in the shop coat, in advance of
application of the first field coat.
The first field coat should be thoroughly dry before
the second coat is applied. A test for this is to press the
thumb firmly against the paint surface, then twist. If the
paint skin does not slide, or come off, the paint is sufficiently dry to apply the second coat. One or two days are
usually sufficient for this drying time. Oil paints may not
dry enough in this time to pass such a severe test; they
should be tested by pressing hard without twisting.
To require too long a period between coats of paint
may increase scaffolding costs. Here it must be
remembered that too thick an application may slow down
drying. However, the re-use of scaffolding without moving
it is no reason to permit application of the second coat of
paint before the first is dry. Generally, painting should proceed from the top down. From the standpoint of inspection, it is desirable to paint from the top to bottom, or from
one end towards the other, without skipping around.
When the bridge is being painted under traffic, the
work must not interfere with the movement of trains. Care
should be taken that lines and scaffolds do not get within
prescribed clearance. In the case of movable bridges,
which must be opened on demand by boat traffic, scaffolding must not be placed to interfere with movement of
the bridge.
In buildings, erection of new steel should be followed
up by spot painting of skinned, bruised or thin areas, and
bolt heads, etc. If the steel is to be fireproofed, spot painting of the shop coat is sufficient. Do not paint metal to be
embedded in concrete. On exposed interior columns and
beams, additional field coats are required of the type and
color of the final coat. When the steel is encased or
fireproofed with a thin or porous coating of concrete or
light weight aggregate, an inhibitive primer should be
used. If exposure conditions are severe, such as in salt
water, at least two coats of high quality inhibitive paint
should be used. When the concrete is two to three inches
thick, dense, of good quality, and without acid constituents, priming is not generally considered necessary
because of the protection afforded by the concrete. This is
usually the case when steel is used in reinforced concrete;
here, the bond necessary between the steel and concrete
precludes the use of paint.

Table 2 outlines paint systems as described in

Volume 2 of the Steel Structures Painting Manual. The
recommendations are based on the environment to which
the structure or parts of the structure will be exposed. All
primers included here are rust inhibiting and have been
proved in service. Complete painting systems will be found
in Volume 2 of the SSPC Manual.
The paints in Table 2 are listed by specifications in
current use; proprietary paints meeting or exceeding these
specifications are available and can be used provided the
user has had satisfactory experience with the seller. The
TT numbers listed refer to Federal Specifications; the
SSPC numbers refer to the Councils specifications; the
MIL refer to U.S. Military specifications; the AASHTO
refers to American Association of State Highway Officials
specification. The GP numbers refer to Canadian Government Specifications Board. The CISC numbers refer to the
Canadian Institute of Steel Construction.
The intermediate and finish paints used depend largely upon the primer used. The methods of surface preparation and pretreatment affect the selection of the primer
directly, but only indirectly affect the choice of topcoats.
Care must be used when hard, quick drying topcoats like
some of the short oil alkyds and phenolics are used over
soft primers such as linseed oil; unless the oil primers are
thoroughly dry, the topcoats may crack or wrinkle. When
using unusual combinations, test patches should be applied and inspected. Any detrimental film irregularities
should develop within 24 hours.
E. INSPECTION
Questionnaire responses indicated that many
railroads do not specify coating thickness. The common
procedure is to apply, for example, two coats of paint and
assume all is well. This may be a relatively safe procedure
i f well-known paints are used for many years. But even different batches of the same paint from the same supplier
can vary considerably in film build properties. It is
not at all difficult for an expectedly thin application to be
applied and cut the protective life of the coating system in
half. Film thickness gauges are not expensive and can be
easily used by the supervisor or foreman on the job after a
minimum of instruction. It is a very small price to pay to
help ensure a satisfactory paint application.
Equally important and more difficult to control is the
quality of surface preparation. The life of the coating
depends largely on the thoroughness of surface preparation.
Interestingly, most railroads seem to control application by contractors more closely than when their own
crews are involved.
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VIII. SAFETY
All application should be carried out in accordance
with federal, state and local requirements. They should
also be in accord with the instructions of the paint
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manufacturer and requirements of the insurance underwriters. Safety considerations should include, but n o t be
limited to, t h o s e presented in SSPC-PA Guide 3, A Guide
to Safety in Paint Application.
Proper handling and storage of paint materials on t h e
j o b should include safety considerations to avoid loss or
damage, a s well a s to avoid hazards to workers. H o o k s for
scaffolds, as well as all blocks and falls, including ropes,
should b e examined every day or before use and replaced
before they are in a n unsafe condition. Cleaning materials
should be properly used t o prevent fires, a n d t o x i c fumes
f r o m t h e m should be avoided. While wire brushing, chipping, or scraping, workers should be required to wear goggles to protect their eyes. W i t h sandblast cleaning, proper
helmets w i t h a source of clean air m u s t b e provided for
operators of blast guns. Scaffold ropes should be wrapped
to prevent damage from blast cleaning. Gloves and protective clothing should be worn.
It is always necessary to conduct painting operations
in a manner that does n o t cause danger to railroad train
movements over t h e bridge structures, or to river t r a f f i c or
highway traffic under the bridge.
Detailed safety precautions included w i t h each surface preparation specification of t h e Steel Structures
Painting Council, shown in Volume 2 of t h i s Manual,
should be observed. Safety recommendations of t h e National Safety Council for Bridge Painting should be
followed t o avoid s u c h accidents as falls; injuries due to
excessive heat or cold; poisoning; injuries due to oncomi n g traffic; eye injuries while chipping, scraping, brushing,
and riveting; drowning; and electric shock f r o m power
cables.
People w h o work on elevated structures should be
experienced and not be subject to dizzy spells or heart
ailments. Physical examination before hiring is recommended. When working o n bridges over water, workers
should wear l i f e belts, or a m a n in a boat should patrol t h e
water under t h e work area. In hot weather, shade is
beneficial to t h e workers and increases worker output.
Approved respirators are worn i f spraying or removing
lead paints; protective creams or o i n t m e n t s are used o n
t h e face, neck and hands; workers w a s h thoroughly before
eating and after work. Attention is also drawn to the
hazards o f chromate in paints and to the hazards of leadbase paints.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The first edition chapter on this subject was authored by
Manley A. Roose, who was very helpful in the preparation of the
present chapter.
Data on current practices were obtained by means of two
questionnaires circulated to Committee 15 of the American
Railway Engineering Association - D.S. Bechley, then Chairman.
chapter: Carl Bye, Thomas A. Cross, Robert Doyle, Jim Hutson,
Raymond C. McMaster, Gatewood Norman, William Pearson, and
William J. Wallace, Jr.
REFERENCES
1. Weathering Steel Committee Report. American Railway
Bridge and Building Association, Proceedings, p. 73, 1972.
2 F.L. La Que, Corrosion and Protection of Off-Shore Drilling
Rigs. Corrosion, Vol. 6, No. 5, p. 152, 1950.
3. H.A. Humble, Cathodic Protection of Steel Piling in Sea
Water. Corrosion, Vol. 5, No. 9, p. 292, 1949.
4. E. Escalante, and W.P. Iverson, The Protection of Steel by
Non-Metallic Coatings in Sea Water, Materiais Prformance,
October 1978.
5. Investigation of Electrolytic Corrosion of Steel in Concrete.
AAR Committee Report to Electrical Section of Engineering
Division, Corrosion, Vol. 3, No. 1, p. 37, 1947.
6. John D. Keane, Protecting Load-Bearing Surfaces of Steel
Bridges. Steel Structures Painting Council Report, 1968.
7. L.S. Crave, Corrosion Problems of the Railroads. Digest of
Discussions, Second Railroad Corrosion Conference, International Nickel Company, 1951.
8. L.S. Crave, Corrosion Problems of the Railroads. Corrosion,
Vol. 8, No. 4, p. 149, 1952.
9. John D. Keane, Surface Preparation Versus Durability,
Steel Structures Painting Council Report, 1966.
1o. John D. Keane, William Wettach, and Waouter Bosch,
Minimum Paint Film Thickness for Economical Protection of
Hot-Rolled Steel Against Corrosion. Journal of Coatings
Technology, Vol. 31, No. 533, pp. 372-382, June 1969.
11. C.E. Webb, Better Bridges Require Less Maintenance,
Railway Engineering and Maintenance, Vol. 32, p. 37, 1936.
12. John D. Keane, Railroad Bridge Paints With Resistance to
Salt Brine, Steel Structures Painting Council Report, 1968.
13. John D. Keane, Painting Railroad Bridges for Mild Exposures. Steel Structures Painting Council Report, 1968.
14. John D. Keane, Golden Gate Bridge Paint Test, Steel Structures Painting Gouncil Report, December 2, 1976.
15. John D. Keane, Protector of Structural Steel Work - U.S.
Practice. Corrosion in Civil Engineering, Institution of Civil
Engineering, London, 1979.
BIOGRAPHY
Raye A. Fraser has a B.Sc. in
Chemistry from Mount Allison
University and has held a number of positions at the Technical
Research Centre of Canadian
National Railways. During this
time, he has been involved in
laboratory and field evaluations
of coatings, and the writing of
coatings specifications as well
as the CNR Corrosion Protection
Manual for Steel Bridges and
Structures.
He is a past-President of the
Montreal Society for Coatings Technology and a past-Chairman of
the Protective Coatings Division of the Chemical Institute of Canada. For the past 20 years he has been active on a number of Steel
Structures Painting Council Committees.
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CHAPTER 11
PAINTING OF HIGHWAY BRIDGES

AND STRUCTURES
by
R. R. Ramsey and 8.R. Appteman
II. STRUCTURES AND CONDITIONS
I. INTRODUCTION
This chapter covers present practice in the painting of
highway bridges and related highway structures. It emphasizes painting done in the field. Shop painting is
covered in a separate chapter.
This chapter brings together both general and special
considerations for the painting of highway bridges. While
some of the material here overlaps with material in other
chapters, the emphasis is given to the conditions and factors that are unique to or especially important for highway
bridges. The discussion is brief in topics that are covered
elsewhere. In the text the reader is referred to the most
relevant chapters, although this chapter is meant to stand
by itself.
Highway bridges are painted for long-lasting corrosion protection of the structure and improvement of its appearance at the minimum cost.
Paint should function as an inhibitor and barrier to
prevent, as much as possible, the corrosive attack of the
steel substrate by moisture, air and oxidizing chemicals.
Primer coats therefore usually contain rust inhibitive
pigments or pigments such as zinc dust that reduces corrosion through cathodic protection. The topcoats or finish
coats, on the other hand, provide barrier protection
through the use of polymers and pigments that protect
against moisture permeation and the constant attack of
weather.
The second purpose of painting highway structures is
for appearance. Quite often the color of the top coat is
chosen to harmonize with the adjacent topographic
features. In some localities a leaf green top coat blends
well with the surroundings, while in others a gray or
aluminum coat may serve better. An important consideration for top coat selection is the ability to retain the
original color and gloss. Certain pigments (e.g. yellows,
blues) are prone to fading. Urethane top coats usually provide excellent color and gloss retention.
Some bridges are being painted in two colors t o further improve their appearance. For through structures,
where night visibility is of prime importance, the blending
of colors to comply with the surroundings might be a detriment. On the other hand, the painting of bridge end posts
and steel members of overpass piers with obstruction
markings is an unsightly e3pedient but often necessary for
safety reasons.

A. TYPES OF STRUCTURES
Highway structures requiring painting for protection
against corrosion are chiefly bridges. But, there are also
corrugated culverts which are usually galvanized, guardrails and posts, light poles, truck scales, buildings, roadsigns and miscellaneous structures. The same principles
apply to all structures, but only bridges will be discussed
in detail.
Steel highway bridges vary in span length from 20 feet
to the present Golden Gate suspension span of 4200 feet.
The types of steel highway bridges include the following:
Beam spans - simple, cantilever, continuous or composite; always decked structures, span lengths to 120 feet
(Figure 1).
Girder spans - riveted or welded; simple, cantilever
or continuous; usually decked structures, sometimes composite with deck; sometimes designed as box girders; span
lengths to 375 feet (Figures 2 and 3).
Rigid frames - riveted or welded, single or multiple
spans; decked structures; span lengths to 130 feet.
Truss spans - usually riveted; simple, cantilever or
continuous; through (Figure 4) or decked (the latter
whenever practicable); span lengths t o 1800 feet.
Arches - usually riveted; single or multiple spans;
through or decked; span lengths to 1675 feet. Arches may
be trusses or girders.
Suspension bridges - spans up to 4200 feet (Figure
5).
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Deck type structures, particularly the shorter spans of

beams, girders and rigid frames, are more protected from
the weather than the through and overhead types. Truss
types are more susceptible to painting difficulties than the
beam and girder types, because the latter have large
smooth surfaces, while trusses are broken down into
multitudinous corners, edges and small parts. A timber or
open steel deck gives rise to more corrosion below deck
than does a solid concrete slab. An exception to this case
has been noted in high humidity environments where, apparently, condensation with poor drying conditions causes
more corrosion below solid deck structures. In the case of
a truss bridge with concrete floor, the paint on portions of
the structure above the floor is often in worse condition
than on the floor system below the deck. Although timber
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8 b 2 7 9 4 O 0003728 T32
FIGURE 1
Beam spans can be simple, cantilever, continuous, or composite, but are always
decked structures. Oak Hill Road Bridge illustrates rolled beam simple span.
Courtesy of Cal Trans
with moderate sulfur dioxide and moderate humidity, while

others may suffer from high humidity, high sulfur dioxide,
and salt. Frequently there is a large variation in the environment within a very small geographic area due to local effects. Sulfur dioxide levels may vary substantially from one
end of a structure to the other. The direction of sun and
wind and the degree of sheltering strongly influence the
highly critical time of wetness of structural members. Deicing salts will normally affect specific areas of the superstructure, up to 12 or more feet above the roadway and
various members of the substructure. The presence of
crevices or leaking joints will create accelerated local corrosion. Faulty drainage and poor regular maintenance
cleaning of expansion joints further aggravate this situation.
Identifying the corrosion environment is important
because the suitability and durability of the coating are
directly affected by the type of environment. Thus, in some
locales, a relatively inexpensive, easily applied oil-alkyd
may last 15 years, whereas in more severe locations, that
system may show signif icant deterioration in 2-3 years.
The environment can be determined from the geography (proximity of seacoast, industry, cities) and
climate (acidity and quantity of rainfall, relative humidity,
pollution levels). However, the decision on painting normally requires individual inspection of the structure to
determine its actual condition. In particular, one must note
the performance of the coating system used previously
and the pattern of corrosion in order to select the most
suitable coating for repainting.
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floors on bridges are nearly obsolete, old bridges with

timber floors and new bridges with open grating floors
show corrosive conditions below deck about equal to
those above the deck. Corrosion occurs on the top flanges
of floor members, and dirt falls through and accelerates
paint failure by collecting on lower surfaces. Severe corrosive conditions are generally found at the ends of bridge
spans, at pin bearings, shoes, and expansion devices extending across the bridge floor. Water frequently flows off
at the ends of spans, where the accumulation of moisture
and foreign matter gives rise t o corrosion. These places require special attention when the bridge is to be cleaned.
Periodic removal of the accumulated foreign matter in
maintenance operations will minimize corrosion at these
locations.
Steel piling t o be driven into the ground is not generally painted except where it is exposed. The type of protection to be chosen depends upon the type of exposure.
B. EXPOSURE ENVIRONMENTS
The local environment of the metal on a structure
substantially influences the rate of corrosion of the exposed steel and the deterioration of the protective coating.
Volume 2 of the SSPC Manual(15) lists and classifies exposure environments. For highway bridges the following
types of environments are considered most relevant.
Mild: Low pollution in the form of sulfurdioxide, low

relative humidity, absence of chemical fumes or
accumulation of deicing salts, usually an interior (inland) location.
Humid, Inferior: high humidity, low sulfur dioxide,
little deicing salt.
C. SURFACE CONDITIONS ENCOUNTERED

The surface of a bridge consists of a multitude of minisurfaces with different conditions. Because of the large
diversity in structure types and designs, there is an enormous variability in the proportions of edges, corners, bolts,
protrusions, back-to-back angles, joints, and flat areas.
Because these areas are not likely to be coated and protected evenly and because of differences in environments,
the condition of the substrate will vary considerably from
surface to surface.
Industrial: high sulfur dioxide, moderate or high

humidity.
Marine: high salt content from proximity to seacoast or from deicing salt, high humidity and
moistu re.
The above definitions are, by necessity, arbitrary.
Many bridges will not fall distinctly into any of the
categories. Some bridges may have intermediate climates
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Typical surface conditions encountered on bridges

older than five years are as follows:
1. Tight, intact paint with no rusting.
2. Tight, intact paint, with some signs of visible rust.
3. Finish coat worn down to primer.
4. Popping of mill scale down to bare metal where
shop cleaning was inadequate.
5. Flaking, blistering, alligatoring paint.
6. Bare steel corroding, tight rust.
7. Heavy rusting and pitting; loose, flaky scale.
8. Contamination from oil, dirt, debris.
For each structure, highway officials have a series of
options to consider, ranging from leaving the surface completely untouched to complete blast cleaning and repainting. In between are the options of spot cleaning, touchup,
and overcoating. The action taken and the type of coating
system selected depend on the extent of occurrence of the
surface conditions described. Other factors, described in a
later section, also influence the decision.
The condition of the structure is normally described in
terms of the percentage of the surface showing some sort
of failure such as rust, blistering, or delamination.
However, because of the variety of surfaces and non-
uniformity of failure from beam to beam, the ASTM standards are difficult to apply.
Frequently, the condition is expressed as the overall
percentage of the area exhibiting deterioration. Alternatively, a rating system of 1 to 10 or excellent-good-fairpoor may be used. For bridges having less than 1 or 2%
rust, the usual choice is to spot clean and spot prime,
followed by one or two full topcoats. It is important to
ascertain whether the intact paint is still tightly adhering
and "alive", (e.g. not too thick or brittle).
For structures showing greater than 20-25% surface
deterioration, it is usually more cost-effective to clean the
entire structure (particularly i f abrasive blast cleaning is
available). In the intermediate range, the decision is more
difficult and usually depends on local preference. SSPCPA Guide 4 presents a set of guidelines16.
It should be pointed out that the above visual percentage rating assigned a structure by an inspector or
engineer is not equivalent to the ASTM visual rust ratings
per SSPC-Vis 2 or ASTM-D 610". The former is normally
based on a percentage of the area requiring repainting
while the latter is a numerical identification of the fractional area covered by rust or failed paint.
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FIGURE 2
Continuous girder spans, Elkhorn Bridge, Sacramento River.
Courtesy of Cai Trans

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D. BRIDGE STATISTICS
The following data are presented to demonstrate the
magnitude of the problem of Qrotecting highway bridges.
According to the most recent
by the
Highway Administration, there are approximately 112,000
steel bridges in the United States. Over 4000 of these are
structurally deficient; a large part of the deficiency arises
from inadequate maintenance. The cost of that neglect is

hundreds of millions of dollars per year.
An approximate breakdown of the steel bridges is
shown below (Table 1) in terms of the type and size of
structure and the bridge environment. These data are taken
from a 1980 Federal ~
i ~ d ~ ~ i h ~research
i ~~ t
report,.
TABLE 1
Distribution of Steel Highway Bridges
Exposure Environment
Bridge Type
and Size
Girder, d 60 feet
Girder, < 60 feet
Truss, Q 60 feet
Truss, < 60 feet accessible
Truss, < 60 feet inaccessible
Total
Rural
Industrial
Marine
Total
30,000
14,000
5,000
3,000
3,000
20,000
10,000
3,000
1,000
1,000
11,000
6,000
2,000
1,500
1,500
61,000
30,000
10,000
5,500
5,500
55,000
35,000
22,000
112,000
*Includes bridges on Federal Aid highway system; most county-maintained structures are not included.
111. COATING SYSTEMS FOR FIELD

APP LICATI0 N
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Coating systems are the principal means for corrosion

protection for over 99% of the steel bridges in the U.S. The
coating system as used in this text consists of the surface
preparation, paint application, and coating materials.
(What the author calls coating system is synonymous
with what the SSPC calls painting system). Each of
these three elements is important for achieving satisfactory protection. Most coatings experts consider the surface preparation to be the single most important part of
the coating system. For some zinc-rich, water-borne, or
other high-technology coatings, the application is almost
equally critical. These two aspects normally account for 50
to 80% of the total cost of bridge painting. In this section
are discussed the more common highway practices in
preparation, application, and choice of coating systems.
More comprehensive treatments are given in other
chapters.
Surface contaminants such as rust, rust scale,
chemicals, salts, dirt, loose paint, dust, oil, grease and
moisture will cause poor bonding of a coating to the
substrate. Good surface adhesion of the primer coat is
essential to long service life. If inorganic zinc primers
are used, good surface adhesion requires an anchor pattern
on the steel surface produced by abrasive blast cleaning.

Surface contaminants on steel surfaces act as collecting
sites for moisture and soluble salts, and if not removed
they will cause accelerated rusting and corrosion product
to build up on the underlying surface. This contributes to
the early failure of the paint system.
The methods of surface preparation for the field painting of steel highway bridges depend upon the condition of
the surfaces prior to painting. There are at least nine
methods of surface preparation described by SSPC. The
most important ones for highway steel are hand and power
tool cleaning (SSPC-SP 2 and SSPC-SP 3), commercial
(SSPC-SP 6), brush-off (SSPC-SP 7), and near-white (SSPCSP 10) blast cleaning.
In the painting of bridge structures, the most costeffective method for preparing large surfaces and intricate
configurations is abrasive blast cleaning. This includes
jobs requiring extensive touch-up work on corroded joints
and newly erected steel, and the complete repainting of an
existing structure. For minor spot repair, hand or powertool cleaning may be more practical. In addition, when
painting over existing sound paint, water blasting may be
preferred to brush-off blast cleaning.
Concern over the toxicity of silica sand and paint
dusts have caused regulators t o impose limitations on dry
abrasive blasting in some areas. Alternative cleaning
methods such as wet sand or grit blasting, water blasting,
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of the surface preparation or retained panels may be taken

at this time and then used by the inspector throughout the
course of the job. It is almost a certainty that the surface
preparation will not meet the requirements of the
specification if the contractor does not provide the appropriate scaffolds and equipment to make the work area
safe and accessible (Figure 8). It is also extremely important that the inspectors be able and willing to climb
anywhere on the structure where inspections are
necessary.
The cost of preparing bridge surfaces by abrasive
blasting can vary significantly depending on the structure
type, structure condition, and the grade of surface preparation specified. The type of dust containment required can
also have a significant impact on costs.
Courtesy of Cal Trans
or vacuum blasting and containment of abrasives are currently being evaluated and are discussed in a separate
chapter. Abrasive blast cleaning removes most contaminants from the surface and provides a surface profile (pattern of peaks and valleys). The surface profile provides increased surface area for improved adhesion of the primer
coat. Usually, excellent adhesion will be obtained if the
average depth of the blast profile is approximately onethird the thickness of the primer. For example, self-curing
inorganic zinc primers applied at three to five mils dry film
thickness require a surface profile between one and two
mils. The dry film thickness of the primer coat must provide adequate coverage above the surface profile peaks.
Profile height is determined primarily by the mesh size of
the abrasive, typically ranging from about 0.5 mils for
60-120 mesh sand up to 3-4 mils for 12-30 mesh. Additional
information on surface profile is available from SSPCz.
Daily abrasive blasting operations should allow sufficient time for a thorough inspection of the work after all of
the loose debris is air-blown free of the steel surface.
Areas found deficient in surface preparation should be
marked with chalk and then re-blasted or touched up by
power tool cleaning. The entire area should then be airblown down again with high pressure dry air just prior to
application of the primer coat. Inspection of the daily work
should commence by 3 p.m. or earlier, depending on the
weather and the time of year.
Mirror devices and lights should be used to check inside box girders. Bearing shoe assemblies, gussett plates,
angle braces, cross braces, lattice work, bolted connections, rivet heads, faying surfaces, and flange edges are all
troublesome areas to blast clean (Figure 7).
To obtain a good painting job the contractor must fully
understand the requirements of the surface preparation
specifications. Demonstrations of surface cleaning by
abrasive blasting at the bridge site prior to job bidding have
proved quite successful in showing the contractor what
degree of cleaning is acfually expected. Color photographs
The fundamentals and equipment for paint application, discussed in a separate chapter, are entirely applicable to bridge painting. (See SSPC-PA 1.) However,
bridge painting also presents certain unique problems and
considerat ions.
The choice between roller, brush, conventional spray,
or airless spray depends on the type of paint, the size of
the job, the conditions at the site, and the capabilities of
the contractor. Brushing and rolling are suitable primarily
on spans over residential areas and for small touchup jobs,
to reduce overspray, or in some instances, to comply with
union restrictions. Many of the newer, high-technology
coatings, such as zinc-rich primers, vinyls, high-build
coatings, epoxies, and high-build coatings require spray
techniques.
Airless spray technique allows the use of more
viscous materials than conventional spray. For trusses,
lattice-work, structures with excessive bolts, and for paining in confined spaces, airless spray may deliver too much
material per unit of time. It becomes impossible to avoid
excessive paint build-up on these areas. For such applications, conventional air spray, which allows greater control
of the rate of paint application, is preferred.
Whichever type of spraying equipment is used, it is
important to keep the paint in the spray pot continuously
agitated in order to prevent pigment settling. The air supply
lines of the spray painting equipment should be equipped
with water separators to insure a moisture-free air supply
at the spray gun. Tip size and fan selection are especially
important for efficient operation.
FIGURE 4
Skyway Bridge illustrating through truss and deck truss.
Courtesy of Florida DOT
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FIGURE 3
Box girder type bridge. Bryte Bend Bridge.
SSPC CHAPTER*LL.O
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8627940 0003732 463
FIGURE 5
Golden Gate Suspension Bridge, San Francisco, California. The
SSPC has cooperated with the Golden Gate Bridge Highway &
Transportation District in conducting tests of alternate paint
systems on this bridge over a period of many years. These include
evaluation of more than 20 alternate zinc-rich systems as well as
other generic types. Similar cooperative SSPC tests have been
conducted on bridges throughout the country.
Courtesy Golden Gate BH&T District
In structural steel spray painting, the primer coat

should be applied in multiple spray passes to achieve a full
wet coat without sags, runs, or dry spray. The intermediate
coats (contrasting tint) and finish coat should be applied in
the same manner. Areas that are difficult to paint such as
rivets, bolted connections, flange edges, etc. should
receive extra spray passes to insure good coverage and
film build. When oil-base paints are used, it is advisable to
brush the first primer coat application on the hard-to-paint
areas; these areas are frequently also the ones not
thoroughly cleaned. Additional coats of paint may then be
applied by spraying.
The paint inspector should be familiar with the paint
materials used and should have knowledge of the proper
spraying techniques. The inspector should observe the
spraying techniques of each painter and should know the
number of spray passes that are necessary to build the required paint film thickness over a given area. For many
coatings (particularly new synthetic polymers) excessive
film buildup may be as detrimental as too little paint. For
inorganic zinc-rich primers, too heavy an application can
lead to mudcracking and to problems of topcoat adhesion,
bubbling, and pinholing.
With inorganic zinc-rich primers, special care is
needed to insure a uniform wet coat application without
incurring dry zinc overspray. Inorganic zinc dry spray can
result i f conditions are windy and the spray pass is not
close enough to the surface. The dry spray can cause adhesion problems, and should be removed prior to application
of the intermediate coats or finish coat. Constant agitation
and short hoses help application and maintain zinc
suspension.
When practical, painting should be done during warm
dry weather. The lower range of temperature at which paint
may be applied depends on the generic type of paint used.
It is, however, frequently limited by specification to 40F
(4C). Most catalyzed epoxies will not cure below 50F
(lOC), whereas inorganic zincs and vinyls can often be applied at 32F (OOC).
Most types of paint thicken in cold weather, and the
painters use thinners to facilitate application, resulting in a
thin coat of paint, adhesion problems, and poor film integrity. As a general rule, the specifications and the
manufacturer's recommendations should be followed exactly.
When the relative humidity of the air is greater than
85%, there is a danger of condensation of moisture on the
steel with consequent bad effects upon the paint, parto surface adhesion and water entrapticularly in regard
ment. Painting is usually not recommended until the
relative humidity drops below 85% and the wind velocity is
less than 15 mph. Surface temperature of the steel should
be at least 5F (3C) above the dew point.
It is important to be aware of the cooling and heating
characteristics of the steel being painted. The surface
temperature of the shady side of a structural steel beam
may be several degrees cooler than the sunny side. Small
members cool and heat more rapidly than the large structural elements. Exteriors of sealed boxes may reach
temperatures of 130F (54C).
C. TYPES OF PAINTS USED

A survey of forty State Highway Departments conducted in 1968 by the Steel Structures Painting Council
showed that lead-containing oil base and oillalkyd base
paint systems were the primary paint systems used to
paint highway bridges and structures throughout the
United States3. In 1979 these systems still ranked first in
overall usage. However, since 1968, organic and inorganic
zinc-rich coatings have gained significant support. Over
twenty-five states now allow the limited use of zinc coating
systems4.
Florida, for example, has used inorganic zinc-rich
FIGURE 6
Modern mobile sandblasting unit.
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C H A P T E R * L L - O 9 3 W 8627 940 0003733 3 T T m
Oil-Alkyd Coating System

Surface Preparation: Hand or Power Tool Cleaning (SSPC-SP 2 or SSPC-SP 3; SP 6 sometimes
used to enhance longevity of system)
Primers:
(1) AASHTO M-72*,** or TT-P-86, Type III, OilAlkyd Paint containing red lead
(2) AASHTO M-229* or Federal Specification TTP-615*,* *, Oil-Alkyd Paint containing basic
lead silico chromate
(3) SSPC-Paints 1 *, 2 * , and 25
Topcoats:
(1) Federal Specification TT-E-489, High Gloss
Alkyd
(2) SSPC-Paints 101, 102, 104, and 108, Alkyd
Topcoats
FIGURE 7
Difficult areas to blast clean.

primers on 90% of the bridge painting jobs contracted
since 19705. Many states specify inorganic zinc-rich
primers for new construction while maintenance painting
continues to be done with oil-based or alkyd paints. Some
states have specifications covering organic zinc-rich
primers for repair work as well as new construction.
Vinyl topcoats are commonly specified over zinc-rich
primers. Both the low-build type applied by conventional
air or airless spray and the high-build type applied by
airless spray are in use. State specifications commonly require that the vinyl topcoat be supplied by the manufacturer of the zinc-rich primer to avoid compatibility problems. A tie-coat or mist coat may be necessary for this purpose.
Several states permit the use of all-vinyl coating
systems. The first coat is normally the vinyl butyral wash
primer (e.g. DOD-P-15328 or SSPC-Paint 27, followed by
two or more coats of vinyl paint.
Concern over restrictions on solvent emissions has
stimulated interest in water-borne coatings. Florida DOT
has been evaluating leaded and non-leaded water-borne
systems on structural steel since 1975. In 1978, three inland bridges over fresh water were painted with the most
promising of these systems. California DOT (Caltrans) has
done extensive testing of water-borne systems, including
both latex primers and topcoats, while avoiding the use of
lead compounds. A styreneacrylic latex primer and an
aluminum-pigmented acrylic latex topcoat have been applied to over fifteen structuresg.
Other coatings that have been used include the follow
i ng:
Epoxy Esters
Catalyzed Epoxy
Catalyzed and MoistureCured Urethanes
Aluminum-Filled Epoxy Mastic
Chlorinated Rubber
Modified Alkyds (Silicone)
Coal Tar Epoxy
Coatings with Lead and Chromate-free
Inhibit ive Pigments
Vinyls
Organic Zinc/Vinyl Coating System

Surface Preparation: Commercial Elast Cleaning
(SSPC-SP6)
Primer: SSPC-Paint 20 Type II or Paint 29 Type II
Tie-Coat: Vinyl Butyral Wash Primer
(DOD-P-l5328*, SSPC-Paint 27*
Topcoat(s): Vinyl Paint, e.g. SSPC-Paint 9
*Contains lead or chromate

* *Canceled
FIGURE 8
Portable rolling scaffolding.

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Inorganic Zinc/Vinyl Coating System

Surface Preparation: Near-White Blast Cleaning
(SSPC-SP 10)
Primer: Inorganic Zinc-Rich; AASHTO M-300,
see also SSPC-Paint 20 Type I or 29 Type I
Tiecoat: Vinyl Butyral Wash Primer (DOD-P-15328*
or SSPC-Paint 27*)
Topcoat(s): Vinyl Paint, e.g. SSPC-Paint 9
Note: Variations on the zinc-rich systems include elimination of the vinyl wash primer and use of high-build vinyl
topcoat.
Organic or Inorganic One-Coat Zinc-Rich System
See SSPC-PS 12.00 and PS 12.01 based on
SSPC-Paint 20 Zinc-Rich, or Paint 29
Vinyl Coating System
Surface Preparation: Near-White Blast Cleaning
(SSPC-SP 10)
Primer: Vinyl Butyral Wash Primer
(DOD-P-15328* or SSPC-Paint 27*)
Intermediate Coat: Vinyl Paint (SSPC-Paint 9,
2 coats)
Topcoat(s): Vinyl Paint (SSPC-Paint 9, 2 coats)
Water-Borne Systems
Surface Preparation: Commercial Blast Cleaning
(SSPC-SP 6)
PrimerTTopcoat: Latex. Corrosion-Resistant (acrylic),
SSPC-PS 24
Table 2 below gives typical coating systems for field
repainting for representative bridge conditions and environments. SSPC-PA 2, Measurement of Dry Paint
Thickness with Magnetic Gages and SSPC-PA Guide 4,
Guide to Maintenance Repainting with Oil Base or Alkyd
Painting Systems16give guidelines for application.
D. LIFE EXPECTANCY OF BRIDGE PAINTS

Life expectancy for paint on highway bridges depends
upon the following factors: type of bridge, surface preparation, application of the paint, quality of paint, suitability of
paint system to bridge design, number of coats, and
climatic or other field conditions. With these variables,
bridge paint may last from one to fifteen or more years. A
bridge in a severely corrosive location with a poor quality
of paint applied to an unprepared, dirty or wet surface will

no doubt suffer early failure. A bridge located in a dry, rural
atmosphere with the best of paint properly applied to a
well-prepared surface is expected to be protected for
many years. Because maintenance cleaning and painting is
expensive, the longest possible paint life is usually the
most economical.
An existing bridge exhibits a variety of surface and
paint conditions. Any quantitative estimation of life expectancy of a paint system depends on the definition of
criteria for failure. Frequently, a paint system is said to
have failed i f the amount of surface area rusted or
deteriorated exceeds a threshhold figure (typically 16%).
However, the distribution of deteriorated areas is often
more important than the overall percentage.
A structure may have a few areas subject to severe
corrosion conditions that indicate localized paint failure,
with the remainder of the paint in very good condition. In
such cases a small amount of touch-up painting may add
several years to the overall life of the paint. On another
structure, blisters and rust spots may be visible on most of
the webs, edges, and stiffeners; this situation would require a complete repainting.
A given bridge may be hand- or power-tool cleaned,
spot primed, and given two finish coats of paint after a certain number of years. The same bridge may possibly be
allowed to stand twice this length of time and then be completely blast cleaned and given a prime coat and two finish
coats of paint. Unless the latter method shows a considerable saving in cost over the first method, it will not
prove economical because of the loss of metal through
corrosion and abrasive blasting. Furthermore, the former
method gives a greatly improved appearance over the
years.
The first maintenance painting after construction may
compensate for lack of mill scale removal in the first surface preparation. Succeeding paintings often last up t o 100
percent longer. On some bridges repeated applications of
paint over 40 or more years results in excessive paint buildups (>25 mils). This can cause film failure and shortened
paint life even over intact mill scale.
Several major bridges (principally toll facilities) have
permanent paint crews so that the bridge is being cleaned
and painted continuously. Many highway bridges are
painted regularly, possibly every five to eight years; others
in rural locations may not be painted more often than every
ten or twelve years when regular maintenance is
stipulated. In some jurisdictions, tight budgets and
negligence extend the repaint cycle to 20 years or more.
While data on the life expectancy of bridge paints vary
considerably, it may be assumed generally that for a threecoat oil-base system on a well prepared metal base, the life
expectancy in semi-dry and rural regions is from seven to
fifteen years; the life expectancy for the same structure in
humid, industrial, or marine regions is three to seven years.
Inorganic zinc-rich coating systems have a life expectancy
of ten years or more in a marine or industrial environment
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TABLE 2
Typical Coating Systems for Repainting Bridges
Environment
Severe corrosion in joints,

connections, etc; rest of
steel mostly sound
Humid, Marine,
Industrial
Extensive deterioration
paint, corrosion
Extensive deterioration;
mostly flat, accessible
Extensive deterioration;
many details, lattice work,
etc.
Mild
Humid, Marine,
Industrial
Humid, Industrial
Organic ZinclVinyl: spot

power-tool clean (SSPC-SP 3);
or spot blast (SSPC-SP 7)
topcoats (may require special
tie-coat between old paint
and vinyl)
Oi I-A Ikyd: f uI I blast
(SSPC-SP 6); 3-coat system
or
Water- Borne: f uII blast
(SSPC-SP6); 2 primer coats;
2 topcoats.
Inorganic Zi nclVi ny I: ful I
blast (SSPC-SP IO); 2 or 3
coat system
or
Inorganic ZinclCatalyzed Epoxy1
Aliphatic Urethane: NearWhite blast (SSPC-SP IO);
3-coat system (for severe
corrosion areas)
Organic ZinclVinyl: full blast
(SSPC-SP6); 3 or 4-coat system
to damage by deicing salts. Through bridges in dry locations or deck bridges in damp locations may be expected
to have a somewhat shorter life. Certain sections of the
bridge (e.g. expansion bays, pier caps, beam ends) might
require added protection in situations in which oil-alkyd
maintenance systems are considered suitable for most of
the steel.
and fifteen years or more in a rural environment. Organic

zinc-rich and other synthetic polymer coating systems (.e.
vinyl, urethane, catalyzed epoxy, chlorinated rubber) are
considered superior to oil and alkyd systems, but not as effective as a well-applied high quality inorganic zinc
system. For all of these newer coating systems the
performance is strongly dependent on the specific formulation or brand selected.
The water-borne coating systems are still in an early
stage of development with only short-term field data
available. The results indicate that these coatings should
not be specified for conditions of high humidity or even for
moderate industrial or marine environments. In certain
mild environments, water-borne systems have given up to
four years of good service, but have not yet demonstrated
equivalance to standard oil-alkyd systemsg.
In general, the deck beam and girder bridges in dry
locations may be expected to have a maximum paint life,
except for rail sections on parapet walls and raised medians of steel grill work. The latter are particularly subject
Oil-Alkyd: spot hand-tool

clean (SSPC-SP 2); spot
prime; 1 or 2 full topcoats
All
Mostly sound, intact

paint (oil, alkyd)
Suggested Coating System
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Bridge Condition
IV. ADDITIONAL FACTORS INFLUENCING

COATING SELECTION AND PERFORMANCE
A. INSPECTION AND QUALITY ASSURANCE
Quality assurance is the total process by which the
state insures that the workmanship and materials meet the
requirements of the contract and specifications. The key to
quality assurance of highway bridge painting is inspection.
In all cases of field cleaning and painting of highway
bridges, the structure should be thoroughly inspected and
repaired before any cleaning or painting is allowed. Bent
parts should be straightened. Rivets and bolts should be
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Inspection is particularly important when using zincrich, water borne, and other high-technology coatings.
These coatings are much less forgiving of poor or improper surface preparation and paint application techniques compared to the oil and alkyd paints they are
replacing.
checked for tightness and replaced when necessary. Railings should be checked for alignment and strength of connections. Drains, floor expansion devices, shoes and bearings should be cleaned and repaired.
An important duty of the inspector is to see that the
steel surfaces to be painted are clean and dry. The inspector must obtain samples of the paint. The paint should then
be tested in the laboratory to make certain it meets the
specification. The inspector should retain certified copies
of test reports. Inspectors must see that the paint is properly mixed and applied; of uniform thickness and appearance; without sags, runs, or pools of excess paint; and
that rivet and bolt heads, edges and corners are thoroughly
covered with each coat of paint.
The inspector has a continuous responsibility during
the cleaning and painting processes. The cleaning must be
closely and promptly checked to ascertain the quality of
the work. This will prevent the expense and delay entailed
in the replacement of scaffolding and equipment. The
equipment and materials used for abrasive blasting, handand power-tool cleaning, and cleaning fluids should be
checked against the specifications. The paint should
always be checked to make sure it has been received from
the proper source approved for the job.
The inspector must witness all facets of the job. His
failure to discard poor materials or stop faulty work is
almost equivalent to giving the engineers approval of such
practices. The inspector must see that all debris is removed from the site at the conclusion of the work, that
concrete is not spattered with paint, or surroundings
defaced. Much helpful information on inspection is included in Volume 1. Last, but not least in importance, adequate
information for permanent records of the painting job must
be kept.
B. ECONOMICS OF BRIDGE MAINTENANCE

PAINTING
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The subject of costs for coatings, surface preparation,

and application has been discussed elsewhere in this
manual. It should not be assumed, however, that the most
cost-effective coating system will be chosen. As shown in
a recent FHWA report, the budgets for maintenance painting of highway bridges is considerably below that which is
needed. Because of the limited funds, it is difficult to
convince bridge officials or legislatures to invest in
coatings with higher initial cost, although they may prove
least costly over an extended period.
For most bridges, the repainting consists of spot
cleaning and priming the rusty or failed areas, followed by
one or two full topcoats. Normally, the decision to repaint
is based on an inspection report or as part of a fixed
maintenance cycle. Significant savings would be realized if
the repainting were done before the appearance of excessive rust or failed paint which must be removed. Timely
repainting would greatly reduce the labor costs of surface
preparation and priming. Too often, structures are not
painted until they display major signs of failure and corrosion.
C. SAFETY PRECAUTIONS
The best workmanship can be expected only when
proper attention is given to the safety measures provided
for the work force involved in the painting of steel. Safety
precautions issued by the American National Standards Institute (ANSI) and the National Safety Council (NSC)
should be practiced. Additional sources of information are
available from SSPC-PA Guide 3, A Guide to Safety in
Paint Application and the pamphlet Play It Safe and
Healt hyO.
1. Pathological
The cleaning and painting of structural steel involves
certain health hazards of which the owner and applicator must be aware. Chipping, grinding, and wire
brushing of steel give rise to flying particles of steel,
scale, and dirt, which could cause eye trouble unless
goggles are worn. Dust particles, particularly those
arising from sandblasting, may, after prolonged exposure, result in silicosis, or other lung diseases.
Workers who are habitually exposed should be required to wear cartridge respirators or forced air
helmets. Similarly, fumes arising from certain paint
removers containing carbon tetrachloride or methyl
ethyl ketone, and from the paint solvents, may constitute a health hazard. In such cases, and when paint
FIGURE 9
Checking dry paint film thickness.

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foul easily and be heavy for a person t o drag. Injury is

sure to result if the person should fall. Life belts with a
D ring in the back should always be used in conjunction with life lines; a loop of rope around the persons
body should not be employed.
Special care is necessary in extremely cold or hot
weather t o make certain that life belts are used and
are in good condition. In very cold weather, a persons
hands become numb, which could result in loss of
grip, while hot weather sometimes causes dizziness.
6. Life Nefs
Another effective form of protection is the life net. It
may be erected under either individual scaffolds or
complete bays of the bridge. Where used, the net
should be inspected and kept in good condition.
is sprayed, adequate respirators should be used. Work

clothes should be laundered frequently. When cleaning or painting is being done on the inside of tower
legs or other large steel members, either an adequate
ventilation system should be installed or respirators
supplied with clean air should be used. Workers
should eat with clean hands and faces in a clean, well
ventilated location. No type of gasoline, leaded or
unleaded, should ever be used as a solvent for personal cleaning.
2. Accients
Falls from ladders and scaffolds are a frequent source
of injury to workers who are cleaning and painting
bridges. The supervisor in charge of field work should
continually warn his crew t o use precautions t o prevent such accidents. All scaffolds, fixtures, hangers,
cables, and ropes should be inspected by the job
foreman each day, or before each use. Any defective
scaffold plank, cable, or rope should be discarded and
replaced with new equipment. All standing or hanging
scaffolds should be inspected daily for strains or
weaknesses caused by wind sway.
Engineers and contractors should be familiar
with the Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) Regulations for Construction, Part 1926.
7. Fire
Most bridge paints and volatile liquids used in conjunction with them are flammable and should be kept
in closed containers away from fires. Paints and thinners should not be stored on bridge decks, even in
trailers. Smoking should not be permitted inside of
paint storage rooms or near these flammable
materials. Rags used to wipe paint and oils should be
kept in a metal container in the open air away from
stored paint materials. Great care should be exercised
when painting in closed spaces since explosions may
occur i f the vaporized flammable solvent reaches the
explosive concentration range.
3. Ladders
Ladders used for access t o scaffolds or other parts of
the bridge should be securely lashed in place or provided with hooks at the top end. Lattice work on
beams should not be used for climbing; a permanent
metal ladder or a securely lashed ladder should be
used. Ladders should never be permitted to stand in
the roadway unless protected by red warning flags
with an attendant on the traffic side of the ladder.
D. REGULATIONS IN EFFECT
Environmental, health, and safety regulations are
becoming an important factor in the choice of coating
systems for bridges. Replacements for lead and chromate
pigments have shown reduced ability to protect against
corrosioni1. In addition, the performance of these coatings is very sensitive to the specific paint formulation,
unlike the conventional lead and chromate pigments,
which have been effective in a wide variety of binders and
compositions. Thus, for the lead and chromate-free paints,
the quality assurance of the coatings will be more critical.
All of the states are required to submit State Implementation Plans (SIP) to the Environmental Protection
Agency (EPA)12, describing how they plan to meet the
clean air standardsi3. The published EPA guidelines did
not specifically require any State action to control bridge
coatings. It is expected, therefore, that until EPA issues
more definitive guidelines, control of organic solvents in
paints will be regulated at the local level.
The anticipated restriction of solvents from the
California Air Resources Board (CARE) has led the States
highway laboratory (Caltrans) t o develop and evaluate
water-borne coatingsi4. Although there have been advances, there are still some severe problems in field usage
of water-borne coatings. The requirements for surface
preparation and application are more critical than for oilbased solvent-borne paints. In addition, water-borne
coatings have not yet demonstrated the ability t o provide
4. Boatswains Chairs
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
If a boatswains chair is used, the worker should be

fastened into the seat with a safety strap. Boatswains
chair ropes and pulleys should be inspected daily by
the foreman on the job and the person who is to use
the equipment. The following precautions should be
observed: An attendant (not the person in the chair)
should always be assigned to handle the hoisting and
lowering of the chair.
The chair should be attached to the gantline, using either a double becket hitch or a bowline hitch.
The sling, or safety strap, must be securely fastened.
5. Life Lines
Life lines should be used where required in accordance with OSHA regulation. In some cases contract
provisions state that ropes and cables not be placed
on, or drawn across, freshly painted beams. This
makes it difficult t o use lines in some cases. Where
life lines are used very little slack should be allowed
- not more than two or three feet, preferably less,
although this is difficult to enforce. A long line will
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Particular recognition is due to Tom Shelley of CALTRANS
for his advice and contribution to this chapter.
The authors and editors also gratefully acknowledge the active participation of the following in the review process: Duane
Bloemke, Carl Bye, John Conomos, Raye Fraser, S.C. Frye, Clive
Hare, Preston Hollister, Robert J. Martell, Doug Nash, Charles Ray,
Gary Tinklenberg and William Wallace.
BIOGRAPHY
Richard R. Ramsey received a B.S. in Chemistry from
Otterbein College in 1959. For
the past 15 years he has been a
Materials Research Chemist
for the Florida Department of
Transportation. His primary research interest is in coating
systems for structural steel.
He has been a member of
NACE for 10 years.
A biographical sketch and portrait of Dr. Bernard R. Appleman appear at the end of Chapter 2.8.
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
long-term protection in humid, polluted, or salt environment~~.

The practice of open-air sand blasting, recognized as
the most efficient and effective way to prepare surfaces for
maintenance, produces several undesirable effects, including silica particles, dust clouds, and deposition of
lead-containing paints in the environment. Efforts have
focused on alternative methods for preparing surfaces
such as water blasting, wet abrasive blasting, containment
devices, acid cleaning, and non-silica abrasives. It is virtually certain that the newer methods will add significantly
to the cost of surface preparation of bridges.
Overall, the regulations are expected to have the
following impacts on highway painting practices.
(1) Decreased level of performance due to
replacement of lead and chromate pigments, elimination of organic solvent, and use of less effective and
more costly surface preparation techniques.
(2) Need for greater attention to quality of surface preparation, application, and inspection.
(3) Increased costs of protecting bridges due to
increased costs of surface preparation, insurance,
safety, equipment, coating materials, and training.
(4) More frequent repainting to maintain same level
of performance.
The above factors will require greater allocation of
funds for bridge maintenance painting. However,
maintenance painting activities are competing with other
maintenance and construction needs for increasingly
scarce highway funds. The availability of the funds needed
to assure protection of the nation's bridges is still uncertain. Shortages of these funds would result in a general
deterioration of their condition and safety.

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REFERENCES
1. S. Frondistou-Yannas, Coating and Corrosion Costs of
Highway Structural Steel. Report No. FHWA/RD-79/121,
March 1980.
2. J.D. Keane, J.A. Bruno, and R.E.F. Weaver, Surface Profile
for Anti-Corrosion Paints. Report No. FHWA-PA-71/14,1976.
3. J.D. Keane, Protective Coatings for Highway Structural
Steel. National Cooperative Highway Research Program
(NCHRP). Reports 74 and 74B, 1969.
4. C.J. Ray, F.A. Rideout, and L.E. Henton, Coating Systems
for Painting Old New Structural Steel. NCHRP Report on
Study 4-14, 1982. Published by Transportation Research
Board, Washington, DC 20415.
5. Florida Department of Transportation: Standard Specifications for Road and Bridge Construction, 1977, Sections
560-562 and 971.
6. R. Warness, Water-Based Coatings for Protection of Steel
Structures. Report No. FHWA-CAITL-79/24,November 1979;
Low Solvent Primer and Finish Coats for Use on Steel and
Other Structures. California Department of Transportation
Research Study D-3-69 (604186), 1980-1982.
7. American Association of State Highway and Transportation
Officials, Standard Specifications for Transportation
Materials and Methods for Sampling and Testing. Part I Specifications. July 1978, Washington, DC 20001.
8. California Department of Transportation: Standard Specifications (Paint, Primer, Zinc-Rich Organic Vehicle Type); and
Standard Special Provisions (Water Based Paints), 1981.
9. J.A. Bruno, and J.D. Keane, Evaluation of Low-Solvent
Maintenance Coatings for Highway Structural Steel. Report
No. FHWAIRD-811019, December, 1981; Annotated
Bibliography, Report No. FHWA/RD-81/091,December, 1981.
10. Play It Safe and Healthy. (1967-72, 79), International Brotherhood of Painters and Allied Trades, United Unions Building,
1750 New York Avenue, N.W., Washington, D.C.
11. B.A. Appleman, J.A. Bruno, and R.E.F. Weaver, Performance
of Alternate Coatings in the Environment (PACE) Volume I.
Steel Structures Painting Council, i989.
12. Policy Statement on Use of the Concept of Photochemical
Reactivity of Organic Compounds in State Implementation
Plans for Oxidant Control. Office of Air and Waste Management and Office of Research and Development, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park,
North Carolina, December 5, 1975.
13. Air Quality. Federal Register 42, No. 131, pp. 353146, 1977.
Most States Ready to Enforce Air Pollution Regulations.
Products Finishing, 44, No. 12, pp. 546, September, 1980.
14. State of California Air Resources Board. Model Rule for Architectural Coatings. July 7, 1977. See also American Paint
Journal; December 8, 1980, ((pp. 7-8); August 17, 1981, (pp.
45-46): November 2, 1981 (pp. 7-8, 12).
15. Steel Structures Painting Manual, Volume 2 - Systems and
SDecifications. John D. Keane, ed. Steel Structures Paintina
Council, 1982.
16. SSPC-PA 4, Shop, Field and Maintenance Painting. Steel
Structures Paintina Council, 1982.
17. SSPC-VIS 2, Standard Method of Evaluating Degree of Rusting on Painted Steel Surfaces, Steel Structures Painting Council. 1976.

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CHAPTER 12
PAINTING OF VESSELS FOR

SALT WATER SERVICE
by
I. INTRODUCTION
drydocking a supertanker runs into hundreds of thousands

of dollars, not including the revenue lost while the ship is
out of service. Thus effective corrosion control and antifouling measures during construction are of utmost importance to the ship ownerloperator. Also, strong consideration should be given to repairability of coatings and
coating systems. When a ship is being constructed, areas
to be coated are usually accessible, and sufficient time
can be spent on preparation and application. While in
drydock, however, conditions for work can be marginal.
When coating systems are selected, therefore, the overall
cost effectiveness should be studied, including cost of
maintenance, repair, and out-of-service costs.
Surface preparation and coating application traditionally are the last scheduled and least considered
operations of construction. Coating during the modular
stage of construction has partially relieved some problems, but has created others. Final coating is still dependent on the work schedules of other crafts involved, whether
it is new construction or maintenance and repair. As a
result, efficient planning and operation must be maintained if costs are to be limited.
The transition of shipbuilding from wood to ferrous

materials subject to corrosive attack by the environment made it necessary to provide suitable methods
to protect these materials. Coating systems comprised
of dense barrier coats or containing inhibitive pigments
can effectively protect against corrosion. Finish coats
are applied to improve appearance and to protect primers
against external influences so they retain anticorrosive
propert es.
This chapter describes present day practices for application, coating materials and surface preparation for all
surfaces on a ship subject to corrosion. New construction
will be discussed separately from maintenance and repair
because modern construction procedures have made construction coating procedures quite different from those
in maintenance and repair. Protection problems vary
among ship types such as tankers, freighters, bulk carriers
and small work boats. Specialized problems often arise in
a particular service, but answers will usually be evident i f
fundamental principles of marine corrosion and its prevention through the use of coatings are understood and
followed.
This discussion is limited to commercial vessels.
Naval vessels are considered a special case and are
covered in a separate chapter. Even though surface
preparation, coating materials and application are
generally the same, service requirements for naval vessels
are different from those of commercial operators. Navy
criteria for testing and approving coating materials and
systems are often a guide for selection of items by the
marine community, and Naval approvals of proprietary
systems often lead to acceptance of the systems by commercial operators.
A. THE PROBLEM
When a vessel is built, consideration is given to how
to protect metal surfaces against the environment.
Coatings are the primary method to protect surfaces. The
type of coating applied, surface preparation and film
thicknesses will, to a degree, depend on expected service
conditions, such as salt water immersion, fouling, atmospheric exposure, etc. Often, cargo tanks should be
coated to protect the steel from corrosion and the cargo
from contamination.
Destruction of a coating film and subsequent protection breakdown is caused by steel rusting beneath the
coating. Rusting occurs because of a reaction of the steel
substrate with water and oxygen that diffuse through the
film.
In a rural environment, good protection can be obtained by minimizing diffusion with a highly impervious
film that functions as a barrier coating. In more aggressive
marine environments the rate of corrosion is greater, partly
due to the presence of soluble gases and salts. Those
gases and salts ionize and diffuse through the film. Corrosion is accelerated by chemical attack on steel and elec-
II. GENERAL DISCUSSION

Coating applicators and equipment manufacturers
must follow government regulations covering application
and use of coating materials. For instance, the effects of
surface preparation on air and water pollution is of considerable concern. Rules and regulations to control pollution add costs and other burdens for the shipyards.
Coating systems that minimize maintenance and the
frequency of drydocking are cost-effective. The cost of

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2. Alternate immersion, such as alternate exposure

to the air, sunlight and salt water, causing
premature failure of coating materials.
3. Abrasion damage from rubbing against piers,
tugs, loading barges, or the bottom when
operating in shallow waters, etc.
4. Fumes from stack gases and port environments.
5. Pollution of waters in harbors and docking areas
that may attack coatings.
6. Air pollution caused by industrial smogs.
trolytic action. The need for a high performance coating

system in these circumstances is paramount.
The underwater area of a ship can be one of the most
critical areas for protection. Because it can be observed
only while the vessel is in drydock or through a perfunctory
inspection by divers, coating systems and other methods
of corrosion control, such as cathodic protection, become
increasingly important. Hull roughness, which is caused
by corrosion, breakdown of the coating system and fouling
can cause a loss in speed. To compensate for speed loss
an increase in power and fuel consumption is required.
Never in the history of the maritime industry has
vessel downtime been so expensive. Drydock charges
range from $10,000 to $30,000 and more per day, depending on the vessels size. This, plus costs for yard labor and
materials to prepare a dirty and fouled hull for coating,
tends to make ship owners delay the chore until the very
last minute. Many owners wait until seasonal slowdown or
the deadline for its classification survey to minimize lost
income while the vessel is out of service.
Balanced precariously against the high cost of maintaining a vessel is the even higher cost of delaying
maintenance for too long.
Most vessel operators know that between 10 and 20
percent more power is required to maintain speed because
of fouling (underwater marine growth on the hull and propeller) or because of hull roughness caused by pitting from
corrosion. The increased cost of petroleum fuels and their
potential scarcity, the need for extra power to stay on
schedule, or additional voyage time from running at reduced speed to conserve fuel can quickly exceed the cost
of recoating.
A VLCC (Very Large Crude Carrier) operating at a
reduced speed of 13 knots can consume more than
$700,000 in extra (wasted) fuel during a 30-month drydock
cycle because of drag caused by fouling. A typical 250,000
deadweight ton (dwt) tanker, with its hull freshly coated
and smooth, will run at 13 knots with an output of approximately 14,500 shaft horsepower (shp). A year later, 16,000
shp will be required; by the end of two years 20,000 shp is
required, and by 30 months the required shp will have gone
over 21,000 - an increase of almost 30 percent. Operated
at full power to hold schedules, the same tanker will start
running close to 17 knots, drop to 16 knots after one year,
15 knots after two years and finally, struggle along after 30
months at 14.5 knots - with its engines developing full
shp. Drastic increases in fuel consumption require vessel
operators either to shorten the drydock cycle or to resort to
interim hull maintenance, such as underwater cleaning to
reduce hull drag caused by fouling.
In addition to the general difficulties presented by
ships operational schedules, marine coatings must have
many specific resistances. Even though areas on ships differ greatly, the following conditions are among those that
cause the most trouble:
7. Wide range of temperature, humidity and other

conditions during application and service.
8. Cargo splash and spillage.
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B. ECONOMICS
The economics of painting ships in service is complicated by the uniqueness of the services they perform
and their size. A ship is only serving its function when moving cargo from one point to another. Each day a vessel
spends tied at a shipyard represents a financial loss to the
owners. Depending on prevailing cargo rates and the ship
size, this loss can total thousands of dollars a day.
When calculating the cost of repairing corrosion
damage, it is first necessary to multiply the extra days in
dock by daily charges and losses. Losses due to corrosion
are usually represented by work, such as renewing welds,
replacing steel, renewing piping, repairing equipment, installing new gear, etc.
Large sums of money involved in ship repairs make it
apparent that controlling corrosion, can reduce costs. Any
effective corrosion preventive measures that can be applied when the vessel is built, or installed at regular visits
to a shipyard necessitated by regulatory bodies (such as
American Bureau of Shippings Survey Requirements),
should prove economical. Section 45 Surveys after Construction of the Rules for Building and Classing Steel
of the American Bureau of Shipping shows
there are definite intervals during the life of a ship when it
must undergo inspection for corrosion damage. Some
special surveys normally take a ship out of service for
several days. This is an opportune time to consider corrosion prevention.
High dollar value for a ships availability requires a
ship owner to study the total economics of corrosion protection with performance requirements and cost of installation compared with dollar returns. For high grade
coatings there is usually a higher grade surface preparation required, which normally translates into time.
The optimum time for coatings and other corrosion
preventive measures is during construction. All areas of
the vessel are more accessible at that time (Figures 1 and
2). During construction, conditions are more suitable for
surface preparation and coating than at any other time
during a ships service life. Maintenance planning should
begin during design and be incorporated into construction.
At this time a vessel owner should establish a tentative
hull preservation and maintenance program.
1. Presence of salt water, an excellent electrolyte for
the promotion of corrosion.

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8b27940 0003742 302
ized on a larger scale by repair yards, but problems with

pollution arise because of regulations against foreign matter being dumped into the water. The cost of surface
preparation is increasing rapidly, partly due to these
restrictions and regulations.
1. Abrasive Blasting
Automatic blasting is an airless blasting technique (Figure 3) using a rotating wheel to throw
abrasives at a surface at a high speed with great
force. Abrasives normally used, steel shot andlor
grit, are recycled. The initial cost of abrasives is
high, but recycling reduces the quantity per
square foot of blasted surface, which makes their
use viable and economic. The efficiency and effectiveness of this type of blasting is well
documented. It is used by most new construction
yards for preparing plates and shapes prior to
assembly. Mill scale, rust scale and rust are
primary contaminants that must be removed.
Most new construction yards using this
method for initial cleaning of plates and shapes
apply a primer immediately after blasting, usually
a pre-construction or after-blasting primer. This
maintains the condition of the blasted surface
during fabrication of units prior to application of
specified coating systems.
Portable closed-cycle blasting machines for
cleaning hulls and decks are available (Figures 4,
5 and 6). Their importance increases as regulations against use of open air blasting become
more prevalent.
Small parts can be cleaned very efficiently
and economically in closed cycle blasting
cabinets by one person. These cabinets are
available in a variety of sizes and capacities.
FIGURE 1
Unit Construction of Ship.

Courtesy: Bethlehem Steel Corp.
C. SURFACE PREPARATION
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The effective life of any coating system depends on

the condition of the surface to which it is applied. The surface preparation required may vary depending on the
severity of service to which it will be subjected and the
type of coatings applied.
In an environment with any degree of aggressiveness,
the higher the degree of surface preparation the longer the
expected coating life.
Surface preparation is so important and diversified
that it is examined in several chapters of this volume. Standards for surface preparation have been developed by
several organizations. The most widely used, particularly
in the marine industry, are the Steel Structures Painting
Council (SSPC) Specifications, which describe requirements for surface preparation from hand cleaning to
abrasive blasting. Abrasive blasting specifications have
been supplemented by pictorial standards, such as the
Swedish Standards. Other pictorial standards are found in
a publication offered by the Society of Naval Architects
and Marine Engineersc3).
The National Association of Corrosion Engineers also has standards for abrasive blasted
steel.
Abrasive blasting is the primary method used by
shipyards for surface preparation. Blasting results in the
required degree of surface cleanliness and surface profile
with the greatest economy on large areas. For small areas,
power or hand tool cleaning is generally accepted and is
the most economically feasible.
In repair yards, high pressure water jetting is used for
removing fouling and loose paint from underwater hulls
and for cleaning heavily scaled surfaces.
Environmental regulations have animpact on surface
preparation. Open air blasting is being scrutinized
because of dust and health hazards associated with
abrasives containing free silica or similar material.
Closed cycle blasting machines have been developed
for cleaning hulls and decks. Water blasting is being utilCopyright The Society for Protective Coatings
2. Nozzle Type Blasting

This method (Figure 7) utilizes air to impart
kinetic energy to the abrasive particles and is the
FIGURE 2
Unit Construction of Ships.

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FIGURE 3
A Typical Pre-Fabrication Structural Steel Cleaning Machine.
Courtesy: Wheelabrator-Frye Co.

preparation requirements in tanks and on ships
requiring recoating in drydock and to make other
shipyard repairs.
3. High Pressure Water Cleaning
High pressure water cleaning has been extensively used as a cleaning method for existing paint
systems to remove haunches (barnacle roots),
weed growth, loose paint flakes etc. The pressure
required for this work does not usually exceed
137.9 to 206.8 bar (2000 to 3000 Ib1in2). High
pressure water cleaning can be used, however, to
provide a white metal finish with pressure up to
689.5 bar (10,000Ib1in2).A suitable mechanism injects fine grit of 3001400 mesh to create a slurry.
This system can also be used to dose the blasting
water with suitable chemical inhibitors that
passivates the cleaned steel surface until coating
can commence or to feed in detergent to
enhance chemical cleaning.
High pressure water blasting minimizes
health hazards, material costs and the need to
remove blasting media. One advantage is the
complete removal of all residual salts from pitted
most common and widely used method of cleaning in shipyards. Because of the large surfaces to
be cleaned, it is the fastest and most economical
method for field cleaning. In new construction
yards, initial coatings are applied in the modular
stage. Except for yards that have large facilities
for centrifugally blasting modular units, nozzle
blast cleaning is used. Most of this is done in an
enclosed area where conditions can be controlled
(Figure 8). Buildings in a number of yards have installed recycling systems, using steel grit, which
falls through grated floors and is reclaimed just
as in the closed cycle blasting machines.
Other yards use mineral abrasives for
blasting in blast and paint facilities. There is normally no recycling of these abrasives; therefore,
vacuum systems andlor manual disposal is required.
What is a viable and cost effective method
for one yard may not be for another because of
capital outlay, space allocation, climatic conditions, etc.
Nozzle blasting is used to meet surface
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vantages over electric tools. Some of the advantages are:

a. More power per pound; air-powered abrasive
tools are lighter, smaller and easier to handle
than electric tools;
b. No overheating;
c. Low maintenance requirements.
Basic types of hand power tools used in the
shipbuilding industry are abrasive wheels of
various sizes and shapes, scalers and. chisels.
For description of types, maintenance and
use of hand tools, see the Steel Structures Painting Council Manual, Volume 1, and the Catalog
of Existing Small Tools. for Surface Preparation
and Support Equipment for Blasters and
Painters, prepared under a research project
sponsored by the National Shipbulding Research
Program(8.
FIGURE 4
Por.table Ship Deck Cleaning System.
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steel. Failure to remove contaminants, such as

chlorides and sulphates, is one of the main factors that cause premature breakdown of paint
systems.
Water blasting can be a relatively cheap and
effective method for the removal of:
a. exhausted anti-fouling composition;
b. loosely adherent paint, rust and marine fouling;
c. included residual salts;
d. calcareous deposits caused by cathodic protection.
4. Hand and Power Tool Cleaning

To supplement abrasive blast cleaning for small
areas and areas where abrasive cleaning cannot
be used, hand and power tool cleaning are used.
Power tool cleaning is the most widely used
method in commercial shipyards. Most yards use
air-powered abrasive tools because of certain adFIGURE 6
Portable Ship Hull-Side Cleaning System.
D. SURFACE TREATMENT
There are times when surface treatments are used on
steel and other metals. When steel is cleaned using water,
such as in hydroblasting, wet abrasive blasting or
chemical cleaning, it must be inhibited to prevent flash
rusting. Inhibitors are introduced at the time of cleaning or
are an integral step in a sequence, such as in a chemical
cleaning. Inhibitors must be compatible with the coating.
Volume 1 of the Steel Structures Painting Manual provides
much information on chemical surface treatments. A
washcoat primer (Navy Formula 117, Military Specifica-
FIGURE 5
Portable Ship Hull-Bottom Cleaning System.

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leaching out of the anti-fouling paint. Contact with steel,

because of poor barrier coatings, can cause inactivation of
the paint. Barrier coats must be highly impervious to
water. An excellent discussion on inactivation of antifouling paints appears in Marine Fouling and Its Prevention4.
Except in the presence of abnormal harbor pollution
and chemical wastes, the rate of steel corrosion in sea
water is approximately 75 to 150 microns per year. Anticorrosive coatings should be capable of protecting the
steel of a ships hull from attack by sea water and be inert
to normal pollution.
Abrasion resistance can be of considerable importance, depending on the type of ship, ports of call, etc.
When deep ships serve port areas with insufficient water,
the wearing away of bottom coating systems can result.
Consideration must be given to ports of call, time spent in
port, time between drydocking and how these conditions
will affect the underwater system.
A. UNDERWATER HULL
Underwater coatings, in addition to having antifouling capability, should have good corrosion resistance,
provide adequate abrasion resistance and good service
life.
Ship bottom coating consists of an anti-corrosive
coating and anti-fouling paint. When an underwater
system fails prematurely, it is because of corrosion and
the breakdown of the anti-corrosive barrier.
FIGURE 7
Abrasive Blasting Under Controlled Conditions.
tion, MIL-P-15328, although of diminished importance, is

still used on aluminum and galvanized surfaces of ships
as a bond coat for subsequent coatings.
1. Coating Systems
The most widely used underwater systems are
conventional bottom systems, consisting of an
aluminum barrier coat with a copper oxide toxic in
a bituminous resin-rosin anti-fouling matrix.
These systems are easy to apply and do not require stringent surface preparation. They are easily repaired and maintained. They are also the
least expensive but provide acceptable quality.
Life expectancies on initial application under
good conditions should be about 18 to 24 months.
Repairs and renewals should give 12 to 18 months
between drydockings. Conventional systems are
a softer film material than the high performance
systems and erode faster. Therefore, service conditions and drydocking periods may dictate high
performance systems, which have higher initial
111. COATING THE SHIP

~
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When ships were erected plate by plate, surface

preparation and coating were done after erection. Now,
plates and shapes are normally abrasive blasted prior to
assembly of block sections, which are units that may
weigh 200 tons or more. Part or all of the specified coating
system are applied before erection except for butts and
seams, which are left bare for welding. Coatings, in many
cases, are applied under roof, permitting application over
properly prepared surfaces with optimum temperature and
humidity (Figure 9).
Many large ships are built today in building basins
(Figure 10). Because of the construction sequences the
units are erected on permanent blocks. It is therefore
necessary to apply a complete underwater system prior to
placing the units on the erection blocks. This includes the
anti-fouling paints. Many of these ships are not drydocked
prior to delivery because of size; therefore, the complete
anti-fouling system must be applied early in construction.
The effectiveness of the modern anti-fouling coatings is
not deterred by this long exposure to the atmosphere prior
to being placed in the water.
There is a severe galvanic corrosion burden on the
anti-corrosive, particularly when copper-based anti-fouling
paints are used. The anti-corrosive must be a good enough
barrier to prevent attack on the steel by copper ions
FIGURE 8
Unit In Building Being Prepared for Blasting and Coating.
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great. (For recommended underwater

systems see Table I.)
2. Cathodic Protection
Cathodic protection supplements the protection
against corrosion provided by underwater
coatings. Where coatings are damaged and bare
steel is exposed, cathodic protection will alleviate
corrosion and avoid renewals due to corrosion.
Properly designed and installed anode systems
reduce steel waste to 30 percent or less of that experienced in unprotected structures in salt
waterC5).Service histories also show that pitting is
effectively arrested.
The need for cathodic protection should be
established through careful study of corrosion experience. For existing vessels, corrosion effects
may be assessed by inspectors or repair
superintendents. Newly built vessels, or those in
design, may have an anode scheme as part of the
corrosion-control program. For exterior hull protection, impressed current protection systems are
frequently used on new construction. These
systems, which require an external source of
direct current and some means of regulating the
current, can, with a minimum number of anodes,
provide full underwater hull protection. Sacrificial
anodes, such as zinc, magnesium or aluminum,
can be used to give stern protection. There are a
number of good publications on cathodic protect ions(5.
FIGURE 9
Ship Construction in Building Basin.
cost but could be more cost effective.

Systems specified for the majority of new
construction, particularly tankers, LNGs and high
speed ships, are chlorinated rubber, epoxy barrier
coats with various resin anti-foulings and highbuild vinyl systems. These coatings provide highbuild (> 250 microns) and long life.
To keep ships out of drydock for longer
periods harder anti-foulings are used, which can
be cleaned by scrubbing while still in the water
(Figure 11). It is costly to take a vessel out of service, drydock it and refinish the bottom; and if this
operation can be postponed or delayed, it can
represent substantial savings. Once a bottom has
been scrubbed, however, it must be closely
monitored for recurrence of fouling, since scrubbing tends to reduce the effectiveness of the remaining anti-fouling coating.
The selection of anti-fouling paint is governed more by the time a ship spends at piers than
by the severity of fouling in the waters. It is rare to
see an active tanker fouled because its turn
around time is so short. Ships that spend much
time in port, particularly in heavy fouling areas,
should use a high-grade, anti-fouling paint.
Copper toxics, such as cuprous oxide, are
still the major anti-fouling ingredients used.
Organo-metallics, such as organotin compounds,
are used as toxics, by themselves and in combination with copper compounds. A combination
system may give better overall protection from
shell fouling and grass than only one ingredient.
There are other methods of preventing fouling, such as through the use of polymer compounds with varying properties. These are being
brought into the market and may, in the long run,
offer great advantages by producing a smoother
hull, through a self-polishing action over long
periods. The potentials for fuel savings could be
B. SHIPBOTTOM MAINTENANCE PAINTING

Ships are seldom drydocked for painting alone. A
glance at the American Bureau of Shippings survey requirements*) suggests some work that may have to be
done in drydock. The time can vary from a few hours on a
rudder or sea chest to several weeks burning, welding and
riveting to replace corroded or damaged plates.
Shipowners traditionally had been more concerned
FIGURE 10
Underwater Cleaning of Ships Hulls.
Courtesy: Jotun-Baltimore Copper
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hull
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TABLE I
TYPICAL SHIPBOTTOM PAINTING SYSTEMS
~
~~~~~
Surface Preparation New

Construction
Paint Designation, Number of Coats

and Film Thickness
Anti-corrosive
Anti-fouling
Repainting Procedure
Application
Equipment
Abrasive Blast to
Aluminum Barrier
SSPC-SP 10, Near- coal - 2 coats
White
a 1 7 5 Microns
MDFT
Rosin Base, CuprousFresh Water wash, spot

blast or power tool
Oxide Toxic - 2
coats @75 Microns clean bad areas.
MDFT
Spray recommended,
may be rolled.
Vinyl
Abrasive Blast to
Vinyl Barrier
SSPC-SP 10, Near- High Build 3
White
coats a200
Microns M D F l
Vinyl-Rosin Base
2 coats @IO0
Microns. Toxic
usually Cuprous
Oxide
Fresh Water wash, spot

blast bad areas
Spray recommended,
small areas can be
rolled or brushed
EPOXY
Polyamide
Epoxy Barrier
Abrasive Blast to
SSPC-SP 10, Near- 2 coats a 2 0 0
White
Microns MDFT
Vinyl Anti-fouling
2 coats a 1 0 0
Microns

blast bad areas, step back
anti-fouling in way of
repair.
Epoxy-Airless Spray
recommended-antifouling spray - small
areas can be rolled.
Chlorinated
Rubber
Abrasive Blast to
Chlorinated
SSPC-SP 10, Near- Rubber Barrier
3 coats @225
White
Microns MDFT
Chlorinated Rubber Fresh Water wash, spot

anti-fouling 2 coats blast bad areas.
a 1 0 0 Microns MDFT
Airless Spray recommended, small

areas can be rolled.
Coal Tar
EPOXY
Abrasive Blast to
Coat Tar Epoxy
SSPC-SP 10, Near- 2 coats @400
White
Microns MDFT
Vinyl Anti-fouling
2 coats
a 1 0 0 Microns
*Fresh Water wash, spot

blast bad areas, step
back anti-fouling in
way of repair.
Airless Spray recommended for epoxy

spray anti-fouling,
small areas can be
rolled.
Flakeglass
Epoxy or
Polyester
Abrasive Blast to
Flakeglass
SSPC-SP 10, Near- Barrier 1 or
2 coats Q
White
625 Microns
MDFT
Vinyl or
Chlorinated
Rubber AF 2 coats a 1 0 0
Microns

blast bad areas, step
back anti-fouling in
way of repair.
Spray recommended anti-fouling may be

applied by roller.
Bituminous.
Aluminum
Pigmented
Prior to recoating, remove oil, grease, salts and other surface contaminants.
*Twenty-five microns = 1 mil.
with the structural integrity of the hull and the proper functioning of valves, propellers and rudders than the application of bottom paints. However, the increasing cost of fuel
has made owners aware that modern coatings can make a
significant contribution to fuel savings. Nevertheless, the
coatings specialist sometimes encounters opposition or
indifference at the shipyard. To combat this the following
procedures are suggested.
cies, and a qualified field representative is assigned t o the job. The representative should be
aware of the ships recent painting history and
what can be expected on inspection of the bottom. He should be fully advised of the shipowners
wishes and given alternate procedures if inspection reveals a different situation than originally
contemplated. The owner should, in the meantime, negotiate with the shipyard and advise them
of the work he wants done as well as broad painting plans. It is usually advisable to wait until the
ship has been inspected before writing detailed
painting specifications.
1. General Agreement
Upon receipt of notice from a shipowner that a
vessel is due to drydock, the ships painting
history should be reviewed and a general
understanding reached with the owner as to
whether the boottop and topsides, as well as the
bottom, are to be painted. It is advisable to come
to an agreement about the type of paint to be used
and surface preparation required for successful
paint performance. This is contingent on the
ships availability and the condition of the bottom.
Arrangements are made for delivery of
enough paint to cover all reasonable contingen-

2. Inspection of the Ship

The owners port engineer, a yard paint supervisor, the yards ship superintendent and a paint
company representative make the inspection so
they can agree on the work and the time required.
3. Specifications
Members of the inspection party should confer to
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FIGURE 11
Condition of Underwater Hull After Service.
~
~~
~~
signature. Should future events, such as rain,

threaten successful completion of the work, it is
important that all concerned be advised so the
best alternate procedure can be determined.
Many ship repair jobs involve complicated
and tight schedules. It is here that an experienced
paint person is valuable. He knows how to expedite surface preparation and painting procedures without subjecting the ship to serious
corrosion or fouling between now and the next
scheduled drydocking. Good painting specifications depend on the owners willingness to pay for
good work and on the paint persons knowledge of
products.
The most important factors in successfully
carrying out painting specifications are:
An adequate number of trained and conscien-
write the surface preparation and painting procedures.

The paint company, advised of the owners instructions, outlines the surface preparation and
painting schedule. A yard paint foreman, familiar
with manpower and equipment availability, comments on whether the work outlined by the paint
company is possible. The ship superintendent,
the person ultimately responsible for completion
of the work, presents plans for scheduling the
paint program and all other work that may be affected by it, or that may affect the painting and
surface preparation.
If there are no complications and the paint
program complies with instructions, the port
engineer will usually ask the paint company
representative t o write specifications for
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TABLE 2
TYPICAL BOOTTOP & TOPSIDE PAINTING SYSTEMS
Type of Paint
Surface Preparation New

Construction
Paint Designation, Number of coats

and Film Thickness
Primer
Top Coats
Chlorinated Rubber Wash and remove contaminants.

Two Coats Q 125 Abrasive blast or power tool
Microns MDFT
clean damaged or failed
areas. Touch up using same
system as applied during
Chlorinated Rubber Chlorinated Rubber construction,
wllnhibitive PigTwo Coats Q150
ment - One Coat Microns MDFT
@50 Microns MDFT
Chlorinated
Rubber
Abrasive Blast to
"Inorganic Zinc
SSPC-SP 10, "Near- Silicate - One
White Metal"
Coat Q 62.5
Microns MDFT
EPOXY
Polyamide
Abrasive Blast to
SSPC-SP10. "NearWhite Metal"
"Inorganic Zinc
Silicate - One
Coat Q 50
Microns MDFT
Epoxy Primer wl
Inhibitive Primer
One coat 50
Microns MDFT
Vinyl
(Including
Vinyl
Acrylic)
Repainting Procedure
"Inorganic Zinc
Abrasive Blast to
SSPC-SP 10, "Near- Silicate - One
White Metal"
Coat Q62.5
Micron MDFT'
Vinyl Primer wl
Inhibitive Pigment - One Coat
Q 50 Microns
MDFT"
EPOXY- TWO
Coats @ 125
Microns MDFT
Wash and remove contaminants.

Abrasive blast or power tool
clean damaged or failed areas.
Where overcoating epoxy

roughen edges to accept new
Epoxy - Two Coats epoxy. Touch up using same
system AC applied during
Q 150 Microns
MDFT
construction.
Application
Equipment
Airless spray preferred - air spray
can be used also
roller and brush
for small areas.
Airless or air
spray preferred roller or brush
can be used for
small areas.
Vinyl - Two Coats Wash and Remove contaminants.

6 1 5 0 Microns MDFTAbrasive blast or power tool
or
Vinyl Hi-Build One Touch up using same system as
Coat a100 Microns applied during construction.
+ One Coat Vinyl
Acrylic Q50
Microns MDFT
Vinyl - Two
Coats Hi-Build Q
200 Microns MDFT
Airless spray preferred. Air spray

can be used Brush may be used
for small areas.
For Topside Areas Wash and remove contaminants.

Abrasive blast or power to01
on ships wlfairly
fixed load lines
alkyd topcoats can
be used over a
zinc rich primer
with a compatible
tie coat. Two
coats alkyd top
coat @ 100
Microns MDFT
Air spray preferred. Brush

or roller may be
used.
OThe inorganic as primer is the preferred system.

'Tie coat may be required with some vinyl materials,
"Wash primer should be used as initial coat with some vinyl materials.

4. The Painting Report

Most shipowners and paint companies require
representatives to write a report of the paint job.
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wire brushes or disc grinder.

Good equipment also means providing good
light under the flat bottom of a ship on drydock.
Most important, it means providing good staging
or other means of getting surface cleaners and
painters close to the work.
tous supervisors to cover all shifts. The yard

(and the shipowner) should insist that the
manufacturer of a new type of paint have a
representative present until the yard painters
are taught the proper methods of application.
Availability of good equipment for surface
preparation and painting. This includes spraying equipment, roller coaters, brushes, abrasive
blasting machines, power scaling tools, power
SSPC C H A P T E R * L 2 - 0
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8627940 0003750 4 8 9
Variations from specifications should be noted.

Compromises are necessary, but it is important
for the shipowner and the paint company to know
whether subsequent failures were caused by improper cleaning or application, or by inadequate
paint.
usually done during general scheduled

maintenance or, for a passenger liner, during
dress-up prior to a cruise. Where the job is done is
usually determined by the time the ship is in
drydock andlor the yard schedules.
Organizing, planning, inspection and reporting will be similar to that for underwater hulls.
C. LIGHT LOAD LINEIRAIL
D. STEEL DECKS
Most experts agree that alternate immersion is a more

severe service for coatings than continuous immersion.
The hull, from the light load or ballast lines to the rail
areas, are subject to salt water (both immersion and
spray), sunlight, ice, etc. They are also subject to abrasion
from piers, tugs, lighters, etc. and pollutants, such as oil or
chemicals floating on water.
1. Boottop
The boottop, the area from the light or ballast line
to the deep load line, is subject to conditions of
alternate immersion on all ships. The deep load
line to rail is subject to these conditions on cargo
runs of tankers and freighters. Coating systems
used on the hull are normally the same for both
areas on these types of ships. The only difference
is that some owners specify an overcoating of
anti-fouling as a grass deterrent. Ships with more
fixed load-lines, such as passenger ships, do not
require high performance coatings for the topside. Table 2 presents some information on the
type of systems generally used for the boottop
and topside.
Zinc-rich coatings, particularly inorganic zinc
silicates, are the base coat for most systems. Use
of a zinc primer can be very expeditious and
economical. After block assemblies are completed and ready for coating, a coat of zinc-rich
primer is applied. This provides an optimum corrosion protection during vessel erection. Zinc
coatings, particularly inorganic zinc, have excellent abrasion resistance and minimum burnback from welding or burning.
Where damage occurs, the surface is
repaired and a coat of zinc can easily be applied
for repairs. After erection and touch-up, zinc can
be overcoated with a specified topcoat. A
drawback is that on weathering, salts will form on
zinc coatings. This can diminish topcoat adhesion, since zinc coatings are porous and will absorb dirt and oil. Prudent care and planning
should be followed to ensure removal of salts and
contaminants prior to overcoating.
2. Hull Coating Maintenance
The first question t o be considered i n
maintenance painting is where it should be done,
in drydock or while the ship is in water. A ship is
not drydocked exclusively for boottop and
freeboard painting; therefore, it is an item that is
A good weather deck coating system starts with

SSPC-SP 10, near-white blast followed by a coat of inorganic zinc. This is the basis of the system. Except for attack by stack gases, certain cargo spillage and being slippery when wet, the inorganic zinc could be a good weather
deck coating. Therefore, for non-skid purposes and protection against certain aggressive environments, zinc is overcoated with materials such as chlorinated rubber, vinyl or
epoxy. The non-skid additive may be incorporated into the
final coat.
Decks subject to heavy-duty traffic such as fork
trucks, wheeled vehicles, etc., require a heavy duty coating
system. These coatings are applied over an inhibitive
primer. The normal makeup of heavy duty decking
materials is a nonskid additive incorporated into
pigmented epoxy or urethane resin matrix. These coatings
are normally applied to approximately 450 microns dry film
thickness.
Interior decks receive a number of different materials.
Wet spaces, such as toilets, showers, laundries, lockers
used to store cleaning gear, etc., normally have a
monolithic decking such as terrazzo, latex mastic or, for
passenger spaces, ceramic tile. The decks in galleys,
which are also wet spaces, are normally quarry tile for nonskid and cleaning purposes.
A guide to various deck coverings and preparation is
published by the Society of Naval Architects and Marine
Engineers Technical and Research Bulletin 4-1lr7) and
should be consulted.

E. SUPERSTRUCTURE, MASTS, BOOMS, DECK

MACHINERY, ETC.
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These areas in the past were maintained by the crew;

however, with a reduced labor force and union and safety
regulations, this is now less common. To keep a better
looking ship, many owners require a high-grade coating
system. This is initially established during construction.
The surface is prepared to an SSPC-SP 10, near-white
and in most cases a coat of inorganic zinc silicate is applied.
Topcoats applied are those that have a history of long
life, withstand salt atmosphere and industrial air pollution,
and maintain good color.
Failure in these areas usually occurs on sharp edges,
rough welds and inaccessible places, such as behind
pipes, conduits and hangers.
Usually, failures appear more seriously corroded than
they actually are, because a small pinpoint of actual rust
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will evolve into a large area of rust bleed. Even with a zinc
silicate primer, these conditions will prevail, although the
amount is dim in ished.
Materials most used as topcoats in new construction
are high grade alkyds, silicone alkyds, chlorinated rubbers,
epoxies, vinyls and vinyl acrylics. If inorganic zinc is the
base coat, compatibility must be considered, and proper
barrier coats and tie coats should be specified. For example, alkyds cannot be applied directly over zinc-rich
coatings; therefore, a tie coat should be used.
Many smaller craft built today and older ships constructed without inorganic zinc as the base coat require inhibitive primers to prevent or reduce corrosion. The standards in the past for the marine industry, for the areas
under discussion, were red lead and zinc chromate. These
are still used to a great extent, but safety, health and air
pollution requirements are forcing a search for other inhibitive pigments. Studies are being conducted by coating
manufacturers and pigment companies to find suitable
replacements.
Coating systems for all exterior areas may be found in
the SNAME Technical and Research Bulletin 4-1518).
F. INTERIORS
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1. Living Areas
Painting of living areas in modern vessels is
generally minimal. The steel is primed for corrosion protection and cleanliness, but steel surfaces normally are covered with insulation and
fireproof board faced with decorative veneers.
Where painted steel surfaces are used, gloss
materials are recommended for washability.
2. Machinery Spaces
Machinery spaces above the bilge areas are
primed with an inhibitive pigmented material such
as an alkyd. This primer is topcoated with an
alkyd gloss or semi-gloss enamel. Topcoats
should have good oil and moderate heat
resistance, and if white, they should be nonyellowing.
Machinery is factory finished; or, if required
for special color, a machinery enamel, usually an
alkyd type, is applied over factory applied
coatings. Surfaces above 125F (52C) normally
are coated with a heat-resistant aluminum.
Bilge areas and below deck plates, are subject to standing water, oil, steam, etc. Corrosion
in these areas can be severe; therefore, a high performance coating system, such as an epoxy or inorganic zinc silicate, should be applied.
Ships built prior to the era of high performance coatings have been coated with red lead
primers and phenolic type topcoats. These paints
will have to be maintained, normally with hand
cleaning and touch-up with primers plus top coats
to damaged and failed areas. Surface preparation
in bilges is very difficult because abrasive
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blasting cannot be used. Power tool cleaning is

tedious and time consuming. Chemical cleaning
and high-pressure water jetting can clean such
surfaces more thoroughly and efficiently.
Usually steel in older ships is corroded and
pitted. Removal of old paint and scale along with
grease, oil, etc. offers a fair substrate to apply a
paint system. However, systems must be very
forgiving to surface preparations.
Some systems, such as epoxies, are being
applied to surfaces prepared as above. The success has been mixed, but technology is improving.
3. Tanks
Coating liquid cargo tanks is beyond the scope of
this chapter. It is a very complex subject with
many ramifications, dependent on the type and
variety of cargoes carried, ballast, temperatures,
and product purity requirements.
The majority of todays tankage is taken up
with petroleum products. These can be divided into categories such as clean cargoes (gasoline, jet
fuels, solvents, kerosene, etc.) and dirty cargoes
(bunkers, heavy fuel, crudes, asphalt, etc.).
The basic premise for tank coating is that
steel must be cleaned to at least SSPC-SP 10,
Near-White Blast Cleaning.
Some petroleum products are very aggressive and attack steel substrates and weak
coatings rapidly. To protect steel or, where
necessary, to protect cargoes from contamination, the integrity of the coating system must be
good. To ensure success, the coating system
must be appropriate for the service required; the
surface preparation and cleaning must be as
specified; and the application equipment, techniques and conditions under which the coating is
applied must be as close to optimum as possible.
Control of humidity and temperature (air and
steel) is very important. Proper curing time of the
coating, before being subjected to any service,
should be considered.
The coating systems most widely used for
coating cargo tanks are:
Epoxy
Amine cured
Ketimine cured
Amine Adduct cured
Polyamide
Inorganic Zinc Silicates
Water Base
Solvent Base
Urethanes
Urethane Modified Epoxies
Phenolic Modified Epoxies
Selection of a proper coating system is very
important, and its resistance to cargoes should
93
m 8627940 0003752 251 m
be known. Selective coating systems that have

performed to some criteria gives an experience
factor. For example, coatings qualified under
Military Specif icat ian MIL-P-23236Paint Coating
Systems, Steel Ship Tank, Fuel and Salt Water
Ballast have met a test requirement.
remove all loose scale, old loose paint and salts.

Non-oxidizing, lanolin base, oil-type or pigmented
hydrocarbon resin materials can be applied to
rusted surfaces. Such coating systems will not
have the life expectancy of a properly applied
epoxy or inorganic zinc system applied over a well
prepared surface, but a cost effective study could
show the economic feasibility of using such a
system. Oil-type materials that contain inhibitors
can be spray-applied for the initial application and
when required can be renewed by the flotation
process. (This is in development status and the
method is still being evaluated.)
(c) Peak Tanks
Peak tanks in ships are in a confined area
cluttered with internal structural members.
Coatings are difficult to apply in these areas, and
abrasive blasting is very hazardous. Ships built
prior to the block construction era usually were
coated with asphalt emulsion applied over hand
cleaned steel. With the new construction
methods, units that make up an area, such as a
peak tank, are more accessible. Better surface
preparation can be used and higher grade coating
systems applied. Peaks are sometimes used for
ballast on tankers and for other types of ships.
Owners are specifying epoxy systems or inorganic zinc silicates. After erection, because of
the configuration of these spaces, abrasive
blasting to clean erection welds and damaged
areas is not possible. Touch-up must be done over
power tool cleaned surfaces. The life of the
coating in these areas is less than that of a
coating over an abrasive blasted surface, and
failures occur more readily under these conditions. A coating system for these areas should be
tolerant to a lesser degree of surface preparation.
(a) Potable Wafer

The coating system most widely used in potable
water tanks is a two-coat application of a zinc
dust paint. The vehicle is an alkyd-phenolic. Pertinent government specifications for this type of
material is MIL-P-15145, Zinc Dust Pigmented
Enamel, Fresh Water Tank Protective, Formula
102. A zinc-dust enamel applied over steel cleaned
to SSPC-SPIO, Near-White Blast can be expected to give a minimum of two years life without
repair.
Longer life systems such as epoxies, epoxy
phenolics, etc., are being specified, particularly
on new construction. Care must be taken to apply
and mix them properly to preclude any taste being
imparted to the water.
All coatings used for potable water service
must be approved by the United States Public
Health Service.
(b) Ballast Tanks
Ballasting with sea water is a very important part
of a ships operation. Tanks are used to maintain
stability and seaworthiness during certain
voyages. Some tanks are used exclusively for
ballast and carry only sea water. Others may be
cargolballast tanks that will carry cargo on one
leg of a voyage and ballast on another.
The time in ballast has some bearing on the
coating system used. On new construction the
most widely used coatings are epoxy tank coating
systems applied at a minimum of 200 microns.
Under certain conditions where a ship, such as a
tanker, may not be in ballast more than 28 to 30
days consecutively and the same amount of time
out of ballast, consideration can be given to an inorganic zinc silicate, water base, applied to 125
microns.
In tanks where liquid cargoes as well as
ballast are carried, the coating system should
be inert to the cargo and the water. The combination of cargo and sea water will sometimes
give different conditions than when service is
for4iquid cargo or ballast exclusively.
For older ships that have been in service for
years and tank coatings have failed or were never
coated, preparation of the surface to a hearwhite is very expensive. Therefore, a coating that
can be applied over rust or old paint is beneficial.
There are a number of coating materials on the
market that can be applied to a scale-free surface.
High pressure water blasting can be used to

(d) Cargo Holds

For general dry cargo spaces, requirements for
corrosion control are not particularly stringent. An
inhibitive primer applied over a surface cleaned to
a good commercial blast (SSPC-SP 6) is sufficient. The primer is overcoated with a light colored enamel for light reflectance. Aluminum
pigmented topcoats are preferable for these
areas.
Holds designed to carry coal, sulfur,
phosphate rock, etc. but not ballast, frequently
are not coated, at least not in the lower regions
subject to heavy abrasion from discharging equipment. If a coating is required, it should be a
material with good acid andlor alkali resistance
and good abrasion resistance. Epoxy type
coatings lend themselves to these conditions.
Coatings in upper areas of holds intended to carry
grain make them easy to clean.
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C H A P T E R a L Z - 0 9 3 W 8627940 0003753 198

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
chapter: Leon Birnbaum, T.A. Corboy, Hing Dear, Raymond P.
Devoluy, Theodore Dowd, Richard Drisko, J.R. Foster, John F.
Montle, Benjamin Fultz; Dan Gelfer, D.W. Metzger, N.M. Miller, C.
Munger, Walter Radut, and William Wallace.
IV. SAFETY PRECAUTIONS AND THE USE OF

COLOR TO PROMOTE SAFETY
1. Your Ship and Its Maintenance, J.C. Hempel Foundation,
REFERENCES
1965.
2. Rules for Building and Classing Steel Vessels, American
Paint solvents present a fire and explosion hazard. A

study of the flash points and explosion concentrations of
various solvents6)reveals that some are more dangerous
than expected. The importance of scheduling hot work and
painting ship exteriors for maximum safety has been
discussed. It should be noted that the space under the bottom of a large vessel sitting in a closely fitting drydock is
almost the equivalent of an interior space, particularly
when there is no wind.
The only safe way to apply paints with dangerous
solvents in confined interiors is to supply enough air and
exhaust to maintain the solvent concentration well below
the lower explosive limit. In addition, all sources of sparks
and flames must be eliminated. No other trades should be
working in the area of the ship being painted.
OSHA recommends the use of certain colors to promote safety. These should be adopted for shipboard use.
Red . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..Fire Protection Equipment
Orange . . . . . . . . . . . . Hazard-attention
Yellow . . . . . . . . . . . . . Caution-Physical Hazards
Green . . . . . . . . . . . . .Safety-First Aid
Blue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Caution
Purple . . . . . . . . . . . . .Radiation Hazards
Bureau of Shipping, Surveys after Construction, Section 45.

3. Abrasive Blasting Guide for Aged or Coated Steel Surfaces,
Society of Naval Architects and Marine Engineers, Technical
Bulletin 4-9, 1969.
4. Marine Fouling and Its Prevention, US. Naval Institute, by
Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution, November 1952.
5. Fundamentals of Cathodic Protection for Marine Service,
Society of Naval Architects and Marine Engineers, Technical
and Research Report R-21, 1976.
6. Table of Fire-Hazard Properties of Flammable Liquids,
Gases and Volatile Solids, National Fire Codes, National
Fire Protection Assn., Vol. 111, Boston, Massachusetts, 1977.
7. Marine Deck Covering Guide, Society of Naval Architects
and Marine Engineers, Technical Research Bulletin 4-11, July
1969.
8. Coating Systems Guide for Exterior Surfaces of Steel
Vessels, Society of Naval Architects and Marine Engineers,
Technical Research Bulletin 4-15, 1978.
9. Catalog of Existing Small Tools for Surface Preparation and
Support Equipment for Blasters and Painters, National Shipbuilding Research Program. U.S. Department of Commerce,
Maritime Administration, May, 1977.
Piping systems are frequently painted with bands of these

colors to assist in rapid identification of various systems
aboard.

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(e) Cofferdams and Voids

Cofferdams during construction are usually
coated twice with an inhibitive primer, such as
zinc chromate. A corrosion conscious owner
could apply a coat of inorganic zinc silicate or
other zinc-rich coating. If applied properly, maintenance primer may never be needed.
Voids may be divided into two categories, accessible and inaccessible. Accessible voids are
treated the same as cofferdams. Inaccessible
voids that are welded watertight and airtight,
where boundaries are not exposed to sea or
standing water, do not require any preservative
treatment. Where inaccesible voids must be
coated on the inside, it is done through special
plugs by filling and draining. If these areas are accessible during construction, they may be coated
by spray prior to closure.
Miscellaneous spaces are normally coated
like other areas required to perform the same
service.
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CHAPTER 13
PAINTING OF STEEL VESSELS FOR

FRESH WATER SERVICE
by
J. R. Foster
Inland waterways of the United States have been important to the countrys rapid social, industrial and
technological growth. They were the first exploration
routes and determined paths used by settlers, who chose
sites for communities. They became the transportation
and communication links of communities, so most of the
present great centers of population, production and
distribution owe their origins to these arteries. Today 38
states, with about 95% of the nations population, have
commercial transportation services provided by vessels
operating on rivers, canals, bays, sounds or lakes; and 131
of the 158 cities with populations of 100,000 or more are
located on commercial navigation channels.
The earliest commercial use made of the river system
was hauling coal from Pennsylvania to the Ohio and
Mississippi rivers in the late 1700s. The vessels were flatboats constructed of logs, borne by the current and guided
by long tillers. Since they were without power to travel
against the current, trips were one way only and boats
were usually dismantled at their destinations and sold for
lumber.
Steam power made its appearance on the rivers in the
early 19th century, and soon increased steel production
prompted the use of boats and barges made from steel.
Commercial channels now make up more than 25,000
miles of navigable inland waterways plus 1,800 miles on
the Great Lakes.
tanks, where they are used to carry liquids under pressure,

or where pressure is used to discharge the cargo. The deck
barge is a simple box hull with a heavy plated, wellsupported deck, and in some cases a cargo box enclosing
most of the deck area to contain the load it normally carries. It is usually a little smaller than the hopper or tank
barge, varying from 110 to 195 feet in length and 26 to 35
feet in width, with capacities from 350 to 1,200 tons. Other,
more specialized barges include dredges, barges used for
shipping liquefied natural gas, and tip-up timber carriers.
Although each is classified as a towing vessel, the
towboat and tugboat are vastly different, as is seen in
Figures 3 and 4. The tug is smaller, has a shaped bottom
contrasted to the towboats almost flat bottom, and is, in
effect, an ocean-going vessel most frequently used in harbors, intracoastal canals and the open sea. For this reason
the painting of tugs is not covered in this chapter, which
deals with fresh water vessels.
There are approximately 1,800 companies in commercial operations on inland waterways. These firms operate
more than 17,000 dry cargo barges with a total capacity in
excess of 19 million tons, 3,400 tank barges with a total
capacity of 7 million tons and 4,300 towboats and tugs
with aggregate power in excess of 4.3 million horsepower.
There has been no survey of the number of other
vessels using inland waters, such as ferries and pleasure
craft, but painting recommended here can apply to them.
I. TYPES OF VESSELS
II. CORROSION OF VESSELS
Most freight on these water routes is carried on barges

made from welded steel. They are large, floating boxes,
unmanned and without self-propulsion, with drafts of 6 to
14 feet. Barges are moved in groups by towboats or tugs.
The hopper barge, because of its single large cargo
space, is adaptable to a wide variety of loads and finds the
greatest use of the several kinds employed. It may vary
from 175 to 290 feet in length, 26 to 50 feet in width, with
capacities from 1,000 to 3,000 tons.
A typical covered hopper barge is shown in Figure 1.
Liquid cargo or tank barges range in the same dimensions
with capacities of 300,000 to 900,000 gallons. They may
be of single skin design, where the sheel of the barge is
also the tank wall, or of double skin, with an inner shell
forming the tank, as in Figure 2. They may also take the
form of hopper barges carrying independent cylindrical
Literature does not disclose amounts of corrosive

damage to steel vessels operating on inland waterways,
but preventive efforts have been roughly inversely proportional to the quality of water where vessels operate. Quality has been affected by Industry growth and mining ventures in the vicinity. Poor waste disposal practices contributing corrosive substances to rivers cause accelerated
deterioration of steel hulls.
There was a period of 25 years after World War IIwhen
efforts to protect immersed surfaces were greatly increased and new and effective coatings were developed
for this purpose.
Realization of limitations of the environment to absorb continued, unrestricted industrial development led
to concerted efforts to reverse the trend of water quality
decline. Results have been notable2, particularly in
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FIGURE 1
Covered hopper barge. Covers roll awav to exoose carao cornDanment.
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streams fed by drainage from coal mines. Reduced acidity

has diminished emphasis on prevention of hull corrosion
by coatings.
Corrosion on ships in the strictly fresh water of
the Great Lakes is minimal. Many operators apply coatings
on hulls for cosmetic purposes. The most serious corrosion is in areas where coal, salt or other chemicals accumulate for long periods, retaining moisture, such as blind
areas on large decks. Good coating procedures can prevent damage.
New coating systems are being tested and finding use
in protection of steel in inland water service. At least one
company has met the problem of towboat hull corrosion by
cladding the entire hull with stainless steel3. Many protective requirements for boats and barges in fresh water can
be met by coatings used for ships in salt water.
Refer to Chapter 12 for further recommendations.
The cost of building river vessels has skyrocketed in
the past 20 years. While most vessels are amortized for 20
years, their useful life is 25 to 35 years. During that period
many receive new hull side plates and some bottom plates.
The majority of damage is due to exterior corrosion, the
most noticeable attack occurring at water line areas where
variations in load, moisture and oxygen, and dissolved
species in water accelerate metal loss. See Figure 5.
Abrasion against concrete lock walls is a serious
cause of paint removal and exposure of bare side metal to
corrosive elements, just as scraping sand bars and
submerged rocks or other objects damages bottom plates
and raked or square ends.
Many towboats on inland waterways are equipped
with Kort nozzles, which are tube-like enclosures around
the propellors, designed to increase propulsive efficiency
(Figure 6). They cause propellors to behave like pumps,
and a considerable quantity of sand, gravel and debris are
driven through the nozzles, particularly when boats are in

Courtesy of Dravo Corporation
shallow water, causing serious abrasion to the leading

edges and interior surfaces.
There are many factors in surface condition and exposure to consider in planning a coating system for steel
to be used in or adjacent to inland water immersion.
Among the most critical factors is the need to remove
traces of mill scale, particularly from surfaces to be immersed. Although a tightly bonded intact layer of mill
scale can protect a bare steel substrate, it is not possible to
fabricate steel plates into hulls and other vessels without
producing cracks and discontinuities in the scale layer. If
this type of surface is painted and subsequently damaged
by scraping or scratching through the paint film, moisture
will reach the metal surface, and mill scale will separate
from the substrate, carrying with it any covering coats of
paint. Under immersion conditions this failure may occur
even without mechanical damage because of the permeability of coatings. The likelihood of abrasion also is greater.
Proper blast cleaning prior to application can eliminate
this.
Another cause of paint breakdown is improperly
cleaned welds. The joining process leaves deposits of
slag, flux, fume and spatter granules that must be removed
before painting. Usually, hand or power scraping or
brushing accomplishes the required degree of cleanliness,
but the best effect is achieved by power grinding, which
also smoothes ripples of the weld metal. Examples of poor
and acceptable practice are indicated in Figures 7 and 8.
Resistance to impact damage should be considered
when selecting coatings for river transportation service.
Not only are hulls subject to collisions with docks, locks
and floating objects, but cargo compartments receive frequent encounters with cranes, clamshell buckets and
other loading equipment. Flexibility and good adhesion
minimize damage.
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The variety of liquid cargos transported in tank barges

requires Coatings to resist solvent and other chemical exposures. Tank lining is the subject of another chapter;
coatings for tank exteriors, however, must stand up
against frequent cargo spills and splashes.
Interior surfaces of side compartments, rake and
square ends and void spaces between inner and outer bottoms are areas usually subjected to high humidity. Also,
splashes and spills from cargos may get to these locations, making them vulnerable to corrosive attack.
Coatings must prevent perforation from the back side,
which is less frequently observed.
Superstructures of towboats and barges require the
same attention as land-based steel structures, and probably receive more cleaning and scrubbing. Selected
coatings must resist chemical and abrasive action and
weathering. Surface preparation requirements are not
stringent for these surfaces, but coating adhesion must be
adequate.
Good design can prevent early corrosion of all types
of structures. The best vessel design is economical over
an extended period and minimizes maintenance. Diligent
efforts should be made to include design features such as
provision for complete drainage of fluids, smooth junctions between adjoining members and elimination of
crevices. Improved paint application can be included as
a significant contribution. Several builders provide
FIGURE 3
Typical tugboat at work in harbor. Generally smaller, with hull
lines different from a towboat.
automated blast cleaning and application of preconstruction primers to flat sheets and formed members
prior to f a b r i ~ a t i o n ~The
, ~ .use of airless spray equipment is
now common, and experiments are in progress with electrostatic spray methods'.
FIGURE 2
Doubleskin tank barge.

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b. Surface Preparation Standards and Recommended Practices of the National Association

of Corrosion Engineers.
c. Standards and Recommended Practices for
Preparation of Surfaces for Painting of the
American Society for Testing and Materials.
d. Abrasive Blasting Guide for Aged or Coated
Steel Surfaces, Technical Bulletin No. 4-9 Society of Naval Architects and Marine Engineers.
Specifications of SSPC are most widely adopted
because of clarity and range, which include visual standards in the form of color photographs, approved jointly by
SSPC-SP 10, and preferably a higher grade of preparation if
Other visual standards are offered by NACE in the form of
prepared steel surfaces embedded in clear plastic.
In general, all surfaces to be immersed in water
should receive at least a Near-White Blast, according to
SSPC-SP10, and preferably a higher grade of preparation if
economics of the paint system justify it. The same require
ment applies to surfaces exposed to cargo spill and
splash.
Other surfaces, such as superstructures and interiors,
may receive solvent cleaning, according to SSPC-SP 1,
followed by hand or power tool cleaning, according to
SSPC-SP 2 or SP 3. In shipyards, where abrasive blast
cleaning facilities are available, the use of brush-off
blasting as in SSPC-SP 7 may be better and more
economical than hand or power tool cleaning.
The importance of adequate traps in the air lines of
blasting equipment cannot be over-emphasized. It
prevents contamination of freshly prepared surfaces.
On surfaces prepared by blast cleaning paint performance is improved by wash primer directly over the blasted
substrate. This material is most frequently based on a
vinyl butyral resin with inhibitive pigments and Is typified
by Military Specification DOD-P-15328and SSPC-Paint 27.
Its use is not justified if the surface has not been adequately prepared. Under proper conditions it improves
adhesion of alkyd or phenolic coatings and vinyls. It is particularly useful as a pretreatment on galvanized or
aluminum surfaces.
Abrasive blast cleaning with a water solution followed
by application of corrosion inhibitors can be beneficial in
two ways6.It not only slows down rusting, but reduces the
amount of dust common to blast cleaning operations. For
the latter reason, its use may increase significantly in proportion to regulations governing air quality in industrial
areas.
2. Repair Work. The method of surface preparation for
repairs is dlctated by the condition of the coating system
to be fixed. Extensive deterioration calls for abrasive blast
cleaning as specified for new work. This may require prior
treatment with solvents or steam cleaning to remove heavy
deposits of oil or grease. In less severe cases, power
brushes, grinders, hand scraping or wire brushing are sufficient. As in the case of new work, brush-off blast clean-
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
FIGURE 4
Typical towboat operating in inland waterways.
111. RECOMMENDATIONS FOR CLEANING

AND PAINTING
1. New Work. Methods used to prepare steel surfaces
for first painting range from simple hand cleaning to gritblasting to a white metal surface with no trace of mill
scale or other surface contaminant. They have been standardized by a number of concerned agencies, and for a
thorough description of the various grades the reader is
referred to the following sources:
a. Surface Preparation Specifications and
Pretreatment Specifications of the Steel Structures Painting Council
FIGURE 5
Side of barge hull, showing accelerated metal loss between water
lines.
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B. PAINTING
i. Hull Exteriors. Because these areas are constantly
immersed in waters of varying aggressiveness and quality,
it is important to devote careful attention to their protection. The necessity of integrity of hull surface is very important. During industrial expansion following World War
II, there was a marked degradation of water quality in
many inland waterways because of discharges of industrial wastes and run-off from coal stripping operations.
These pollutants caused severe acid condition in rivers,
which was deleterious to steel hulls in them. It became important for operators to provide special protection i f
vessels were to remain in service for a reasonable time.
With the adoption of measures to improve water quality by
reduction of discharges to navigable streams, a noticeable
attenuation of corrosive conditions has occurred. This has
led to some reduction in the quality of hull coatings for
some barges.
Some barge owners apply no coatings below the light
load line. For years it has been apparent from inspection of
barge side and bottom plates that painting at regular intervals can significantly extend the life of side plates. The
same tests indicate no great benefit in coating horizontal
bottom surfaces since the coating is quickly removed by
abrasion on sand bars. Many owners feel the cost of protecting the sides by coatings is no longer justified by the
increased life. Many barges are launched today with
minimal coating protection on exterior hull.^!.^.^
Towboat hulls are still considered worthy of ultimate
protection. Modern painting finds inorganic zinc-rich
primers employed with a catalyzed epoxy or coal tar epoxy
topcoat to be rated highest in service life. Straight epoxy
systems show good results and multiple-coat vinyl
systems over a wash primer perform quite well. The labor
saved from a reduction in the number of coats makes the
epoxy systems, and they are preferable when low ambient
high-build vinyl coatings has reduced the advantage of
epoxy systems and they are preferable when low ambient
temperatures prevent satisfactory application of epoxies.
2. Stern and Propellor Areas. Because of abrasion of
these areas by sand and debris stirred up by the propellors, particularly in shallow water, the stern and nozzle
surfaces require special attention. Vinyl and epoxy
coatings are adequate except on interior surfaces and
leading edges of Kort nozzles. Many materials have been
tried unsuccessfully, including rubber lining. Coatings
given the best chance for reasonable service life include
urethanes and glass-flake reinforced polyesters. One company has met this problem by lining nozzles with stainless
steel. It worked well enough to lead to similar plating of the
entire hull of two towboats.
_-
FIGURE 6
Stern area of a typical towboat, showing Kort nozzles.
ing may be the most economical and should be considered

if equipment is available.
In maintenance, the painting effort should be to
duplicate the original paint system or improve it. Generally, the original system will be used, except that cleaning
before priming may be limited to spot areas. Cleaned
areas should be feathered and built up to the level of old
paint in respect to protective quality, as well as to
thickness. Where rusted areas are small, cleaning is less
arduous and a better degree of surface preparation is
usually sought.
3. Hull Interiors. These are not always seen, so the

cosmetic aspect is not normally considered. On rakes and
square ends common practice is to apply a single coat of
an alkyd or oleoresinous coating over a minimally
prepared surface. In wing compartments and inner bot-
FIGURE 7
Example of a weld not properly prepared for painting. The spatter
arid ridges will lead to early paint failure.
Courtesy of Dravo Corp.
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FIGURE 8
Good surface preparation of welded area shows elimination of
ridges, crevices and spatter.
Courtesy of Dravo Corp.
toms the same practice can be followed, but more often

the coating is a rust-preventive compound of greaselike
consistency and formulated from waxes or cut-back
petroleum products. Typical materials of this type are
represented by US. Maritime Administration Specification
52-MA-602b and their use is described in SSPC-PS 8.01.
Reasonable protection has been afforded in these areas
by flotation-applied petroleum products of proprietary
nature.
Although performing satisfactorily as corrosion
preventives, they are objectionable from an environmental
viewpoint because of a tendency to be discharged into
water along with any bilge water that may require disposal
to eliminate unwanted ballast.
4. Decks and Exteriors of Cargo Boxes. Most common painting practice consists of alkyd or epoxy ester
systems applied over a blast cleaned surface to a commercial finish (SSPC-SP 6).For many towboats and barges
with cargos requiring resistance to chemical attack, nearwhite blast cleaning is common, followed by priming with
zinc-rich primers, either organic or inorganic, and topcoating with epoxy finishes. Whatever system, a common
feature is skid-resistant material on the decks in walkway
areas. The non-skid feature may be incorporated in coating
material or may consist of fine sand evenly sprinkled onto
the first coat while it is still wet. It is then covered by a second coat to encapsulate sand particles.
5. Interior of Cargo Boxes. Coating selection for
cargo box interiors is indicated to a large extent by the
cargo. The abrasive nature of bulk and equipment used to
load it generally preclude the use of high quality coatings. In sand and gravel service, inorganic zinc-rich
coatings have shown excellent performance over abrasive
blasted surfaces, either alone or as primers for alkyd t o p
coats. Although the latter coatlng combination is usually
avoided because of the risk of saponification of the alkyd
resin, Figure 9 shows a cargo box with good protection
after five years in sand and gravel service. In coal service
the life of zinc-rich coatings is short, and therefore

coatings are not used.
In covered hopper barges interior surfaces and the
underside of covers may be blast cleaned and coated with
epoxy or vinyl systems to protect the steel and prevent
contamination of cargo. The more common practice is
hand or power tool cleaning followed by a single coat of
low grade pigmented coating, for cosmetic purposes.
6. Superstructures. A towboat is not only very useful
and expensive, but is also a great attention getter from the
passing public and an advertising asset for its owner. For
these and other reasons the best surface preparation and
coating are customary in their construction and upkeep.
Abrasive blast cleaning to at least commercial grade is ordinary, as are zinc-rich primers, followed with topcoats of
epoxy, epoxy ester or alkyd compositionB. Because of their
outstanding weathering properties, acrylic and urethane
compositions may soon be common in these applications.
7. Painting Guide. Table 1 is a condensed guide to
systems recommended for the various surfaces.
Selection of the appropriate system where several are
named depends upon factors such as ambient temperature and available surface preparation.
FIGURE 9
Sideof cargo box, showing satisfactory performanceof alkyd t o p
Coat overzinc.rich primer after five years service.
Courtesy: Dravo Corporation
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Typical Painting Systems for Fresh Water Vessels
Typical Systems
Towboat and barge hull exteriors
I, II, v, VI
Towboat and barge decks and covers
I, 111, IV, v, VI
Towboat superstructures and interiors
I, 111, IV, v, VI, VII, VIII
Coal and acid-carrying barge decks and hoppers
v, VI, VII, VIII
Barge rake interiors
IX
Barge innerbottoms and wings
IX, x
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Surface to be Painted
Typical Coating Systems for Fresh Water Vessels

Typical
Surface
Systems
Preparation
Primer
Finish
Coating
SSPGSP 10
Inorganic zinc-rich
EPOXY
SSPGPS 12 and 13**
II
SSPGSP 10
Inorganic zinc-rich
Coal tarepoxy
SSPGPS 12 and 11* *
111
SSPGSP 10
Zinc-rich org. or inorg.
Epoxy ester
IV
SSPGSP 10
Zinc-rich org. or inorg.
Alkyd
SSPGPaint 14*
SSPGSP 10
Wash Primer
Vinyl
SSPGPaint 8*
VI
SSPGSP 10
Chlorinated Rubber
Chlorinated Rubber
SSPGPS 15
VI1
SSPGSP 10
Wash Primer
Vinyl
SSPGPaint 8*
VIII
SSPGSP 6
EPOXY
EPOXY
SSPGPS 13
IX
SSPGSP 2
Alkyd
Alkyd
SSPGPaint 104' *
SWEEP
Rust Preventive
52-MA602
* *Topcoat

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
BIOGRAPHY

chapter: T. A. Cross, Theodore Dowd, Dr. Richard W. Drisko,
Randy Fulkerson, Dr. Howard G. Lasser, D. W. Metzger, C. G.
Munger, William Pearson, and William J. Wallace, Jr.
REFERENCES
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1. Big Load Afloat, American Waterways Operators, Inc.,

Washington, D.C.
2. ORSANCO Quality Monitor, Ohio River Valley Water Sanitation Commission, Cincinnati, Ohio.
3. Harry M. Herald, Private Communication. Hillman Barge and
Construction Co., Brownsville, PA.
4. Wayne LaGrange, Private Communication. Jeffboat, Inc., Jeffersonville, IN.
5. Nicholas Dashko, Private Communication. Dravo Corporation, Pittsburgh, PA.
6. Naval Ships Technical Manual, NAVSEA 0901-LP-190-0002,
Chapter 9190, Preservation of Ships in Service, U S . Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C.
7. Clayton Wilson, Private Communication. United States Steel
Corporation, Ambridge, PA.
8. B.A. Rich, Private Communication. Valley Lime Co., Cincinnati, OH.
9. Edward L. Shearer, Private Communication. Hillman Barge
and Construction Co., Brownsville, PA.
10. A.J. Liebman, The Painting of Steel Vessels for Fresh Water
Service, in Steel Structures Painting Manual, 2nd ed.,
Volume 1, Chapter 12. Steel Structures Painting Council,
Pittsburgh, PA.
11. Alan H. Edwards, Private Communication. Hillman Barge and
Construction Co., Brownsville, PA.
12. Robert Kappler, Private Communication. Dravo-Mechling
Corporation, Pittsburgh, PA.
13. Robert A. Labdon, Private Communication. Federal Barge
Lines, Inc., St. Louis, MO.
14. Brent J. Lirette, Private Communication. Delta Shipyard,
Houma, LA.
James R. Foster is retired He

worked in the Production Engineering department of the Dravo Lime Company, where he was
involved in productionand quality
control of pollution control
materials
He was formerly Research
Engineer, Dravo Research and
Development Department. He had
more than 25 years experience in
coatings evaluations and corrosion
control. A Registered Professional Engineer in the State of Pennsylvania, he was active in the Steel Structures Painting Council and the

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CHAPTER 14.1
PAINTING STEEL TANKS

W.J. Wallace, Jr.
isolated from daylight within 60 days. With water-base

shop primers, re-dissolving has been encountered when
primed steel was stacked and subjected to rain, condensation or high humidity. Coal tar primer paints, particularly
the primers for coal tar enamels, are subject to rapid
degradation in outdoor exposure. Some of the exempt
solvents are hydrophillic and if all of the solvent does not
escape from the paint film, the solvent will absorb water
back through the film and cause disbonding.
The list of problems can be extensive. It is no wonder
that the inexperienced paint specifier sometimes fails to
make appropriate selections.
Paint systems for tank interiors must conform with
regulations issued by the Food and Drug Administration
(FDA), the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), the N a
tional Public Health Service, the Occupational Safety and
Healt h Administration (OSHA), and other regulatory bod i es
at all levels of government. Conforming to these regulations can be difficult. Regulations often serve crosspurposes or are inconsistent. For instance, there are
regulations prohibiting the use of coal tar derivative
coatings in a water tank, but none prohibiting the use of
coal tar type coatings on the interior surfaces of pipes that
transport water to and from the same tanks.
Confusion in response to various regulatory bodies
had had at least one beneficial side effect. The AWWA
D102 Committee has formed a toxicological study group to
work closely with EPA in the formulation of a test protocol.
If the test protocol is satisfactory to both government and
industry, the combined effort can then determine which
paints or coatings other than catalyzed epoxies and vinyls
are suitable for potable water service. Until government
regulations change, the specifiers and fabricator-paint
engineers who wish to avoid problems with regulatory
bodies and litigation with consumers can write their painting specifications for the inside surfaces of potable water
tanks as follows: Surface Preparation: SSPC-SP 10 NearWhite Metal Blast Cleaning or SSPC-SP 8 Pickling.
Paint materials should be limited to VR-3 vinyl (4-coat
system) to a total dry film thickness in the range 5-6 mils; a
high-build vinyl (3-coat) to a total dry film thickness in the
range 6-8 mils; or a catalyzed epoxy system (2-coat) either
amineadduct or polyamide cured, to a total dry film
thickness in the range 10-16 mils. All coats should be different in color to facilitate rudimentary inspection.
This chapter presents information about painting interiors and exteriors of steel tanks. The discussion deals
with selection of materials, inspection, and maintenance.
The scope is limited to steel tanks for storage of water, oil,
gasoline, and other commercial liquids; it does not consider the very specialized area of tank lining, which is taken
up in another chapter. Surface preparation, safety and application techniques are also covered in separate chapters.
I. SELECTION OF MATERIALS
A. TANK INTERIORS
The American Water Works Association (AWWA) standards list ten paint systems for tank interiors. They are 1) a
three-coat system consisting of two aluminum phenolic
paint coats over red-lead primed surfaces; 2) a four- or fivecoat vinyl paint system; 3) a zinc dust-zinc oxide, phenolicvehicle paint system; 4) a four-coat, singlesolution, highsolids vinyl paint system; 5) a cold-applied petroleum wax
coating; 6) a hot-applied petroleum wax coating; 7) a
metallic sprayed zinc coating; 8) a X,-inch, hot-appliedcoal
tar enamel coating; 9) a cold-applied coal tar coating above
the high water level only, and 10) a cold-applied tasteless
and odorless tar-base paint. In addition, coal tar epoxies,
catalyzed epoxies, alkyd-phenolics, three-coat high-build
vinyl paints, epoxylester paints, and chlorinated rubber
paints are also covered.
While these paint systems can yield satisfactory
results, problems may develop. For instance, coal tar epoxies have limited flexibility. When used as shop primers
they cannot be topcoated later without additional surface
preparation. If zinc-rich primers are not topcoated quickly
after applications, negative effects can result.
Phenolic vehicle paints, including zinc-oxide, zinc-dust
phenolic, alkyd phenolic, and epoxy-phenolic materials
will not accept a topcoat after they are exposed to the atmosphere for periods of 6-9 months. The paint surface
becomes very hard, and hardness increases with time. Exposure to direct sunlight accelerates the hardening of the
phenolic radical. Zinc-filled chlorinated rubber paints and
zinc-filled epoxy paints can also degrade rapidly when exposed to sunlight, especially if condensation or high
humidity becomes a factor. The non-filled chlorinated rubber paints can fail quickly if they are not topcoated and
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FIGURE 1
Spray painting the exterior of a water storage tank.
Courtesy Chicago Bridge and Iron
On tankage to be used exclusively for fire protection,

especially where the stored water is pumped through
sprinkler heads, water cleanliness is of prime importance.
Particulate matter entering the pipe can clog the sprinklerhead system. The inside surfaces of such tankage should
receive the best possible degree of cleaning, careful
removing of all blast cleaning media and coating with twocoat catalyzed epoxy or coal-tar epoxy, or a three coat
high-build vinyl paint system. Fire protection water tanks
should be inspected at least once a year, if for no other
reason than to remove stagnant water. If the tank cannot
be inspected frequently, or the stored water cannot be
Turned-over on a regular basis, then a fungicide should
be introduced into the paint to prevent algae growth. The
use of a fungicide in paint must be predicated on the
knowledge that the water for fire protection cannot ever
enter into the drinking water supply.
The same arguments regarding cleaning and painting
should be assumed to be true for fuel oil tankage, where
the fuel oil is pumped directly to the burners. Another
sound argument for painting or lining oil-storage tanks is
the fact that oils, even in the refined state, may contain
free sulfur. This sulfur is corrosive and attacks steel.
Be cautious about using zinc-rich paints on the inside
surfaces of fire protection tanks and fuel oil tanks. If the
water becomes stagnant, the zinc dissolves very quickly. If
the fuel oil contains free sulfur, and most of them do, there
is a formation of zinc-sulfide, and both the paint and the
stored product can be ruined. The condensate water that
forms in all oil tanks attacks the zinc paint and causes
rapid dissolution of the paint.
reflectance. On water storage tanks, the color is typically

chosen by committee, and usually the committee compromises on some shade of blue or green.
The current version of AWWA D102 lists five paint
systems for exterior surfaces: 1) three-coat alkyd, 2) fourcoat alkyd, 3) two-coat alkyd with silicone alkyd finish
coat, 4) three-coat vinyl and 5) an organic zinc-rich with
chlorinated rubber alkyd topcoats. In all probability, the
primer chosen for number 5 will be azinc-filled chlorinated
rubber paint. Trouble can develop in this type of paint
system if the topcoats are not applied immediately after
priming.
In addition to the systems shown in AWWA D102,
there is a wide variety of proprietary paint systems, all of
which have some merit and all of which have their limiting
characteristics. For instance, a true silicone-alkyd paint
contains approximately 33 percent silicone. This paint
cannot be roll-coated without causing a serious bubbling
problem. The problem can be overcome in several ways,
such as overloading the paint with bubble-buster or
reducing the amount of silicone to prevent the bubble formation. The best solution is the addition of the bubblebuster. Some studies have shown that a silicone-alkyd
can be applied by roller when the silicone content is below
18 percent. Therefore, a specifier of silicone-alkyd should
be aware of two things: 1) i f the location will permit spray
painting, and 2) if the silicone-alkyd is less than 33 percent
silicone. As the silicone content becomes lower than 33
percent, gloss and color retention is also lowered,
sometimes disproportionately. An ordinary three-coat
alkyd paint system is superior to a silicone-alkyd system
with a low silicone content.
B. TANK EXTERIORS
There are several paint systems for the exterior surfaces of tanks. The systems range from the simple threecoat alkyd to the sophisticated epoxy-urethane and all
sorts of combinations in between. In general, most
petroleum and solvent storage tanks are painted white
(decals excluded) or very light pastel colors to provide heat
FIGURE 2
Tank depicting earth as seen from fllghts in space.
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should be tested for continuity of the paint film before the

painter leaves the site. The two most common methods are
the wet-sponge test and the spark or jeep test. The wetsponge test, generally used on coating films up to 25 mils
thick, is conducted using a low-voltage, hand-held apparatus that issues a warning sound (bell, beep, or horn)
when the probe is passed over a holiday or void in the
coating film. The probe is a sponge, saturated with a
solution of 5 percent table salt (electrolyte) and 2 percent
detergent (surfactant), in water. On tankage in nuclear
sites, where the very thought of chloride ions in water
causes mental spasms, the test solution is generally plain
water adjusted t o approximately 10 thousand ohmcentimeter resistivity. The spark or jeep test is used to
detect holidays and areas of insufficient coating thickness
on coating films thicker than 25 mils. The normal operating
voltage is 1000 times the square root of the specified
coating thickness. Failure is detected by formation of a
spark, accompanied by snapping or crackling sounds.
Inspectors using holiday detection equipment should
be aware that this equipment cannot be used on zinc filled
paints, metallized surfaces and aluminum filled paints
such as vinyl aluminum. The inspectors should also be
aware that certain structural members that are not seal
welded or caulked, such as the roof supports (rafters),
bolted surfaces, box supports for roof columns and so
forth, cannot be painted properly. As a result, a test of
these members will indicate a failure of the paint system.
Therefore, unless it is specifically stated that these
FIGURE 3
Roller application of paint to tank exterior.
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
The specifier must use caution in choosing the proper

paint system. Consider, for example, the urethanes.
The most promising system on the market today is
the epoxy-urethane paint system, that is, a prime coat
of catalyzed epoxy paint, topcoated with a two-pack
aliphatic-polyester urethane paint. There are other
urethanes: single-pack (aromatic) vinyl-urethanes, epoxyurethanes, acrylic-urethanes, and so forth. Most of these
combination urethanes do not have the gloss and color
retention of the aliphatic-polyester urethanes. Therefore, it
behooves the potential specifier to be able t o ask questions in order to know what he is getting in a urethane. If
doubt persists about a given paint material, help is
available from AWWA, or some member of the SSPC Tank
Painting Committee.
The specifier should also be aware and beware of the
or-equal clause. This clause is a two-edged sword that
has caused much grief in the world of painting. For instance, it is all well and good to use the phrase generic or
equal, providing, of course, that the specifier has listed a
number of paint suppliers, all of whom manufacture an
identical system, paint-for-paint. If only one of the
manufacturers listed has a unique system, then, the
specifier must 1) accept paint from a manufacturer NOTon
his list, 2) accept an alternate but equal system, or 3) be
prepared to accept total responsibility for what is in effect
a closed specification.
II. INSPECTION
Regardless of the type of tank built, the type of service or the type of paint system, the as-painted interior surface that is in contact with the product and the surfaces
that suffer exposure to condensate waters and vapors
FIGURE 4
Water tank designed creatively to suggest its function.
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voids be sealed prior to painting, it is recommended that

they not be tested for holidays.
The same reasoning applies to dry film thickness
measurements. The dry film thickness should be
measured in accordance with SSPC-PA 2 with a magnetic
gauge that measures dry film thickness within an accuracy of 0.25 mil. As many dry film thickness
measurements as feasible should be made so that there is
approximately one measurement (three readings) for each
100 sq. ft. of surface painted. If an owners representative is at the site, the dry film thickness measurements
should be made while surfaces are accessible at locations
selected by the owners representative. Extensive rerigging after paint has dried so that dry film thickness
measurements can be made is not required provided that a
sufficient number of the locations tested meet or exceed
the minimum dry film thickness specified.
The inspector should also be aware that dry film
thickness readings obtained on edges, fillets, welds and
so forth may not be accurate because of differences in
magnetic fields. Therefore, it is pointless to take these
measurements.
It is good, sound practice to inspect the paint applied
to the water-bearing surfaces of a tank within the first year
to 13 months after painting has been completed. In a majority of cases, 90 to 95 percent of all areas that can fail do
fail in the first year of exposure. Moreover, the paint work
is under guarantee for this period of time, and barring unforeseen complications, the remedial work can be accomplished at no cost to the owner. This is a policy
adopted by the AWWA, and it is fair to both owner and contractor. The 13-month limit also gives the conscientious
owner plenty of time to make arrangements for proper inspection of his tank, and the opportunity t o start his
maintenance painting program.
metal. In this way, the inspector can determine, from the

layers of paint, how many times the tank has been painted.
Laboratory analysis of the paint cuts determines what
paints have been used previously. Such an inspection,
andlor careful analysis of the written history provides the
owner several options prior to repainting.
An owner should hire a third party, knowledgeable in
paint work, t o inspect the work and make recommendations; and the owner should follow these recommendations. Never keep repainting a tank, or anything else for
that matter, without effectively removing deteriorated
paint.
The following is a true example of the kind of problems that can develop if one hurries into repainting a structure without considering its history. One rather large industrial firm owned an old 250,000 gallon elevated water
tank that was painted on the exterior surfaces as follows:
commercial blast cleaning followed by two coats of alkyd
enamel (black). The tank was repainted with the same
paint system twice in the next 10 years. During the next 30
years it was painted six times using the company colors. In
1978 the company was going to paint the tank again.
Moreover, they rejected the advice of some very
knowledgeable people that some sort of surface preparation work be performed on the paint. Two competent tank
painting firms declined to bid the work. A first-hand inspection revealed stress cracks in the paint, large enough
to reveal the black paint. But the tank was painted, and
within three months large chunks of paint fell off the
tank. Recently, this tank was blast-cleaned to white metal
and painted with an epoxy-aliphatic urethane system on
the exterior surface. It now has a properly restored paint
system.
111. MAINTENANCE
A maintenance painting program begins with a burning desire to preserve an already expensive installation,
an absolute willingness to accomplish the task and the
necessary funds to do the work. Water tanks in particular
get painted many times during their service lives, and
maintenance painting often represents more expenditure
than the original paint work. Therefore, it behooves the
owner or his representative to think seriously about some
of the dos and donts associated with maintenance
painting.
The most obvious do is to obtain the painting
history on the subject tank. An accurate history reveals the
tank age, the original paint system (generic), subsequent
repairs and repaint work, and generic changes in the paint
system. In short, the history contains most of the information required to make an informed judgment about the proposed paint work. In the absence of a written history, the
owner, his representative, or a competent inspection firm
should remove cuts of paint from the tank in several
locations. These cuts should remove the paint down to the
FIGURE 5
Interior water tank paints were evaluated in a series of tests initiated in 1931 and carried out jointly in 1950 and again in 1958-59
by the SSPC, the Ambridge Water Authority and the Pittsburgh
Des Moines Steel Company. The latter tests included 196 test
areas (each 21 feet tall) involving chiefly phenolics, which failed
and vinyls (per SSPC-PS 4.00) which, with touch-up, were still effective as described in Reference 4.
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IV. SUMMARY
Tank painting can be relatively simple, environmentally acceptable and still comply with government regulations and AWWA requirements. The interior surfaces of
potable water tanks should be painted with two coats of
catalyzed epoxy (polyamide or amine-adduct cured) to a
dry film thickness in the range 10-16 mils or a three-coat or
four-coat (VR-3) vinyl paint system. The three-coat vinyl
system affords the option of a thicker coating (7-8 mils dry
film) than does the VR-3 (four-coat) system. In both cases
the final coat should be an SSPC-Paint 8 Aluminum Vinyl
Paint to achieve an effective seal over the preceeding
coats.
The exterior surfaces are still painted as elected by
the owner. However, the specifiers should be painfully
aware that new OSHA regulations have virtually banned
the use of the lead-bearing primers. The OSHA regulations
have also placed the chromate pigments in jeopardy.
Therefore, it is a wise specifier who determines, in writing
of course, that a particular manufacturers primer is leadfree and will NOTdisbond under severe condensation conditions. The same line of reasoning holds true for the topcoats. There are some totally lead-free primers that are
proving satisfactory for the exterior surfaces of water
tanks, and eventually, the applicators will catch-up with
the technology. In any case, the major considerations in
choosing exterior surface paints are location, (proximity to
houses, etc.), time of year painting will be accomplished,
and application characteristics of the paint (can it be
rolled as well as sprayed). If, for instance, one is contemplating the purchase of a new tank, and it will be
placed in an open area that will eventually be surrounded
by buildings, then it is time to consider the long-lasting
systems, such as epoxies, epoxy-urethanes or the highbuild vinyl enamels. If the tank is or will be placed in
crowded conditions, pick a system that will afford the
fewest problems in applications.
Petroleum tankage should always be painted. White is
an excellent choice for the exterior surfaces. The interior
surfaces should be coated with epoxy or epoxy-phenolic
materials or lined with a baking phenolic material.
It is good to remember the following: steel is relatively
inexpensive. In fact, the steel is the least expensive item
on the job. If, then, the cost of design, fabrication, labor,
and erection are the most expensive factors, why do we
pay so little attention to protecting the basic item of the
structure? The replacement costs are enormous. Again, i f
all of these beautiful steel structures are designed and
built as a monument to mans ability to overcome nature,
why do we become so penurious regarding the one thing,
painting, that will protect our genius from the ravages of
nature?
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The previous chapter on this subject was written by the late
J.O. Jackson.
chapter: AI Beitelman, Duane Bloemke, Wallace Cathcart, William
Chandler, R. Burt Chase, T.A. Cross, Ted Dowd, Richard Drisko,
Ronald W. Hamm, Leonard Haynie, Harlan Kline, Iggy Metil, John
Montle, C. Munger, Joe Richard, Harry A. Skilton, T. Wilhelm,
Louis Zadra.
REFERENCES
1. J.O. Jackson, Painting of Steel Tanks Steel Structures Painting Council, Volume 1, pp. 298-308, 1952.
2. Final Report of Ambridge Test of Paints for Water Tank Interiors, Pittsburgh-Des Moines Steel Company Technical
Bulletin No. 3304, 1933.
3. Second Report of Inspection of Test of Steel Priming Paints
and Methods of Surface Preparation After 584 Days Exposure, Pittsburgh-Des Moines Steel Company, May 4, 1941.
4. J.D. Keane, A 25-Year Evaluation of Coatings for Water Tank
Interiors, Steel Structures Painting Council Report, December
1, 1975.
5. Painting and Repainting Steel Tanks, Standpipes, Reservoirs,
and Elevated Tanks for Water Storage, American Water
Works Association, Inc. February 11, 1964.
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8 6 2 7 9 4 0 0 0 0 3 7 b 7 782
93
CHAPTER 14.2
THE LINING OF STEEL TANKS

by
Wallace
P. Cathcart and Albert L. Hendricks
I. INTRODUCTION
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This chapter describes accepted practices for selecting and applying protective coatings to the interior surfaces of steel tanks. These coatings used as linings protect tank interiors from corrosive andlor erosive products
and often prevent contamination of the product by the
steel substrate. The tank may be used for processing,
transporting or storing chemical or food products.
The requirements necessary to obtain economical
service life with a coating as a lining include safety,
designlfabrication, selection of coating materials, surface
preparation, application techniques, curing, inspection
and maintenance. For purposes of this chapter the discussion of a protective coating used as a lining is limited to
materials applied in one or more coats by conventional air
spray or airless spray methods to a total dry film thickness
of no greater than 50 mils. This chapter does not include
other application techniques such as flame spraying,
sheet-applied linings, metallizing or hand lay-ups.
The success of a coating system depends upon the
design of the tank, intended use, coating selection, total
dry film thickness of coating and application technique.
These factors make it essential to seek advice from a competent supplier of coating materials and a knowledgeable,
experienced applicator.
II. SAFETY
Assuring the safety of workers in tank lining is of utmost importance. Working in confined areas with dust and
toxic andlor flammable materials can create hazardous
conditions. Individuals working in these areas should be
familiar with precautions necessary to prevent accidents.
Regulatory bodies, such as OSHA, have guidelines that
must be followed. In addition, training program should be
established to educate all individuals who apply coatings
to steel tanks.
Use of a check list such as the following, prior to starting work, helps to establish conditions necessary for safety:
Barricades
Elect rical Hazards
Explosion Proof Electrical Equipment
Eye Protection
Falling Objects
Fire Alarm Station
Fire Extinguisher - Fire Blankets

Flammability of Materials Used

Ground Fault Interrupter
Nearest Telephone
Nearby Traffic, Cranes, Moving Objects
Protect ive Clothing
Respiratory Protection
Safety Permits
Safety Rescue Equipment
Safety Showers
Scaffolding
Source of Breathing Quality Air
Spark Proof Tools
Static Equipment Grounded
Toxic Materials
Warning Tags and Signs
Precautions in excess of standard industrial safety
practices must be followed for the work performed inside
tanks. For instance, all electrical power to work areas
must pass through a ground fault interrupter. Clothing
must be sufficiently thick to protect the skin from bombardment during abrasive blasting and to provide protection from the coating material during application. Foot
wear for individuals applying the coating should have soft
nail-free soles that resist solvents, prevent sparking and
provide good traction. All workmen inside a tank should be
equipped with forced, fresh air breathing apparatus when
any blasting or spraying is being done (Figure 1). An alternate or standby source of breathing air must be available
to provide a safe escape time in the event the primary
source fails.
Ventilation must remove blasting dust for visibility
and provide sufficient air to maintain solvent vapor concentration below both the lower explosive and threshold
limits. Because nearly ali solvent vapors are heavier than
air, they tend to concentrate in low afeas so it is necessary
to assure such areas are well ventilated. Detailed information pertaining to explosive and threshold limits can be obtained from various p u b l i ~ a t i o n sEye
. ~ ~protection
~
should
be mandatory for all workmen in the tank and in the area of
the tank when they are handling abrasive or when abrasive
blasting is in progress. All pressure equipment including
blast pots must be constructed as specified by National
Board Code and the ASME Code for Unfired Pressure
Vessels. Safety relief valves should Oe tested daily and
pressure tests should be conducted at least once and
preferably twice a year.
320
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= 8627940 0003768 619 D

ed in the design, they should be eliminated by fillet
welding. The contour should be smooth enough for the lining material to be applied uniformly4 (Figure 2).
IV. SELECTION OF MATERIAL

Selecting the coating material for immersion service
is one of the most difficult functions and requires the
greatest degree of engineering skill and effort.
Immersion service is usually thought of as immersed
or submerged in a liquid. In this chapter that is the
assumption; however, it must be realized that tanks, silos,
railroad cars and hoppers are often lined to handle a dry
product such as grain, plastic pellets or salt. When lining
for dry service, it is sometimes assumed that the absence
of liquid eliminates the stringent requirements for coating
application. But there are several factors that may
counteract the apparent lack of liquid. In the case of
plastic pellets, for instance, where the lining is used solely
to protect the product, a chip or flake of the lining that may
be of little concern in a liquid contamination environment
could be of great economic concern i f it managed to get into the rollers of a high speed film manufacturing plant. In
another instance, hydroscopic properties of a product,
such as sodium chloride, can result in severe corrosion in
covered hopper cars after as little as three years. For dry
service, caref u I, knowledgeable engineer ng wi I I
sometimes allow deviations from recommendations for immersion; however, this is the exception rather than the
rule.
Among all the factors in coating selection, the three
most critical are (1) resistance to the reagent or the product to be stored; (2) resistance to undercutting or underfilm
attack at points of minor breaks, discontinuities or
permeations that exist or develop; and (3) physical properties such as flexibility, adhesion and elongation that are
FIGURE 1
Safely equipped man spraying the inside of small food processing tank.
Courtesy: Tank Lining Corp.
111. DESIGN AND FABRICATION TO RECEIVE

LINING
Whether a tank is being lined to prevent contamination of a product or to provide protection from corrosion,
the coating must act as a barrier between the product and
the steel tank. The coating must be essentially continuous
to perform effectively. Long or meticulously detailed
specifications for tank design are needed only for the most
exacting conditions as when a highly corrosive environment is to be handled. More commonly though, coatings
are used as linings to prevent iron or oxide contamination
of the product and the specifying engineer should address
himself to the difference. The essentials of good tank
design, stated simply, are these: avoid or eliminate sharp
edges, projections, crevices, acute angles and pits; design
the tank so that all surfaces are visible and accessible to
the workers preparing the surface and applying the
coat ing.
The surface tension of most liquid coatings tends to
pull the film from the apex of any edge or projection and
thus leave less film to protect the substrate. Arbitrarily, the
industry has assumed a minimum of ya radius of a sharp
edge, but more significantly, sharpness must be
el imi nated.
Consideration should be given to designing nozzles
that extend into the tank for inbound flow to prevent high
concentrations of solutions from running down the sides
of the lining. In addition, the nozzle should have a large
diameter and short length to facilitate coating application
to the interior surfaces.
When applying a coating by spray, excessive
thicknesses tend to accumulate in areas where crevices,
pits and acute angles exist. If such areas cannot be avoid-
FIGURE 2
Lining of baked phenolic over carbon and stainless steel for high
pressure and temperature chemical separator.
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satisfactory for the service for which the lining is intended.

For instance, a thick brittle lining might work well in a
fixed, rigid storage tank yet fail prematurely i f used in a
railroad tank car or a thin-walled storage silo. Lesser factors, but nevertheless sometimes important, are (4)
resistance to water and oxygen passage; (5) resistance to
abrasion; (6) resistance to aging; (7) application and curing
characteristics such that a proper coating film is feasible
in the specific vessel to be lined.
As an example, the baking phenolic coatings that are
final cured at 400F. (204C.) cannot easily be applied in
extremely large tanks due to the difficulty in obtaining a
uniform temperature. Final cure temperature is limited to
the temperature resistance of the insulation on the vessels
that have been permanently insulated. Also doubleskinned barges, as now designed, cannot be baked above
approximately 300F. (149C.) because the inner tank expands and distorts or even splits the outer shell.
When selecting the proper coating system, it is
necessary to understand all of the conditions to which the
lining will be subjected, such as product type, exposure
time, temperature variations, temperature source, vapor
area, pressure, cleaning procedures, agitation, wet and dry
conditions, versatility, degree of abrasion or erosion, thermal shock, trace chemicals present and possible physical
impact, either on the lining or the reverse side. Figure 3
shows a typical failure that occurred, in part, because all
of these conditions were not taken into account.
Gathering information on the variable in making a
selection is simplified if identical field history exists. But
even seemingly insignificant variations should be judged
by an experienced person competent in understanding
their significance. Some material suppliers and some application companies keep extensive records of successes
and failures of each coating system used. This information
is often available, but it must be used judiciously. If actual
experience is not available, it is necessary to conduct
either field or laboratory tests. Field testing in the actual
environment is the most effective because it takes into
consideration all of the variables that exist. Field testing is
painstaking, time consuming and many times impractical;
therefore, the tendency is to utilize accelerated laboratory
testing. But it must be emphasized that evaluation by accelerated tests is a technique to be used with great caution as it will only reject bad selections and not prove good
ones unless there is favorable correlation between the
results and similar performances.
In field testing, application of the test material to the
actual substrate is preferred since it is then exposed completely to all the variables. If substrate testing is not feasible, it is then advisable to suspend or attach a coupon
within the tank. Dissimilar metals should be insulated
from the sample to prevent a galvanic differential between
the sample and the vessel itself. The difference in the
temperature on a coating and the temperature of the outside tank wall may also be significant to its performance.
When suspending a panel, however, the variable of
* A
FIGURE 3
Failure of water tank lining from poor design, fabrication,
material selection and application.
Courtesy: D.M. Berger
temperature differential is lost. Thus, the results must be

carefully interpreted.
Laboratory tests are normally conducted on steel
coupons prepared under laboratory conditions by individuals well versed in the application of coatings to test
samples. Coated coupons are exposed to the product intended for storage or transportation by submerging in a
container or using an Atlas Test Ce1L5 The samples are
normally observed at various intervals from 24 hours to
one year or until failure occurs.
The Atlas Test Cell consists of an open pipe to which
test panels are bolted on each end to form a double end
flange (Figure 4). The center piping has openings where
heating elements, condensers, thermometers andlor
agitators can be inserted. The body of the cell is constructed of glass, resistant alloy or coated steel. This test
can simulate many of the conditions experienced in actual
service, such as agitation, temperature differential across
the surface and temperature sources from inside or out. In
evaluating a protective coating for immersion the test
should be conducted for a minimum of six months and
ideally for one year.
Any changes in the appearance of the coating should
be recorded. Failure is normally indicated if blistering,
severe softening, swelling or severe discoloration has
been noted. With regard to softening and discoloration,
the difference between severe and less severe or inconsequential requires considerable experience and indepth understanding of the expected performance of the
lining. Likewise, failure of the panel is indicated if the liquid is affected by the exposure in any significant manner.
Again, experience and understanding of expected performance is necessary to interpret what is significant. Following is an example of what can be significant.
The liquid in a particular test has a pickup of two parts
per million of iron. By comparing liquid volume to surface
area, relating all to time and exposure in test as compared
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* h a ! *-
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= 8627940 0003770 277
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to anticipated time of exposure and use, the amount of

iron pickup can be calculated and judgments made as to
whether it is significant. In some circumstances, any
measurable extractable or any color change of the product
is deemed to be a coating failure. Normally, a slight color
change in the coating, a slight weight loss or a slight
weight gain are not considered failures. An important final
determination of a test coupon, even though the coating
appears to be unaffected, is to remove the coating from
the steel and inspect for any signs of damaging permeation
or under-film attack.
Several different generic coating systems are used as
protective barriers for vessels in immersion service. The
resistance of each type varies with the individual formulation. Resistance tables can be obtained from coating
manufacturers or organizations such as the National
Association of Corrosion Engineers. These tables should
be used with discretion since slight variations in formulations could decrease the resistance of a specific generic
type. Interpretation of these charts is also important. Good
alkali resistance does not mean the system is resistant to
73'/0 caustic soda but possibly resistant to pH slightly in
excess of 7. Similarly, good solvent resistance does not
normally mean the coating system has resistance to immersion in methylene chloride.
The following is a brief description of the major
generic types of coating materials presently used as linings:
A. PHENOLIC
A high-bake pure phenolic, unplasticized, based on a
phenol formaldehyde resin, often referred to as a straight
phenolic. Polymerization is accomplished by heat curing
at metal temperatures ranging between 350" to 450F.
(177" to 242C.). They are spray applied in a number of
coats to a total dry film thickness ranging between 4-8
mils. The pigmentation used in formulations affects the
e n d c o l o r , adhesion, p e r m e a b i l i t y and spray
characteristics. The chemical and physical properties of
bake phenolic systems are excellent. They are unaffected
by most solvents, including hydrocarbons, alcohols,
ketones and chlorinated solvents. They are resistant to
concentrated sulphuric acid but due to the limitation on
total dry film thickness cannot be used in dilute acids
where the corrosion rate on the underlying steel would be
excessive. They exhibit poor resistance to alkalies, alkali
salts and strong oxidants. This system normally meets all
the requirements of the FDA and USDA for protecting
substrates exposed to products intended for human consumption. Because of the limitation on film thickness, this
system normally is not specified as a pin-hole free lining.
FIGURE 4
Test cell indicates failure as a result of adhesion loss.
Courtesy: Gilbert Associates
formulation is normally applied by spray in a number of

coats to a total dry film thickness ranging between 4 and 8
mils. Pigmentation varies t o enhance adhesion,
permeability, spray characteristics and color. Chemical
and physical properties.are excellent, although when compared to the unmodified or straight phenolic, the
resistance to solvents and concentrated acids is lower.
Some modifications can result in an increase in resistance
to alkalies and strong oxidants. Due to the limitation on
film thickness, this system should not be used in highly
corrosive areas and is not pinhole free.
Similar, but generally less resistant, formulations are
available that, while still thermosetting, can be polymerized at lower temperatures. Optimum cure is obtained at
approximately 200F. (93C.) metal temperature. Much of
the disparity in resistance can be overcome by these
material's ability to be applied at much heavier films, 8-12
mils.
C. EPOXY
Formulations based on Bisphenol A Epichlorohydrin
resin utilizing either amines, amine adducts or polyamide
curing agents for polymerization. Heat, while not always
necessary to cure, does optimize resistance. This type of
system can also be modified with phenol formaldehyde
resins, coal tar or other resinous materials. It is possible to
formulate systems with no volatile solvent, various solvent
combinations or with water. Pigment is added to the formulation to obtain color, workability, adhesion or abrasion
resistance. The resistance of this category varies substantially based on the formulation, but, generally, it will have
excellent resistance to various chemicals that range in a
pH from 4 to 12. The solvent resistance will be fair. Its exposure to severely corrosive environments will be limited
due to normal film thicknesses ranging from 8 to 30 mils
when applied by spray. Heavier films (not in the scope of
this chapter) can be formulated containing flaking or
fibrous fillers and applied by spray, trowel, or hand lay-up.
D. POLYESTER-VINYL ESTER
B. PH ENOLIC/EPOXY BAKING TYPE
Formulations based on either a polyester or vinyl

ester resin contain styrene or a similar monomer at a varying percentage up to 55 percent. The styrene monomer
enters into the cross linking but also evaporates;
therefore, it is difficult to determine coverage by normal
Formulations based on a phenol formaldehyde resin

crosslinked with a Bisphenol A Epichlorohydrin.
Polymerization is accomplished by heat curing at metal
temperatures of 350" to 450F (177" to 242C.). This type

3283
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SSPC CHAPTER*34-2 93
8627940 0003773 303
H. PRECAUTIONS
volumeisolids methods with either of these materials.

Polymerization is accomplished with peroxide type
catalysts and promoters. Pot life can vary from 15 minutes
to 8 hours, depending on the reactivity of the formulation.
The pigmentation varies depending on the intended use
and the manufacturers preference. Formulations containing chopped glass, glass flake or inert oxide flake pigment
are used for lining vessels. Film thickness varies with the
formulation, but for immersion application from 30 to 60
mil films are applied by spray. Heavier films (not in the
scope of this chapter) from 40 to 120 mils may be applied
by trowel or hand lay-up. The chemical properties are
defined as excellent with resistance to various acid and
alkali environments. The solvent resistance is generally
fair. A pinhole free film can be obtained with these
systems.
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
The phenomena of cold wall effect, that is, a driving,

permeating force assisting ionic passage through the
coating to the metal in the direction from a hot liquid to a
cold wall, has been reported and is a significant adverse
factor in the performance of some lining. Conversely, with
a heated exterior wall, the heat comes from the exterior
towards the contents and within reasonable extremes, the
lining seems to be protected and the performance is improved in these areas.6
Coating materials used as linings tend to be the most
sophisticated of the paint and coating formulations. With
this often comes unusual sensitivities. Care should be
taken to insure that coatings used as linings are well
within the shelf life as defined by the material supplier.
The storage or shelf life may be materially affected by
elevations in temperature or by exposure to sunlight.
Others, i f once frozen, may not be suitable for usage.
Storage under controlled temperatures and safe ventilation with scheduled package inverting as recommended by
the supplier is essential for optimum shelf life.
E. NEOPRENE
Synthetic elastomers that may be dissolved in
solvents or as a latex dispersed in water. Common curing
agents are zinc or magnesium oxide. The solvent materials
are spray applied in thicknesses of 20 or more mils and
have excellent resistance to both alkalies and acids. The
latex materials (like the styrene butadiene latex) are
sprayed in thicknesses of 10-25 mils and are widely successful in strong alkali immersion (50 and 73% caustic
soda) but not in acids. All neoprene are considered to be
relatively poor in solvent environments.
V. SURFACE PREPARATION
Surface preparation is important in obtaining successful linings for tanks. It should provide a substrate that
is free of contaminants, uniformly roughened and cleaned
to a white metal, such as outlined in SSPC-SP 5. This type
of surface can be created only by abrasive blasting. The industry has not established a guide for degree of profile,
although certain manufacturers do specify depth of profile
required for their systems. Observation indicates that with
some coating systems in certain environments the depth
of surface profile can significantly alter the results. Determination of the depth of profile in the field has been made
by using visual comparators, by making microscopic
measurements and by measuring depths imposed on a
tape. However, the accuracy of this type of equipment has
not been established.
As environmental and health standards often prevent
preparation of substrates by blasting with sand, evidence
shows that a clean angular iron or steel grit of proper hardness can provide an excellent surface. Steel surfaces
blasted with metallic grit do not have the classic white
metal appearance, nor do they have the same light reflectant properties as steel blasted with sand because of the
absence of sand residues. In selecting any abrasive, care
must be taken to insure that it is clean and noncontaminating. After abrasive blasting, dust must be
removed from surfaces and from the air. Once the dust has
settled, the surface should be carefully brushed andlor
blown down with moistureioil-free air, andlor vacuum
cleaned. This is a critical step in surface preparation for
coatings to be used as linings.
Surface preparation of tanks that have previously
been exposed to liquids requires special treatment. Prior
to blasting, it may be necessary to clean residues of
previous contents with solvent, caustic, acid, detergent or
F. INORGANIC ZINC
Formulations are based on either alkali or alkyl
silicates with a varying percentage of zinc pigment. The
alkali formulations are water based and the alkyl, solvent
based. The amount of zinc loading will determine the
degree of galvanic protection offered. This kind of system
may be self-curing, or it may rely on moisture in the air, or it
may be post-cured by application of an acid solution. Its
chemical resistance is excellent in solvents and petroleum
products that are relatively free of water and with a near
neutral pH. It prevents corrosion of steel substrates by
sacrificial or preferential action. Topcoating is therefore
advantageous to prevent rapid deterioration of the zinc.
Possible contamination of the stored product may result
when zinc coatings alone are used for immersion service.
G. VINYL
Solutions consisting of vinyl chloridelvinyl acetate
copolymers in ketonelaromatic solvents. Low volume
solids normally necessitate the application of several
coats to achieve recommended film thickness of 5-12 mils.
Special high build formulations are available, but selection
should be made with extreme caution since the pigmentation can provide a very porous film unsuitable for immersion service. Vinyls formerly were widely used in a
multitude of chemical and food services, but now are
somewhat limited to water, fatty acids and salt solutions.
They exhibit poor resistance to solvents.

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steam. However, no one or combination of these cleanings

is consistently successful. Many early failures have occurred even after the expensive but common procedure of
abrasive blasting first, then one or more cleanings followed by another abrasive blast.
The only consistently successful procedure is as
follows:
1. Clean by an approved method to a visual
cleanliness.
2. Prebake the vessel to a temperature of at least
25 F (14 Co)above the temperature that the tank
will encounter either in curing the coating, as in a
high bake coating, or the tanks highest operating
temperature. The prebaking is most important in
used tanks that are pitted or have been in a sulfide
or salt environment.
3. Abrasive blast the vessel to the specified surface
requirement.
VI. APPLICATION TECHNIQUES

The first coat must be applied as soon as possible
after surface preparation to prevent rust blooming or oxidation of the substrate. To delay even a few hours could
be detrimental unless the relative humidity and the
temperature of both the air and metal can be carefully controlled.
The first coat is normally applied by spray. If the
materials wetting properties are poor or the surfaces are
pitted, brushing should be considered. After the first coat
has been applied, it is often a good practice to brush one
or more coats on welds, edges or any area that is not ideally fabricated. The brushing of welds, called stripping, is
done to insure better coverage and continuity. It should be
accomplished with care to avoid excessive film build.
Depending upon the coating material, it is often advisable
to thin the coating to obtain better wetting characteristics.
The humidity must be controlled inside the tank during application of the coating due to possible and often invisible surface condensation. A psychrometer is used to
determine the relative humidity, and thermometers are
used for determining air and surface temperatures.
A spray painter must be properly trained to apply a
coating. There are no hard and fast rules about the number
of passes or the speed with which they should be applied;
therefore, technique and experience are important. Applying a coating in a criss-cross pattern provides a more
uniform coating thickness and improved film continuity.
Some coatings require that a first pass be applied as a fog
or mist coat. This very thin but uniform film allows
solvents to flash off quickly, and the coating will then
hold or take subsequent and relatively heavier, slower
passes. Well trained, experienced spray painters, with
proper supervision can work out the best spraying procedure for any given material. The wet film thickness obtained can be measured with a wet film gauge. This should
be considered an estimate measurement because the
solvents in the coating evaporate during the spraying procCopyright The Society for Protective Coatings
ess. The type of solvent, method of application, and the environmental conditions during the application are all factors which determine the readings. Good air circulation is
required to remove the solvents.
Extreme cleanliness is required throughout the
coating application. Clean, lint-free clothing should be
worn. For safety reasons shoes should provide good traction but should have smooth soles to prevent tracking. If
the conditions of traction allow, a wrapping of the shoes
with polyethylene or other plastic film not affected by
solvents in the coating can be advantageous. To prevent
contaminating the surface, lint-free gloves should be worn
during all phases of coating application.
Application equipment must also be kept extremely
clean. New hoses for each type coating are desired, but i f
not available, previously used hoses must be meticulously
cleaned as residues of other products may have a severely
detrimental effect, particularly on a catalyzed coating. A
thorough cleaning should be done immediately after use
of application equipment.
Coating materials used as linings, as discussed in
this chapter, are spray applied by either conventional air or
airless spray (Figures 5 and 6). Air spray indicates that the
coating comes in direct contact with air for atomization
while airless spray utilizes high pressure through a small
orifice with no direct air contact. Air spray allows the
sprayer better control for thickness, particularly in confined areas andlor around intricate shapes in corners, etc.
The major disadvantage of air spray is that in spite of all
warnings, the air supply used for spraying may contain
detrimental amounts of oil or water. Small amounts interjected in certain coating systems could result in a change
of physical properties such as the development of pinholes, blistering, fish eyeing, blushing or poor adhesion.
The.airless spray eliminates potential problems with
contaminated air. In addition, overspray is appreciably
reduced. But the high volume of output makes it difficult to
handle in confined areas and around intricate shapes. Improper buildup of some materials can result in a porous or
cheesy film due to entrapped solvents.
Multiple-coat lining systems require thorough visual
inspection of all surfaces between coats, sanding or
scraping out rough areas or entrapped foreign materials
and then repairing by brushing or additional spray applications. Additionally, inspection after the first coat is the
time to pick up previhsly undetected fabrication or plate
shortcomings. In most cases, these can be corrected by
chipping or grinding and the first coat reapplied as a
touchup. If additional welding is required or i f the coating
material is one in which the depth of anchor pattern is of
real significance, then it becomes necessary to reblast
those areas and reapply that first coat.
Proper mixing of a coating system is important and
the suppliers instructions should be carefully followed.
His restrictions on material temperature, relative humidity,
cleanliness of equipment, and proportion of activator are
important and in some cases are critical . Add only ingredients supplied or specified by the supplier and adjust
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--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
8627940 0003772 0 4 T
SSPC C H A P T E R + L 4 . 2 93
8627940 0003773 T8b 9
FIGURE 5
Two-hundred-foot diameter, open top tank being lined via rolling
scaffolding.
with thinner as precisely as possible to the specified

viscosity.
VIL CURING AND BAKING

Coating materials are commonly classified as air dry,
force cured or baked. Force curing of even an air dry
material does improve its performance characteristics to a
degree, depending on the generic type. Force curing can
appreciably increase adhesion, improve crosslinkage, insure that all solvents are removed and provide a more complete reaction. When the lined tank is to be exposed to environments such as potable water, food, food packaging
materials or any other environment where odor or trace
chemical pickup could be of concern, force curing normally is necessary to insure elimination of all solvents and
products of polymerization.
For all force intercoat drying, an indirect fired heater
should be used whenever possible since coating systems
may be sensitive to products of combustion. If the fuel is
dirty or the fuel-air mixture is incorrect, an invisible film
may be deposited on the surface that would affect the
adhesion of the succeeding coats. The size of the tank and
the equipment available dictates the type of heat source.
For indirect heaters the common fuels are oil, steam,
natural gas or propane.
Curing of high bake coatings, where metal
temperatures of 350F to 450F (177C to 242C) are
necessary, usually requires the use of direct fired heaters.
Common fuels are natural gas or propane. To attain these
temperatures on large tanks the exteriors must be insulated, but present capability limits the size of tank to
about 80 feet in diameter.
Smaller shop-fabricated vessels are usually force
cured andlor final baked in ovens. The prerequisite is an
even distribution of heat with reasonable temperature control. The source of heat can be electricity, gas, or oil, but
again the products of combustion should be of primary

concern. Ovens provide a more controlled environment and

better heat distribution and are more economical for handling small components.
Properly controlling the curing of high-bake systems
prevents overcuring on intermediate bakes which would
result in loss of adhesion, or undercuring of the final coat,
which would result in poor chemical resistance. Overcuring on the final coat, short of charring, is not considered to
be detrimental. There is no correlation between air
temperature and metal temperature during the heating of a
tank. The only concern for proper cure is the temperature
of the lining. For practical purposes, the exterior metal
temperature and the lining temperature are identical. It is
most convenient, unless baking in an oven, to use the exterior metal temperature as a control by using recording or
contact thermometers and heat indicating crayons. This
measurement of surface temperature allows the operator
to determine when minimum temperatures are obtained
and where cold or hot spots exist, thus assuring uniform
distribution of heat. With todays technology the operator
does not have an overall temperature but merely a group of
readings on which he must rely. Using this information an
experienced operator can detect the hot or cold spots and
provide for the control of air movement throughout the
tank (Figure 7).
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
SSPC C H A P T E R * L 4 = 2 93
FIGURE 6
Lining being spray applied in railroad tank car for shipment of
clean chemical or food product.
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8627940 0003774 912
steel are best detected at this time and corrected before

the surface preparation is continued. Inspection for surface preparation to specification should be made keeping
in mind that the actual surface preparation and its light
reflectant quality varies appreciably with the abrasive
used. The intensity and depth of anchor pattern can be
rqeasured by a number of available instruments or by comparing to previously prepared laboratory panels. The accuracy of field instruments to measure anchor patterns
has not been proven.
Inspecting for coating application should be conducted by observing for runs, sags, foreign objects,
craters, thickness, curing andlor drying between coats.
The dry film thickness should be determined by using a
non-destructive gauge, normally of the magnetic type.
Variations in readings may be attributed to anchor profile,
wall thickness or magnetic effects in an enclosure.
An extra coat or additional thickness may diminish
rather than enhance the quality of the lining. Even the
most rigid tank moves appreciably as it is loaded or emptied and as it is heated or cooled. Stresses exist or develop
in many of the materials used as linings; therefore, applying the coating to the minimum thicknesses required
allows the film to maintain its adhesion and still have a
low permeation rate so that it performs effectively in the
environment. The extra coat syndrome so common in
maintenance painting is a fallacy that creates many
troubles inside a tank.
Inspecting for discontinuities (holidays) is extremely
important when the corrosion rate of the solution involved
isextreme. When the lining is used solely for protecting from
contamination, isolated pinholes are not detrimental to
the lining, as when a bake phenolic system is immersed in
con cent rated su If uric acid.
Continuity testing is accomplished by utilizing either
a high voltage or low voltage (wet sponge) tester. The wet
sponge tester is effective with coating films up to approximately 20 mils. Discontinuities in heavier films can be
located by a high-voltage detector. Little work has been
done to determine what detrimental effects voltage has on
lining films. Unfortunately, when coatings are used as linings in severely corrosive environments, it is imperative
that every possible passageway be located and corrected.
Until some other way is found, high voltage spark testers
will be used, but they should be used judiciously. Voltages
must be selected with consideration to the electrical
resistance of the formulation and the total film thickness
applied. Consideration also must be given to the speed the
detector travels over the surface, the number of passes
made over a surface and the minimum voltage required to
pass the air gap for a specific thickness.
Throughout the inspection any instrument that is
destructive to the integrity of the coating should not be
used for testing. If it becomes necessary to use such an instrument, the damage must be repaired.
Inspection for cure of most coatings is extremely difficult. Hardness tests and solvent softening tests must be
used with considerable skill or either can be misleading.
NACE Chapter 3 TPC Publication No. 2 states, The

factors necessary to complete proper cure of linings are
based primarily on knowledge and skills derived from experience. The factors include proper BTU capacity, proper
design, method, type and degree of insulation required,
ways and means of setting up ducting and curing time.
Still, curing must be considered an art rather than a
science and proficiency is found principally with those few
organizations specializing in the application of tank lining
materials as discussed in this r e p ~ r t . ~
Throughout drying between coats, force curing andlor
baking, substantial volumes of air should be directed to
ventilate all areas. Inadequate ventilation can result in insufficient cure andlor a build up of solvent vapors until
runs or solvent wash occurs.
VI II. INSPECTION
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
The common view of inspecting painting does not apply to the inspection of coating that are applied as linings.
Adherence to this view can be detrimental to the performance of the lining and can greatly increase cost. For example, commonly the word inspection means inspecting by
purchaser for acceptance of the workmanship. But while
this is a perfectly acceptable technique when inspecting
workmanship which can be defined by go or no-go
testing, it is not acceptable testing for the application of
coatings as linings.
Ongoing inspection of linings provides assurances
that every phase of surface preparation, application and
curing are properly performed. Variations in any phase
must be immediately recognized and corrective action
taken or performance of the lining can be adversely affected, even though the lining may not fail any acceptance
inspection test. The shortcoming of the lining industry is
due partially to the limited number of instruments
available for measuring the quality of coating work and the
resultant over-attention to the few facets that can be
measured. Instruments that are available must be
calibrated and used properly to be of significant value.
Any inspection requires a broad knowledge of the
functions of coating work in order to evaluate the quality
of work accomplished. Over-inspecting, like overspecifying, can add extra costs, which do not always provide added life to the coating system. Nevertheless, every
single phase of the entire work must be inspected to be
certain that all is as it was engineered to be, including
design, fabrication, material, mixing, application and cure.
The design and fabrication of a tank should be inspected to insure that the welds are continuous, the splatter removed, and the heavy ripple ground. Internals having
sharp edges should be radiused as needed to allow for
coating buildup on edges. Nozzles leading into the tank
should be of a large enough diameter to allow surface
preparation and coating application.
Following surface preparation, the surface should be
inspected for contaminants such as grease, oil, dust or
blasting abrasive. Visual laminates and defects on the
327
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= 6627740 0003775 859 =

ing or abrasive blasting to obtain roughness and then wiping with a solvent to remove the sanding particles. With
the high bake and most thermosetting materials the
overlap is kept to a minimum as the solvents will not wet
the completely cured coating.
X. CONCLUSIONS
Coatings are used as linings for various types of applications such as food containers, hot water tanks, tank
trucks, tank cars, storage silos, water treatment systems,
large chemical storage tanks, and stacks. The success of
a coating system depends greatly on proper design,
material selection, and proper application. The versatility
of carbon steel plus a coating as a lining gives it advantages over other steel alloys which are extremely costly.
Time will advance the know-how, bring better quality
assurance techniques, and improve coating formulations.
Possibly, supersonic cleaning to replace abrasive blasting,
electrostatic deposition to replace spraying and induction
heating to replace hot air heating will reduce the time involved in lining a tank to a few hours and eliminate possible errors involved with application.
FIGURE 7
Metal temperature at many different areas during curing and baking of linings can be reviewed and recorded simultaneously.
For high bake coatings the degree of cure is well determined by the change in color as compared to control
panels.
IX. MAINTENANCE
Maintenance is just as important for coating systems
used in tanks as it is for exterior paint systems. But unfortunately, because the economics differ substantially, so
do the maintenance programs. To obtain accessibility to
the interior of a process tank, the process must be shut
down, and the commodity must be transferred to another
lined tank. For exterior paint systems it is practical and
economical to inspect on some engineered schedule, such
as each quarter or each year, and touch up as needed. Contrarily, lining systems, to be economical, must be designed
to give maintenanyfree extended service life. A common
rule of thumb is-aminimum of three years, but in most environments a minimum of five years is required and readily
obtainable. The coating materials regularly used successfully as linings have long maintenance-free service
lives. A typical, good grade, proprietary, high bake, thermosetting phenolic performs for five years in the most severe
instances and ten years in many more.
When designing a lining system, consideration must
be given to its ability to be touched up or repaired because
of physical damage, design change in the tank, industrial
accidents or shortcomings in application. Repair materials
should be selected for their compatibility and adhesion
with the original material, their adhesion to steel and their
resistance to the environment. Because there is seldom
any appearance requirement, there is little reason to use
the same material as the original.
The procedure for repairing a coating is normally identical to the procedure used in initial application. Where the
repaired coating intersects the existing coating, it is normally recommended that the existing coating be feathered
to accept the repaired coating. Feathering requires sand--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

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REFERENCES
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
chapter: T.A. Cross, Richard Drisko, Noel Duvic, Dan Gelfer, Tom
Ginsberg, Lewis Gleekman, Leonard Haynie, Harlan Kline,
Howard Lasser, D.W. Metzger, John Montle, C. Munger, Bill Pearson, W.A. Severance, William Wallace.
1. Chapter 1 of TPC publication No. 2 of the National Association of Corrosion Engineers Coatings and Linings for Immer2.
3.
4.
5.
BIOGRAPHY
Albert L. Hendricks is President of Wisconsin Protective
Coating Corporation, Green
Bay, Wisconsin, where he has
been employed since 1958.
His activities while employed at Wisconsin Protective
Coatings have been directly
related to coating work at various levels including manufacturing, testing, research, quality
control,
application
and
soecifvina.
-r-- ,
He hs been accredited as a Corrosion Specialist by the National Association of Corrosion Engineers (NACE), and is actively
involved on various technical committees within NACE, the Steel
Structures Painting Council, the American Society for Testing and
Materials, the American Concrete Institute, and the American Water
Works Association. He has been an officer at Section, Region and
National levels within NACE.
6.
7.
sion Service has compiled detailed safety information for

work inside tanks.
National Association of Mutual Casualty Company, 20 North
Wacker Drive, Chicago, IL 60606.
The American Gas Association, 1515 Wilson Boulevard, Arlington, VA 22209.
NACE Standard RP-01-78 Design, Fabrication and Surface
Finish of Metal Tanks and Vessels to be Lined for Chemical
Immersion Service.
NACE TM-01-74 - Laboratory Methods for Evaluation of
Protective Coatings Used as Lining Material in Immersion
Service.
Bryan I. Zohn, Protective Lining Performance, Chemical
Engineering Progress, Vol. 66, No. 8, August 1970.
See NACE TPC Publication No. 2, Coatings and Linings for
Immersion Service.
BIOGRAPHY
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Wallace P. Cathcart is Technical Counsel, Trinity Industries

Inc. His technical efforts for more
than forty years have been in the
selection and application of coatings and linings for industries involved with storage and
transportation. He co-founded
and for 34 years was CEO of
Tank Lining Corp. He is accredited as a Corrosion Specialist by
the National Association of Corrosion Engineers and is a
registered professional engineer
in the state of California. He was awarded a certificate of recognition from Steel Structures Painting Council as Paint Manual author,
author and editor of the JPCL and technical committee chairman.

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93
8627940 0003777 b2L
CHAPTER 15
PAINTING HYDRAULIC STRUCTURES

by
J. i. Kiewit
Steel in dams, hydroelectric plants and irrigation

works is coated primarily to prevent corrosion and secondarily to improve appearance. The ideal of permanent
preservation is rarely attained. Weathering and fresh water
immersion exposures are less severe than many encountered in other industries, but hydraulic structures
are built to last a century or more. Time takes its toll. Corrosion engineers must exercise skill in evaluating
deteriorative elements in each coating exposure to make
the best possible selections, and to accomplish each step
in the process necessary to extract full service potential
from the chosen coatings.
The design of hydraulic structures is performed by
several kinds of engineers and architects, some of whom
are only peripherally knowledgeable about corrosion and
coatings. Trained corrosion engineers can contribute vitally to design. For instance, an overview of the complete
project may reveal the existence of bimetallic couples with
nonferrous metals such as copper grounding mats or electrolytic corrosion currents in the soil, which could profoundly influence corrosion rates and coating performance.
A corrosion engineer can recommend measures to
eliminate or reduce corrosion, such as the selection of
noncorrosive materials where economically feasible, and
the installation of cathodic protection systems in conjunction with coatings for steel. Even though steel continues to
be used widely, and protective coatings usually are the major means of protection and decoration, a corrosion
engineer provides essential support to design engineers in
the selection and use of materials.
Before the coatings for new structures are selected,
the ferrous metalwork should meet design specifications
for painting. For instance, specifications may require that
edges be rounded to minimize thinning of the coating and
that welds be ground and weid spatter removed. Back-toback angles with space between them or intermittent weld
should both be avoided. Other failures attributable to
faulty design are discussed in a separate chapter. Planning the sequence of painting operations can preclude the
difficulty of painting inaccessible areas or awkward
scheduling situations, such as the excessive weathering
of primed surfaces.
While this review of coatings for hydraulic structures is
not exhaustive, it presents descriptions of materials and
methods that time has proved effective. Present federal requirements and others certain to come from the EPA, FDA,
I. SELECTION OF COATINGS
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
and OSHA foreshadow the emergence of new coating

materials and mandatory procedures. Unfortunately,
answers have not yet surfaced in all potentially
troublesome areas, such as a replacement for the critically
vital sandblast cleaning method. However, the best guess
is that industry will develop water-based and solvent-free
coatings to resolve the solvent emission dilemma. It would
not be surprising to find that new methods and materials
do more things better than the old.
The discussion mentions a few important coatings
that are usually or always applied by shop processes.
However, emphasis is placed on coatings applied in the
field and by conventional methods to in-place, large and
small piping, gates, cranes and diverse metalwork items.
Before focusing on specific coatings for hydraulic

structures, the overall objectives and a variety of factors
affecting the coating selection should be considered:
Related Factors
Design for painting
Coordination with
construction activities
Method of specifying
cost
Safety requirements
Coating Requirements
Surface preparation
Specialist services
Ambient conditions (temperature, moisture, ventilation,
etc.)
Latitude (tolerance to adverse
conditions
Objectives
Item or Structure
Location of application (shoplfield)
Size
Surface configuration
Accessi bility
Possible handling and
traffic damage
Some or all of the above may present problems in a
given case, and problems easily resolved in new construction may become acute in maintenance painting.
Coatings will be categorized in terms of the exposures for steel found in and around hydraulic structures,
and recognition of the major deteriorative elements in
these exposures becomes pertinent. A few of the more
common ones are:
Protection
Appearance
Durabi Iity
Maintainability
Water
Chemical attack (acids,
bases, organics)
330
Not for Resale
Cavitation
Soil stresses and
punctures
Abrasion (debris in
water, windblown sand,
ice)
Erosion (waterborne
sand or gravel)
Impacts
93
8 b 2 7 9 4 0 0003778 5 6 8
acts as a sacrificial anode in immersion exposures).

Most of the coatings considered are of the barrier
type, although the effectiveness of the barrier may vary
considerably. Since World War II, the coatings industry
has presented corrosion engineers with a bewildering array of coatings with enhanced capabilities. But rather than
simplifying selection, this complicates it. In the absence
of time or facilities for lengthy laboratory and field investigations, perhaps the best guide to selecting a coating is
demonstrated performance under identical or closely
similar service conditions. We cannot wait for 50-year performance to verify coating serviceability; however, the
behavior of organic coatings in the Bureau of
Reclamations Shasta field test3 may be instructive. In this
test, 70 percent of the organic coatings that were completely defect-free at five years were also defect-free at 15
years. Thus, some projection of coating serviceability can
be made - cautiously, and with high regard for the comparability of exposure conditions.
Thick coatings usually serve longer than thin ones.
Similarly, hot-applied, baked or chemically set coatings
generally outperform cold-applied, solvent-based type.
Performance depends, in part, upon the degree of cure obtained and the relative chemical inertness and resistance
of coatings to water permeation. In this context, shop
painting offers advantages of superior facilities and better
control of the more sophisticated baked, hot-applied and
Biodegradation
Weathering
Corrosion currents
Temperature variations
Freeze-thaw
Vandalism
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
The engineer must identify deteriorative elements in a

particular situation and select a coating system proven
resistant to all. The instances of coating failure from
unanticipated causes underline the importance of carefully analyzing exposures.
Coatings for hydraulic structures protect steel
primarily by three mechanisms:
Barrier
The coating isolates the substrate from its environment, as if the surface to be protected were wrapped
in a completely inert and impermeable plastic bag
(e.g., coal-tar enamel).
Inhibition
The coating modifies the environment in contact with
the substrate. Concrete and cement mortar produce a
ph of 9-12, in which steel usually does not corrode in
the absence of high chloride concentrations. Some
paint pigments also tend to inhibit corrosion.
Substitution
The steel is coated with a metal having different corrosion resistance characteristics (e.g., zinc, which
FIGURE 1
plant, switchyards, and a visitors center.
Shasta Dam, part of the Central Valley Project, California, il.
lustrates the many protective and decorative painting re.
Courtesy U.S. Bureau of Reclamation
quirements of hydraulic structures. Visible are penstocks, power
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8627940 0003779 4 T 4
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
rust tuberculation that may sharply reduce the hydraulic

efficiency of piping.
Proven immersion coatings expected to provide
service approximating the life of the structure are
limited to cement mortar and coal-tar pitch or enamel.
Other common coatings holding high promise and
awaiting the validation of sufficient history include coaltar epoxy and fusion epoxy. These and others are grouped
for the present in a second tier of materials expected to
last over 20 years, provided they are maintained regularly.
The role of rigorous surface preparation in the performance of organic immersion coatings can hardly
be overemphasized. The tolerance of poorly cleaned
metal varies somewhat (e.g. low tolerance by vinyls,
better tolerance by coal-tar epoxies, fairly high tolerance
by coal-tar enamel), and a slight concession in the
intensity can be allowed. Experience shows blast cleaning
or the equivalent to be essential. Lesser methods, which
do not remove all contaminants and roughen the surface,
almost invariably lead to substantially reduced durability.
Cement mortar alone tolerates truly superficial surface
cleaning.
internal-set coatings. On the other hand, the large size of

some equipment necessitates field painting, and durable
yet practical coatings must be provided. A field coating
with few rigid application limitations and great tolerance
for unfavorable combinations of marginal surface preparation, temperature and humidity is much to be preferred
over one that might last longer but seldom is applied correct ly.
Cost is a major selection factor. Corrosion engineers
are well aware that the per gallon price of paint materials
is a poor criterion of coating economics. Cost should be
based on the total applied cost divided by the expected
service life. Clearly, the 50- to 100-year life of cement mortar or coal-tar enamel coatings produces a coatings
bargain, particularly when the extraordinary costs of taking outages for maintenance of vital, revenue-producing
structures are included.
Space limitations and the vast number of coatings
generated by the industry since World War II necessitate
confining the discussion to the most common generic
types of coatings. Coatings for which specifications
are listed in Section V have performed well and are in
wide use. Coating selection and practices of large organizations concerned with hydraulic structures are described
in their manuals and reports (see references), which can
serve as a source of additional information.
1. Cernent mortar
Cement mortar is among the oldest and best pipe
linings. Mortar reliably protects for over 50 years in
water distribution systems by creating a corrosioninhibitive alkaline environment (pH-12) at the surface of the steel. The preponderance of linings,
ranging from
to 3h inch (4.8 to 19.0 mm) in
thickness, are plant-applied by the centrifugal
casting* (spinning) process to piping ranging from
12 to about 60 inches (0.3 to 1.5 m) in diameter.
Bends and other special shapes unsuitable for
spinning are lined by handtroweling. An external
coating can be applied concurrently as discussed
in section B.
An option to apply mortar linings to piping
already in place assumes great importance when
large-size pipe must be lined or an old line has
corroded and requires replacement or abandonment. Piping as large as 21 feet (6.4 m) in diameter
has been lined, although the lining of sizes over 14
feet (4.3 m) in diameter is uncommon. Of course,
the lining thickness must be increased in proportion to the increasing pipe size. Further, an in-place
lining plugs up and seals most small holes up to as
much as 3/4 inch (19.0 mm), restoring the integrity
of an old corroded line and restoring it to approximately its original carrying capacity. A major advantage of in-place motor lining lies in its tolerance
to only superficial preparation. Old lines can be
A. UNDERWATER EXPOSURES
x6
Items fabricated of steel that are continuously

submerged in normal operation include high-pressure
gates; roller gates; valves, trashracks and interiors of
water storage tanks; and pipe used for penstocks, outlets,
conduits, siphons, pump discharge lines and water
distribution lines. In addition to continuous immersion,
coatings may be subject to erosion, abrasion, andlor
cavitation. While protecting steel, coatings also prevent
FIGURE 2
Soon after painting, rust (by knife) began draining from under a
radial gate member secured by intermittent welds. For best
design, the inaccesible space should be sealed by a continuous
weld or equivalent.
Courtesy U S . Bureau of Reclamation

'Centrifugal casting - a process in which the Coating

material is introduced into rotating pipe and spreads to
a smooth, continuous lining of uniform thickness. Also
called spinning.
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8627740 O003780 L L b
cleaned sufficiently by pulling scrapers through

the piping. The alkalinity from water permeating
the coating to the metal surface nullifies further
corrosion.
Plant-applied water linings usually crack if
allowed to dry after curing. Most are hairline (less
than 1/32 inch (0.08 mm)) and close upon rewetting
and expansion of the lining. Alkalinity stifles corrosion even in open hairline cracks and, in some
waters, the cracks heal (.e., build up a calcareous scale). Cement mortar linings depend on arch
action to hold their position in piping, not on adhesion in the usual sense. Thus, the small shrinkage
cracks or slight gaps between the lining and the
metal usually are not a concern.
Mortar linings afford good protection against
erosion by sand and gravel-laden water, by virtue of
their thickness. They generally resist water
velocities up to 20 to 25 feet per second (6.1 to
7.6 mls). Although mortar exhibits considerable
resistance to freeze-thaw action, gradual deterioration proceeds, and mortar lining above-ground
piping, which will be exposed and empty during
winters in cold climates, may not be advisa le.
Mortar-lined piping so exposed is best kept ful of
moving water or thoroughly dried during he
winters.
(spinning), which can be readily controlled to provide a uniformly thick, 3/32 inch (2.4 mm), lining of
glass-like smoothness. This characteristic is advantageous in achieving low friction losses with
resultant economies in design and operation. The
lining is most frequently applied in the pipe
fabricators plant, but a few independent applicators are organized to apply the lining by hand at the
jobsite. Pipe lined by the plant process has ranged
from 4 inches to more than 10 ft. (0.1 to 3.0 m) in
diameter, and the cost of mechanically applied
enamel, including blast cleaning, is moderate. By
using mechanical couplings, individual sections
may be lined for the full length, and no hand work is
required. Coal-tar enamel with wraps can be applied to exterior pipe surfaces in the same plant
operations, as discussed in section B.
For larger diameter, mechanically lined pipe in
which sections are joined by field welding, joint
areas are lined after installation by hand daubing.
Hand daubing must be used for irregular shapes
not adaptable to spinning. For pipe under 27 inches
2. Coal-tar coatings
Coat-tar pitch as a principal constituent in
coatings has long been prized by the coatings industry, primarily because of economics and its
hydrophobic property. Suitably processed coal-tar
products absorb little water and are virtually unaffected by long periods of water immersion. In this
respect, they are generally considered to be
superior to asphaltic compositions. They also are
toxic to most organisms and discourage biological
degradation. Thick, hot-applied versions of coal-tar
coatings afford the longest service. OSHA, EPA
and other regulatory agencies are currently
evaluating the carcinogenic effects of coal-tar as it
is applied and exposed in coatings. Obviously, this
could lead to specific or effective proscription of
one of the best coating constituents. It is hoped
the evaluation is unhurried and realistic.
3. Coal-tar pitch
Hot-applied coal-tar pitch, applied by dipping, has
preserved submerged trashracks for nearly half a
century on Bureau of Reclamation projects. The extensive equipment required for dipping justifies
this excellent coating only for very large jobs, and it
has been seldom used in recent years.
4.
Coal-tar enamel
Coal-tar enamel is especially appropriate for lining
and coating steel pipe. Service records project a
life of 50 years or more. It is commonly applied to
straight individual sections by centrifugal casting
FIGURE 3
Rigorous sandblasting removed hard, tight, rust scale (right of
rivets) in 30-year old pipe. It also removed corrosion products from
the bottom of pits preparatory to painting.
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

333
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m 8627940 0003783 O52 m
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
FIGURE 4
Glassy smooth surface of shop spun coal-tar enamel provides low hydraulic friction in water piping.
(0.69 m) in diameter, it is necessary to employ

mechanical couplings rather than welding because
of the difficulty or impossibility of hand daubing
joint areas or of performing maintenance. Very
large diameter pipe, over 15 ft. (4.6 m) in diameter,
may have to be lined in its entirety by hand daubing
even though the cost is much higher than for lining
by spinning.
Coal-tar enamel should be selected only
within its limitations. It is suitable for large,
essentially cylindrical surfaces such as piping,
but is very difficult to apply to complex shapes,
such as bulkhead gates or items having beams or
girders. Enamel linings in empty piping are somewhat susceptible to cracking and spalling in cold
weather, and to bond deterioration and a different
type of cracking where the pipe exterior is exposed
to the sun in warm weather. It resists poorly the
erosive effect of sand and gravel in water, or the
cavitation occasionally present in high-velocity
flows. It also degrades rapidly by hardening and
cracking in direct sunlight. And, finally, enamel
must be applied by specialists with suitable equipment and experience, backed up by knowledgeable
inspection.
5. Cold applied, coal-tar coatings

Coal-tar pitch also has been incorporated into a
variety of cold-applied, relatively thin film coatings.
Some are solvent cutbacks modified with various
fillers and other constituents. In others, the coal tar
has been used as an extender. Among the best and
most widely distributed of these is the coal-tar
epoxy paint.
Such paints afford more than 20 years of service to metalwork in immersion exposures and are
easily brush- or spray-applied to piping and the
irregular surfaces of bulkhead gates and trashracks. Those suitable for potable water may be
used above as well as below the minimum water
surface of tanks, since they are less susceptible
than coal-tar enamel t o cracking under the suninduced heat in the top and sides of the tank.
Because the combination of heat and condensate
(essentially, distilled water) in the upper part of the
above-ground tanks constitutes a severe exposure,
a coating proven in this service should be selected.
Coatings containing coal lar frequently are incompatible with other coatings. Attempts to apply
other coatings over coal tar may encounter poor
adhesion. In fact, one vinyl resin paint bonded
334
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8627940 0003782 T99
same resins remain in wide use and high esteem

for the simplicity of their handling, applications
and established service records. For example, vinyl
resin, phenolic and coal tar paints in various formulations have protected hydraulic equipment
for 20 years with proper maintenance.
9. Temporary protection
When underwater protection is required for only a
few years in mild exposures, simpler surface
preparations and less expensive materials may suffice. Cold- and hot-dip-applied asphaltic coatings
afford lower durability than the corresponding
coal-tar coatings. Galvanizing metalwork, such as
small slide gates, may be selected for high abrasion resistance and ease of recoating; however,
while zinc has exhibited long life in some instances, it has succumbed quickly in more corrosive waters and its durability in immersion is not
easily predictable.
FIGURE 5
Coal-tar enamel applied by hand daubing in Shasta Dam
penstock presents a distinctive pattern. The slightly greater
roughness of daubed enamel is not considered significant in
large piping.
1O. Other coatings

Many excellent coatings, based on relatively
new synthetic resins now in wide use, are establishing solid performance records in continuous
immersion. Prominent among these are epoxies,
vinyls, phenolics and urethanes and, for the time
being, it appears the most durable of these is the
multi-component type. To the extent of their suitability to water works structures, certain powder
(fusion) coatings also offer great promise. Eventually, a few of these coatings will provide durability
on the same order as cement mortar and coal-tar
enamel.
Two Bureau of Reclamation tests2 illustrate
the progress industry has made in developing
better immersion coatings. Twenty test linings
were installed in the Unit 5 penstock at Shasta
Dam in 1949. After 10 years, 32 percent of these
remained in defect-free condition. Just 10 years
later, 36 lining systems selected from the most
promising materials then available were placed for
testing in a siphon on the Collbran Project. Here, 70
percent survived 10-year exposure without defects;
included were vinyls, epoxies, phenolics, neoprenes and coal tars, applied as solvent and
catalyzed materials. Much longer exposure will be
required to enable the selection of the best of the
Collbran linings.
poorly to a surface formerly coal-tar coated,

even though that surface had been sandblasted
thoroughly. In addition to affecting coating bond,
the coal-tar oils may bleed through and disfigure
the top coat.
6. Coa/-tar epoxy
Coal-tar epoxy paint came into wide use in the
1960s and serves as an example of the new breed
of two-component immersion paints. Epoxy resins
adhere well to several substrates and allow considerable latitude in the quality of surface preparation. Extending epoxy resin with economical,
water-resistant coal tar produces a high-solids
coating that has performed well for more than 15
years in piping and on bulkhead gates, trashracks
and spiral cases. It may be brush-, roller-, or sprayapplied with or without a primer, and two coats provide a thickness of about 16 mils (0.4 mm). The
chemical-setting mechanism imposes rigid requirements for thorough mixing and adherence to
application and curing times and temperatures.
Some prefer to apply coal-tar epoxy paints over
epoxy- or zinc-pigmented primers for enhanced
adhesion and durability.
7 . Other epoxies
Other epoxies contain no coal tar and may be obtained in any color. Many cure to a tile-like gloss,
are easily cleaned and are approved for potable
water tanks. A few are 100 percent solids, obviating
problems with solvent-release regulations. Others
can be applied underwater, although usually with
considerable difficulty. A similar diversity of
characteristics is represented among multicomponent paints composed of other synthetic
resins or combinations thereof.
B. UNDERGROUND EXPOSURE
Buried steel in hydraulic structures usually comprises
portions of penstocks and piping used in water irrigation
and domestic water distribution systems. The importance
of most buried structures and the difficulty of inspecting
and maintaining them underline the value of quality and
durability in the initial coating selections and of performing the applications correctly. The exposure demands
maximum coating permanence. Requirements for the ex-
8. Solvent paints
Solvent-release paints formulated with some of the
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

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93
8627740 0003783 925
terior protection of such piping are essentially the same as

for gas or oil piping.
Pipe corrodes in soil as a result of deteriorative
elements present in immersion exposures and the effects of soil stresses, punctures and bacteria. Water
leaches chemicals from the coil and becomes very
corrosive. Galvanic and electrolytic corrosion currents
may dictate the dielectric properties of the coating. Consequently, a preliminary soil corrosivity survey is often conducted to reveal specific problems and possible need for
cathodic protection.
Coatings for buried metal usually are relatively thick
films. If the coating is not inherently resistant to soil
forces, sturdy wraps must also be provided. Cement mortar and coal-tar enamel are most commonly selected for
buried piping, but a number of other materials offer attractive characteristics in some circumstances.
1. Cement mortar
Cement mortar inherently resists most soil forces
and requires no special wraps to prevent handling
abrasion. Mortar containing sulfate-resistant cement is adequate for most high sulfate soil waters
encountered in the United States.
Wire-reinforced mortar usually is plant-applied
to the exterior of piping up to 84 in. (2.13 m) in
diameter, often in conjunction with mortar lining
application. It can also be pneumatically applied to
larger piping in the field or to irregularly shaped
items. Unless strong electrolytic currents exist in
the area, cathodic protection rarely is needed with
mortar-coated lines, which are properly isolated
electrically from other structures.
2. Coal-tar enamel and wraps

Coal-tar enamel for exterior pipe surfaces is usu-
FIGURE6
Three experimental lining areas can be seen in siphon piping
used for the Collbran test of pipe lining materials.
ally reinforced with an embedded fibrous glass

mat, and an asbestos felt rock shield is bonded to
the hot enamel. This coating is normally plantapplied to pipe in sizes up to about 10 feet (3.0 m) in
diameter. An equivalent application can be performed in the field, but only with great difficulty
and by the most qualified personnel. When protected against handling damage during pipe installation and backfilling, the coating effectively
and permanently isolates the steel from its soil environment and thus provides a high level of protection. The coating should be electrically tested for
pinholes and impacted spots just prior to backfilling, particularly if cathodic protection will not be
added. The highly dielectric enamel is especially
compatible with cathodic protection. Since only
the tiny bare metal areas in pinholes must be so
protected, current demand is small, and a small
cathodic protection installation often can protect
great lengths of piping.
3. High Density Polyethylene
The threat to continued availability of coal-tar
enamel has spurred interest in other coatings.
Among a variety of plastics that may be suitable is
polyethylene; thick, tough, highly inert and dense.
The Bureau of Reclamation permitted applications of such a coating to several sections of
the 66 to 102 in. (1.68 to 2.59 m) diameter line piping on its Southern Nevada Water Project. The
coating reportedly had been successfully in service
for over 5 years on piping with diameters up to 42
in. (1.1 m) elsewhere in the United States, displaying low and steady cathodic protection current demand. Experience with Southern Nevada bore out
this promise; current demand was significantly
lower than for coal-tar enameled pipe.
Plant application of the coating involved melting high density polyethylene beads at near 5OO0F
for extrusion over a thin butyl adhesive on the
rotating pipe. The wide spiral overlaps fused
together to produce a continuous coating with a
minimum thickness over 60 mils (1.5 mm). Under
tension, the coating shrank back 2 to 4 in. (5 to
10 mm) from the pipe ends and stabilized within 30
days of yard storage. The coating displayed extreme resistance to handling and backfill damage
during installation. In this first application to large
diameter piping, a few problems developed. The
coating tended to neck down and developed voids
along high longitudinal welds, necessitating a filler
application to the weld prior to coating. The
coating also pulled away from the surface at cutouts for manholes, etc. These and the field joints
were taped with butyl adhesive-polyethylene backing plastic tape. The 12 in. (0.3 m) wide tapes
proved difficult to tighten properly by hand
methods. While some plant and field refinements
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

336
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= 8627940
C. ALTERNATING WATER AND AIR
of future high density polyethylene coatings may

occur, virtually permanent protection of buried
metal piping is expected.
EXPOSURE
Low-head gates, trashracks and other fabrications of
steel used for controlling waterflow in spillways, checks,
canal turnouts, etc., are subjected to combinations of immersion and atmospheric exposures. Portions of these
items may be completely submerged, others exposed to
continuous weathering and middle parts to a fluctuating
water level. In some cases, structures may operate only
during the irrigation season and be dry during the winter.
Sand and gravel suspended in water erode coatings.
Ice and floating timbers abrade them. In addition to
protecting metal, coatings now are expected to clothe visible structures in attractive colors that harmonize with surroundings. In short, alternating exposure may be viewed as
the most severe of all exposures, this being slightly
mitigated by the accessibility of the metalwork for
maintenance.
Coatings for this alternating exposure must resist
deteriorative effects of both immersion and weathering.
Thus, the bituminous coatings that quickly embrittle,
check, and degrade, and urethane, phenolic and epoxy
paints that fade and chalk in direct sunlight do not perform well without weather-resistant topcoats. Tough,
resilient paints best minimize damage from scrapes and
impacts by floating debris.
Obviously, blast cleaning is recommended for
coatings in this exposure because they require the
same high level of surface preparation as immersion coatings, if long service is to be realized. Also,
many items in this exposure include edges, rivets,
bolts, welds and junctions of metal parts. All of
these are points of weakness in a paint coating,
which should be reinforced by one or more edge
coats.
1. Vinyl resin paints
Paints based on formulations of vinyl resins have
established solid records of service for more than
20 years on radial gates. (See Figures 1 through 4.)
The several vinyl resins differ somewhat in properties so they can be compounded to exhibit
varying degrees of hardness, toughness and impermeability to water. Some vinyl resins adhere to
steel; others do not and may be used only in topcoats over adherent vinyl primers. Some vinyl
systems include a special vinyl pretreatment called
a wash primer, intended to improve adhesion and
introduce a rust-inhibiting layer next to the steel.
The solids content of most vinyl paints is low,
usually necessitating application of at least four
coats. Five to ten mil (0.13 to 0.25 mm) thick
coatings are usually specified to ensure protection, the thicker coatings providing enhanced abrasion resistance. Pigmentation allows a wide range
of color selection, including aluminum.
2. Galvanizing
If small equipment items may easily be removed for
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
4. Tapes
Several tape coatings have performed well on
buried piping. Hot-applied, double-wrapped, glassor fabric-reinforced coal-tar enamel tapes provide
about the equivalent of a coal-tar enamel and wrap
coating. Cold-applied polyethylene and polyvinyl
chloride tapes 10 to 30 mils thick with pressuresensitive adhesives have been spirally wrapped on
small diameter piping. Priming the surfaces
enhances adhesion. A shield against scarring and
puncturing the tape during backfilling often is
essential. The industry appears to be developing
heavier duty tape-coating systems with both high
durability and resistance to soil and handling.
5. Fusion coatings
Certain plant-applied fusion coatings exhibit
tenacious adhesion and extraordinary toughness
as well as the durable corrosion-preventive
characteristics essential to soil burial conditions.
Thorough surface preparation by blast cleaning is
mandatory. Piping must be heated to a high
temperature, perhaps 350F (177C) for coating.
The powdered coating melts, fuses and reacts
chemically as it contacts the surface. Smaller
items, such as fittings for line piping, may be
coated (internally and externally) in a fluidized bed
of the powder. Powders can also be spray applied to preheated metal by hand and plant processes.
6. Unbonded sheet plastic
Ductile and cast iron piping is now being protected
solely by an unbonded sheet polyethylene wrap. It
will not be surprising i f some variation is developed for long-term protection of steel in the
ground.
7. Joint Protection
Joints present possibly the most difficult problem
in providing external coating protection. The principle is that the joint coating must equal that on the
rest of the piping, but irregular shapes and field
conditions often frustrate this standard. For example, plastic tapes are suitable for field-welded
joints and perhaps pipe couplings in small piping,
but conform poorly over elbows, unions, tees, etc.
Hot-applied, coal-tar enamel tape conforms well,
but requires more time and care. Joints in mortarcoated pipe require field-placed mortar encasement complete with reinforcing wire mesh. Similarly, mechanical couplings in coal-tar enameled
piping may actually be encased by wrapping a
diaper around the joint and pouring it full of
enamel. The coating may even have to accommodate slight joint movement without rupturing. The
variations are many, but full protection must result.
0003784 861
337
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= 8627940 0003785 7 T 8
D. ATMOSPHERIC EXPOSURE
maintenance during an off-irrigation season and

appearance is secondary, galvanizing may be
preferred. For example, galvanizing small turnout
gates prevents the almost inevitable handling
damage to paints incident to gate installation and
operation. They can be removed and regalvanized
at intervals, or, i f the water proves aggressively corrosive, a more resistant coating such as vinyl resin
paint can be applied.
3. Abrasion-Resistant Coatings
Sometimes coating properties other than appearance and weathering resistance assume overriding importance. For example, the frames for
moss collection screens are difficult to paint by
conventional means, and these parts sustain
severe abrasion. However, their small size permits
application of thick, tough fusion epoxy by the
fluidized bed process. In another example, the faces
of eleven, 138 by 28 ft. (42.1 by 8.5 m) drum gates
atop Grand Coulee Dam are scraped by metal seals,
which have destroyed all coatings tried on the
gates. Recently, a 25 mil (0.63 mm) thick, twocomponent urethane paint applied as a test on one
gate survived two operating seasons in this severely abrasive exposure without significant damage.
Direct sun, which affects most aromatic
polyurethanes, does not reach the north facing
Coulee gates, and more of them have been coated
with the expectation that this vexing abrasion problem has been solved.

338
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--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
FIGURE 7
Sleevetype coupling in a coal-tar enamel coated pipeline has
been completely coated with enamel. Workman is electrically inspecting the coating for pinholes, thus assuring coating continuity and joint protection equal to that on the shopapplied pipe
coating.
Courtesy U.S.Bureau of Reclamation
Protecting steel in a purely atmospheric environment

against structurally critical corrosion ordinarily presents
much simpler problems than encountered in exposures
previously discussed. First, corrosion progresses much
more slowly. Second, coating inspection and maintenance
can usually be accomplished more readily on such accessible items, but this should not mean that atmospheric
painting can be regarded lightly because high standards of
appearance are demanded. Moreover, while properly maintained immersion coatings are expected to serve 20 years
or more, few atmospheric paints exposed outdoors retain
their highly attractive initial appearance much beyond 10
years. Cranes, exteriors of water and oil storage tanks and
piping, handrails, substation electrical equipment,
bridges, and exposed parts of pumps, turbines and gates
are highly visible. They reflect the public image of their
owners and, therefore, invite frequent cosmetic treatments
even though the surfaces may not corrode for much longer
periods. The wide diversity of items to be painted in a
multiplicity of colors imposes surprising demands on the
corrosion engineers time.
1. Outdoor Coatings
Using the best cleaning methods for atmospheric
coatings pays dividends in extended coating life.
Blast cleaning should be considered in locations of
intense airborne industrial contamination where
metalwork is known to corrode rapidly. However,
less rigorous methods that effectively remove all
grease or other contaminants and loose matter
from surfaces are more commonly and successfully used in rural environments. Rust-inhibitive
primers with strong wetting properties tend to
neutralize the effect of residual underfilm contaminants.
(a.) Pigments - Aluminum-pigmented topcoats offer maximum durability because they protect
the paint binder. Other pigmentations provide colors required for aesthetics. Paint pigments vary
considerably in stability under weathering exposure. Bright blues and reds notoriously fade and
chalk, while most tans, browns and grays hold up
well. Further, different pigment combinations that
yield the same paint color may weather quite differently. Durable colors and pigments can be
selected to contribute years to the service of atmospheric coatings.
(b). Vehicles - The oil and alkyd vehicles, long the
staple bases of decorative topcoats, currently are
being challenged successfully by a number of synthetic resins. Bonneville Power Administration
(BPA) tests of topcoats for its electrical equipment
revealed that silicone alkyd enamels retain color
and gloss up to twice as long as alkyd-base
materials, significantly reducing maintenance
costs. Combinations including acrylic resins may
be even more durable.
93
(c.) Water borne paints - Recognizing that the expected severe limitations on organic solvent emissions may virtually eliminate solvent-base paints,
the industry has developed a few waterborne paint
systems for metal. BPA formulated a stainless
steel pigmented acrylic resin-based paint that outperformed all other paints tested at the severest
seacoast BPA test site at Cape Blanco, Oregon.
This material can act as the sole coating or as the
primer for color-pigmented topcoats, either solvent
or waterborne. Interestingly, this commercially
available paint can be applied directly to some
galvanized metal without pretreatments to insure
adhesion.
(d.) Zinc coatings - Galvanizing items of suitable
size and shape affords long-term protection in
most rural atmospheric exposures. The zinc
coating is especially well adapted to steel, which
receives extremely rough handling during
assembly and is costly to paint after erection. The
color and reflectivity of newly galvanized items are
objectionable in some settings. In an effort to
blend these items into surroundings, some users
recently have treated galvanized steel with
phosphoric acid-base dulling solutions, which may
enhance protection and paintability of the zinc.
Painting galvanized items permits a full range of
color selection. Caution must be exercised, since
obtaining coating adhesion to zinc presents
special problems.
Zinc-pigmented paints have undergone extensive development in recent years and now may
be obtained in a wide variety of inorganic or
organic vehicles. Those based on inorganic vehicles have demonstrated especially good resistance
to atmospheric exposure when properly applied to
blast-cleaned surfaces. Others serve as corrosionresistance primers. Where structural steel must be
exposed outdoors for long periods after fabrication
and before erection and final painting, mill-applied,
weld-through, zinc-pigmented primers minimize the
surface preparation necessary before field painting. Intercoat adhesion failure experienced with
some zinc-pigmented primers prompts special care
in selecting compatible topcoats.
2. Indoor Coatings
Paints that need not resist severe weathering are
selected primarily for aesthetic purposes. Gloss or
semigloss finishes facilitate cleaning grease and
dirt from machinery and promote good housekeeping. Suitable paints exist in a wide range of colors
to produce any desired decor.
Field painting of indoor metalwork can be performed with the same enamels as outdoor exoosures or any of many synthetic-resin, single or multicomponent paints. Panelboards, enclosures and
other equipment for control rooms are commonly
8 6 2 7 9 4 0 0003786 634
furnished with attractive, highly cleanable finishes

of various resins applied by plant processes.
Further painting of such items not only is unneeded, but would be unwise, since the plantapplied finish often is superior to a field-applied
coat i ng.
E. SPECIAL CONDITIONS
While coatings for previously mentioned exposures
afford protection to most surfaces of hydraulic works with
only infrequent attention, similar exposures may include
additional elements that may lead to rapid coating failure.
Cavitation, erosion, abrasion and impacts are grouped
together because all are forms of mechanical attack on
the coating, even though the causes and mechanisms may
be quite different.
1. Cavitation
High water velocities, usually well over 45 ft./s (14
mls), occur frequently in localized areas of
hydraulic equipment, often without adverse effects
on coatings. When combined with surface irregularities (coating roughness, offsets in the surface, rapid changes in the direction of flow),
negative pressures create vapor pockets. The collapse of minute vapor bubbles downstream from
the surface irregularity rapidly destroys most
coatings and often the substrate metal; this is
called cavitation or cavitation erosion.
No coating withstands severe cavitation. In
this case, only weld repair with tough stainless
steels or other special metals can extend the life of
FIGURE 8
Dry film thickness of a coating on the stay vanes of a turbine
spiral case is measured using a magnetic gage.
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

339
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93
= 8627740 0003787 570

attain purity such as to attack coatings that may
perform well in lower elevations where water contains more solids. Condensing conditions occur
frequently in hydraulic structures. For example,
water condenses on interior surfaces of tanks
above the waterline and on the exterior of waterbearing pumps and piping. The condensate is
essentially distilled water. The coatings discussed
earlier for immersion exposure generally resist
pure water. However, equipment that sweats
frequently in an otherwise atmospheric exposure
should receive the same thorough surface preparation and coating selections for alternate atmospheric and underwater exposure. A few soil waters
display unusual acid levels or sulfate contents,
which may be deleterious to buried mortar coatings. Organic coatings or galvanizing that perform
well in rural areas may permit early corrosion in
industrial areas. Corrosion surveys or observations
of existing structures detect such conditions so
that appropriate surface preparation and coating
selections can be made.
No organic coating is invulnerable to attack by
all organic materials, but relatively few such
virulent exposures occur around hydraulic structures. Most enamels resist grease and oil lubricants on the exterior of machinery, and their gloss
or semigloss finishes facilitate cleaning the equipment. Vinyl and epoxy paints are essentially
immune to grease and oil and, in fact, are recommended for interiors of oil storage tanks, oil circuit
breakers, and like items.
an item such as a turbine runner. Tightly bonded,

highly elastomeric coatings may resist mild to
moderate cavitation for sufficient periods to justify
their use. To do so, the special neoprene or
urethane materials apparently must be applied to
substantial thicknesses, on the order of 70 mils
(1.8 mm). Thick, brittle coatings should be avoided
since they cavitate readily and, once, cavitation
starts, it tends to self-propagate, increasing in
intensity downstream from the original site. The effectiveness of cavitation-resistant coatings can be
proved quickly, within a year or less. Accordingly,
small-area testing of coatings proposed for this
service is highly recommended.
2. Erosion
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Erosion from sand- and gravel-laden waters in

siphons and pump impellers is best resisted by
elastomeric coatings, and lesser thicknesses suffice. Inadvertently, the Collbran site3 provided an
excellent field erosion test of lining materials, since
an unlined canal upstream fed sand and gravel into
the water. Erosion wore through coal-tar enamel in
10 years, and a catalyzed phenolic paint fared only
somewhat better. Only a six-coat, 30 mil (0.76 mm)
liquid-applied neoprene lining remained unaffected. All other linings were gone or were showing
significant damage within the 10-year period in the
siphon invert. The field performance of these linings agreed with a laboratory erosion test of
si mi lar Iin i n g ~ . ~
In other locations, A in. (3.2 mm) thick, bonded
sheet neoprene was performing well at 9 years in a
large siphon subject to severe erosion where the
bedload included even small- to medium-sized
rocks. In addition, rigid coatings with pigments
such as aluminum oxide or coatings in which hard
sands have been embedded have proved fairly
serviceable. Cement mortar linings provide long
service partially by virtue of their great thickness.
II. QUALITY CONTROL OF COATINGS

No attempt is made to suggest one best quality
control procedure. This subject is covered in a separate chapter. However, an observed failure rate of
about 20 percent among tested paints points to considerable variability in the level of manufacturers control
measures and, hence, the need for the purchaser to utilize
the best available quality control methods. The cost of
testing and, indeed, the cost of the materials themselves
represent only a small part of the total investment. If
failure occurs prematurely as a result of poor materials,
the cost of protection multiplies.
In passing, it should be emphasized that a paint test
can be no better than the sample. The sample should be
taken from the actual material t o be furnished, and the
contents of the container must be thoroughly mixed to obtain truly representative material. All too often this seemingly obvious step is neglected and the test results are
suspect or meaningless.
3. Abrasion and impacts

Thickness in excess of that required only for corrosion resistance helps in minimizing the effects of
abrasion and impacts. Again, the coating properties of strong bond, toughness and resilience prolong the life of the coating.
4. Chemical attack
Chemicals find only incidental use in and around
hydraulic structures, although chlorine may be required in water treatment plants. Protection
against chemical exposures is discussed elsewhere in this manual. Higher than normal concentrations of chemicals can shorten coating life and
permit premature corrosion.
Distilled water is often used in short-term
laboratory tests of coatings. Unusually pure water
constitutes a sort of chemical exposure that may
deteriorate some coatings. Mountain waters may
111. THE FIELD COATING OPERATION

Correctly selecting a coating and assuring its quality
are essential first steps in providing coating protection.
340
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93
m 8627940 0003788 407 m
However, coating engineers express the view that faulty

application is a more common cause of failure. Failure
diagnosis seldom conclusively pinpoints the painting
operation because evidence is gone and a good coating
may be discredited undeservedly. Surface preparation
often suffers from neglect in the field operation, yet many
feel it contributes over half the durability of coating protection. However dirty, costly and tediously unpleasant,
cleaning the surface is an integral part of painting. All
obstacles must be removed to provide a sound base for the
coating.
Most field coatings are applied by a brush, roller,,
andlor spray, with some variations imposed by the special
requirements of particular materials. Painting hydraulic
structures is industrial, not residential painting; equipment and rigging must be equal to the task. Acceptable
painting conditions are required, and specifications andlor
manufacturers painting instructions should be followed.
dards. Used as an inspection tool on the job, these

plastic-encased panels preclude much controversy
as to when sufficient cleaning effort has been
expended. Photographic standards such as SSPCVis 1, Color Photographic Standards for Surface
Preparation, serve the same purpose. These standards cover lesser levels of cleaning as well as
sandblasting. Where specified, hand- or power-tool
cleaning can be accepted when all contaminants
and loose materials are removed. When painting
begins, surfaces must not have rusted in the interim
and must be free of residual dust, ice or condensate.
Application of coating - Application should be
observed for proper materials storage, the existence of acceptable ambient conditions, mixing
and handling as instructed by the manufacturer,
correct application techniques and conformance
to good painting practice. The coating can be
evaluated primarily on the basis of its properties.
Gauges monitor the wet film thickness of the
coating as it goes on. Dry film thickness may be
measured nondestructively with any of several magnetic gauges (SSPC-PA 2); taking many measurements should confirm uniformity of workmanship.
Destructive thickness gauges can be used to view a
scribed groove in the coating, measuring thickness
accurately in cases of doubt.
A. INSPECTION
Inspection records are kept to assure that standards
have been established for all phases of painting. Compliance will enhance the expected coating performance.
Instruments can quantify many coating properties. A
trained, experienced and somewhat hardnosed inspector,
supported by solid specifications, can contribute immeasurably to the level of workmanship and the success
of the application.
Inspection focuses on a few key aspects of application:
O Surface preparation - Inspection confirms that
grease and weld spatter removal precedes the
mechanical cleaning. When blast cleaning is
specified, NACE Standard TM-01-70 provides a set
of comparison panels that have been carefully
blast cleaned to reflect both the broad recognized NACE and SSPC surface preparation stan--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Adhesion - Surface preparation and application

procedures should be sufficient for adhesion.
Unfortunately, adhesion tests are destructive
and require repair; nonetheless, a few such
tests in representative areas may be justified
for critical coatings in severe exposures. Repairs are easy after coal-tar enamel bond tests,
which should be made frequently during field applications. Adhesion testing procedures for coal-tar
enamel are described in the AWWA Specification
C203.
Coating continuity - Pinholes, skips or voids in the
film must be prevented. When at least two coats are
applied, the frequency of discontinuities usually
decreases to a tolerable level for most purposes
and visual inspection for complete coverage of
each coat suffices. However, continuity can be confirmed by electrical holiday detectors with voltages
selected to match the coating type and thickness.
Detectors range from the six volt wet sponge for
thin films to the 10,000 volt dry detector for coal-tar
enamel.
Drying or curing - The final requirement is a complete cure before the coating goes into service. The
inspector need only confirm, in most cases, that
curing times and temperatures are as instructed,
although specific tests exist for some coatings.
Minimum inspection of field painting requires a few
simple tools, some training and common sense. In addi-
FIGURE 9
Near-white blast cleaning removes all contaminants prior to
painting. Here a weld is properly cleaned, and blasting reveals
significant pits not evident before removal of an old coating.
Courtesy U S . Bureau of Reclamation

34 1
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S S P C CHAPTER*LSmO
93
8 b 2 7 9 4 0 0003789 343
tion, the inspector is required to read pertinent topics

and obtain a sense as to what constitutes good painting
practice regarding many phases of the operation. It can
confidently be anticipated that even minimum inspection
will markedly enhance final results.
is usually faster, cheaper and more satisfactory

than other methods for less crucial exposures.
4. Hand or power fool cleaning
Power wire brushing, scraping, sanding and other
hand methods are usually permitted only for steel
exposed to the atmosphere. When done well, these
methods are generally adequate for such exposures, and are normally less expensive and
troublesome than blast cleaning. When circumstances dictate hand tool cleaning in spite of
the need for blast cleaning, the service life of the
coating may be extended somewhat by the careful
application of the phosphatizing treatments which
attack residual contaminants, leave a paintable
deposit and may later retard underfilm reactions.
It is well known that some types of paint tolerate
foreign matter on a steel surface better than others, and
the degree of cleaning varies.
The method that provides the most nearly perfect
base for painting is not always practical. In addition to
paint type, the size and shape of the object to be painted,
its exposure, whether it is in a fixed position and whether
it is to be painted in the shops or in the field are considerations.
Other chapters in this volume deal in detail with sur:e
fac preparation, and Volume 2 contains widely used surfac:e preparation specifications.
1. Surface repair
A first step in preparation of any surface for painting is correction of any metal deficiencies. It is
desirable, though not always feasible, to round
sharp edges and corners. Scabs and other metal
defects incident to the steel rolling and fabrication
operation should always be removed and the surface smoothed. Field welds usually require the
most attention. The sharp projections on a weld
should be ground down and weld spatter removed.
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
2. Grease removal
It is best to remove any deposits of grease or oil
before beginning mechanical cleaning. Blast cleaning is often thought to remove these contaminants,
but this is not necessarily so. Prior removal is
recommended. Oil can be removed by washing with
a solvent. Mineral spirits, xylene and others are
excellent for this purpose; however, benzene,
gasoline and certain other solvents are unsafe.
Cleaning solvent and rags must be replaced frequently; otherwise, solvent cleaning can actually
spread the grease contamination over a wider area
than it originally covered. If the abrasive in blast
cleaning is to be reused, it must be oil free; steel
grit and shot require cleaning at intervals. Shaking
the abrasive a few seconds in a small vial of water
will determine the presence of oil.
FIGURE 10
Electrostatic spray painting permits rapidly coating the complex
shapes of a transformer, the paint even penetrating to coat interior rows of the cooling pipes at right in the picture.
5. Dust removal
Regardless of the cleaning method, dust or grit
should be removed from the surface just before
painting and painting should proceed before rust
forms on the cleaned surface. If the atmosphere is
dry, rusting of blast cleaned surfaces may not occur for days; but under humid conditions, rust can
be evident within an hour or so. A freshly painted
surface should be protected from dust, and any dirt
that collects between coats should be removed.
3 . Blast cleaning
In addition to complete removal of all surface impurities, blast cleaning roughens the surface to
provide keying for good bond. With some types of
paint, blast cleaning is considered essential to proper adhesion, and their use becomes contingent on
whether blast cleaning can be employed. Blast
cleaning should be specified for coal-tar coatings,
vinyls, phenolics, neoprene coatings, and in
general, for all coatings (except cement mortar) to
be in buried or immersion exposures. This method

C. APPLICATION OF COATINGS
Before field coating proceeds, favorable conditions
342
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one that sets and cures completely and at the

same rate over the entire surface.
3. Thinning - Few paints require thinning if applied at normal temperatures. The frequency of
excessive thinning is remarkable, particularly
since stretching the paint defeats the objective
of building coating thickness to a specified level in
a certain number of coats. When thinned, most current industrial paints require quite specific solvents and diluents or combinations thereof. The
wrong thinners may produce strange effects - including unaccountably short coating life.
4. Application methods - Most paints for field application are applied by conventional brush, roller
or spray methods. Contractors favor the high application rates and greater film build attainable by
spraying for prime coats as well as succeeding
coats. This point is debatable. It can be argued that
brushing or rolling stirs any residual dust away
from the surface and works the paint into better
contact, thus promoting better coating bond, particularly if the paint has poor wetting properties.
Some paints, such as vinyls, are difficult to brush.
Observing that dust removal is erratic at best,
however, the Bureau of Reclamation has long
favored brushing of primers., Spraying is recommended for topcoats. In special cases, electrostatic spraying produces more complete, uniform
and rapid coating of complex and poorly accessible shapes, such as closely packed piping
systems, than does conventional spraying.
The term good painting practice covers,
among other things, accepted techniques for the
various application methods, and proper time
between coats and for full curing; other chapters
examine these matters in detail. Field painting
should result in the specified coverages, thicknesses and conformity to the special requirements
of each type of paint. Attaining the correct
minimum total dry film thickness is especially important for coatings to be in immersion exposures,
and extra edge coats are highly recommended
where the paint film thins out and fails early at high
points of welds, over corners, and around rivets.
FIGURE 11
Roller gate in Rock Island navigational dam is in near-perfect condition after 12 years service. Threecoat vinyl system per CW
09940 specifications was used.
Courtesy U.C. Corps of Engineers and Gilbertlcommonwealth
for the application must be guaranteed. Planning promotes satisfactory final results as well as minimizing
delays and various misfortunes during the work. It may
become important to establish positive control over ambient conditions. Application personnel should be acquainted with coating characteristics and specifications
andlor manufacturers instructions pertaining to them.
They should also be provided with essential rigging and
clean, operable equipment. Such precautions set the stage
for smooth field applications. Factors in paint application
are covered in SSPC-PA 1 and SSPC-PA Guide 4.
1. Ambient application conditions - Specified
minimum painting temperatures are often around
45OF (7C)for conventional paints. Most chemically set paints require at least 5OoF (10%).
While maximum temperatures sometimes do
not appear in specifications, problems may be
encountered above 95OF (35OC).The best paint
working qualities and results are usually realized in
the middle of this temperature range. High humidity not only threatens freshly prepared surfaces but
may affect some paints adversely. Good ventilation
protects the painters and hastens drying of most
paints. Positive control of these ambient conditions presents difficult problems in cool, damp
locations with adverse weather conditions.
2. Paint preparation - Prior to application,
settled and stratified paints must be restored to
their original uniformity. If pigments do not
disperse on thorough mixing, as often happens
with red lead primers, the material should be
discarded. It is usually desirable to premix
separately the liquid parts of multi-component
paints before adding them together. Obviously,
thorough mixing of the combined components is
necessary to produce a uniform coating material,
D. APPLICATION OF SPECIFIC COATINGS

1. Applying cement mortar
A comprehensive description appears in Federal
and American Water Works Association specifications (AWWA C205 and C602)for applying and handling mortar linings and coatings. Such linings are
usually placed by specialized and skilled plant
operators or field contractors. But some aspects of
mortar inspection deserve comment. Some of the
criteria for organic coatings already mentioned
clearly do not apply to cement mortar. Mortar lin-
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ings are not bonded in the ordinary sense, and

discontinuities in the form of narrow cracks are not
cause for alarm. Thickness should be as specified,
and proper curing is most essential to a sound
coating. The curing procedures specified should be
fully observed. The mortar, like concrete, develops
its full strength and soundness by reaction with the
mix water, and this process should not be interrupted. Water should be added during curing of
plant-lined pipe and pipe sections sealed with
sheet plastic covers. Water can be retained in inplace linings by blocking airflow through the
piping, Maintaining moisture until the piping
fills is beneficial in minimizing or preventing cracking of the lining. Steam curing most conveniently
and reliably accomplishes the curing of both plantapplied linings and coatings.
The coating ordinarily shows little or no cracking because shrinkage is uniformly distributed by
the embedded reinforcement. However, transportation of plant-lined pipe sections usually results
in drying shrinkage and numerous cracks in the lining. Upon rewetting, the lining expands. Cracks not
significantly wider than lL2 in. (0.8 mm) will usually
close, and the corrosion-inhibitive alkalinity extends somewhat into narrow gaps in the lining. The
crack widths for which repair should be considered
vary with lining thickness and other factors, but
probably begin at about '/,e inch (1.6 mm).
Lining continuity at field joints is accomplished by filling the gap between pipe sections
with mortar. For pipe too small for workmen to
enter, the joint surfaces are "buttered" before the
joint is made, and a prepositioned, pipe-size ball is
drawn past the joint area to smooth the mortar. The
exterior of the joint likewise is filled with mortar by
grouting or encasement; this mortar must be reinforced so the protection at the joint area equals
that on the rest of the piping.
FIGURE 12
Debris pounds the roller dam gate. Vinyl coating system contains
garnet to help withstand the abrasion.
Courtesy U.S.Corps of Engineers GilberUCommonwealth
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344
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2. Applying coal-tar enamel

AWWA C203 specifications provide ample instructions on the application of this material, the largest
quantity of which is now plant-applied. Special
shapes and pipes so large they must be lined or
coated in place require field application, and the
unusual features of such applications justify emphasizing some critical points. Following blast
cleaning, Type B primer should be spray applied at
a uniform thickness of 0.5to 1.0 mils (0.013 to 0.025
mm) and protected against dust, water and oil
fumes until enamel can be applied. To bond well,
enamel must be at the correct temperature, about
450 to 500F (232 to 260C) when it contacts the
primer. It should also have been heated and handled properly so as to retain good plasticity
[penetration, ASTM Designation: 5-73 at 77 "F
(25"C)I.
Inspection procedures for enamel are somewhat special and assume critical importance in
field work. The bond test described in the AWWA
specifications establishes in one step whether the
surface preparation, primer and enamel application have all been accomplished properly. Inspection for enamel bond, thickness, penetration and
continuity are more fully described in Reference 1,
which is recommended reading if such work is in
prospect.
3. Applying vinyl resin paints
Paints composed primarily of vinyl resins are
characterized by low-solids content, high solvent
volatility and setting or curing solely by solvent
volatilization. Their relatively low surface wetting
properties dictate a high level of surface preparation, not less than a near white blast, which ideally
should not exceed a 2 mil (0.005mm) profile. For
the same reason, brushing or rolling the first coat
promotes vinyl coating bond. The rapid solvent
loss during- application
requires some adjustment
. .
of the ordinary brushing technique and also
unusual care to ensure that, in the following coats,
the spray gun is held close enough and normal to
the surface so a wet coat always is deposited.
Vinyl resin paint systems, both proprietary
and those conforming to standard specifications,
exhibit considerable differences. Some are composed entirely of vinyl resins that are adherent to
steel. In others, only the primer is adherent, and
therefore must precede the nonadherent topcoats
that can easily be stripped off if applied directly to
metal. Other variations include hardness, pigment
loadings and dry times.
In general, the minimum thickness for immersion exposures of vinyls should be about 5 mils
(0.13 mm), and one system for abrasive exposures
calls for 10-mil (0.25 mm) thickness. For effective
protection from such thin films, the specified
93
m 8627940 0003792
nent paints may have a longer or shorter pot life.

Some may react so quickly as to require application by means of a mixing head spray gun. A few require an induction period before the application
can begin. In any event, the manufacturers instructions must be followed strictly.
Application of coal-tar epoxy can be by brush,
roller or spray. Because the material is somewhat
heavy-bodied, it is difficult to brush to uniform
thickness, and brushing is limited to irregular surfaces. Prior to the first coat, vigorously brushcoating welds and rough surfaces is recommended
to ensure complete coverage free of pinholes; the
first general coat may then be applied over the wet
brush coat. Medium sized areas are often rollercoated with spraying reserved for topcoats and
larger areas. In any case, the application must be
complete within the pot life of the material at the
prevail i ng temperature.
Some chemically set paints, when fully cured,
produce a smooth, glazed surface so inert that
another coat of the same paint does not bond well.
Poor intercoat adhesion, widely experienced with
coal tar epoxy paint, can be prevented by applying
topcoats well before a full cure develops. Again,
the manufacturer sets forth the necessary timing
in literature on the particular paint.
Paint and metal temperatures must be within
specified limits during both the application and
curing periods, otherwise incomplete or incorrect
curing results. A temperature of 50F (2OOC) frequently is mentioned as a minimum, but a midrange application temperature produces the best
results, and a short cure at an elevated
temperature may enhance the cure and durability
of some materials.
FIGURE 13
Cleaning and touching up a lock-gate in upper Mississippi River.
Vinyl system is in excellent condition after 17 years service.
Courtesy U.S. Corps of Engineers and GilbertlCommonwealth
minimums must be met at all points on the surface.

Multiple vinyl coats help to assure uniformity and
minimize pinholes. Skillful spray techniques, including multipass cross spraying, should be exercised to attain the desired per-coat thickness, and
to maximize uniformity.
Although highly volatile solvents for vinyl
paints rapidly produce a surface-dry condition, the
last solvent leaves the film slowly. Thus, the specified cure time, usually 3 to 10 days, depending on
conditions and the particular vinyl systems, should
elapse to allow developing an adequate cure
before placing them in service. The minimums not
withstanding, further curing enhances the
resistance properties of film and clearly is desirable wherever possible.
4. Applying multicomponent, chemically set coatings
This section focuses on the unusual application
characteristics of coatings prepared by mixing two
or more components that react chemically to produce setting and a final cure. The reactive resin
types usually are epoxy or urethane, but these may
be combined with nonreactive resins or extenders
such as phenolics, vinyls, silicones or coal-tars.
Solvents may or may not be present. Regardless of
the resin, the chemical reaction involved imposes
special constraints on the application process.
Coal-tar epoxy paint, currently one of the most
widely accepted materials, serves as an example.
The components are furnished separately in the exact quantities necessary to produce the desired
chemical reaction. Premixing the components
separately may be desirable. Obviously, thorough
mixing of the reactants is essential to producing a
material that will set uniformly and fully when applied to steel. Once mixed, coal-tar epoxy paint
must be applied within a limited time, about three
hours at normal temperatures. Other multicompo-
5. Other coatings
Many metal primer and topcoat paints have been
successfully field applied for so long by conventional means that they require little comment. The
water-borne coatings increasingly replacing some
atmospheric coatings present no new problems except that they should not be exposed to freezing
before they dry.
6. Applying temporary coatings
Temporary protection may be required for machined surfaces during transport and storage. For
this purpose a number of rust preventives are
available to be applied by brushing, dipping or
spraying. When the equipment is to go into service,
they are removed with solvents. Since temporary
rust preventives may contain greases and tars,
they should not be used on surfaces eventually to
be painted. Some rust preventives are available
that will accept paint.
Cast iron pipe, valves, fittings and some
machinery may be received with a soft varnish or
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

938
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tarry shop coating, which varies considerably in

thickness. The tar may bleed persistently through
paint applied over it, and the coating may not resist
impacts or distortion normally. The temporary
paint should be removed before any permanent
paint system is applied.
The need for surface preparation appropriate to the

coating and exposure are just as great for maintenance as
for new work i f the expected results are to be obtained; unfortunately, greater obstacles to good cleaning usually exist. Blast cleaning remains essential for full durability of
replacement immersion coatings and is preferable for
touch up. Where it is plainly not feasible for small areas,
surfaces can be cleaned to base metal and somewhat
roughened with tools such as the car body sander, or even
by hand sanding. This cleaning may be augmented with a
phosphoric acid, rust-inhibitive wash. Hand or power
tool cleaning (SSPC-SP 2 and 3) will do for milder exposures; however, the adhesion of the remaining coating
should be checked. Paint so poorly bonded that it might
soon fail by lifting and flaking should be removed by scraping or other effective means.
When an overall coat is to be applied to existing paint,
any obstacle to adhesion must be removed. Dirt, scum and
oil commonly deposit in tightly adherent films on immersed surfaces and must be scrubbed off. Weathering ordinarily results in chalk, a layer of pigment loosely held by
the degraded binder. For best results, any appreciable
chalk should be removed by abrasive scrubbing.
Assuming that a good initial coating was satisfactorily applied, repainting the affected area with the original
type of paint is usually best. This circumvents compatibility problems between paints. A different repair paint
should be tested for compatibility. Adhesion deficiencies
also may develop with the highly inert, chemically set
paints, as noted in the discussion of coal-tar epoxy paint,
whereby special measures would have to be taken to
achieve an effective repair.
E. MAINTENANCE OF COATINGS
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Maintainability is a factor in the initial coating selection because all coatings require attention. The questions
are: how much, how often, by what methods and at what
direct and indirect costs? Occasionally, the total cost of
maintenance in locations such as turbine units may include the loss of revenue during outages, making actua
painting costs become negligible. Thus, indirect costs
may loom large, justifying coating that reduce maintenance to a minimum, even though at greater initial cost.
cost.
Knowing the condition of a coating obviously is the
first step in maintaining it. Its history provides some idea
as to how rapidly it is deteriorating. Adding to this, the type
of paint, age and application data such as surface
preparation enables more discriminating choices between
total replacement and maintenance procedures. Inspection of a coating after a years service is recommended. At
this time gross deficiencies iii application usually become
apparent and can be corrected. Thereafter, inspections
should be scheduled at 2- to 5-year intervals for coatings
exhibiting normal behavior, with more frequent inspections being given to problem areas.
It is important to know what to look for and what interpretation to attach to what is seen, because the evaluation
dictates the timing and types of maintenance painting.
Chapter 23 on causes and prevention of paint failure explores this subject in detail. It suffices here to note that
the condition of the steel is the primary concern. Corrosion, such as rapid pitting affecting the integrity of the
metal, should prompt early attention to remedial action.
Corrosion uniformly distributed over the surface, which
actually consumes the same quantity of metal, may be
tolerated somewhat longer.
Coating repairs should be made before deterioration
has progressed so far that costly, thorough surface
preparation and complete repainting become necessary.
Since deterioration in localized areas of a coating aged
several years usually indicates weakening of the entire
coating, it may be worthwhile to follow spot repairs with at
least one overall coat. For example, touch up repair and
application of one or two topcoats are recommended after
10 years service for Bureau of Reclamation vinyl resin
paint VR-3 in immersion exposures.
If there is poor service, and reason to believe another
type of paint andlor a better application could produce better results, it is often best to let repairs go and get all the
benefit possible before the affected surfaces are completely repainted.

IV. SPECIFICATIONS
A. STANDARD SPECIFICATIONS
Standard specifications are grouped according to the
exposures commonly found in hydraulic structures.
Generally, this listing does not repeat the applicable SSPC
painting systems in Volume 2 of the manual. Before selecting any specification, the user should always obtain and
read the full specifications to ensure correct use of the
material and to select the proper type, class and grade, if
any.
UNDERGROUND EXPOSURES
Cement mortar shop
applied (lining and coating)
American Water Works Association (AWWA) C205
Coal-tar enamel
Primer (Type 6)
Enamel
Fibrous glass mat
Coal-tar saturated asbestos flat,
K:aft paper
Whitewash
AWWA C203 (specify enamel

having 15-20 penetration at
77F (25C))
Pipe coating, thermoplastic

resins or thermosetting epoxy
AWWA C 210
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8627940 0003794 700
UNDERWATER EXPOSURE
Cement mortar linings
Shop applied
In place
AWWA C205
AWWA C602
Coal-tar enamel
AWWA C203 (specify enamel

having 15-20 penetration at
77OF (25OC))
High-Performance Low VOC

Commercial Tar Epoxies
Corps of Engineers, C200

(SSPC-Paint 16 and SSPC-Paint
System 11.01)
DOD-P-I5328
Pretreatment primer
(wash primer)
Vinyl resin
US Bureau of Reclamation
VR-3 (4 coats to 6 mils)
VR-6 (6 coats to 10 mils)
Corps of Engineers, V766 and
others
High-Performance Low VOC

Coatings
Epoxies, Urethanes & Polyesters
FIGURE 14
Painting gate during winter. Vinyl coatings must be applied.
Courtesy U.S. Army Corps of Engineers and
GilbertlCommonwealth
ALTERNATING WATER AND AIR EXPOSURE

Vinyl resin
High-Performance
Low VOC Coatings
(Weathering Topcoat where
required)
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Aluminum paint
Mixing varnish (phenolic)
Aluminum paste for the above
As above
Epoxies, Urethanes,
& Polyesters
TT-V-119
A-A-341
AIR EXPOSURE
Primer Coating, Alkyd, Corrosion

Inhibiting, Lead and Chromate
Free, VOC Compliant
TT-P-664
Zinc dust chlorinated

rubber primer
Zinc dust - zinc oxide primer
TT-P-I 046
TT-P-641, Type II
Aluminum paint
Mixing varnish (regular)
Mixing varnish (phenolic)
Aluminum paste for the above
Ready mixed
TT-V-81
TT-V-119
A-A-341
TT-P-38
Machinery enamels
Alkyd (gloss)
Alkyd (semigloss)
Silicone alkyd (gloss)
Silicone alkyd (semigloss)
TT-E-489
TT-E-529
TT-R-I 593
TT-E-490
Acrylic emulsion paint
TT-P-19
Acrylic emulsion
coatings for steel
Galvanizing
ASTM Al23
SPECIAL COATINGS AND TREATMENT

Rust preventive
Metal conditioner
MIL-C-16173, Grades 1 and 2

MIL-C-10578
B. SPECIFYING COLOR
Color serves purposes other than aesthetics, such as
pipe coding; organizations (e.g., telephone, gas, oil and
auto companies) often standardize distinctive combina
tions of colors to represent themselves. Although they may
select proprietary paints and colors at a particular time,
these later may be discontinued, or the organizations may
wish to enable several suppliers to bid on furnishing the
paints. Whatever the reason, it is often desired to specify
color with reasonable exactness according to a widely
recognized system. Several systems exist, but none has attained universal acceptance.
Federal Standard 595A offers a moderate choice of arbitrarily selected colors displayed by small chips in a
loose-leaf book, and available as 3- by 5411. coupons. The
colors are identified by 5-digit numbers, the first digit of
which denotes flat, semigloss, or gloss luster. This standard is fairly well known in the paint industry, but usually
is not used in product lines. The Munsell color system
covers the full color range and precisely describes any
desired color in terms of a numerical system representing
hue, value and chroma. The smallest possible color differences distinguished by the Munsell system are so slight
as to be almost undetectable to the naked eye. This
enables specifying color precisely and establishing limits
on the acceptability of color matches. Paint manufacturers are aware of the Munsell system, but find its cost
and complexity to be limiting factors.
V. SAFETY AND HEALTH

The Occupational Safety and Health Administration
(OSHA), the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) and
local regulators are involved in the control of materials to
protect the environment and construction workers against
known or suspected health threats. Regulations governing
emissions, pollutants and toxic substances have already
affected coating development, and more profound changes
34 7
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--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
clearly are in prospect. The safety and health of painters

have become a primary concern at this time as data accumulate showing the toxic effects from inhalation or skin
contact with dusts or paint constituents. Limiting concentration values of solvents are being lowered, instrumental monitoring is being promoted and protective
measure for personnel are being intensified.
The rapid change in regulatory safety and health procedures precludes discussing specifics here.
Many common paint marerials present little hazard if
handled sensibly; on the other hand, it is possible to
mishandle most with disastrous results. Ordinary care
calls for ventilating properly, keeping open flames or
sparks away from flammable materials, avoiding excessive inhalation of blast dust or any paint vapors and
minimizing protonged skin contact with coating materials.
Both workers and their supervisors should be alert for particular physical circumstances that hold the potential for
a catastrophic event, such as painting in confined spaces.
See Chapter on Safety in this volume and Guide to Safety
SSPC-PA Guide 3 in Volume 2.
Modern industrial painting tends to include more and
more sophisticated protective coatings that present new
hazards not readily apparent. The epoxy resins may be
taken as a familiar example of such paints. The constituents of two-component epoxy paints often cause allergic
reactions, such as itching and rashes. Some people are
hypersensitive to these compounds and react promptly
and violently. In other cases the effects are cumulative;
repeated exposures without apparent effect may produce
sudden hypersensitivity with serious consequences. Inhalation of the special solvents in industrial paints not only may cause immediate discomfort, but may damage
organs of the body in ways not fully understood at this
time.
Prudence dictates caution in handling new materials.
Paint manufacturers usually provide detailed hazard warnings with products. Accordingly, an important first step in
the application of an unfamiliar coating is a careful
reading of the manufacturers literature and making provisions for protective clothing, respirators and so on as indicated. The instructions may include any special
treatments to be used upon exposure to the material. For
example, soap and water is recommended for removal of
epoxy constituents; on the other hand, most organic
solvents should not be used because they can carry the
toxic chemicals deeper into the skin, thereby aggravating
the situation.
Ordinary construction hazards especially common to
painting operations include the rigging and scaffolding
necessary for access to awkward locations. The common
sight of a painter seemingly engaged in acrobatics to
reach the work is evidence of an unsafe condition in need
of correction. High work and steeply inclined piping often
require anchored rigging and heavy staging. The strength
and condition of welds, bolts, cables and ropes should be
evaluated by a qualified inspector. Lifting machinery
should be designed for fail-safe operation.
Finally, on-the-job safety training has a place in field

painting. Each worker can be his own best safety device if
alerted to the hazards inherent in his occupation and the
consequencbs of mishandled materials, unsafe equipment
and faulty procedures. Ideally, a qualified safety engineer,
experienced in painting operations, well versed in the
prevailing regulations and the reasons therefore, would
counsel the workers, the object being to enlist their
support in assuring their own safety.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
chapter:
AI Beitelman, James Foster, John Perchall and William
Wal lace.
BIOGRAPHY
Mr Jack Kiewit, who is retired,
was the Head, Materials Science
Section of the Applied Sciences
Branch in the Division of
Research, U S Bureau of Reclamation Engineering and Research
Center in Denver, Colorado He
graduated with a 6 S in Chemical
Engineering from the University of
Nebraska, after which he joined
the U.S Bureau of Reclamation in
February 1950 as a chemical engineer in the Cement Unit He
transferred in 1953 to the Paint
Investigations Unit as a materials engineer, and a coatings specialist
In 1975 he was selected as Head, Materials Science Section, responsible for Section research, quality, control, and technical assistance for
a wide variety of engineering materials for water-works structures
He is a registered professional engineer and corrosion
specialist (National Association of Corrosion Engineers) and co-author
with P S Lewis of the Third Edition Revision of U S Bureau of Reclamation Paint Manual
REFERENCES
1. U.S. Bureau of Reclamation, Paint Manual. US. Government
Printing Office, Washington, D.C. 20402, 3rd Edition, 1976.

2. Corps of Engineers Specification CW-09940, Painting:
Hydraulic Structures and Appurtenant Works, January 1977.
3. J.L. Kiewit, Field Tests of Water Pipe Linings. U.S. Bureau of
Reclamation Lab Report REC-ERC-72-1,January 1972.
4. H. Johns, Erosion Studies of Pipe Lining Materials - Fourth
Progress Report. U.S. Bureau of Reclamation Lab Report
ChE-97, June 1969.
5. U S . Army Corps of Engineers, Paint Manual - New Construction and Maintenance. EM 110-2-3400, May 1967.
6. Steel Structures Painting Manual, Volume 2, Systems and
Specifications, 1991.
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8 b 2 7 9 4 0 0003776 583
CHAPTER 16.1
COATINGS FOR PIPELINES AND

OTHER UNDERGROUND STRUCTURES
by
II. DESIRABLE CHARACTERISTICS OF A

PIPE COATING
This chapter on coatings covers the fundamentals for

selection, application, and performance of pipe coatings
used to prevent the deterioration of metals buried in earth
or submerged in water.
Regulations from Department of Transportation, Occupational Safety and Health Act (OSHA), and Department
of Environmental Resources (DER) have all had an impact
on the pipe coatings industry. The energy shortage and the
emphasis on energy conservation, along with other governmental regulations, will continue to influence the selection
and use of pipe coatings.
And yet a twenty-six year old statement by Norman
Peifer and Frank Costanzo is still the norm for corrosion
protection on underground structures: Effective coatings
complemented with cathodic protection have been most
successful in arresting and in preventing corrosion
losses.
Asphalt and coal tar enamel coatings are the most
widely used external pipe coatings.2
A. EFFECTIVE ELECTRICAL INSULATOR

Since soil corrosion is an electrochemical process, a
pipe coating has to stop the current by isolating the structure from the environment.
B. EASE OF APPLICATION
The coating material must be suitable and properly
applied to be effective. Many excellent pipe coatings require exacting application procedures that are difficult to
maintain. Consistent quality may be obtained with a
coating system that is least affected by variables. Coating
application specifications and good construction practices combined with proper inspection contribute to the
quality of the finished coating system.
C. APPLICABLE TO PIPING WITH A MINIMUM

OF DEFECTS
I. PURPOSE OF PIPE COATING

Pipe coating on underground structures isolates
metal from contact with surrounding environments. Since
a perfect coating cannot be assured, cathodic protection
is used in conjunction with the coating system to provide
the first line of defense against corrosion. And since a
properly selected and applied coating should provide 99%
of the protection required, it is of utmost importance to
know the advantages and disadvantages of available
coatings. The right coating material properly used will
make all other aspects of corrosion control relatively
easy.3
The number of coating systems available necessitates careful analysis of the many desired properties for
an effective pipe coating. The National Association of Corrosion Engineers clearly defines the specific qualities that
a pipe coating should possess in NACE Standard RP-01-69,
Section 5:Coatings4

This characteristic correlates with ease of application. No coating is perfect, and that is why cathodic protection is required. Do not buy a pipe coating that has too
many holidays (voids in coating) even before it leaves the
mill.
D. ADHESION TO PIPE SURFACE

Coating adhesion is important to eliminate water
migration between the metal substrate and the pipe
coating. The coating adhesion assures permanence and
ability to withstand handling during installation without
losing effectiveness.
E. RESIST DEVELOPMENT OF HOLIDAYS

Once the coating is buried, two areas that may
destroy or degrade coatings are soil stress and en-
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R.N. Sloan and A. W. Peabody
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vironmental contaminants. Soil stress, brought about in

certain soils that are alternately wet and dry, creates
tremendous forces that may split or cause thin areas.
Adhesion, cohesion, and tensile strength are important
properties to evaluate in order to minimize this problem.
The coatings resistance to chemicals, hydrocarbons, and
acidic or alkaline conditions has to be known in order to
evaluate performance in known contaminated soils.
F. HANDLING, STORAGE, AND

INSTALLATI O N
The ability of a coating to withstand damage is a function of its impact, abrasion, and ductile properties. Pipe
coatings are subjected to a great deal of handling from application to backfill. While precautionary measures of
proper handling, shipping, and stockpiling are recommended, coatings vary in their ability t o resist damage.
Outside storage requires resistance to ultraviolet rays and
temperature changes. These properties must be evaluated
t o assure proper performance.
G. CONSTANT ELECTRICAL RESISTIVITY

Since corrosion is an electrochemical reaction, a
coating with a high electrical resistance over the life of the
system is important. The percentage of initial resistance
drop is not as indicative of the pipe coating quality as the
overall level of electrical resistivity.
H. RESISTANT TO DISBONDING
for undercutting or any discontinuities. Discontinuities are

identified by an accumulated calcite deposit around them.
Relative resistance of the coating to cathodic protection is
determined by the number of unintentional holidays, by the
amount or increase in current, and by the amount of
cathodic disbondment or undercutting that has occurred
around the intentional holidays.
The difference in reactions to this test by various
coatings is sometimes vivid. In some cases, such a
quantity of water is driven through the coating that the
coating develops large water blisters around the sample.
In other cases the cathodic disbondment around the intentional holiday is so great that the entire sample is disbonded from the surface. Some samples experience very
frequent unintentional holidays, little water being driven
through the coating, and almost no cathodic disbondment
around the unintentional h ~ l i d a y . ~
I. EASE OF REPAIR
Recognizing that some damage may occur and that
the weld area must be field coated, compatible field
materials are required to make repairs and complete the
coating after welding. Manufacturers recommendations
should be followed. Variables in conditions influence
selection of materials.
All nine of these characteristics (A-I) are important
when evaluating the selection of a pipe coating.
The following factors should also be considered when
selecting a pipe coating?
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Since most pipelines are eventually cathodically protected, it is necessary for the coating t o withstand
cathodic disbondment. The amount of cathodic protection
is directly proportional to the quality and integrity of the
coating. Considering interference and stray current problems, this becomes a most important requirement. Cathodic protection does two things. First, it drives water
through a coating that would ordinarily resist penetration.
It also may produce hydrogen at the metal surface where
current reaches it, and the hydrogen breaks the bond between the coating and metal surface. No coating is completely resistant to damage by cathodic protection, but it
is very important to choose a coating that minimizes these
effects. The ASTM G8 test for Cathodic Disbonding of
Pipeline Coatings, commonly known as the salt crock test,
measure a coatings resistance to damage by cathodic
protection. An intentional holiday is placed in the coating
and the sample is immersed in a 3% salt solution (1%
Sodium Carbonate, 1% Sodium Sulfate, and 1% Sodium
Chloride). Then, when a negative electrical potential is applied through the aqueous salt solution by an anode or rectifier, an electrical current flows through the solution to
the bare metal surface.
This test is run at ambient temperatures; the sample
is maintained at a constant potential; and the current drain
required to protect the sample is measured periodically.
After 30 to 90 days the sample is removed and examined
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1. Type of Soil or Backfill

Soil conditions and backfill influence the coating
system selected and thickness specified. USDA
Soil Survey Manuals help determine soil types
along the right-of-way. Soils are rated by their
shrink-swell factor (soil stress). High shrink-swell
soils can damage conventional coatings. Ideally,
trenches should be free of projections and rocks,
permitting the coating t o bear on a smooth surface. When backfilling, rocks and debris should
not strike the pipe coating. The following ASTM
tests are recommended to measure resistance to
penetration of the pipe coating if set on stcnes in
the trench: ASTM D 785, Method of Test for
Rockwell Hardness of Plastics and Electrical Insulating Materials, ASTM D 5, Method of Test
for Penetration of Bituminous Materials, and
ASTM D 2240, Method of Test for Indention Hardness of Rubber and Plastics by Means of a
Durometer.
The following ASTM tests are recommended
to measure the resistance against damage by
rock in back fill: ASTM G 13, Limestone Drop
Test and ASTM G 19, Falling Weight Test. Soil
stresses on pipe coatings may be evaluated by
ASTM D 427, Method of Test for Shrinkage Factors of Soils.
SSPC CHAPTER*Lb.L
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require special consideration. On large projects in

remote areas, the economics may favor a railhead
or field coating site.
6. Handling and Storage
Handling, shipping and stockpiling are important
in the selection process. Some coatings require
special handling and padding. All require careful
handling.
Most underground coatings are not designed
for above ground use and are affected by excessive above-ground storage. Coal tar asphalt
enamel and mastic coatings are protected from
ultraviolet deterioration by whitewash or kraft
paper. In polyethylene, the addition of 2.5 percent
carbon black is the most satisfactory deterrent.
Stock should be rotated, first-in, first-out, to
minimize the potential problem. Long-term
storage requirements could determine coating
selection.
7. Costs
Evaluation of pipe coating properties with the
above considerations assists in selection. The
most misunderstood factor is costs. In pipe
coating economics the end has to justify the
means. The added cost of coatings and cathodic
protection has to pay for itself through reduced
operating costs and longer life. True protection
costs include not only initial costs of coating and
cathodic protection but also installation, joint
coatings and repairs. Field engineering and
facilities to correct possible damage to other
underground facilities may add costs, possibly
outweighing initial costs of the pipe coating.*
FIGURE 1
A good cleaning job coming out of the shot blast machine.
Courtesy: Irish Pipe Coating Co., Inc.
2. Accessibility of Pipeline
When a pipeline is inaccessible or in a marine environment, the best system should be selected
with less emphasis on initial cost. Experience
under similar conditions for at least five years or
well-designed laboratory tests on new products
are the best criteria for coating selection.
3. Operating Temperature of Piping
Surface temperature and environmental conditions must be considered, because, once buried, a
coating experiences a wet heat condition, which
is more detrimental than dry heat and harms
coating effectiveness. A modified disbondment
test, ASTM G 8 Cathodic Disbonding of Pipeline
Coatings, determines resistance to elevated
temperatures.
111. DESCRIPTION OF COATING SYSTEMS

A. ENAMELS
4. Ambient Temperatures During Construction

and Installation
Temperatures during construction and installation are often more critical than operating
temperatures. For instance, some thermoplastic
systems such as mastics, tapes, or enamels may
become brittle in freezing temperatures.
(Polyethylene coating systems, however, have
been field bent at - 40 FI - 40 OC). Above recommended operating temperatures, thermoplastic
systems may cold flow. Extra care in handling,
transport and storage is needed under extreme
conditions.
Bituminous enamels are formulated from coal tar

pitches or petroleum asphalts and have been widely used
as protective coatings for over sixty-five years. Coal tar
and asphalt enamels are available in summer or winter
grades. These enamels are the corrosion coating, combined with glass andlor felt to obtain mechanical strength
for handling. These materials should meet requirements of
the National Association of Corrosion Engineers, National
Association of Pipe Coating Applicators or The American
Water Works Association. Enamel coatings have been the
workhorse coatings of the industry and provide efficient,
long-life corrosion protection.
Bituminous enamel systems may be used within a
temperature range of 30F to 180F ( - 1.1 C to 82C).
When temperatures fall below 40F (4.4C), precautions
should be taken to prevent cracking and disbonding during
field installation. Enamels are affected by ultraviolet rays
and should be protected by kraft paper or whitewash.
Enamels also are affected by hydrocarbons. A barrier coat
5. Geographical and Physical Location

Pipe source and coating plant location often
determine the coating or are a cost factor in selection. Severe environments, such as river crossings, pipe inside casings, exceptionally corrosive
soils, high soil stress areas and rocky conditions
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

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The blast cleaned surface is primed (Figure 2), and

when dry, coating and wrapping is performed by the hot
application of a bituminous coating. The coating is
pumped from the coating machine through a spreader,
from which the coating flows in a flood coat onto the pipe
surface. Be sure that the coating material is melted properly and brought to application temperature gradually. This
is done in an agitated kettle.
Agitation maintains uniform heat and prevents
mineral fillers (25 to 35 percent) from settling out. Settling
fillers may develop hot spots, or carbon spots, on the kettle bottom. These small carbon spots break down and get
into the coating and eventually cause jeeps or holidays in
the line. Carbon spots are cathodic to the metal and cause
pits. Thus, the melting operation and mechanical agitators
are of extreme importance.z
FIGURE 2
A 30-inch pipe, shot blast-cleaned, with the primer being sprayed
on.
FIGURE 3
Pipe going through the coating machine with a rabbit to keep
the enamel off the bevels. The rabbit travels through the
machine at the same speed as the pipe.
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
is recommended when contamination exists. This coating

is available on all sizes of pipe. Recently, enamel use has
declined for the following reasons:9~1a
Reduced suppliers
OSHA, EPA, and FDA environmental and health
standards
Increased acceptance of plastic coating
Utilization of raw materials as a fuel.
Pipe should be bare and free of mill coatings for the
best surface preparation. Prior to blast cleaning, the pipe
is heated to drive off surface moisture and loosen mill
scale. Blast cleaning uses sand, steel shot, or grit or a
combination for the desired profile and cleaned surface.
Blasting operations remove all rust, scale and other impurities from the surface, exposing base metal over all,
which presents a grayish matte appearance between Steel
Structures Painting Council Standard SSPC-SP 6 and
SSPC-SP 10. This is equivalent to NACE Standard TM-01,
Visual Standards, between NACE No. 3 and NACE No. 2
(Figure 1).
FIGURE 4
A pipe being holiday-detected.
Asbestos felt has generally been used as the outer

wrap, but with restrictions on asbestos as a carcinogen, it
is being replaced by an asbestos free glass wrapper. The
glass wrap must be properly encapsulated with enamel to
prevent a wicking action of moisture from the environment
to the steel.
Mill wrapping with various specifications of
bituminous coating materials is applied to a nominal 3/2
(.24 cm) thickness, followed by the glass or asbestos felt or
combination. Multiple enamel coatings are often applied
to build up thickness where greater protection is required
(Figure 3). An electrical inspection of completed coatings
is made in accordance with procedures established by
NACE Standard RP-02, Recommended Practice for High
Voltage Electrical inspection of Pipeline Coatings (Figure
4). For a more detailed treatment of this subject, the ANSI/
AWWA C203 American National Standard for Coal-Tar Protective Coatings is recommended (Figures 5 and 6).
B. ASPHALT MASTIC
Asphalt-Mastic pipe coating is a dense mixture of
sand, crushed limestone, and fiber bound with a select, air-
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--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
blast cleaning, the pipe is heated to drive off surface

moisture and loosen mill scale. A combination of shot and
grit removes all rust, scale and other impurities, exposing
base metal, which presents a grayish matte appearance
between Steel Structures Painting Council Standard
SSPC-SP 6 and SSPC-SP 10 (NACE 2 - NACE 3). Pipe is
then spray coated with an asphalt primer prior to extrusion
of the hot mastic mix to the circumference of the pipe. The
extrusion forms a seamless coating bonded to the pipe.
Whitewash is applied to reflect the sun's rays and to
facilitate stockpiling (Figure 7). An electrical inspection of
the completed coating should be made in accordance with
the procedures established by NACE Standard RP-02,
Recommended Practice for "High Voltage Electrical Inspection of Pipeline Coatings". Holidays are patched and
retested. Patching is relatively easy because the mastic is
thermoplastic and can be heated and worked with a trowel
to reseal.
FIGURE 5
Thermal oxidizer for air pollution.
blown asphalt. These materials are proportioned to secure

maximum density of approximately 132 pounds per cubic
foot. This mastic material is available with various types of
asphalt. Selection is based on operating temperature and
climatic conditions to obtain maximum flexibility and
operating characteristics. This coating is a thick, Y2 " t o X "
(1.27 cm to 1.6 cm), extruded mastic resulting in a
seamless corrosion coating. Extruded asphalt mastic pipe
coating has been in use for over fifty years. It is the
thickest of the corrosion coatings and is cost effective for
offshore installations. Its ability to dissipate heat while
providing a relatively holiday-free coating has made it the
most used pipe coating for pipe-type cable installation^.^^
Asphalt mastic systems may be designed for installation and use within an operating temperature range of
40F to 190F (4.4"C to 88C). Precautions should be
taken when handling in freezing temperatures. Whitewash
protects i t from ultraviolet rays, and this should be maintained when in storage. This system is not for
aboveground or in hydrocarbon-contaminated soils. This
coating is available on 4% " t o 48"0.D. (11.4 cm to 122 cm)
pipe.
The application p r ~ c e d u r e 'is
~ as follows. Prior to
FIGURE 7
Pipe exiting from extrusion process, forming a seamless coating.
Whitewash is applied to reflect sun and facilitate stockpiling.
Courtesy: Bredero Price Co.
C. EXTRUDED PLASTICS
AND POLYPROPYLENE
Extruded plastic coatings have been available since

1956. Their growth and acceptance have been remarkable.
Initial problems of stress cracking and shrinkage have
been minimized by better quality and grade of high
molecular weight polyethylene resins.
There are two systems available in the United States.
One is an extruded polyethylene sleeve, shrunk over a
10-mil asphalt mastic. The other is a dual extrusion where
a butyl adhesive is extruded onto the blast-cleaned pipe
followed by multiple fused layers of polyethylene (Figure
8). The latter utilizes multiple extruders in a proprietary
method, which obtains maximum bond with minimum
stress.
" through 24" O.D.
The sleeve type is available on
(1.3 cm through 61 cm) pipe, while the dual extrusion is
presently available on 2 % " through 103" (6.35 cm through
262 cm) pipe. The operating temperature range for
polyethylene systems is from -40F to 180F (-40C to
82"C), and for polypropylene it is - 5 F to 190F (-21 "C
to 88C). Polyethylene systems have been successfully
FIGURE 6
Pipe in storage at plant.

- POLYETHYLENE
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D. FUSION-BONDED THERMOSETTING
POWDER RESINS
FIGURE 8
Dual side extrusion, butyl adhesive followed by polyethylene.
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
field bent (1.9 per pipe diameter length) at -40F

( - 40C). Swelling may occur in hydrocarbon environments. Polyethylene has excellent dielectric strength.
With proper selection of polyethylene resins and addition
of 2 % % carbon black, a dual extrusion system has
withstood long-term above-ground storage and aboveground use. An electrical inspection in accordance with
NACE Standard RP-02 is recommended practice for High
Voltage Electrical Inspection of Pipeline Coatings.
Application methods follow: Both methods preheat
bare pipe prior to grit blast cleaning to a commercial
(SSPC-SP6) blast clean. With the sleeve type coating, the
adhesive undercoating is applied by flood-coating the hot
material over the pipe before it passes through an adjustable wiper ring that controls thickness. After mastic is
applied, the pipe passes through the center of the
crosshead die where plastic is extruded in a cone shape
around the pipe. Immediately the plastic is water
quenched to shrink it around the undercoating and pipe.
Following electrical inspection, pipe ends are trimmed for
cut back, and the coated pipe is stockpiled.
In the dual extrusion system, the cleaned pipe is
rotated at a calibrated rate. The first of two extruders applies a film of butyl adhesive of predetermined width and
thickness, fusing the film to the rotating pipe in two layers.
While the butyl is still molten, high molecular weight
polyethylene is applied from the second extruder in multiple layers of a predetermined thickness, producing a
bonded coating 50 to 100 mils thick. Water quenching,
electrical inspection, and cut back is completed prior to
stockpi Ii ng.
Polyethylene systems have been in use in Europe for
approximately fifteen years with both crosshead and side
extrusion methods. In addition t o the butyl adhesive or
asphalt mastic adhesive, some systems use polyethylene
copolymer adhesive. This system requires high temperature (200C - 390F) heating for application of the
a d h e ~ i v e ~For
.
more detail on extruded plastic pipe
coating systems, read Extruded Plastic Pipeline
Coat ings16.

Fusion bonded powder pipe coatings were introduced

in 1959 and have been commercially available since 1961.
These coatings are applied to preheated pipe surfaces
400F to 500F (204C to 26OOC) with or without primers.
On some resins post-curing is required. This coating is applied in a 12 to 25 mil thickness. The fusion-bonded powder
coatings have good mechanical and physical properties
and may be used above or below ground. On above-ground
installations, to eliminate chalking and to maximize service life, topcoat with a urethane paint system. Of all the
pipe coating systems, the fusion-bonded thermosetting
resin systems are the most resistant to hydrocarbons,
acids, and alkalies.
Perhaps the main advantage of fusion-bonded powder
pipe coatings is that because they cannot cover up apparent steel defects due to their lack of thickness, they
permit excellent inspection of the steel surface before and
after coating. The number of holidays that occur is a function of the surface condition and thickness of the coating.
A steel surface profile study by John D. Keane, Dr. Joseph
A Bruno, Jr. and Raymond E. F. Weaver17of the Steel Structures Painting Council found the existence of abrasiveformed hackles of steel that protrude up to 6 mils from
the surface. In SSPC three-dimensional photos, the hackle
stands out in stark relief against its surroundings, but is
barely visible in two dimensions.
Increasing the thickness of the applied coating by fusion bonding should minimize this problem. These
coatings are available in -43 (1.9cm-122cm) O. D. pipe.
Thermal-bonded powder resins require great care to
apply them properly. Prior to cleaning, pipe is heated to
remove moisture and loosen mill scale. It is necessary to
clean the surface to a near-white metal finish as defined in
SSPC-SP 10 (NACE NO. 2).
The pipe is heated uniformly to the recommended application temperature (400OF-500OF1204 OC-260C). Each
material has its own requirements and tolerance level that
must be strictly adhered to. If primer is required, there are
minimum-maximum overcoat times. Powdered resin is applied by electrostatic deposition to a 12-25 mil thickness
(Figure 9).
Certain resins require post-heat treatment for proper
cure. Inspection by a minimum of 100 volts per mil of
thickness is recommended. Pipe requiring limited repair
(to be agreed to between customer and applicator, perhaps
one holiday per ten square feet) due to hackles, coating imperfections and other minor defects is repaired by a heat
bondable polymeric hot melt patch stick. A 100% solids
liquid epoxy repair material is recommended within 12 of
each end of pipe. Manufacturers recommendations for
field application of patching materials should be followed.
For more detail on Fusion Bonded Thermosetting
Powder Resins, read ANSIIAWWA Standard C215.
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sisting of primer, corrosion preventive tape (inner layer),

and a mechanical protective tape (outer layer). This system
is available on 2 through 120 O.D. pipe and is recommended for temperatures up to 140F (60C). This
temperature is a limitation imposed by AWWA, but there
are tape systems presently available for temperatures up
to 200F (93C).
The primers function is to provide a bonding medium
between the pipe surface and the adhesive or sealant on
the inner layer. The inner layer tape consists of a plastic
backing and adhesive. This layer protects against corrosion, so it has to provide a high electrical resistivity and
low moisture absorption and permeability, along with an
effective bond to the primed steel. It is always a minimum
thickness of 15 mils, with the total system a minimum of
40 mils. The outer layer tape consists of a plastic film and
an adhesive of the same types of materials used in the inner tape, or materials that are compatible with the inner
layer tape. The purpose of the outer layer tape is to provide
mechanical protection to the inner layer tape, and also to
be resistant to the elements during outdoor storage. The
outer layer tape is always a minimum of 25 mils. Pipe
diameter, wall thickness, and construction conditions
determine thickness of the system.
Cold-applied, multi-layer tape systems are designed
for plant coating operations and result in a uniform,
reproducible, holiday-free coating over the entire length of
any size pipe. The multiple layer system allows the coating
thickness to be custom-designed to meet specific environmental conditions. These systems have been
engineered to withstand normal handling, outdoor
weathering, storage, and shipping.
Bare pipe is heated prior to blast cleaning to remove
moisture and loosen mill scale. Abrasive blast cleaning is
used to obtain a NACE No. 3, Steel Structures Painting
Council Specification SSPC-SP 6, commercial blast finish.
A quick-drying primer is applied to the blast cleaned pipe
surface at a coverage rate of approximately one gallon per
eight squares of tape applied. The inner-wrap tape is applied over dry primer with proper mechanical equipment
that applies the inner layer to the pipe under tension (10
Ibs. per inch of width minimum), resulting in a tight,
wrinkle-free coating. The spiral overlap should be approximately one inch. The outer-wrap tape is simultaneously
applied under tension (12-14 Ibs. per inch of width
minimum) to obtain a tight, wrinklefree coating. The laps
of the inner and outer wraps should not be on top of each
other, but should be staggered. Holiday detection should
follow with a minimum of 6,000 volts, conforming to NACE
Standard RP-02-74.All holidays should be repaired. Coated
pipe should be handled carefully to protect pipe and
coating from damage. The weld seam of longseam welded
pipe should not contact the adjacent pipe in pyramid
stacking, and spiral welded pipe should be separated by
stripping.
Polyvinyl, polyethylene, and coal tar tapes are widely
used for joint coating protection or for odd shapes or
FIGURE 9
Powdered epoxy resins, post-heating pipe following electrostatic
deposition.
E. LIQUID EPOXY AND PHENOLICS

There are many liquid systems available that cure by
heat andlor chemical reaction; some are solvent types and
others are 100% solids. Their use is mostly in larger
diameter pipes where conventional systems may not be
available or where they may offer better resistance to
operating temperatures in the 200F (93C) range.
Generally, epoxies have an amine or a polyamide curing agent and require a near-white blast cleaned surface
SSPC-SP 10 (NACE 2). Coal tar epoxies have coal tar pitch
added to the epoxy resin. A coal tar epoxy cured with a low
molecular weight amine is especially resistant to an
alkaline environment such as occurs on a cathodically protected structure. Some coal tar epoxies become brittle
when exposed to sunlight.18
For a mill-applied system the pipe is placed on
rotating rollers mounted on a tracked dolly that
automatically feeds the pipe into a grit blasting machine.
It is cleaned inside and out. Then it is transferred into a
spray booth where the interior and exterior can be
simultaneously coated with two separate spray coats to
provide a dry film thickness of 12 mils, after which the
coated pipe is subjected to hot air blowers for proper curing prior to inspection at 100 volts per mill9.
F. MILL APPLIED TAPE COATING SYSTEMS

Tape systems have been in use for over 30 years on
pipelines. AWWA C209 Standard covers the manual application of cold-applied tape coatings for special sections, connections and fittings. The Steel Water Pipe
Manufacturer Technical Advisory Committee Task Group
#10 has a standard in the final draft form that covers the
plant application of prefabricated cold-applied tape
coatings.
For normal construction conditions, prefabricated
cold-applied tapes are applied as a threelayer system con-
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

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bends on mill-applied applications. The trend is to heavier

butyl-mastic type adhesives for better adhesion and
elimination of water migration at the overlap. When tapes
are applied at a coating plant, padding, or rockshield must
be provided to minimize shipping damage. Over the trench,
field-applied tapes may be applied with tape wrapping
machines. Coatings applied over the ditch are less susceptible to physical damage because of reduced handling, but
they can be more affected by variations in ambient
temperatures and h ~ m i d i t y ' ~Together
.
with inadequate
surface preparation, these are the main disadvantages of a
field-applied coating system. The important developments
in plastic tapes have been an increase in their thickness,
use of stronger resins, and improved adhesion by the use
of new types of adhesives and primers.21Mill-applied tapes
capable of service temperatures to 210F (99C) are
available.
G. WAX COATINGS
Wax coatings, in use for 48 years, are still used on a
limited basis. Microcrystalline wax coatings are usually
used with a plastic overwrap. Wax waterproofs the pipe
and the wrapper protects the wax coating from contact
with the soil and affords some mechanical protection. The
most popular use of wax coating is the over-the-ditch application with a combination machine that cleans, coats,
wraps, and lowers into the ditch in one operation. Because
there are no objectionable or toxic fumes or smoke present, this system is more acceptable than some others.
reference on concrete coatings.

Today, concrete as corrosion coating is limited to internal lining. The external application is applied over a corrosion coating for armor protection and negative bouyancy
in marine environments. A continuous reinforced concrete
coating has proved to be the most effectively controlled
method.
Materials including water, sand, andlor heavy aggregate and cement are mixed in the application plant. The
materials are conveyed by belt to the throwing heads
where controlled-speed beltlbrushes throw the mixture onto the coated pipe surface. The rotating pipe is moved past
the throwing heads to receive the specified thickness of
concrete. Simultaneously, the galvanized wire reinforcement is applied with an overlap (Figure 10). To increase
tensile strength and to improve impact resistance, additional layers of wire or steel fibers may be specified24.
Welded wire cages are another alternate method of reinforcement. Other application methods include forming or
molding of concrete in place or applying it to the pipe by
means of a plastic film.
IV. AP PLI CATI0 N SPECI FICATI ON S

Because of the multiplicity and complexity of coating
systems, the user should refer to manufacturers' recommendations and applicable specifications from the National Association of Pipe Coating Applicators, American
Water Works Association, Department of the Navy25.26,
and
H. POLYURETHANE FOAM INSULATION

Efficient pipeline insulation has become increasingly
important as a means of operating hot and cold service
pipelines. This is a system controlling heat transfer in
above ground, below ground, and marine pipelines. While
generally used with a corrosion coating, if the proper
moisture vapor barrier is used over the urethane foam, effective corrosion protection is obtained. This is a plantapplied process where the carrier pipe is centered within
the outer jacket, which contains and molds the foam as
well as provides effective moisture vapor barrier. Metered
quantities of foam components are rapidly introduced between the carrier pipe and the outer jacket. The foam is restrained by end caps and rises on a first-in basis forming a
uniform composite unit. When properly jacketed, usually
with polyethylene or coated steel, the system is moisture
and corrosion-resistant, sufficiently strong to resist
crushing, and flexible enough to permit allowable field
bending22.
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
I. CONCRETE
Mortar lining and coating has the longest history of
protecting steel or wrought iron from corrosion23.When
steel is encased in concrete, a protective iron oxide film
forms. As long as the alkalinity is maintained and the concrete is impermeable to chlorides and oxygen, corrosion
protection is obtained. See AWWA C205 for a detailed

FIGURE 10
Application of continuous reinforced concrete pipe coating for
negative bouyancy and armor protection.
356
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B. INSPECTION PROCEDURES
the National Association of Corrosion Engineers.

The National Association of Corrosion Engineers
Standard RP-02-75,Application of Organic Coatings to the
External Surface of Steel Pipe for Underground Service, is
a comprehensive standard prepared to assist users of all
types of organic coatings in obtaining a satisfactory application of the selected coating system and is an excellent guideline in preparing a specification. This Recommended Practice, issued by NACE Group Committee T-10
on Underground Corrosion Control, was prepared by Task
Group T-10D-8 of Unit Committee T-1OD on Protective
Coating Systems. This Recommended Practice is included,
in Appendix A as a general guideline to be used along with
sources listed previously.
Once the coating system and applicator are selected,

an important part of a quality installation is good inspection. Inspection should begin with stockpile of bare pipe
through coating operations, load out, coated pipe
stockpile, field inspection, joint coating procedure and
back fill of coated pipe. Knowledge of the coating system,
plant facilities, quality control methods, shipping requirements, handling, joint coating, field conditions, field
holiday detection and repair are requirements for proper
installation(z8).Experience and common sense in interpretation of specifications and analysis of test results will
contribute to obtaining the best possible coating results.
A. SELECTION OF APPLICATOR
C. COATINGS EVALUATION
A major cause of pipeline coating failure is improper

application. A quality material poorly applied is of little
value and the quality of a pipe coating is only as good as
the quality of application. To assist in the evaluation of an
applicator, the following points should be consideredz7:
The best criterion for coating selection is twenty

years without failure in ground. This method may be most
expedient and least expensive if records show that the
coatings performance has been satisfactory. However,
because of increased demands on coatings performance
and availability of new materials, alternate methods of
coating evaluation are necessary. The American Society of
Testing and Materials (ASTM), National Association of
Corrosion Engineers (NACE), and the American Water
Works Association (AWWA) have developed standard tests
for this purpose. Eleven standard test methods are now
available from ASTM, which were developed in conjunction
with the American Gas Association. A summary of these
test procedures follow^(^^):
i. Experience
Research and trial and error have gone into the
development of every coating, with close cooperation between applicator, coating manufacturer,
equipment manufacturer and customer. The transition from laboratory to production line is usually
a costly experience, which should not be ignored.
2. Reputation
This is an asset earned by consistent performance. Not only good quality work but also solving
problems and correcting mistakes help to develop
a reputation.
3. Reliability
There are many variables in the application of
coatings. A reliable work force, well maintained
equipment and consistent quality performance
are prerequisites for an applicator.
4. Conformance t o Coating Manufacturers
Specifications
The manu fact urers establis hed min i mum
specifications for application of materials should
be met.
5. Modern Automated Equipment
Capital expenditure on automated application
equipment is an important part of the success of
plastic coatings. Elimination of human errors
through automation and controls continues to be
an important factor in improved pipe coatings.
6. Quality Control
Conformance to specifications has to be checked
regularly. Knowledge of applicators quality control procedures on materials, application, and
finished product is essential in the selection of an
applicator.
i.Physical and Mechanical Tests
a. Abrasion Resistance of Pipeline Coatings,

ASTM G 6 - An accelerated test that subjects
coated pipe samples to a controlled rate of abrasion using a slurry of coarse aluminum oxide in
water. The specimens are revolved in the abrasive
medium until failure occurs. The failure point is
detected by an electrical monitoring circuit.
b. Bendability of Pipeline Coatings, ASTM G 10 A method to determine the effect of short-radius
bends on small-diameter, coated pipe. A bending
mandrel forms the pipe until the point of crazing,
cracking, or other mechanical coating failure is
reached.
c. impact Resistance of Pipeline Coatings (Limestone Drop Test), ASTM G 13 - A method for estimating the effect of falling stones on a coating
surface. After a pattern of systematic exposure to
a charge of classified limestone aggregate, the
coating specimen is electrically inspected for pinhole coating breaks.
d. Impact Resistance of Pipeline Coatings (Falling
Weight Test), ASTM G 14 - A method providing a
systematic means for measuring controlled impact damage on a coating surface. A statistical
calculation is used to compute the mean impact
strength at the point of coating failure.
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

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D. SUMMARY
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
e. Penetration Resistance of Pipeline Coatings,

ASTM G 17 - A static loading test to determine
the deformation-underload characteristics of pipe
coatings. The test simulates concentrated point
loading encountered in pipe stacking or in the inclusion of rocks and debris in trench backfill.
2. Electrical and Electrochemical lests
a. Cathodic Disbonding of Pipeline Coatings,
ASTM G 8 - An accelerated test for measuring
the rate of coating damage and adhesion loss
caused by the application of cathodic protection
to holidays in coated pipe, useful for the initial
screening of new materails. The method provides
for both the visual and electrical monitoring of
holiday propagation.
b. Water Penetration into Pipeline Coatings,
ASTM G 9 - A method for measuring the rate and
approximate depth of water absorption by a
coating. The test uses differential capacitance
and power factor measurements to monitor the
degradation of coatings dielectric properties.
c. Test for Joints, Fittings and Patches i n Coated
Pipelines, ASTM G 18 - An adaptation of the
Water Penetration Test, ASTM G 9 to evaluate
patch and joint performance. Capacitance and
power factor measurements monitor water absorption into the patched areas.
d. Disbonding Characteristics of Pipeline
Coatings by Direct Soil Burial, ASTM G 19 - A
field version of ASTM G 8, using soil as the electrolyte. Disbonding is measured over an 18-month
test period. Results are more representative of
operating conditions but subject to greater
variability among specimens.
3. Chemical and Atmospheric Tests
a. Effects of Outdoor Weathering on Pipeline
Coatings, ASTM G 17 - A standard procedure for
exposing coated pipe samples to local atmospheric conditions. The controlled exposure
period permits subsequent evaluation for ultraviolet deterioration, disbondment, loss of impact resistance, or other pertinent
characteristics.
b. Chemical Resistance of Pipeline Coatings,
ASTM G 20 - Provides a standard method for
evaluating the deterioration of coating properties
after exposure to chemical liquids and their
vapors. The method includes a check of dimensional stability and coating bond loss at intentional holidays. The success of any test program
is contingent on many variables, one of which is
the objectivity of test personnel. Selection of production samples, adequate sampling and uniformity of test procedures and interpretation makes
data comparisons more meaningful.

0003805 3 L b
It is not easy to select the best coating system to fit

any given environment or soil condition. Knowledge of
operating and installation conditions is the beginning of
the process. Steel source and job location may limit the
coatings available to each project. Selection of a quality
applicator is the most important consideration and frequently is the most neglected. Following coating and applicator selection, inspection at the coating mill and
especially on the job site during construction will go far in
assuring that a high quality pipe coating system has been
installed.
APPENDIX A:
NACE RP-02-75 Application of Organic Coatings to the
External Surface of Steel Pipe for Underground Service
(Reprinted with permission)
Section 1: General
1.1 The scope and purpose of this Recommended Practice are t o set minimum acceptable requirements
for the application of organic coating materials to
pipelines for underground service.
1.2 The purpose of the coating is to prevent corrosion
of steel pipe by isolation from the surrounding environment.
1.3 This Standard describes the practices common to
the application of pipe coatings, care and handling
of materials, surface preparation, field joints, inspection for defects, repair of coating defects, and
the handling of coated pipe prior t o and during installation.
1.4 Plant application and field application are considered separately, when necessary, to account for
the capabilities of available plant and field equipment.
1.5 The selection of specific coating materials is left to
the users discretion and is therefore not considered.
1.6 Detailed instructions for applying a specific coating
are not included since these are furnished by
material suppliers.
1.7 Good technical judgment should determine the
degree to which the minimum requirements should
be exceeded in compensating for unusually severe
environments, such as river crossings, rocky or exceptionally corrosive soils, and pipe inside casings.
Section 2: Cafe and Handling of Materials
2.1 All pipe coating materials must be kept free from
contamination or damage prior to and during application. Material with limited storage life should
be examined for deterioration prior to use and
discarded or exchanged for fresh material if the
specified life is exceeded.
358
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C H A P T E R * L b * L 93
8627940 0003806 252 D
2.2 All cartons or containers should be plainly and permanently marked with the name of the manufacturer, product identification, and batch or lot
numbers.
2.3 Primers
2.3.1
Primers are to be stored in tightly sealed
containers and only that portion required
for immediate use shall be drawn from containers.
2.3.2
Storage must be at temperatures within
manufacturers recommended range, and
exposure to extreme temperatures should
be avoided.
2.3.3
Primers are likely to be volatile and flammable and must be kept away from open
flame or other sources of ignition.
Primers must be mixed thoroughly prior to
2.3.4
use and agitated during use, if required, to
prevent settling.
2.4 Hot Applied Enamels, Mastics and Waxes
2.4.1
Materials must be stored unopened in the
original containers within temperature
ranges specified by the manufacturer.
2.4.2
Hot-applied materials must be heated
within the manufacturers recommended
temperature range to assure proper application. When required, the heating and
agitation of hot-applied materials must be
properly controlled to prevent settling of
fillers, decomposition, excessive loss of
light ends, and foaming.
2.4.3
Melting pots that have been used for other
materials must be drained and cleaned
before use.
2.4.4
Melt and transport hot-applied materials in
a manner to prevent contamination by
foreign materials.
2.5 Cold-Applied Mastics, Waxes, and Greases.
2.5.1
Materials must be stored in the original
containers. Those containing volatile
solvents must be stored in sealed containers at a temperature within the range
recommended by the manufacturer.
2.5.2
Materials containing volatile and flammable solvents must be kept away from
open flame or other sources or ignition.
2.6 Tapes and Wrappers
2.6.1
In this category are pre-formed tapes including heat applied, cold-primer applied,
pressure sensitive tapes, and overwrapping
or supporting materials, such as felt,
fiberglass, and paper.
2.6.2
Tapes and wrappers should be stored as
directed on the cartons, in a dry place, and
should remain under cover until ready for
use.
2.6.3
Tapes and wrappers should not be handled
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
with hooks or be thrown from trucks.

Materiais showing evidences of damage or
deterioration must not be used.
2.6.4
Prolonged exposure of tape to sunlight
must be avoided.
2.7 Thin-Film Coatings
In this category are fusion-bonded powder
2.7.1
coatings - either thermoset or thermoplastic, and liquid coatings, usually
thermoset (with or without solvent) and
catalyzed coatings, such as the coal tar
epoxies.
2.7.2
original cartons or containers in adry place
at temperatures within the range specified
by the manufacturer, and should remain
under cover until ready for use.
2.7.3
Materials containing volatile and flammable solvents must be stored in a
selected area away from sources of ignition and identified as flammable. Only that
portion required for immediate use should
be drawn from containers, which should
then be resealed.
Powdered coatings must be handled so as
2.7.4
to exclude the introduction of foreign
materials, solvents, or excessive moisture.
2.8 Plastic Sleeves
In this category are heat-shrinkable field2.8.1
applied joint materials and mill-applied extruded sleeves which may or may not be extruded over mastic materials.
2.8.2
original cartons or containers in a dry
place.

Section 3:
Surface Preparation
3.1 Surface Condition and Storage

3.1.1
Pipe must be purchased with instructions
to omit all types of oil, lacquers, or varnish.
3.1.2
Identifying markings must be made with a
material either removable or compatible
with the coating to be used.
3.1.3
Primer applied at the pipe mill must be
compatible with the final protective
coat i ng.
3.1.4
When pipe is temporarily protected in
storage, a material compatible with the
final coating must be used.
3.2 Over-the-Ditch
3.2.1
Prior to cleaning, foreign materials, weld
slag and burrs, excessively high weld buttons, oil, grease, and moisture must be
removed from the pipe.
3.2.2
The pipe must be machine or blast cleaned
prior to coating application.
359
Not for Resale
The cleaning machine must be properly

centered on the pipe to insure uniform rotation of the cleaning head. Allcleaning tools
must be properly tensioned against the
pipe.
3.2.4
Machine crawlers or cleaning tools that
will burr or scar the pipe must not be used.
3.2.5
Rust, mill scale, and dirt must be removed
from the pipe.
3.2.6
When primers are used that must dry
before coating is applied, all moisture,
dust, and dirt must be removed from the
primed pipe before coating.
Cradles for the coating machine must be of
3.2.7
a type that will not make track marks or
remove the primer.
3.3 Coating in the Plant
3.3.1
Unless otherwise recommended by the
coating material manufacturer, as a
minimum, the pipe must be grit or shot
blast cleaned to SSPC-SP 6, NACE No. 3
Test Method entitled Visual Standard for
Surfaces of New Steel Centrifugally Blast
Cleaned with Steel Grit and Shot (Commercial Blast Cleaned Surface Finish).
3.3.2
Pipe must be dry and free of oil, grease,
and blasting grit or shot.
3.3.3
If used, the primer must be applied to
freshly cleaned surfaces within five
minutes after cleaning.
For surface preparation of field joints and
3.3.4
repair of coating defects, see Sections 4
and 5.
3.2.3
4.3.2
4.3.3
4.3.4
Section 5: Repair of Coating Defects
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
5.1 After the coating has been applied, inspection

should follow. Any defects discovered should be
repaired.
5.2 Procedure
A sufficient portion of the coating must be
5.2.1
carefully removed from defective areas of
pipe to ensure that the remaining coating
is satisfactory and well bonded. Edges of
the area should be tapered to increase the
strength of the patch.
Foreign matter must be removed from the
5.2.2
area to be repaired.
Primer applied to the area, if required, must
5.2.3
be allowed to dry properly before the
coating is applied.
5.2.4
The coating material used for patching
must be such that proper adhesion will occur between the existing coating material
and the patching material.
Section 4: Field Joints

4.1 Coated pipe sections connected by welding andlor
mechanical coupling by means of valves or other
underground appurtenances will be considered
field joints. Coating of field joints must be equal to
or better than the coating on the pipeline.
4.2 Surface Preparation
4.2.1
In removing coatings to make tie-ins, care
must be taken to avoid the disbonding of
the adjacent coating. Edges of thick film
coatings must be tapered and enough of
the wrapper removed to ensure adhesion of
the new coating to the existing coating.
Surfaces to be coated must be thoroughly
4.2.2
cleaned with solvents to remove all oil and
grease. All dust, dirt, rust, mill scale, loose
shop coating, dead primer, welding slag,
slivers, and burrs must be removed with
wire brushes or scrapers. Nicking the bare
pipe surface must not be permitied.
4.3 Materials
Where materials requiring primer are used,
4.3.1
the primer may be hand applied in a
uniform coat. Curing or drying time must be

i n accordance with manufacturers
specifications.
Coating materials for field joints must be
equal in quality to, and compatible with,
coating on the pipeline.
Coating materials must be applied
substantially free of voids, wrinkles, and air
or gas entrapment. This may require the
use of materials that will conform to the
shape of irregular appurtenances, such as
valves.
A new coating must overlap and adhere to
existing material. The overlap must be sufficient to allow for shrinkage of both new
and existing coatings.
Section 6: Handling Coated Pipe

6.1 Coated pipe should be handled in a manner to
minimize damage.
6.2 Handling equipment
Equipment which is injurious to the coating
6.2.1
must not be used.
Belt slings must be sufficiently wide and
6.2.2
free of protruding rivets or bolts to prevent
damage to the coating.
6.2.3
Skids and racks must be of sufficient
width, or must be padded, to prevent the
edges from cutting the coating and should
be arranged to permit the coated pipe to
bear on the full width of the skid.
6.3 Storage and Shipping
Coated pipe that is t a be stacked should be
6.3.1
nested so that adjacent pipe lengths
bear equally against each other throughout
their coated lengths, or should be suffi-
360
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SSPC C H A P T E R x L b . 1 93 W 8 6 2 7 9 4 0 0003808 025 W
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
chapter: Leonard Choate, S.C. Frye, W. Kemp, Donald King, Dr.
Howard Lasser, Henry R. Stoner, Rupe Strobel and William J.
Wallace, Jr.
BIOGRAPHY
Richard N. Sloan, a graduate of Drexel University Evening College with a B.S. degree
in Industrial Administration, is
Vice President - Marketing ot
Ameron Price, Fontana, California. He is an active member
of NACE and AWWA Societies.
Sloan has been employed by
H.C. Price Company for twentyeight years after starting as a
Clerk in 1952. He has held positions as Office Manager, Sales;
Sales Manager; Assistant Regional Manager; and Regional Manager at their Pennsylvania pipe
coating plant prior to transfer t o Bartlesville, Oklahoma, as
Marketing Manager.

361
BIOGRAPHY
A W Peabody worked as a
Consulting Engineer in Corrosion
Control Until 1980, he was the
Director of Corrosion Engineering
for EBASCO Services, Inc in New
York and Houston, where he was
involved with assignments related
to electric utilities, underground
pipelines, industrial plants, and
marine facilities For EBASCO he
also served as Supervising Corrosion Engineer and Principal Corrosion Engineer He was a ;
!
member of the State DeDartment
Cultural Exchange Delegation on Corrosion to the Soviet Union in 1962
and recipient of the Frank Newman Speller Award in Corrosion Engineering by the National Association of Corrosion Engineers in 1979. He was
recipient of the Col. G. C. Cox Outstanding Award in 1979. He has published numerous articles on corrosion, and a book on pipeline corrosion
control.
Mr. Peabody graduated from the University of Maine in Electrical
Engineering, and did graduate study at Brooklyn Polytechnic Institute. He is a registered professional engineer, and a Life Member of the National Association of Corrosion Engineers (NACE), and of
the Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers. He was elected a
fellow of NACE in 1993.
REFERENCES
1. Norman Peifer and Frank Costanzo, Protection of Pipelines
and Other Underground Structures. Steel Structures Painting Manual, Vol. 1, Chapter 3, pps. 323-349, 1954.
2. Industrial Writing, Inc., Coal Tar Enamel Leads in Pipeline
Coatings. Pipeline Digest, p. 9, March 16, 1981.
3. A.W. Peabody, Coatings. Control of Pipeline Corrosion,
Chapter 3, pps. 9-18, 1954.
4. National Association of Corrosion Engineers Standard,
NACB RP-01-69, Recommended practice - Control of External Corrosion on Underground or Submerged Metallic
Piping Systems. Sections 5.1.2.1 and 5.1.2.2, p. 5, 1969.
5. S. Boysen, Jr., Coating Fundamentals. NACE 19th Annual
Appalachian Underground Corrosion Short Course, May 1974.
6. NACE RP-01, p. 5, 1969.
7. Jack T. Kiuchi, Plastics for the Protection of Underground
Pipe. Purdue University 6th Annual Underground Corrosion
Course, March 1, 1967.
8. O.W. Wade, and J.F. Gosse, A Study of Test Methods for External Coatings for Underground Pipelines. American Gas
Association Distribution Conference, 1966.
9. Dean M. Berger, Selecting Coatings for Underground Steel
Pipe. Plant Engineering, p. 105, September 30, 1976.
10. R.W. Horner, Extruded Plastics. NACE 18th Annual Appalachian Underground Corrosion Short Course, May, 1973.
11. Kiuchi, Plastics for the Protection of Underground Pipe.
12. K. Channing Verbech, Protective Coatings. New England
Gas Association, June 19, 1969.
13. R.N. Sloan, Present Trends in Coatings to Protect Pipe Type
Cable in the Utilities Industry. Materiais Performance, 18,
NO. 7. PPS. 27-30, July, 1979.
14. R.N. Sloan, Asphalt Mastic Coatings. NACE 15th Annual
Appalachian Underground Corrosion Short Course, 1970.
15. N. Schmitz-Pranghe, Mannesmanns Approach to Extruded
PE Mill Coating. Pipe Line Industry, p. 40, March, 1976.
16. R.N. Sloan, Extruded Plastic Pipeline Coatings. NACE
Southeast Regional Engineering Conference, October 21-24,
1979.
Weaver, Surface Profile for Anti-Corrosion Paints. Steel
Structures Painting Council Report, 165 pps., October 25,
1976.
18. Richard W. Drisko, Introduction to Protective Coatings.
Western States Corrosion Seminar, California State
Polytechnic University, Session No. 6, Paper No. 7, May 6-7-8,
1980.
Not for Resale
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
ciently padded. Excessively. high

stackingof coated pipe must be avoided.
6.3.2
Devices used to secure pipe during shipping must not cause damage to the
coating, pipe, or pipe bevels.
6.4 Installation
Pipe which is not placed in the ditch im6.4.1
mediately after coating should be supported on skids sufficiently wide andlor
adequately padded to prevent damage of
the coating.
6.4.2
Foreign objects which could damage the
coating must be removed from the bottom
of the ditch before the pipe is lowered into
position. When rocks or other items cannot
be removed, sufficient padding must be
used to prevent coating damage.
6.4.3
When the coated pipe is lowered in the
ditch, care must be exercised to prevent
the pipe from swinging against or rubbing
on the sides of the ditch. If coating damage
occurs, it should be repaired according to
Section 5.
6.4.4
When the ditch is backfilled, care must be
exercised to prevent damage to the pipe
from rocks, clods, and similar objects. Padding or shielding material may be
necessary to prevent such damage.
S S P C CHAPTERtL6.L
93
= 8627940 0003809
19. Linden Stuart, Modern Pipe Coating Techniques and Equipment in the Mill and Field. NACE Corrosionl78, Paper No. 65,
1978.
20. Emil Senkowski, Materials Specifications and Evaluation.
NACE 15th Annual Liberty Bell Corrosion Course, 1977.
21. Peifer and Costanzo, pp. 323-349.
22. Prilo-K Bredero, Polyurethane Foam Insulation Bulletin.
Mfg. Literature, Bredero-Price, Inc.
23. John G. Hendrickson, Internal and External Concrete
Coatings for Corrosion Control. NACE 15th Annual Appalachian Underground Corrosion Short Course, p. 358, 1970.
24. Anonymous, Steel Fibers Toughen Coating for Offshore
Pipelines. Pipeline and Gas Journal, Staff Report, May 1975.
25. Naval Facilities Engineering Command, NAVFAC Specification TS-15057, Coal Tar Coating Systems for Steel
Surfaces, April, 1974.
26. Naval Facilities Engineering Command, NAVFAC Specification TS-09809, Protection of Buried Steel Piping and Steel
Bulkhead Tie Rods, September, 1975.
27. Verbech, Protective Coatings.
28. Wade and Gosse, A Study of Test Methods for External
Coatings for Underground Pipelines.
29. Emil Senkowski, Standard Laboratory Tests for Pipeline
Coatings. Materials Performance, Vol. 18, No. 8, pps. 23-28,
August, 1979.
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362
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TbL
SSPC C H A P T E R * L b = 2 93
m 8627940 00038LO 783 m
CHAPTER 16.2
CATHODIC PROTECTION
by
A.W. Peabody
I. INTRODUCTION
may be unique design considerations when planning a

cathodic protection system for pipeline interiors, such a
system can work very effectively.
Cathodic protection current must be able to reach all
of the pipeline's exposed metal. If, for example, a coating
material is not bonded to the pipe surface, it may permit
water to reach the metallic pipe surface under the disbonded coating around coating holidays.
Where the disbonded coating has a high electrical
resistance, cathodic protection current cannot flow
through it to reach the pipe surface, and active corrosion
may result.
While cathodic protection current can enter the space
between the disbonded coating and pipe surface, the
thin water film there may prevent the protection current
from penetrating in sufficient quantity for adequate protection.
If the space between a disbonded coating and pipe
surface remains dry, there will normally not be a corrosion
problem. If water does enter the space, however, an electrically insulating coating acts as an "electrical shield"
preventing the effective cathodic protection of the pipe at
that location. Electrical potential measurements may indicate that the pipe is cathodically protected in accord
with an accepted criterion at the disbonded area, whereas
it may, in fact, be corroding.
The pipeline operator will normally find that a top
grade coating will give the best practicable corrosion control for his metallic pipe when it is complemented by a
cathodic protection system which has been properly
designed, installed and maintained.
Since Volume 1 of the SSPC Manual was first published, general knowledge of cathodic protection and
its practical application have increased greatly. Its importance can be seen in the federal regulation that all new
construction for hazardous pipelines must include the use
of effective coatings and cathodic protection.
Because a comprehensive discussion of cathodic protection would be voluminous, this chapter presents only a
general introductory account. Other sources provide more
specific treatment',*.
II. HOW CATHODIC PROTECTION

COMPLEMENTS A COATING
Coatings used on pipelines and other underground
structures frequently need to protect very large areas of
underground metal, especially with major cross-country
pipelines. For instance, only 10 miles (16.09 km) of 48"
(1219.2 mm) diameter steel pipeline has an exterior surface
area of approximately 15.2 acres (6.2 hectares).
Such large areas, when coated and buried, cannot remain permanently free of all pinholes, developed defects,
or outside damage. Even though the coating may, initially,
be free of holes in the film, pipe movement with
temperature variations, soil stresses, and damage from
outside sources (such as excavation work on other projects) will ultimately expose bare metal to the corrosive effect of the surrounding environment (soil or water). The
amount of metal exposed will be determined by the quality
of the coating used and the severityof the hazards working
to damage the coating.
Even though 99.9999% of the surface area might remain fully and effectively protected by the coating, the remaining 0.0001 YO could be a problem. On the 10 miles of
48" pipe mentioned earlier, this represents some 0.6635
square feet of exposed metal. Serious damage could occur
on this much exposed surface if corrosive effects are not
controlled. To put the 0.6635 square feet in better perspective, it represents in the order of 50 one-half-inch diameter
holes in the coating for each mile of the 48" diameter pipe.
A lot can happen at these locations.
Although the coating-cathodic-protection combination is used widely on pipeline exterior surfaces, this working team can also be used on the interior surfaces of
pipelines carrying electrically conductive materials such
as water or other conductive solutions. Although there
111. RELATION BETWEEN COATING

CHARACTERISTICS AND CATHODIC
PROTECTION
The characteristics of a coatings system determine
the requirements for cathodic protection.
If a coating on a buried or submerged pipeline forms a
high electrical resistance barrier between the pipe and surrounding earth or water, the electric current needed to provide cathodic protection will be less than with a coating
barrier having a lower effective electrical resistance, and
lower current requirements for cathodic protection mean a
lower investment for the cathodic protection system.
The designer and operator of the cathodic protection
system for a coated pipeline are concerned with three ma-
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

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SSPC CHAPTER*16.2
93
8627740 0 0 0 3 8 1 1 bLT
jor coating characteristics:

1) Effective coating resistance;
2) Bond between coating and protected structure as

discussed in the preceding section;
3) Coating stability.
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Of these three, coating stability is perhaps the most

important. A stable coating has effective resistance and
bond for a long period of time.
A coating with a high effective resistance will be
chosen for pipeline application. This effective resistance
per average square foot depends upon the basic resistivity
of the coating material itself, the coating thickness,
number and size of holidays in the coatings, deleterious
effect of the environment on the coating, the resistivity of
the conducting environment in which the pipeline is buried
or submerged, and the bond between pipe surface and
coating. If effective resistance is unstable, the electric current needed for cathodic protection may double every few
years, causing increased costs for installation of new
cathodic protection facilities, maintenance, and energy.
Resistance almost always declines as additional
coating defects are generated through environmental effects. While the cathodic protection engineers are able to
measure the effective resistance of a coating on a
pipeline, this measurement can be misleading i f the
pipe has been installed in dry earth and not given time
enough for the backfill to settle and for moisture to
permeate all existing coating pinholes and holidays.
Measurements made under these conditions will normally
indicate a higher effective resistance (possibly much
higher) than what actually exists. Thus, experience is required to judge the validity of coating resistance
measurements and to use them for calculating the design
of cathodic protection systems.
There is a great difference between the resistance of
a perfect pipeline coating and one with even just a very few
small pinholes. To illustrate: the resistance across a 3/32
(2.38mm) thick completely pinhole-free coal tar enamel
coating having a volume resistivity of 1013 ohmcentimeters on a ten-mile (16.09km) length of 36 (914.4
mm) diameter pipeline in a 1000 ohm-cm environment
would be approximately 5148.2 ohms. This is equivalent to
an effective coating resistance of 2.56 x lo9 ohms per
average square foot. However, i f there were just one
(1.59mm) diameter pinhole filled with the 1000 ohm-cm environment, the resistance across the 3/32 (2.38 mm)
length of the pinhole would be 12,026 ohms. This resistance in parallel with the 5148.2-Ohmcoating resistance
would be approximately 3605 ohms, which is equivalent to
an apparent coating resistance on the ten-mile (16.09km)
section of 1.79 x lo8 ohms per average square foot - a
30% reduction from the perfect coating condition.
Under practical conditions, the chances are that there
would be many more than one pinhole in a ten-mile
pipeline section. Assuming there were fifty pinholes of the
size stated in the example, the parallel resistance across
the fifty pinholes would be 240.52 ohms. This figure, in
turn, in parallel with the 5148.2-ohm coating resistance

would give a net resistance across the ten-mile (16.09km)
length of 229.8 ohms which is equivalent to an apparent
coating resistance on the ten-mile (16.09km) section of
114.3 x lo8ohms per average square foot. Although this is
still a high resistance figure (and indicates a very low electrical energy requirement for cathodic protection), it nevertheless represents a 95.5 reduction from the perfect
coating condition.
Coating bond also effects resistance particularly adjacent to any pinholes or holidays in the in-place coating.
Any lifting of the coating because of disbondment at such
openings in the coating increases the amount of pipe metal
exposed to the surrounding environment, reduces the effective coating resistance, increases the electrical current
requirements for cathodic protection and introduces
the possibility of under-film corrosion that is electrically
shielded from the beneficial effects of cathodic protection.
It doesnt take much disbondment to double the area
of exposed metal at the usual small coating defect. For example, doubling the exposed metal area at the base of a
(6.35mm) diameter hole in a pipe coating involves a
disbondment lifting of only approximately 52 mils (1.32
mm) from the edges of the hole. Disbonding effects can be
far worse than this.
IV. BASIC THEORY OF CATHODIC

PROTECTION
To understand how cathodic protection works, it is
necessary to understand corrosion. On a pipeline, corrosion causes a flow of direct current between the elements
of a corrosion cell on the pipeline or between the pipeline
and some external entity which may be affecting the
pipeline. Fig. 1 illustrates this. As shown by the figure,
areas where corrosion is occurring are called anodic,
which means that they are discharging corrosion current
to a conductive electrolytic environment, earth or water.
When direct current leaves the surface of pipe metal to
enter such an electrolytic environment, it takes the metal
with it, and the pipe suffers corrosive deterioration. On the
Anodic Areas
(Pipe
Corrosion Current
(Represented by Arrows)
Flows & the Surrounding

E a r t h or Wuter
t h e Anodic Areas on he
Pipeline and Removes M e t a l
at These 1ocat ions.
FIGURE 1
Typical Components of Pipeline Corrosion Cell.
364
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SSPC CHAPTER*Lb-2 73
( U eCurrent
t u r n - Through
Flow
~~
Pipeline t o Source
of Direct Current
8627740 0003832 556
Anodic
Previously
V. CRITERIA USED FOR EVALUATING

CATHODIC PROTECTION
Are as
Criteria have been developed to determine that a

structure has been made completely cathodic, or in other
words that it is fully protected from corrosion. These
criteria are set forth in National Association of Corrosion
Engineers (NACE) Standard RP-01-69(use latest revision)
titled, Recommended Practice - Control of External Corrosion on Underground or Submerged Metallic Piping
Systems. These criteria are also contained in Section I,
Corrosion, of Part 192 (Transportation of Natural and Other
Gas by Pipeline: Minimum Federal Safety Standards), Title
49 of the Code of Federal Regulations, which was prepared
following the passage by the Congress of the Natural Gas
Pipeline Safety Act of 1968.
Probably the most used criterion is the one based on a
simple measurement of the electrical potential between
the pipeline and adjacent earth or water. The wording of
this criterion is as quoted below from the NACE Standard
RP-01-69:
A positive indicator for steel and cast iron structures
is A negative (cathodic) voltage of at least 0.85 volt as
measured between the structure surface and a saturated
copper-copper sulphate reference electrode contacting
the electrolyte. Determination of this voltage is to be made
with the protective current applied.
This is all based on the fact that when a pipeline is
under cathodic protection, direct current flows from the
conducting environment onto the pipeline as shown by
Figure 3. This current flow through the environment and
coating resistance forces the pipeline to assume a
negative electrical polarity with respect to the environment. The question, then, is just how negative the pipe
should be to serve as an indication that full protection has
been attained. The value of -0.85 volt is used for steel
pipe as measured using a standard copper-copper
sulphate reference electrode to contact the environment. If
other types of reference electrodes are used, the values
will be different.
Figure 4 illustrates how the protective potential is
measured. The reference electrode (used to assure stable
and repeatable readings) is normally placed on the earth
surface directly above the pipeline as shown. This position
Source of
Dirac t
Current
Connection
7e r mGround
c d Ground B e d )
LAuxiliar
(8Udy
FIGURE 2
Basic Concept of Cathodic Protection.
other hand, when direct current flows from a surrounding

electrolytic environment onto the pipe surface at cathodic
areas, there is no corrosive damage.
If there were a way to convert all anodic areas on a
buried or submerged pipe surface to corrosion-free
cathodic areas, corrosive damage would be eliminated.
This is exactly what is accomplished with a properly
designed, installed and maintained cathodic protection
system. Basically, this is done by using some external
source of direct current to neutralize and counteract the
natural corrosion currents discharging from anodic areas.
Figure 2 illustrates the concept of cathodic protection. The figure shows a ground connection established
separate from the pipeline. A source of direct current
metallically connected between the pipe and ground connection forces the ground connection to discharge current. The system is designed to regulate the amount of current discharged (cathodic protection current) so that it
eliminates the flow of corrosion cell current from anodic
areas by converting them to cathodic areas. A net flow is
established from the conductive environment onto the
previously anodic areas.
Because the cathodic protection system ground connection (also known as ground bed or anode bed) is
discharging current to do its job, it is subject to corrosion.
Thus, a ca!hodic protection system, although it
renders a protected structure surface free of corrosion,
does not eliminate corrosion - it transfers the corrosive
effect from critical operating structures such as pipelines
to known locations (the ground connections) where
replacements may be made periodically (10 to 15 years or
more) without making it necessary to take the protected
operating pipeline out of service.
Arrows Designate
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Cathodic Protect ion

Current Fiow Onto
t h e Pipeline
FIGURE 3
Current Flow Pattern at Cathodically Protected Pipe.
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SSPC C H A P T E R * L b - 2 93
___)
D i r e c t Current V o h n e t e r W i t h
/W9h
internal Resistance
Buried Coated Pipeline
FIGURE 4
Measurement of Pipeline Protective Potential.
tends to be a neutral zone where there is the least net concentration of cathodic protection current flow between the
electrode and the pipe surface. When working with submerged pipelines, suitable submersion electrodes may be
lowered to a position just above the pipeline.
Potentials on steel pipe which are less negative than
- 0.85 volt to copper-copper sulphate electrode indicate
less than full cathodic protection. On the other hand, potentials more negative than -0.85 volt to copper-copper
sulphate electrode indicate wasted energy - since once
corrosion is stopped at -0.85 volt, there is no real need to
carry more negative potentials at a given point as far as corrosion control at that point is concerned. In actual practice,
however, it is usually necessary to maintain more negative
potentials at drainage points of cathodic protection current along a pipeline in order to maintain the minimum of
- 0.85 volt at locations remote from the drainage points.
This is primarily a result of attenuation - voltage drops
caused by cathodic protection current on the pipeline flowing through the longitudinal resistance of the pipeline
steel in order to return to the drainage point. In this
respect, large diameter coated lines are much easier to
protect cathodically than are small diameter coated pipes
because the larger cross sectional steel area in a large
pipe means lower longitudinal electrical resistance with
resulting lower attenuation.
Where there are more negative than necessary
cathodic protection potentials on coated pipelines,
gaseous hydrogen is generated at coating defects in the
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Electrical
Test Station
8 b 2 7 9 4 0 0003833 492
steel surface. Hydrogen bubbles may cause mechanical

lifting of paint around defects, increasing the current requirements for cathodic protection. This effect is most
likely to occur in environments of low resistance.
Avoiding coating damage by excessive cathodic protection is best accomplished by avoiding over-protection
in the first place although coatings that are resistant but
not immune to this effect can be selected.
Normally, cathodic protection design engineers will
strive to keep the polarization potential on their protected
pipeline below the hydrogen over-voltage potential,
which is the point at which free hydrogen starts to evolve.
The polarization potential is the potential measured between the pipe and adjacent earth immediately (within a
fraction of a second) after cathodic protection current flow
to the pipe is interrupted. The reading must be taken very
quickly because the polarization potential decays very
rapidly at first. Although its rate depends upon environmental conditions, free hydrogen evolution on steel
pipe can be looked for when the polarization potential approaches a value in the order of - 1.2 volt as measured to a
copper-copper sulphate reference electrode.
Other accepted criteria for steel (and cast iron) structures which may be used are given below based on the
NACE Standard RP-01-69 and are supplemented by explanatory notes as appropriate.
366
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1) A minimum negative (cathodic) voltage shift of at

least 300 millivolts, produced by the application
of protective current. (Notes: The voltage shift
8627940 0003814 3 2 9 W
working tools used by pipeline corrosion engineers to

evaluate the effectiveness of their cathodic protection
systems, the ultimate criterion is whether or not the
development of pipeline corrosion leaks has been effectively stopped.
is from cathodic protection current ON to the

value read immediately - within a fraction of a
second - after turning the cathodic protection
current OFF. Does not apply to all structures;
not applicable to structures in contact with
dissimilar metals. Used where -0.85 volt to
copper-copper sulphate electrode not readily attained. Not always feasible to simultaneously interrupt all cathodic protection current sources on
a protected section of pipeline.)
VI. TYPES OF CATHODIC PROTECTION

There are two general types of cathodic protection
systems widely used on pipeline facilities. These are:
galvanic anode systems that generate their own electrical
energy for protection and impressed current systems
that require energy from an outside source. These two
systems are discussed below.
2) A minimum negative (cathodic) polarization

voltage shift of 100 millivolts measured between
the structure surface and a saturated coppercopper sulfate reference electrode contacting the
electrolyte. (Notes: This is a measurement of the
cathodic protection-OFF decay in the polarization
potential. This decay must be t o a point at least
100 millivolts less negative than the polarization
potential measured immediately - within a fraction of a second - after first turning the cathodic
protection current OFF. Full decay may take excessively long on some pipelines. Not always
feasible to simultaneously interrupt all cathodic
protection current sources on a protected section
of pipeline.)
A. CATHODIC PROTECTION WITH GALVANIC

ANODES
A particularly troublesome source of corrosion
damage can be the dissimilar metal corrosion cell. If, for
example, copper and steel are in electrical contact with
each other and both are in contact with a corrosive (low
resistivity) earth or water, the steel is anodic and corrodes
faster than is the case if the copper is not present. The
copper in the case cited, being cathodic, shows little or no
attack.
But the negative effect of dissimilar metal corrosion
cells can be reversed if the right material is in contact
with the steel pipe. The right metal is higher than steel in
the electromotive series of metals and, as a result, anodic
while the steel in the dissimilar metal corrosion cell
becomes cathodic and is thereby protected from corrosion.
Materials used for galvanic anodes include zinc,
magnesium and (in certain applications) aluminum. The
material is usually cast into various commercial shapes
(called anodes) with lead wires attached. Particularly for
anodes to be buried in earth, they are commonly purchased with a package of a compatible chemical
backfill surrounding the anode. This permits more uniform
performance and better anode efficiency.
Galvanic anodes generate their own current through
galvanic action or battery action when they are in
electrical contact with the pipe metal. This permits a simple construction method which is illustrated in its simplest
form by Figure 5. The two dissimilar metals of the anode
and the pipe, when electrically connected with a wire as
shown, constitute a simple battery causing current to flow
from the anode through the earth to the pipe and back to
the anode through the interconnecting wire.
Anodes may be installed individually or in groups.
Their size, material, intervals between installations along a
pipeline, and other details are designed by the corrosion
engineer. Design determinants include pipe material and
physical size, type and condition of the coating, resistivity
of the earth or water surrounding the pipe, presence of
stray earth currents from other sources, available construction sites, weather, and other similar factors.
Although galvanic anodes can control pipeline corro-
3) A structure-to-electrolyte voltage at least as

negative (cathodic) as that originally established
at the beginning of the Tafel segment of the
E-Log-I curve. (Notes: The E-Log-I curve is
developed, using specific techniques, by applying
increasing increments of cathodic protection current to an initially unprotected pipeline and
measuring the pi pel i ne-to-reference electrode
potential at each value of applied current. These
potentials are plotted against the logarithm of applied current. Typically, starting from the
minimum applied current value, the plot will appear as initial and final straight line portions connected by a curved section or break. It is the indicated pipeline-to-reference electrode potential
at the begining of the final straight line portion
that is used as the criterion of protection. Effective, but a slow procedure.)
A net protective current from the electrolyte into

the structure surface as measured by an earth
current technique applied at predetermined current discharge (anodic) points of the structure.
(Notes: Simplest evidence of compliance is a
definite indication that reference electrodes
placed on each side of the pipeline opposite the
previously anodic spot are electrically positive
with respect to a reference electrode placed
directly above the pipeline at the previouslyanodic spot. This indicates that direct current is
flowing onto the pipeline from the environment on
each side.)
While the criteria discussed above are the accepted
4)

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--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
SSPC CHAPTERr16.2 93
SSPC CHAPTER*Lb.2
8 rade 1
93
8 b 2 7 9 4 0 00038L5 2 6 5
and (2) the large amounts of galvanic anode metal needed

for reasonable life in high current applications. While
neither of these limitations is insurmountable, the use of
galvanic anode installations in high resistivity environments (where the low driving voltage becomes a problem) for high current output at a given location may not be
economical.
An impressed current system can overcome the
limitations described above. In this system direct current
from an outside power source is impressed between the
pipe metal and a ground connection (or ground bed)
making electrical contact with the earth or water surrounding the pipe. This is illustrated in simplified form by Fig. 6.
Of the several possible sources of direct current
shown on the figure, that most frequently used is the a-c to
d-c rectifier which converts a-c power from commercial
power lines to d-c power of the desired voltage and current
rating for a specific application. Rectifier units are typically furnished with adjustable d-c output voltage and current
giving the corrosion engineer substantial flexibility in the
design of his cathodic protection systems.
When commercial power is not available where impressed current installations are needed, one of the other
d-c power sources shown on Fig. 6 may be selected. These
units likewise have the advantages of flexibility in d-c output voltage and current.
These alternate power sources can be briefly described as:
--
Porous Container
(Pa kage) Contoi n ing
Chemical B a c k f i l l
FIGURE 5
Cathodic Protection Using Galvanic Anodes.
sion, they are themselves corroded and consumed in the

process of supplying the necessary cathodic protection
current to the pipeline. The cathodic protection system
designer takes this into account by providing enough
anode material to give a reasonable operating life. The
following figures are practical allowances of galvanic
anode material required for one ampere of current flow for
one year.
1. Engine generators
Internal combustion engines or turbines (usually
fueled from the protected pipeline) powering a d-c
generator of appropriate size or an a-c alternate
feeding a conventional a-c to d-c rectifier.
TABLE 1
GALVANIC ANODE MATERIAL ALLOWANCE
PER AMP-YEAR
Anode
Material
Zinc
Magnesium
Aluminum (in
sea water)
2. Thermal-electric generators
Generators directly converting heat (from
DiDeline-fueled flame) to d-c electricitv.
Weight of Anode Material,

in Pounds
30.8
20.6
8.5
4. Wind-powered generators
Windmills drive d-c generators. Storage batteries
are required to provide steady output current
through periods of little or no wind.
Using figures such as these (which are based on typical efficiencies and replacement of anodes after they are 85%
consumed), the designer can, by straight proportion, determine the minimum amount of anode material for any given
amount of average current discharge and for any given
planned installation life.
5. Fuel cells
Devices which depend on the combining of
gaseous fuel materials to produce d-c electricity.
Flame is not involved.
B. CATHODIC PROTECTION WITH

IMPRESSED CURRENT
The ground connection, or ground bed, discharges

current to earth and therefore corrodes just as galvanic
anodes do. But an impressed current system can use
relatively inert materials for ground bed anodes. Because
these materials corrode at very low rates compared to the
corrosion rates of galvanic anode materials, it is possible
to design long-life, high current-output ground beds with
Although galvanic anodes are a simple and reliable

source of cathodic protection current and are almost
foolproof, they are limited in their application. The prime
limitations are (1) the fixed low driving voltage between the
pipe metal and the galv?nic anode metal being used this is the battery voltage between anode and pipe --`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

3. Solar-powered generators
Using sunlight in a direct conversion process for
generation of d-c electricity. Requires storage batteries to provide steady current output through
dim and dark periods.
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93
8b279'iO
VII. DATA REQUIREMENTS PRIOR TO

DESIGNING CATHODIC PROTECTION
SYSTEMS
reasonable quantities of ground bed materials.

Materials used include the following:
a) Graphite (carbon)
b) High-silicon cast iron
c) Magnetite (iron oxide
Before designing a cathodic protection system, the

corrosion engineer will need the following information:
1) Data on the pipe itself in the pipeline section to be
protected. This would include length, diameter,
wall thickness, resistivity or metal analysis, and
type of joint (if other than welding).
- Fe,O,)
d) Platinized metals
e) Steel
Of these, the first three are consumed at rates ranging
from a fraction of a pound to around two pounds per
ampere per year depending on material used, current
discharge density, and the nature of the environment.
Platinized metals are used in special applications
where the cost is justified. Platinum corrodes at an extremely low rate. For ground bed use, it is normally plated
in a thin layer on a substrate such as titanium or columbium. Because these materials resist the discharge of current once the platinum plating is consumed, the substrate
material is not severed by local corrosion.
Steel corrodes at a rate of about 20 pounds per
ampere per year but can be useful in some applications
because it generates less gas at the anode surface than
the other materials.
Where a backfill can be used around the impressed
current anodes, carbonaceous materials (coal coke,
calcined petroleum coke, crushed man-made graphite, or
natural graphite flakes) can extend anode life even further.
Much of the anode current is carried to the backfill through
direct contact. Actual material consumption, then, tends
to be concentrated in the outer layers of the carbonaceous
backfill where the discharge to surrounding earth occurs.
00038Lb L T L B
2) Data on the pipeline protective coating. Includes

type, thickness, application specifications and
conditions, and (particularly)the effective in-place
coating resistance after backfill stabilization.
3) Data on weight coating for applications where

used over a protective coating. Type and
thickness of the weight coating should be known
as well as the nature of metal reinforcement in the
weight coating and how it is installed.
4) Expected pipeline operating life.
5) If the pipeline is already equipped with electrical
test stations for evaluating cathodic protection
and, i f so, details on the number, type and location of all existing test stations.
6) Details of cased crossing installations: size of
casing, whether or not casing is coated and (if so)
with what material, how casing is insulated from
carrier pipe, how casing ends are sealed, and
details of vent pipe or pipes (if any).
7) Information on all other pipelines which cross or
(Coated
Pipeline
Current
Source o f Direct
Current Power
Such as:
A-C t o D-C Rectifiers
Eorth From
Ground Bed
t o Pipeline
Engine - Generators
Thermul- Electric
G encra tors
Solar Powered
Generators
G ro u nd Con nect ion

(or "Ground Bed'')
Throuqh Which
Current is forced
Wind - Powered
Various Designs and

Materials Possi &le.
Circles Represent
Ground Bed Anodes.
Generators
.Fuel Cells
FIGURE 6
Basic Impressed Current Cathodic Protection System.
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

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8b27740 0003837 038
are closely parallel to the pipeline section to be

protected. Data needed includes exact location,
ownership, bare or coated, whether or not
cathodically protected, and availability of test
points.
8) Current required for cathodic protection. This may
be estimated using data from items 1 and 2, but is
preferably determined using field current requirement tests.
9) Availability of commercial electric power for impressed current cathodic protection installations.
10) Evaluation of suitability of other impressed current power sources i f commercial power is not
available.
11) General data on soil resistivity distribution along
the pipeline section - high, low and average
figures.
12) Data on stray current activity. Can natural telluric

currents of serious magnitude be expected or are
there man-made sources of stray current (d-c transit systems, d-c mining operations, d-c welding
operations, cathodic protection installations on
adjacent systems, or other such sources) that
must be compensated for in the overall cathodic
protection system design? Specific data is needed
on the magnitude and time duration (where cyclic
effects exist) of the stray current interference.
13) Decision on type of system to be used - galvanic
anode or impressed current cathodic protection.
14) Detailed soil resistivity data at locations selected
for installation of cathodic protection facilities.
15) Pipeline route features which may affect the construction of a cathodic protection system - difficult terrain, weather problems, access restricted
by land owners, possible crop damage, etc.
VIII. FACTORS INVOLVED IN THE DESIGN OF

CATHODIC PROTECTION SYSTEMS
This section reviews design considerations for the
two general types of cathodic protection system. It is not
intended, however, to be a guide to detailed design procedures. Those wishing to pursue the matter further are
referred to more detailed texts in the Reference section of
this chapter.
A. DESIGNS USING GALVANIC ANODES

The following affect the design of a galvanic anode
system expected to develop a predetermined protective
current output to a buried structure.
1. Driving Voltage
As has been discussed earlier in Section F,
galvanic anodes generate their own electrical
voltage through battery action when electrically
connected to a cathodic metal in a pipe or other
structure. These voltages are quite low. The driving voltage between, for example, a structure at

370
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a protected potential of -0.90 volt to coppercopper sulphate electrode and the usual galvanic
anode materials would be approximately:
0.15 volt for aluminum (in a sea water

environment)
0.20 volt for zinc
0.65 to 0.90 volt for magnesium
(depending on alloy)
These voltages will be higher or lower with
changes in the protective potential obtained on
the structure at the anode installation site.
Knowledge about the driving voltage of a given
anode material and about the amount of current
required for protecting a structure, will determine
requirements for the electrical circuit resistance
needed for the proper amount of current flow.
2. Soil Resistivity
The resistance to earth of a galvanic anode is proportional to the electrical resistivity of the surrounding earth or water. If the resistivity is very
high, the anode resistance will likewise be high.
With a fixed low driving voltage as discussed
above, the current output may be too low to be of
practical value unless unusually long anode life is
desired or only a limited amount of pipe is to be
protected. These considerations illustrate why
detailed knowledge of the resistivity at a proposed galvanic anode installation is essential if it
is being designed to produce a specific value of
current output under design conditions.
3. Life
Galvanic anode life is proportional to the amount
of anode material available at a given current output. When the designer has established the
desired installation life (say 15 years) at a specific
protective current output, he can calculate the
amount of anode material needed to attain that
life. To do this, he needs to know (1) the
theoretical maximum ampere hour content per
pound of the specific anode material to be used,
(2) the anode efficiency which determines the
ampere hours per pound available for useful output (some anode material is used up in selfcorrosion; there is a wide variation in efficiency
depending on material used and design conditions), and (3) the point at which replacement will
be necessary, such as when 85% of the anode
material has been used up.
4. Circuit Resistance
The principal elements of the circuit resistance
are (1) the effective resistance to earth of the
coated pipe or structure at the point where the
galvanic anode installation is to be made, (2) the
resistance of wires interconnecting the galvanic
anodes used and connecting the anode instailation to the pipe or structure, and (3) the resistance
to earth of the galvanic anodes themselves. Of
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
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8 6 2 7 9 4 0 00038L8 T 7 4
these, item (1) is not controllable but can be determined by electrical measurements in the field.
Items (2) and (3) are controllable and subject to
design.
Knowing the soil resistivity at the galvanic
anode site and the physical dimensions of the
anodes being used, the resistance to earth of
various numbers of anodes connected in parallel
can be determined using design curves or procedures set forth in other source material. The
designer can select the appropriate number and
size of anodes to create the desired circuit.
There are definite limits to the amount of current that can be obtained from a galvanic anode
location. If, for example, the resistance to earth of
a coated pipe or structure was found to be 5 ohms
at a given installation site, the maximum current
which could be obtained using galvanic anodes
(assuming a driving potential of 0.9 volt) would be
less than 180 milliamps no matter how low the
soil resistivity or how many anodes are used. It is
quite probable, however, that this much current
would not be needed to gain an adequate level of
protect ion.
5. Anode Shape
A long, slender anode permits a lower resistance
to earth in a given environment resistivity than
does a short thick anode shape. This fact can
be used to advantage when designing anode installations for placement in high soil resistivity
locations.
6. Stray Current Effects
Stray current effects (see Section J) on a pipe or
structure must be evaluated to determine if pipeto-earth potentials vary so much (as a result of the
stray current effects) that adequate protective
potentials cannot be maintained using galvanic
anodes. This is normally done with recording instruments which permit a permanent record of all
variations occurring during the observation
period.
7. Meteorological Data
The effect of weather can be significant. For example, if galvanic anodes are installed in soils
subject to extreme dryness during parts of the
year, the circuit resistance will go up as the soil
dries, and anode current output may drop below
the minimum necessary to maintain cathodic protection on the pipe or other structure. Or another
example: if anodes are installed in an area where
the earth surrounding the anodes will freeze during the winter season, the high resistivity of the
frozen earth can likewise cause anode current
output to drop to ineffective levels.
8. Hot Spot Protection
Galvanic anodes are widely used for protecting
small actively corroding areas, particularly on

pipelines. Such areas often require only small

amounts of cathodic protection current. These requirements are met easily and economically with
galvanic anodes.
8. DESIGNS USING IMPRESSED CURRENT

The following paragraphs describe some of the fac
tors that must be considered when designing an impressed current cathodic protection installation,
1. Current Required for Protection
Determining the amount of current needed for
cathodic protection at a given location will help
the corrosion engineer choose either an impressed current installation or a galvanic anode
installation. Unless considerations such as stray
current effects dictate otherwise, galvanic anode
installations tend to be the most economical for
small current requirements up to an ampere or
two for anode installations in soil. This should be
taken as a generalization only and final decisions
made only after a complete consideration of all
factors.
2. Commercial Power Availability

Information must be obtained on the location of
commercial low voltage power lines in the areas
where impressed current cathodic protection installations are contemplated. The easy availability of commercial power permits use of the
reliable a-c to d-c rectifier as the source of
cathodic protection current.
3. Alternate Current Sources
If commercial power is not available, consideration has to be given to the relative practicality and
cost of alternate current sources such as enginealternator-rectifier units, direct thermal-electric
generators, fuel cells, solar-electric units, and
wind-powered generators.
4. Current Source Rating
One of the significant advantages of impressed
current systems is the freedom to select (particularly when using rectifiers as the current
source) a very wide range of direct current and
voltage output capacity. This makes it possible to
accommodate large or small installations as well
as low resistivity or high resistivity ground bed installation sites. The design consideration is to
select a current source with an output rating consistent with the requirements of the specific installation site - and normally including some
reserve capacity for possible future increased
cathodic protection requirements. The amount of
reserve capacity to allow is a matter of engineering judgment based on knowledge of the system
to be protected. In general, however, the percentage allowance on a newly coated and buried
pipeline or other metallic structure would be
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S S P C CHAPTER*Lb=2 93
SSPC CHAPTER*Lb.Z
93
8b279LiO 0003819 900
designing the ground bed to be used with the impressed current system. More anode and backfill
materials are usually needed for the longer-lived
installations.
substantially greater than on an older longstabilized system.
5. Soil Resistivity
Having detailed data on soil resistivity makes it
possible to design a ground bed with the proper
resistance. When considered with the remainder
of the circuit resistance external to the current
source, the ground bed resistance should form a
reasonable match with the rating of the impressed current source to be used.
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
6. Power Requirement
Where a-c to d-c rectifiers fed by commercial
power lines are used, the power requirement is
not necessarily a controlling factor. For the larger
installations, however, it becomes increasingly
important to use rectifiers with the highest practicable efficiency can reduce power costs. This
may involve using three-phase rectifiers rather
than single-phase units, preparing the overall
design so that the rectifier used will be operating
at the peak of its efficiency curve, and using
filters in the rectifier output circuit.
On the other hand, small rectifier installations may not require enough a-c power to come
up to the minimum monthly bill at certain locations. In this event, highly efficient equipment will
not reduce costs.
Where commercial power lines are not
available to supply rectifiers, the selection of an
alternate current source can be affected by the
amount of output power required. For the larger
power needs, engine-alternator-rectifier units may
be the best choice, while the use of thermal, solar
and wind generators or fuel cells will usually be
restricted to smaller direct current output requirements. The actual selection should be based
on a study of economics, maintenance needs,
reliability, and other factors.
7. Maintenance
Maintenance requirements for impressed current
systems can be costly. Impressed current installations must be inspected at prescribed maximum
intervals on federally regulated pipelines. Does
this create a physical hardship at some locations? How about the operating reliability of the
direct current power source selected; is it apt to
require frequent visits by a repair team or to involve expensive component replacement?
Depending on the specific application, such questions may have a direct bearing on the type of impressed current selected or may result in the
use of a galvanic anode system that can be more
expensive to install but more economical over the
life of the installation.
8. Life
The desired life of an impressed current installation will be a prime factor considered when

9. Stray Current
Variations caused by stray current in pipe- or
structure-to-earthpotentials may result in the loss
of full cathodic protection from an impressed current system. Where higher variations are involved,
creating problems, automatic potential-controlled
or automatic constant-current rectifiers may be
used. These are more expensive than the conventional, manually controlled units but have much
greater compensating capabilities. In more severe
instances of stray current effect, specific stray
current compensating measures (such as reverse
current switches in drainage bonds, for example)
may be needed in addition to the cathodic protection system.
1 o. Variable Circuit Resistance

If it is known that an impressed current source
will be forcing current into a variable circuit
resistance caused by variations in weather,
automatic potential-controlled or constantcurrent rectifiers may be considered as a means
of maintaining a reasonably constant level of
cathodic protection on protected structures.
IX. CONSTRUCTION PRACTICES FOR

Assuming that a cathodic protection installation has
been properly designed for a given environment, practices
followed during construction of the system can have a
considerable effect on its long-term performance.
A. IMPRESSED CURRENT SYSTEMS

Probably the most susceptible to damage and the
most difficult to repair is the underground (or underwater)
ground bed assembly connected to the positive terminal of
an impressed current source. Being positive to earth, current will discharge through any imperfection in cable insulation or in field-installed insulation on cable splices.
This will cause corrosion and failure of the cable system.
Good construction practice calls for great care in handling all ground bed system cable (anode leads and header
cable) to avoid damage to the cable insulation. One hundred percent inspection is essential to locate and repair insulating, inspecting, and repairing (if necessary) field
splices between anode leads and the header cable or in
the header cable itself.
necessary) field splices between anode leads and the
header cable or in the header cable itself.
When installing separate anodes and carbonaceous
backfill, particularly in vertical holes, care must be taken
to compact the backfill around the anode to entirely fill the
space between the anode and the sides of the hole.
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Likewise, where packaged anodes are used (anode and

carbonaceous backfill prepacked in a sheet steel canister),
care must be taken to entirely fill the space between
canister and sides of the hole with compacted backfill
earth. Voids can cause an increase in anode-to-earth
resistance and thereby reduce anode life.
Another area of concern is the connection between a
steel pipeline, or other structure, and the copper cable
returning current to the impressed current power source.
The connection is a copper-steel dissimilar metal corrosion cell that can result in corrosion of the steel i f not properly waterproofed and insulated. An inadequate waterproofing job under a layer of tape or coating material may
permit water to reach the copper-steel junction (activating
the corrosion cell) while the overlying insulating tape or
coating will act as an electrical shield preventing cathodic
protection current from reaching the corroding steel.
The impressed current power sources must be installed in accord with good construction practices for electrical equipment. Any applicable codes must be observed.
The equipment must be installed so that it will be accessible for maintenance and periodic tests. The installation
should be planned to protect it from natural hazards such
as high water, for example, which could put the installation out of commisison.
because the effects of stray current can be worse than the

normal corrosion caused by contact with the environment. Where stray current exists, additional cathodic protection or special and sometimes rather sophisticated
countermeasures may be needed.
If stray currents exist and are not properly taken into
account, they can at least partially nullify the beneficial effects of a cathodic protection system designed to protect
a steel pipeline or other structure against the corrosive effect of the environment.
B. GALVANIC ANODE SYSTEMS
B. CONTINUOUSLY VARIABLE MAN-MADE

STRAY CURRENT
The most prevalent sources of this type of stray current are cathodic protection systems on structures other
than the one which the corrosion engineer is trying to protect. This can be a particular problem, for example, on
pipelines in areas where they are closely paralleled by
other systems or where cathodic protection impressed current power sources on lines of other ownership (foreign
lines) are close to the pipeline at points of crossing. The
problem (normally termed interference) is usually confined to relatively small areas which are fixed as to location and can be readily identified by field test.
For most installations in earth, galvanic anodes are

obtained in packaged form so that the anode and its
special chemical backfill material can be installed as a
single unit. When installing such anodes in augered holes,
particularly, it is important that they be so backfilled that
no voids are left around or under the anode package. If
voids exist (and after the anode package container
deteriorates), the chemical backfill can fall away from the
anode and cause an increase in anode resistance, drop of
anode output current, and loss of anode operating efficien-
Current sources contributing to this stray current

category include direct-current-powered electric railway
systems (surface and subsurface), mining operations using d-c power, electric welding facilities, etc. A corrosion
engineer can usually identify this type of stray current by
taking recordings of any stray current effect on his steel
structure. Typically, there will be continuous (and often extreme) variations in the recorded effect over a 24-hour
period or more. Where the source is man-made, however,
there will normally be a pattern characterized (if the source
is an electric railway) by more intense stray current activity
during hours of peak railway usage. If the source is
industrially-oriented (such as mining or welding operations), the thing to look for on the recording is a reduction
in the stray current activity at work shift changes or
periods of no work.
Man-made stray current of this type, can cause major
corrosion problems i f not kept under close control at all
times.
CY.
As was the case with impressed current systems, the

connection between a steel structure and the copper wire
from a galvanic anode (or group of anodes) needs to be
carefully waterproofed and insulated. This is to eliminate
problems with a steel-copper dissimilar metal corrosion
cell at the structure surface.
X. STRAY CURRENTS
The term stray current is an all-inclusive expression
used to cover a variety of situations that result in the
presence of direct current flowing in the earth. Where,
such current is free to enter an underground steel structure (particularly pipelines), follow it for a distance, and
then discharge to earth in order to continue its journey,
corrosion can occur at the point of current discharge. In
severe cases, the corrosion rate can be catastrophic.
Knowledge of any stray current conditions affecting a
pipeline or other steel structure is essential for the
designer of a cathodic protection system, especially
C. NON-MAN-MADE STRAY CURRENTS

The earths magnetic field is subject to variation from
effects such as sunspot activity. As the intensity of the
magnetic field increases and decreases, direct current, in
effect, is generated. When such current, often referred to
as telluric current, gets onto underground pipelines, it
can create corrosion problems.
The effects of telluric current on underground
pipelines are typically without any consistent pattern. The
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A. STEADY-STATE MAN-MADE
STRAY CURRENT
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C H A P T E R x L b - 2 93
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areas of current pick-up and discharge from a pipeline

tend to change continually. The direction of current flow
also reverses its direction. Except in unusual situations,
the effective amount of current flow seldom renders normal cathodic protection systems ineffective. Unusual
situations, however, can occur; and this possibility needs
to be evaluated when planning cathodic protection
systems on major structures.
During periods of magnetic storms, variations in
pipeline protective potentials can make it difficult to properly evaluate the level of cathodic protection on pipelines.
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
The basic corrective measure is to install, where

possible, a heavy copper drainage cable to the d-c power
supply causing the problem. Where there are periods of
time when current flow is such a bond reverses (with
resulting increased corrosion of the structure being protected) automatic equipment or devices are necessary to
block the reverse current flow. In instances where drainage
cables to the d-c source are impracticable, use of rectifierpowered, current drainage installations may be utilized
with automatic potential-controlled or automatic constantcurrent rectifiers to maintain the structure at a reasonably
constant level of protective potential as the stray current
effect varies. In still other instances, it may be possible to
cooperatively arrange for bonds to structures or pipelines
of other ownership which pass more closely to the power
source and are bonded thereto.
Stray currents of magnetic origin (telluric currents)
are normally not considered to be serious enough to warrant special action i f the affected pipeline or other structure has an adequate cathodic protection system. But in
some instances telluric current can discharge in a limited
area for enough of the time and to such a degree that it can
be a matter of serious concern. When this is the case,
forced drainage installation (using automatic rectifier
equipment) can be used to remove the current during
periods of telluric current activity.
Short-term magnetic forecasts (1 to 3 days in advance) can

be obtained by contacting the Space Environment Service
Center (SESC) duty forecaster by telephone at (303)
499-1000, Ext. 3171, (Boulder, Colorado) from 7 a.m. to 12
p.m. MST seven days a week. Additionally, after-the-fact indices of magnetic activity (based o n data at
Fredericksburg, Virginia) are published in the National
Association of Corrosion Engineers (NACE) publication,
Materials Performance.
D. CORRECTIVE MEASURES
Steady-state, man-made stray current can normally be
handled by (1) placing cable bonds between the structures
involved so that the stray current will harmlessly discharge
through the metallic path rather than discharge to earth
with resulting corrosion, by (2) installing galvanic anodes
at established points of discharge, or by (3) coating bare
pipe (or upgrading the coating on older poorly coated pipe)
to reduce the amount of interference current interchange
to the point that normal cathodic protection will handle it.
If, however, there are situations where one operators
pipeline passes close to an impressed current cathodic
protection ground bed on another operators system, the
interfering stray current may be of such magnitude that
none of the corrective measures cited above can be applied economically. Adequate correction may then require
deactivating or moving the installation causing the stray
current.
Where interference stray current conditions exist between adjacent structures (primarily pipelines), they are
best solved by cooperative tests made by corrosion
engineering representatives of the two operators so that
mutually acceptable corrective procedures can be worked
out. In the underground pipelining industry, there is a network of electrolysis committees which are industrysponsored groups of people dealing with corrosion that
help to recognize and solve problems of stray current interference in their designated area. A list of electrolysis
committees currently active can be obtained by writing to
NACE, P.O. Box 21830, Houston, Texas 77218.
In areas where continuously variable, man-made stray
current is a problem, developing corrective measures can
be difficult and involved. Where intense and damaging current discharge exists, sophisticated field tests are required to locate points of maximum current discharge and
to determine the source of the stray current where it is not
obvious.
XI. PIPELINE SYSTEMS IN PERMAFROST

Increasing activity in arctic environments warrants
comments specific to cathodic protection for pipelines
and other steel structures located in these environments.
Small steel structures, other than pipelines, that are
completely buried in permafrost (permanently frozen
earth), and are themselves below freezing temperature, will
normally have such a low rate of corrosion that cathodic
protection may not be required.
If, however, such structures are partly in permafrost
and partly in thawed earth (permanently or seasonally),
that part in thawed earth will be subject to corrosion and
may require cathodic protection to supplement protective
coatings.
The pipeline industry has to deal with two distinct
conditions in an arctic environment. These consist of
cold and hot lines. Cold lines (such as pipes carrying
gas chilled to below the freezing point) will be solidly
frozen into permafrost. Hot lines (such as pipes transporting hot crude oil) develop zones of thawed earth surrounding the pipe.
The corrosion problems on cold lines in permafrost
can be expected at non-frozen inclusions in the permafrost.
Non-frozen inclusions can exist under deeper rivers or
lakes, can be a result of geothermal heat from below the
permafrost, or can be interspersed between islands of
permafrost on the southern edges of arctic permafrost
areas. At any rate, the non-frozen inclusions tend to be
anodic to the pipe that is solidly frozen in. Where the inclusions are small, the effect is that of small-anode-largecathode that can be expected to result in rapid corrosion
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SSPC C H A P T E R U L b - 2 9 3
in the small anodic areas,

Warm pipelines, on the other hand, have a corrosion
control problem throughout their buried length. The severity of the problem will be a function of the corrosivity of the
thawed earth mass surrounding the pipe. The elevated
temperature, which may be well in excess of 100F (38C)
also increases the severity of the problem.
Cold pipelines may be protected by a combination of
coatings and cathodic protection. Current requirements
are very low for coated pipe solidly frozen into the permafrost. The necessary current can be forced into the
earth from remote ground beds installed in the permafrost.
At any non-frozen inclusions, however, the current requirements for protection may be so high that it is difficult
or impractical to force enough current to flow through the
high resistivity permafrost to these locations from remote
cathodic protection installations. In these instances,
galvanic anode material may be used. Additionally, if
telluric currents are present (and they tend to be a problem
on arctic lines), current may tend to discharge to earth at
the relatively low pipeline-to-earthresistance at non-frozen
inclusions; with galvanic anodes at each non-frozen inclusion, the brunt of the corrosive effect of the discharging
current will be borne by the anodes.
Warm pipelines in permafrost are also protected with
a combination of coatings and cathodic protection. The
cathodic protection application, however, is quite different
from that used on cold pipelines. With a continuous warm
thaw bulb along the entire buried length, current needed
for cathodic protection may be higher per unit area than
comparably sized ambient temperature lines (with similar
quality coating) in the temperate zones. It may be a problem getting sufficient current to flow from remote cathodic
protection installations through the high resistance permafrost to the pipeline and attain uniform protection along
the line. An approach that has worked well consists of installing continuous strip zinc anodes along the entire
length of buried line as illustrated by Fig. 8. This same type
of protection can be utilized through non-frozen inclusions
on cold pipeline in permafrost.
Zinc is used because of its optimum anode potential
and high operating efficiency, both of which are favorable
to the longest practicable life. Bare strip zinc anode
material has been used where it can be placed in the pipe
trench bottom (during construction) so that it will have the
least subsequent oxygen availability.
The continuous strip anode protection system results
in uniform protective potentials along the pipeline. Additionally, it serves to accommodate the major part of
telluric stray current discharge wherever it tends to occur
along the line.
XII. OPERATION AND MAINTENANCE OF

A. GALVANIC ANODE SYSTEMS

Operating practices for cathodic protection installations using galvanic anodes should include, as a
minimum, the following:
1. Annual measurement of structure-to-reference
electrode potentials to determine whether or not
full cathodic protection is being maintained.
2. Annual measurement of galvanic anode current

output to permit an annually updated forecast of
anode life.
If the potential measurements of item 1 indicate loss of
protection, the reason for such loss should be ascertained
promptly. Typical reasons could be:
1. Contacts with other structures resulting in
overloading the cathodic protection system.
These could be failure of insulating devices or inadvertent electrical bypassing or could be
direct underground metallic contact between the
protected structure and foreign structures.
2. Breakage of underground wiring connecting the

galvanic anodes to the protected structure as a
result of construction activity or other reasons.
3. Increase in current requirements for full protection of the protected structure as a result of
coating damage on the structure from construction activity, gradual and normal deterioration of
the coating with time, additions to the structure
itself resulting in an increased total surface area
to be protected, increases in stray current activity,
and other similar reasons. Depletion of galvanic
anode material (end of their useful life).
Good maintenance practice calls for prompt correction of deficiencies found as a result of annual inspections. Prompt action is necessary since corrosion is a
function of time. If loss of protection is allowed to exist for
long periods, unnecessary corrosion failure may be experienced. This means that the full advantage of the initial
expenditure for the cathodic protection system is not being realized.
B. IMPRESSED CURRENT SYSTEMS

Operating practices for impressed current cathodic
protection installations should include, as a minimum, the
following:
1. Scheduled inspections of the d-c power source at
nominal intervals of two months or less. Includes
verifying that the installation is operating properly, logging operating data, and determining if
there has been a change from past inspections
The major cause of problems with cathodic protection

systems is failure to exercise suitable practices of operation and maintenance. Because it cant be heard, seen, felt
or smelled once it is installed, a cathodic protection

system is often forgotten. But, as with any electrodynamic
system, a cathodic protection installation has to be
operated and maintained effectively if it is to provide corrosion control.
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A b 2 7 9 4 0 0003822 4T5
SSPC C H A P T E R * L b * 2 93
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which could indicate possible problems with level

of protection.
2. Annual measurement of structure-to-reference

electrode potentials to determine protection level.
3. Inspection at nominal monthly intervals where impressed current equipment is used for stray current control of a critical nature.
If the potential measurements of item 2 reveal that full
protection has been lost, the reason(s) for such loss
should be determined at once. Typical reasons include the
following:
1. Contacts with other structures as listed under
galvanic anodes.
2. Breakage of underground wiring (at test points,
crossbonds, etc.) as a result of construction activity or other reasons. Underground wiring
associated with impressed current ground beds is
subject t o corrosion damage as described in Section t. Such damage, when it results in cable
failure prior t o the end of ground bed life, will normally be apparent from data logged during
periodic power source inspections.
3. Increase in current requirements as discussed

under galvanic anodes.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

chapter: Vic Chaker, John F. Fitzgerald, E.G. Haney, L. Liszczynsky, Bill Mitchell, David C. Pearce, R.N. Sloan, L.P. Sudrabin, Bill
Wallace, E.N. Steinmann.
BIOGRAPHY
A portrait and biographical sketch of A.W. Peabody appears
following the chapter entitled Coating of Pipelines and Other

Underground Structures.
REFERENCES
1. NACE Standard RP-01-69 (latest revision), Recommended

Practice - Control of External Corrosion on Underground or
Submerged Metallic Piping Systems National Association of
Corrosion Engineers, P.O. Box 218340, Houston, Texas 77218.
2. A.W. Peabody, Control of Pipeline Corrosion, National Association of Corrosion Engineers, Publication No. 51011.
3. Designing Impressed Current Cathodic Protection Systems with
Durco Anodes. The Duriron Company, Inc., P.O. Box 8820, Dayton, OH 45401-8820.
4. J.E. Wright, Practical Corrosion Control Methods for Gas Utility
Piping, National Association of Corrosion Engineers, Publication No. 51012.
5. A.W. Peabody, Corrosion Aspects of Arctic Pipelines, Materials Protection, May, 1979, pp. 27-32.
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
4. Reduction in current output of the impressed current power source. This can be either problems in
the power source itself or increased ground bed
resistance as the ground bed anodes approach
the end of their design life (apart from ground bed
cable breaks which are repairable).
The principles of good maintenance practice as
described for galvanic anode installations apply to impressed current installations as well.

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CHAPTER 17
PAINTING OF INDUSTRIAL PLANTS

by
William
F. Chandler
The subject Painting Industrial Plants can be mind

boggling. Take the number of substrates, add the
multiplicity of operating exposures, stir in the problem of
choosing among the various available types of protective
coatings - and the complexity is clear.
But engineering sense can be made out of this complex subject. The following series of chapters illustrates
how the level of efficiency can be raised in the choice and
use of protective coatings on steel in typical plants in industries such as waste treatment, coke, petroleum,
chemicals, paper, food and power.
the objective is difficult. Coating material costs rarely run

above 20% and usually average only 10-15O/0 of the total
coatings job cost. Yet, after all the money is spent for
engineering, specifying, surface preparation, application,
inspection and clean-up, it is the integrity of a few mils of
the protective coating that determines the service life of
the structure.
Choice of the proper coating for each major surface
and exposure is critical to efficiency. I t follows that
coating materials cannot be chosen on a per gallon or a
mil foot per gallon cost basis. Only by developing the applied cost for desired mil thickness and factoring in service life expectancy can a sound judgment be made. There
are three ways to choose materials.
1. Going it alone
Some large, sophisticated, multi-plant, industrial
companies have the inclination and facilities to
plan the coatings program completely and run
evaluations of available coatings within their own
organization.
2. Reliance on an independent consultant
Some companies retain a competent, independent consultant and rely on the consultant to supplement its own coatings program or to develop
the entire program, including choice of materials.
3. Reliance on coatings supplier@).
Other users find it practical to rely more and more
on their coatings supplier(s) in choosing painting
systems. Leading coatings manufacturers often
carry on active research for development of better
materials and protective coatings systems.
I. A CALL FOR EXCELLENCE

Business managers are finding it ever more difficult
to sustain adequate net profits. Likewise, deciding to commit funds for new production capacity is an ever more
speculative undertaking. What is the relationship between
these problems and painting steel in industrial plants? Exactly this: there is no room for excuses or half-way
measures. Only by combined professional efforts, strong
specifications, carefully chosen coatings systems, precise
surface preparation and application, rigid inspection and
good communications can managements contain year-toyear painting costs.
II. PLANNING THE COATINGS PROGRAM

Management can win the cost control battle by properly planning and administering coating programs for new
construction and maintenance. The ultimate goal is that
maintenance will include removing surface dirt and adding
an occasional touch-up and single finish coat to maintain
film thickness and appearance.
In addition to setting up details of surface and exposure identification, types of coatings, specifications,
costs, and records, a properly planned program
establishes minimum standards for surface preparation,
application, film thickness and appearance for each type
of surface and coating system. It requires all estimators,
applicators, supervisors, and inspectors to meet minimum
standards.
B. CHOICE OF COATINGS SUPPLIERS

Choice of coatings suppliers is of prime importance
and should be made only after careful search on the basis
of reputation for quality, service, and integrity;
demonstrated technical proficiency; and capability,
availability, and desire to assist management and its
specifying engineers. Assistance is required in detailing
specifications; interpreting specifications to bidding
fabricators, contractors, or in-house crews; training inspectors and cooperating at fabricating shops and jobsites in pre-job conferences and in setting up standards.
When management does a good job in choosing its
coating supplier(s), it relies on the supplier(s) in an onstaff, on-call relationship to assist in selecting materials
A. CHOICE OF MATERIALS
The objective in choosing materials is simply to find
for each type of substrate and exposure the paint coatings
system that is most efficient in terms of dollars per square
foot per year. While the objective is simple, accomplishing
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377
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and solving problems. Often, the client on a new construction project instructs his design engineer to work with a
preselected coating material supplier. Most engineers appreciate that such instruction expedites and smooths out
the work.
C. GOOD SPECIFICATIONS
The bid package for contract painting on new construction or maintenance is a vital communications link.
Information shall include the following:
a
Clear identification of surfaces to be painted

Access, storage of materials and services
available
Possible complications with other trades or
operating plant conditions
Surface preparation clearly referenced to
recognized standards
Materials - brand name, type, number of coats
Maximum and minimum allowable wet and dry
film thickness of each coat
Required color differential between coats
Application methods and tools
Inspection and approval of surface preparation,
application and finished appearance - when,
by whom, how, and with what tools
Safety
Clean up
Communications
F. THE BOTTOM LINE

It may not always be the best procedure to insist on a
coating system known to project lowest costs per square
foot per year. Certainly, a project designed for limited life
span could properly be specified with a cost saving Coatings system.
In nearly all cases, management should insist on the
most efficient coatings systems for new construction. The
slightly higher initial costs are returned in long-term
dividends through reduced maintenance charges and
minimal disruption of plant operation. Rarely is there
justification for using a system other than the most costeffective for maintenance.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

chapter: T.A. Cross, S. Frye, Dan Gelfer, R. Klepser, Marshall
McGee, John Montle, Dan Nemunaitis, William Pearson, Warren
Stanford, William Wallace, Tom Wilhelm.
BIOGRAPHY
The late William F. Chandler

was a consultant and former
president of Porter Paint Company. Mr Chandler held a B.A.
from Washington and Lee
University and an L.L.B. from the
University of Louisville. He was
a charter member of the
Kanawha Coatings Society, a
National Association of Corrosion Engineers Corporate
Representative, and a member
of its Publications Committee.
He also lectured on protective
coatings for the University of Wisconsin.
D. PRE-JOB CONFERENCE
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Anticipating problems and solving them before they

start is good for all concerned. The pre-job conference
prevents aggravation and is a sign of good management. It
is highly recommended for inclusion in the specification.
The project manager or engineer in charge should call a
pre-job conference of interested parties including
representatives of owner, specifying engineer, general
contractor, painting contractor andlor steel fabricator,
material supplier and inspector. The purpose of the conference is to establish clear communications, interpret
specifications, agree on inspection and arrange for job
standards.
E. JOB STANDARD
In addition to the pre-job conference, the following or
a similar statement regarding job standards is excellent insurance against misunderstandings, controversy or requests for extras: before starting any work, the painting
contractor, at the direction of the project manager and
under supervision of a technical representative of the
material supplier, will apply the specified materials on
sample test surfaces to establish the minimum acceptable
standard of quality for the project.

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SSPC CHAPTER*27-2 9 3
8b27940 000382b 040
CHAPTER 17.1
WASTE TREATMENT PLANTS

by
Thomas P. Delany
Since the signing of the Clean Waters Act in 1966 and
the classification of most of Americas waterways according to the type of effluent that can be discharged into
them, there has been a tremendous increase in construction of new water pollution control plants and in upgrading
and enlarging existing plants.
At the same time, the country has been undergoing an
environmental and ecological revolution. The community
is more aware of treatment plants and has made demands
regarding the plants appearance and function. Consequently, water treatment and water pollution control
plants have changed rapidly and radically in design.
Modern treatment plants can be beautifully designed and
efficiently run. Between the influent and effluent channels,
extremely complex physical, biological and chemical processes are conducted. They create some of the most severe
conditions encountered by any mechanical equipment.
Thus, these plants have needs for corrosion protection
rarely found in other types of construction.
The ever-increasing role of complex chemicals in industry and the regulation of their discharge, together with
household detergents and municipal biological wastes,
have created new problems for water pollution control
plant designers. Coatings that were accepted for many
years to protect submerged surfaces in water pollution
control plants are outmoded because of increasingly
harsh sewage. During these years, coal tar epoxy coatings
have come of age because of their high degree of chemical
resistance. Recently, because of advantages in function,
application and esthetics, the colored high build epoxies
have found favor in submerged applications and are
replacing coal tar epoxies in many instances.
Large, complex treatment plants take from two to four
years to build and can treat anywhere from one million to
100 million gallons or more of wastewater per day. The
equipment and steel fabrications required can come from
dozens of manufacturers and fabricators from various
parts of the country. They often sit around at the construction site for months before being used.
I. SPECIFICATION
Putting together a good protective coating job in large
and complex water treatment and water pollution control
plants is not easy. It certainly is not a one-man operation.
A good protective coating requires teamwork. The
engineer, applicator, coatings manufacturer and inspector
must cooperate. Working together, they can produce maximum benefits, long term protection, pleasing appearance
and easy maintenance.

The corrosion engineer or specification writer carries
a great deal of the responsibility. He must prepare
specifications that include coating system, number of
coats, film thickness, surface preparation, application and
inspection procedures. The engineer often relies heavily
on the cooperation of coatings suppliers with many years
of experience in protective coatings.
Whether for new construction or maintenance painting, a good protective coating system begins with a p r o p
erly written, well conceived painting specification. A complete paint specification covers every phase of the project.
It helps assure uniform bidding, effective job timing and
compatibility of shop- and field-applied coatings. It spells
out to fabricators, equipment manufacturers and the painting contractor the surface preparation, number and types
of coatings, dry film thickness of systems and application
requirements. In determining dry film thickness for a
coating system, the corrosion engineers must consider:
Service requirements and environmental conditions
Type of surface to be coated
Type of coating system being used
Volume solids content of the coating
Number of coats
Surface preparation
Method of application
Economics
Physical Limitations
II. SELECTION OF THE COATING SYSTEM

In selecting the proper coating system for a water
pollution control plant, the project engineer has three
prime objectives:
Long term protection
Pleasing appearance
Ease of maintenance during operation
The type of coating system selected should be dictated by service requirements and environmental conditions of the unit, the substrate to be protected and
economics. In this application, economics means longterm economy. The high performance coating systems require sophisticated and expensive surface preparation and
are often the most expensive; however, they represent the
best value because they withstand severe service requirements, provide long-term protection and create considerably longer repaint cycles.
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The best time to prepare and coat submerged service

areas is during construction. When taken down for service
at a later date, which can be extremely difficult and costly,
painting conditions are almost never as favorable as during construction. This is particularly true of interiors of
concrete process tanks.
Recently, coating specifications have been simplified
by greater use of high performance coatings. Engineers
are trying to make specifications simple by using as few
coating systems and thinners as possible. Fewer product
classes simplify inspection and application and minimize
compatibility problems. There have even been a few suggestions that an entire facility be coated with high build
epoxy on both submerged and non-submerged areas. This
might be carrying simplification to extremes and slightly
limits good color selection and long-term appearance
because of early chalking and loss of gloss of epoxy
coatings from sunlight exposure.
111. SUBMERGED EXPOSURE

There has been a growing use of colored, high build
epoxy coatings on submerged steel and concrete surfaces. They are frequently used in process tanks in place
of the coal tar epoxy coatings. The colored high build
epoxy coatings offer functional and esthetic advantages.
Esthetic advantages are obvious. Coal tar epoxy is a
black coating while high build epoxy is available in a range
of colors. Light greens and tans are most popular for immersion. It is more pleasing to see a treatment plant with
its large screw pumps, grit chambers, clarifiers, aeration
tanks, chlorine detention tanks and other large process
tanks coated with attractive and durable pastel colors instead of a drab black coating.
Courtesy International Paint Company, InCa
FIGURE 1
Bio-disc filter. Primed with high-build epoxy, topcoated with tan
epoxy gloss finish. Steel surface preparation SSPC-SP 10, Near
White Blast.

Many high build epoxy coatings have the necessary

approvals for use in potable water and are a major lining
system for water storage tanks. This facilitates selection
of coatings for a water treatment plant since the coating
system can be identical to the wastewater plant.
The role of coal tar epoxy, despite its limitations, continues to be very important in waste treatment plants.
These coatings
are excellent for applying
. . .
- to the backfill,
below grade surfaces of process tanks and buildings.
Coal tar epoxy coatings perform an important service
in protecting concrete pipeline and manholes from the OXidation of hydrogen sulfide, which takes place mainly or
exclusively above the water line. A two coat, 16 mil dry film
380
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Functionally, high build epoxy coatings offer certain

advantages regarding recoat limitations and intercoat
adhesion, when compared with coal tar epoxy coatings.
Coal tar epoxy coatings, when cured, are very slick and solvent-resistant; consequently, they have intercoat adhesion
problems. Most coating manufacturers place a recoat
limitation of 24 to 72 hours, depending on the formulation.
Top coats of coal tar epoxy applied after that time cannot
be expected to yield optimum intercoat adhesion. Many
engineers specify that coal tar epoxy be top coated within
48 hours. If this time is exceeded, all surfaces must be
sweepblasted to provide tooth before top coating.
Because of the complexity and size of todays plants, the
recoat limitation presents serious problems. It also
eliminates the use of coal tar epoxy as a shop coating and
dictates using a catalyzed epoxy inhibitive primer as the
shop primer with top coats applied later in the field.
More recently, high build, high solids coal tar epoxy
coatings have been offered that can build films of 15 to 20
mils dry in a single coat. This one coat high build potential
would certainly eliminate the intercoat adhesion and
recoat limitations of multi-coat coal tar epoxy systems.
High build epoxy coatings, because of their
pigmented matte finish, generally do not present the intercoat adhesion problems and time limitations for recoating.
They can be used as shop primers or as fully shop-applied
systems since they are easily repaired and recoated. Often
a thin, two mil dry film thickness coat of high build epoxy
is applied in the shop to abrasive blasted steel. The same
coating can then be applied as two additional five mil
coats at the job site during construction. The time lapse
between shop primer and field coats could be several
months or even years with no serious intercoat adhesion
problem.
Another esthetic drawback of coal tar epoxy coatings
is that they blush when applied or cured during periods of
high humidity or if a condensate forms on the coated steel
during curing. This leaves a streaky, mucky brown appearance that is not pleasing to the engineer or client,
even though this blushing has no harmful effect on the
coating system. Coal tar epoxy coatings lose gloss and
can become dull in prolonged sunlight. It is not unusual for
coated steel and equipment to be sitting at the job site for
many months before being put into service.
SSPC CHAPTER*17=1 9 3
8 6 2 7 9 4 0 0003828 913
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Courtesy International Paint Co., Inc.

FIGURE 2
Bio-sorption unit. Exterior tank shell coated with three-coat acrylic emulsion system in tan finish. Stairs, handrails and bridge over tank
coated with light green epoxy system. Interior immersion area painted with two coats of coal tar epoxy.
thickness, coal tar epoxy system should be specified for

concrete pipe carrying raw waste to the treatment plant.
Polyvinyl chloride sheet linings have also been used extensively and successfully to protect concrete pipe carrying
raw sewage. The vinyl sheet liner is mechanically built into
the pipe when the pipe is constructed.
IV. NON-SUBMERGED
system in these applications offers the water and

chemical resistance required for the service conditions
and at the same time gives the esthetic benefits of good
gloss and color retention.
V. SUNLIGHT AND WEATHER EXPOSURE
- SEVERE EXPOSURE
The selection of coatings for outside exposure is

similar to selection in a normal industrial environment except for sewer gas. This is usually an esthetic problem
since the sewer gas, hydrogen sulfide, can discolor
coatings, particularly those containing lead. Although the
concentration of gas is not sufficient to affect coating integrity, lead-free coatings should be specified and used in
this service environment. Items to be painted under this
service condition include exterior plant structures, piping,
valves, ramps, doors, sash, handrails, motors, fences and
other similar structures.
The coatings system generally used for outside exposure is the alkyd. The same vinyl coatings used in nonsubmerged severe conditions could also be used if the intent is to use as few products as possible. But alkyd
systems usually offer much broader color selection than
do vinyls and have fewer problems of compatibility with
shop primers and other coatings. In addition, the alkyd
coating offers simpler application properties t o the contractor. Vinyls, because they dry quickly, cannot generally
be applied by brush or roller.
The newer acrylic emulsion coatings make an excellent choice for this service in place of the alkyd system
or over alkyd shopcoats. The acrylic emulsions offer better
color and gloss retention than the alkyds, although their
initial gloss is not so high as that of the alkyd system. The
newer acrylic emulsion coatings meet all air emission
regulations and present no discoloration problems. These
Catalyzed epoxy enamels are used extensively for

moist atmosphere, non-submerged service conditions on
steel surfaces, machinery and equipment in indoor areas.
Wherever wastewater surfaces are exposed, moisture condenses on cool steel surfaces and unites with gases to
create highly corrosive conditions. These conditions are
frequent in wet wells, grit and screen chambers, chemical
mixing rooms, pump stations and dry wells. The enamel
epoxy coatings are used because of the high gloss finish
and broad color selection rather than the high build epoxy.
High builds can certainly be used in this service area, particularly if a satin sheen appearance is preferred and if
simplification of the specifications by fewer product lines
is desired. Epoxy coatings should not be used in exterior
moist atmosphere, non-submerged, severe service conditions because they lose gloss rapidly and chalk early. The
chalking is non-progressive and film integrity is good; the
problem is essentially an esthetic one.
For this service area, the vinyl coating systems perform well on exterior applications. In many cases bridges,
catwalks, handrails and other steel equipment over
clarifiers and aeration tanks are painted with a vinyl
system in a color that matches the high build epoxy used
on the submerged surfaces. The top sides of fixed and
floating digester covers and floating gas holders can also
be painted with a colored vinyl coating system. The vinyl
381
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S S P C C H A P T E R * L 7 * L 73
86279qO 0003827 8 5 T
Courtesy International Paint Co., Inc.

FIGURE 3
Auger screw pumps coated with two coats light blue high build
epoxy system, i 0 mils dry film thickness over SSPC-SP 10 NearWhite Metal Blast.
coatings can, however, present weather-related application problems. If applied below 50F they do not coalesce
properly and film integrity is weakened. This can be a
serious shortcoming in new construction because painting
cannot always be carried out under ideal conditions.
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
VI. INSIDE DRY EXPOSURE

This service condition includes laboratories,
workshops, pump rooms, blower rooms, control rooms and
similar facilities. Items painted include walls, ceilings,
concrete floors, doors, frames, sash, control boxes,
pumps, motors, handrails, piping, etc. The main reason for
painting is generally for appearance and improved
housekeeping. Hydrogen sulfide gas should not normally
be present, but the possibility exists for minimal amounts
that might cause discoloration in some coatings, so lead
free coatings should be selected.
The alkyd coating systems are generally used on
metal surfaces and on piping and equipment to provide
color coding.

The above-grade walls, which are often concrete

block, are filled with a latex block filler and often topcoated with a two coat catalyzed epoxy enamel t o
simulate an inexpensive tile-like finish. Ceilings are
generally painted with two coats of a latex flat white. For
sewage plant service, exterior latex coatings are preferred
to the interior type because of the lower pigment volume
and higher binder content.
There is a trend to use many of the emulsion type
coatings for inside dry areas, particularly the new acrylic
emulsions on walls. The acrylic emulsion coatings are
single-package, tough, attractive coatings that become
hard and serviceable. Since acrylic emulsions are waterthinned, there are no strong solvent odors to irritate the
other trades working near the painting operations. Since
they contain no solvent, they present no problems regarding environmental regulations for air emissions. They dry
quickly, permitting more than one coat to be applied in a
day and minimizing movement of staging and rigging. They
are very easy to use for both new construction and
maintenance painting.
These attractive and convenient semi-gloss and gloss
acrylic coatings are replacing chlorinated rubber and
epoxy coatings as wall coatings in buildings where surfaces stay dry most of the time and the service condition is
normal industrial exposure. Todays modern waste treatment plants are generally weil ventilated and heated, so
there are many more areas where acrylic emulsion coating
systems can be used.
Below-grade, poured concrete walls and ceilings are
usually painted with latex emulsion flats, either vinyl
acetate, vinyl acrylic or straight acrylic emulsions. Two
coats of the same product are generally sufficient.
Concrete floors are another area of concern for painting inside the buildings in a water pollution control plant.
They are generally painted for appearance and plant
housekeeping, which is complicated by substantial abrasion and abuse in addition to spills of chemicals and
water. The catalyzed epoxy enamels perform best because
of their toughness, abrasion resistance and resistance to
water and chemicals. A three coat system is usually applied with the first coat thinned at least 25% t o increase
penetration and promote adhesion. A non-skid additive is
frequently added to the last coat to minimize slipping, particularly when the floor is wet. Care should be taken to
properly prepare the concrete floor either by acid etching
or sweepblasting.
Some water pollution control plants may have equipment with hot surfaces to be painted while in operation. It is important to know precisely the metal
temperature involved. Heat resistant coatings require a
good surface preparation, at least an SSPC-SP 6 Commercial Blast and preferably an SSPC-SP 10 Near White Blast
for the higher temperatures. There is a great variety of heat
resistant coatings available and each manufacturer has
his own approach regarding temperature ranges. Instructions should be followed carefully. Generally, a silicone
382
Not for Resale
SSPC C H A P T E R * L 7 . L
73
8627740 0003830 5 7 1
FIGURE 4
In the foreground coated steel shows typical coal tar epoxy blush. Concrete channels coated with two coats of coal tar epoxy. Handrails
and bridges have epoxy gloss finish.
a wastewater plant will, in a similar exposure, give good

service in a water treatment plant. The reverse may not
always be true because certain gases, acid, oils, greases
and soaps are present in the wastewater plant exposure
that are not normally found in water treatment plants.
Following is a comparison of service conditions in
water and waste treatment plants to which protective
coating systems are subjected. Also included in summary
fOrm are appropriate coating systems, System film
thickness, surface Preparation and major equipment or
tanks to which we might expect to apply Protective
Coatings.
alkyd can be used for temperatures in the range of 300" to

5OO0F, and straight silicone aluminum should be used in
the 800" to 1000F range. Inorganic zincs have been used
successfully up to 900F.
SERVICE CONDITION TABLES
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Although water and wastewater plants are alike in

many ways, they are quite different in their effect on a
coating system. The wastewater plant is generally far
more difficult to protect with a coating system. Generally
speaking, any coating system that will give good service in

383
Not for Resale
93 D 86279YO 0003831 Y08
SSPC CHAPTER*L7.L
TABLE 1: Typical Submerged Senrice Conditions

SERVICE CONDITIONS
1. Submerged Exposure
a
b.
c.
d.
e.
Water
Dissolved Oxygen
Hydrogen Sulfide present
Carbon Dioxide present
Oils, greases & soaps
f. Floating matter
g. Chlorine
h. Alum present
Water Plant
Wastewater Plant
Yes
Yes
No
Not generally
No
No
Yes
Yes
Yes
Occasionally (at water level)
Small amount in raw sewage
Usually
Yes
Yes
Yes
No
STEEL
Surface Preparation: Minimum SSPC-SP 10 Near White Blast

Coating System & Dry Film Thickness
2 coats
10 mils total
High Build Epoxy (color)
2 coats
16 mils total
Coal Tar Epoxy
High Build Coal Tar Epoxy
1 coat
16 mils total
CONCRETE
Surface Preparation: Sweepblast preferred, usually only stiff brushed

High Build Epoxy (color)
2 coats
10 mils total
First coat thinned 25%
2 coats
14-16 mils total
Coal Tar Epoxy
First coat thinned 25%
system be applied to a given level above and below the
waterline, usually about two feet, while others coat the entire wall and floor surfaces of concrete process tanks.
Examples of equipment and structures most frequently coated in this service condition are screw pumps; grit
chambers; screens; sluice gates; weirs; baffles; clarifiers;
settling tanks; digesters; underside of digester covers;
aeration tanks; chlorine detention tanks; aerating, scraping, and mixing equipment in process tanks; and trickling
f i Iters.
Oils, greases and soaps in wastewater coat the surface below the waterline, preventing easy passage of oxygen and acids, and offer some protection toconcrete. Most
destruction of concrete and damage to coating systems in
process tanks is at the waterline. It is here that the coating
system is subject to damaging cyclic effects: hotlcold,
weffdry, freezelthaw and sunlight, in addition to the
abrasive effects of floating matter, all of which contribute
to the destruction of the concrete and the coating system.
Thus, some engineers specify a protective coating
TABLE 2 Typical Moist Atmosphere Conditions

Wastewater Plant
2 Moist Atmosphere Exposures
Water Plant
a Moisture and Oxygen present
b. Hydrogen Sulfide present
c. Carbon Dioxide present
d. Sulfur Dioxide present
e. Carbonic Acid present
f. Sulfur Acids present
g. Cyclic changes (hot to cold,
etc.)
h. Alum present
Yes
No
Not Often
Not Often
Not Often
Not Often
Yes
Yes
Yes
Not Often
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
No
Surface Preparation: SSPC-SP 6 Commercial Blast

3 coats
6 mils total
Epoxy Primer & Epoxy Enamel
2 coats
6 mils total
Epoxy Primer & High Build Epoxy
Vinyl Primer & Vinyl Finishes
3 coats
56 mils total
Chlorinated Rubber Primer &
Chlorinated Rubber Finishes
3 coats
56 mils total
For exterior exposures, a vinyl system would be preferred to an epoxy system since epoxies chalk early
and lose gloss on sunlight exposure.
STEEL
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384
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SSPC
CHAPTER*L7-L 93
8627740 0003832 344
TABLE 2: Typical Moist Atmosphere Conditions (continued)

This is non-submerged severe exposure and
represents the most difficult service conditions for
coatings in a wastewater or water treatment plant. These
conditions prevail in wet wells, enclosed grit chambers,
screen chambers, equipment inside buildings, manholes,
exterior of closed steel tanks or wherever wastewater surfaces are exposed in an enclosed area. Moisture condenses on cool steel surfaces, including pumps, motors,
handrails, etc. as well as masonry surfaces. The moisture
unites with gases t o create highly corrosive conditions.

Also included in this service condition is all equipment
subject to moisture, chemicals and condensation, particularly on below-grade surfaces that are constantly wet.
This also includes ferrous metals in the vicinity of or adjacent to chlorine delivery, storage and evaporation
facilities. Also included here are exterior surfaces such as
catwalks, bridges, handrails and equipment over process
tanks and the top side of digester roof covers.
TABLE 3 Typical Weather E x p u r e s
3. Outside Sunlight 81
Weather Exposure
Water Plant
Wastewater Plant
a Actinic light & radiant heat

b. Hydrogen Sulfide present
Yes
No
c. Sulfur Dioxide present
Sometimes enough
to discolor.
Small amount
Occasionally
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes, sufficient to discolor
certain coatings.
Sometimes enough to discolor
certain coatings.
Yes
Occasionally
Yes
Yes
d. Carbon Dioxide present

e. Salt Air (seacoats)
f. Abrasion from blown sand
g. Cyclic physical changes
STEEL
Surface Preparation: SSPC-SP 6 Commercial Blast, SSPC-SP 3 Power Tool Clean, SSPC-SP 2
Hand Tool Clean
Coating Systems i
3 Dry Film Thickness
Steel: Alkyds, acrylic emulsions, chlorinated rubber, 5-6 mils, 3 coat
systems
Polyurethanes for maximum gloss & color retention, 5-6 mils,
3-coat systems
Concrete: Vinyls, latex emulsions, chlorinated rubber, 5-6 mils, 3-coat
systems
cient to affect coating integrity.
Areas to be coated in this service condition are exterior plant structures, piping, valves, motors, pumps,
doors, sash, handrails, ramps and fences.
This service condition is similar to the normal industrial

environment of the area except for the presence of sewer
gas. This is usually an esthetic problem since the sewer
gas can discolor some coatings, particularly those containing lead. The concentration of sewer gas is not suffi-
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385
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SSPC CHAPTER*L7-L 93
m 8b27940 0003833 280
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
TABLE 4 Inside Exposures
A Inside Dry Atmosphere Exposure
Water Plant
Wastewater Plant
a Moisture
b. Oxygen
c. Hydrogen Sulfide present
Very little
Yes
No
d. Sulfur Dioxide present
Very little
Very little
Yes
Often enough to discolor
certain coatings.
Very little
STEEL
Surface Preparation: SSPC-SP 6 Commercial Blast; SSPC-SP 3 Power Tool Clean, SSPC-SP 2
Hand Tool Clean, SSPC-SP 1 Solvent Clean.
Alkyds, acrylic emulsions, dry film thickness 4-5 mils, 3-coat system
CONCRETE FLOORS
Surface Preparation: Acid etch with 15-20/0solution of muriatic acid to

produce texture of fine sandpaper or sweep sandblast.
Epoxy enamels, dry film thickness 5-6 mils, 3-coat system
Chlorinated rubber coatings, 5-6 mils, 3-coat system
CONCRETE, MASONRY
Walls & Ceilings

Latex emulsions, epoxies, chlorinated rubber, dry film thickness 3-4
mils, 2-coat system
Latex block filler added for block or porous surfaces
WOOD
Oil, alkyds, latex emulsions, two finish coats over wood primer.
Included in this service condition are offices,

laboratories, workshops, storerooms, pump rooms, blower
rooms and control rooms. Surfaces include pumps,
motors, control boxes, handrails, doors, frames, sash,
walls, ceilings and concrete floors. The main reason for
painting here is appearance and plant housekeeping.

Hydrogen sulfide gas should not normally be present here;
however, the possibility does exist for minimal amounts
that might cause discoloration in some coatings, so care
should be used in selecting lead-free coatings.
VII. SURFACE PREPARATION
regarding the degree of surface preparation t o be

specified, the engineer or specification writer must consider the nature and conditions of the surface t o be
coated, the type of coating system that is t o be applied,
the environment, service conditions, economics, physical
limitations and other facts. Some coatings have greater
bonding or surface wetting properties than others and are
more tolerant of minimal surface cleanliness. The
engineer must know the limits of rust, oil and soil that the
coating system tolerates. Generally speaking, high
performance coatings used in the most severe conditions,
submersion or moist atmosphere and chemically corrosive
environments, require the most careful and thorough surface preparation.
The best surface preparation for steel is removal of all
rust, mill scale and surface contaminants. This is most effectively accomplished by abrasive blasting either in the
field or shop with centrifugal blast equipment. Abrasive
blast cleaned surfaces should be coated the same day as
The performance of every paint job is dependent on

the condition of the substrate. When making a decision
FIGURE 5
Floating digester roof cover coated with Vinyl System for gloss
and color retention. Underside coated with two coat, high build
epoxy.

Not for Resale
SSPC C H A P T E R W L L
93
m 8627740 0003834 117

over the interior submerged surfaces of concrete process
tanks with nothing more than a stiff brooming of the concrete surfaces.
Concrete floors must be especially well prepared
because of the abrasion involved. Sweep abrasive blasting is a good preparation on concrete floors; however, it is
often impractical in a treatment plant because the project
is fairly well along the way before the floors are painted.
The accompanying abrasive grit or sand cannot be
tolerated where equipment or instrumentation may be in
place. Consequently, the preparation often used for concrete floors is an acid etch. First coats in multi-coat
systems applied over concrete, particularly concrete that
has not been acid-etched or sweepblasted, should be
thinned at least 25% with the appropriate thinner to
penetrate and promote adhesion.
B. GALVANIZED SURFACES
Courtesy International Paint Company, Inc.

FIGURE 6
Two coat, light blue high build epoxy system on steel centerpiece
and submerged steel in clarifier. Two-coat, high build epoxy
system in same color on sidewalls of concrete tank. Vinyl system
applied to bridge and handrails for improved gloss and color
retention.
blasted. Properly cleaned steel provides an excellent

painting surface and also provides the base for superior,
long lasting protection.
Abrasive blasting is generally specified according to
the standards established by the Steel Structures Painting
Council and is covered in detail in other sections of this
volume.
A. CONCRETE
Concrete should be permitted to age at least 28 days
under good conditions prior to applying a coating system.
Paintable curing compounds may be used to permit
coating in seven days. To prepare masonry and concrete
for painting, the same caution should be exercised for the
complete removal of all surface contaminants. Sweep
abrasive blasting is the most effective method of surface
preparation. There should be no evidence of laitance on
the concrete surfaces before coating, and all soft or loosely bound surfaces should be cleaned down to a hard
substrate, preferably by abrasive blasting.
Catalyzed epoxy and coal tar epoxy coatings provide
excellent adhesion t o concrete surfaces; vinyl and
chlorinated rubber coatings are also used. In construction
of water and wastewater treatment plants, it is not uncommon to apply a high build epoxy or coal tar epoxy system
Oil or alkyd coatings applied directly to zinc can allow

moisture and oxygen to reach the metal surfaces. Moisture
combines with zinc to form normal corrosion products
such as zinc oxides and zinc carbonates. These salts can
react with oils or fatty acids in the paint binder to form a
chemical soap film that destroys the paint bond. Non-oilbearing coatings should be used on galvanized surfaces.
Properly formulated high build epoxies adhere well as do
oil-free acrylic latex metal primers. Zinc dust-zinc oxide
primers serve well under oil or alkyd top coats. The vinyl
wash primers also perform well as a pretreatment on
galvanized steel to promote adhesion. Galvanized surfaces must be free of all oil, dirt, grease and other foreign
matter before coating. The painting of galvanized surfaces
is discussed in detail elsewhere in this volume.
C. ALUMINUM
All surfaces must be free of all oil, dirt, grease
and other foreign matter. After cleaning, painting may
be carried out with the coating system that is appropriate
for the service condition to which the aluminum will be
exposed. Vinyl wash primers and acrylic latex metal
primers make excellent primers for aluminum surfaces.
D. WOOD SURFACES
Wood surfaces are not very common in water and
wastewater treatment plants, but they should be
thoroughly cleaned and free of all oil, grease, dirt and
other foreign matter. All cracks, nail holes and other surface defects should be properly filled and sanded to a
smooth finish. All sanding dust must be wiped away
before painting.
Canvas insulation covering should be cleaned free of
dirt, dust and other foreign matter, then primed with two
coats of a high solids latex primer-sealer.
VIII. APPLICATION
Coatings must be applied in accordance with the
engineers detailed specifications and the approved con-
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tractors submittals that become part of the project

specifications when accepted by the engineer. In addition,
coatings should be applied in strict accordance with the
paint manufacturers recommendations and should be
subject to inspection at all times by representatives of the
owner, engineer andlor manufacturer.
Deviations from specifications or manufacturers
recommendations can be considered and approved or rejected at the pre-job conference among the engineer,
general contractor, coating supplier and painting contractor. In the absence of such recommendations, SSPC-PA 1,
Shop, Field and Maintenance Painting, may be followed
in storage, handling, and application.
Careful and proper application is necessary to obtain
the specified protection. Protection of the properly
prepared surface is dependent upon film thickness; the
minimum dry film thickness specified for service areas
must be achieved. Films must be of uniform thickness
without low spots, pinholes or holidays. Particular attention must be paid to edges and angles to be certain that
these vulnerable areas are adequately coated.
The contractors equipment, brushes, rollers, ladders
and other equipment must be in good, clean, workable
condition. Compressors and spray equipment must be in
good condition with proper moisture traps, regulators and
gages in place.
Spray application is generally preferred and required
for the high build coatings to attain high film build properties in the number of coats specified. However, high build
epoxy coatings are being successfully applied in heavy
films with long nap rollers and in many instances provide
adequate protection on the concrete surfaces. To attain
the specified film build, without excessive sags, most
materials should be applied by the double-pass, crossspray method. The second pass should be at right angles
to the first. Excessive atomization can cause a dry spray
condition, as can failure to hold the spray gun perpendicular to the surface or holding the spray gun too far from
the surface. Films formed with excessive dry spray may be
permeable t o corrosive agents and provide inadequate protection.
A spray technique can be developed at the inception
of the coating job by taking wet film readings immediately
after application and calculating the resulting dry film
thickness from the volume solids of the coating. In this
way, the applicator can determine the technique that best
produces the wet film required to attain the specified dry
film thickness. On ferrous metal surfaces, the dry film
thickness can be measured with a magnetic film thickness
gage. However, by using the wet to dry technique, the applicator can minimize surprises in the form of low film
thickness that would require additional coats. On concrete
surfaces, knowing the wet-to-dry ratio and the maximum
spreading rates allows the applicator to control and attain
specified film build.
Recommendations for drying times must be followed.
Some coatings require the application of succeeding
coats within a maximum time interval to develop proper intercoat adhesion, for example, the coal tar epoxy discussed earlier. Temperature and humidity limitations must
be followed. Many catalyzed coatings do not cure properly
below 50F (10C) or above 85% relative humidity. Water
reducible coatings also have temperature limitations;
usually a minimum of 50F (10C) is specified. Coatings
should not be applied when temperature is below the dew
point. With the exception of very fast dry coatings, such as
vinyls, coatings should not be applied i f a 20 F (11 Co)
drop in temperature is anticipated within four to six hours
after painting.
Painting in confined spaces having inadequate ventilation such as a tank interior or below ground chambers can
have an adverse effect on both safety of the workers and
film formation and integrity of the coating. Solvent fumes
are heavier than air and collect at the bottom of a tank. A
solvent vapor layer retards curing of the coating. Solvents
trapped in the coating can seriously affect the usefulness
of the coating by causing pinholing and blisters which
create avenues for water and other corrosives to reach the
substrate. Fumes must be removed, either by blowing
through bottom openings or exhausting through the top by
means of air ducts extending to the bottom. The safety
aspect is a most important consideration of the applica
tion procedures. Appropriate measures should be taken to
prevent the confinement of explosive solvent vapor-air mixtures. Explosion-proof lights and nonsparking tools and
equipment should be used to provide added safety. OSHA
Material Safety Data Sheets are available from coating
suppliers. The information should be kept on file at the job
site first aid section or in the paint superintendents
office.6 Tank painting is discussed in greater detail in
another chapter of this volume.
IX. INSPECTION
Inspection is the means by which the corrosion or
project engineer reinforces instructions detailed in the
specif cations.
Thorough and adequate inspection of a treatment
plant should be an ongoing process - and the inspector
should be representing the design engineer and the owner.
The owner or engineer should have a competent inspector
on the job. Some engineering firms have their own inspection crews or specialists.
The engineer should require the general contractor to
arrange a pre-job conference involving the engineer, painting contractor, coating supplier and general contractor. At
this meeting, the involved parties can go over the
specifications and definitions to make certain everyone
understands what is expected. Inspection is discussed in
greater detail in another section of this volume.
X. CONCLUSION
For the modern treatment plant to be adequately and
properly protected and decorated with a protective coating
system, provisions must be made for a well written paint--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

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ing specification defining the proper coating system ap-
plied expertly over a thoroughly cleaned and prepared surface that receives regular and careful inspection. This requires the cooperative efforts o f all parties: owner,
engineer, general contractor, coatings supplier and equipment manufacturer.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
chapter: Wally Cathcart, Bill Chandler, S. Frye, Dan Gelfer,
Howard Lasser, Marshall McGee, I. Metil, Chuck Munger, J.
OConnor, W.S. Rosenthal, Henry Stoner, Bill Wallace, Tom
Wilhelm.
BIOGRAPHY
Thomas Delany retired from
the Valspar Corporation in 1993
after twenty years of service,
most recently as Industry
Manager for both the water and
waste industry and the power industry. Mr. Delany had been active in the coatings industry for
46 years in sales, technical service, sales training and sales
management. Mr. Delany is a
graduate of the Wharton School
of the Universitv of Pennsvlvania. He is a m6mber of the Steel Structures Painting Council, the
National Association of Corrosion Engineers, American Water Works
Association, and the Water Environment Federation.
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REFERENCES
1. Steel Structures Painting Manual, Volume 2, Systems and
Specifications, John D. Keane ed. Steel Structures Painting
Council, 4516 Henry Street, Suite 301, Pittsburgh, PA
15213-3728, 1991.
2. Surface Preparation Specifications. Steel Structures Painting
Council, 4516 Henry Street, Suite 301, Pittsburgh, PA
15213-3728, 1991.
3. M.A. Vivona, and T.P. Delany, A Simplified Guide for Selecting and Using Protective Coatings in Wastewater Treatment
Facilities, Presente% at the New England Water Pollution
Control Association Meeting, October 24, 1979 (Portland, ME).
4. M.A. Vivona and T.P. Delany, Selection and Use of Protective
Coatings in Water and Wastewater Treatment Facilities,
Wafer and Sewage Works, June, 1980.
5. M.A. Vivona and T.P. Delany, The Role of Protective Coatings
in Water Treatmbnt Plants and Storage Tanks, Presented at
the New York Section of the American Water Works Association Meeting, April 23, 1980 (Binghamton, NY).
6. D.M. Berger, Liquid Applied Linings for Steel Tanks,
Chemical Engineering, Dec. 22, 1975 and Jan. 19, 1976.

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CHAPTER 17.2
PAINTING OF COKE AND STEEL PLANTS

bY
Arthur R. Thompson and S. C.Frye
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Protection and preservation of buildings, equipment

and machinery is a major responsibility of the steel industry. Maintenance painting includes not only anticorrosion painting of building exteriors, outdoor equipment and machinery, but also interiors, equipment,
machinery and, in some cases, even concrete. Proper interior palnting has a beneficial effect on employees. Good
housekeeping and better lighting are apparent in a newly
painted building interior.
With the current emphasis on safety, good housekeeping and improved lighting, improvements like clearly
marked passageways, neat parts storage and extensive
safety color use have gone a long way toward improving
the appearance of steel plants. Maintenance painting has
greatly contributed to this aspect of good management.
To control costs, it is necessary to use appropriate
coating systems applied in accordance with the manufacturers instructions. Experienced painters, using proper
painting and safety equipment, are expected to perform
the coating work. Good inspection and adequate records
should be maintained. One important cost control
measure is to recoat before the old coating must be completely removed and primer replaced as per SSPC-PA
Guide 4. This minimizes costs by permitting a single coat
of paint to be applied over existing cleaned paint.
I. SURFACE PREPARATION
For steel subject to severe corrosion where maximum
paint life is desired, abrasive blasting, according to SSPCSP 10, Near White Blast Cleaning, is the minimum cleaning
required.
In mildly corrosive areas, steel surfaces can be
prepared according to SSPC-SP 3, Power Tool Cleaning.
Better paint system service life results if abrasive blast
cleaning to minimum SSPC-SP 6, Commercial Blast Cleaning, is specified.
In noncorrosive or dry interior areas, steel surfaces
can be prepared in accordance with SSPC-SP 3, Power Tool
Cleaning.
II. PAINTS
and the vehicleare the two main
tuents of most paint compositions.

A. PRIMER PAINTS
The pigment should be rust inhibitive and can be zincrich, basic lead silico chromate, zinc chromate, iron oxide,
zinc dust, borates, phosphides or phosphates or aluminum
complexes. Such pigments have a sacrificial, inhibiting or
passivating effect on steel surfaces so rusting is retarded.
For power-tool-cleanedsurfaces, SSPC-SP3, the paint
vehicle should be able to wet the steel surface for maximum penetration. After drying, the vehicle should be
relatively impermeable to moisture and compatible with
the finish paint. Long oil alkyd, certain vinyl copolymers
and certain catalyzed epoxy vehicles provide good results
over power-tool-cleaned surfaces. Primers specified in
Volume 2, Systems & Specifications of the SSPC Painting Manual, have been used successfully. They are the
result of extensive testing; however, many proprietary formulations have also been evaluated and may provide equal
or superior performance. Careful choice must be made to
select the appropriate primer. SSPC-Paint 11 (zinc
chromate primer) has been used for both initial and
maintenance priming with good results. Be aware of limitations of the vehicle in the plant surroundings when selecting a primer. Relative resistance of some vehicles is shown
in Table 1.
Priming galvanized steel can be difficult. One system
is to reprime degreased zinc-coated steel with a vinyl
butyral wash primer conforming to DOD-P-15328and then
apply an appropriate coating. This eliminates premature
peeling and failure of paints on galvanized surfaces. Other
systems are described in the section on roofs.
In non-acid corrosive areas, where a corrosionresistant topcoat is required, inorganic zinc-rich coatings
conforming to SSPC-PS Guide 12.00 are recommended.
Abrasive blast cleaning to minimum SSPC-SP 10 is
required.
B. FINISH PAINTS
Finish paints should provide good appearance, impermeability to moisture, primer protection, and
recoatabiIity.
Federal Specification TT-E-489 and SSPC specifications for alkyd finish paints, including aluminum paint,
should be the minimum quality for alkyd, general weathering finish paints. They can be used only in mildly corrosive
areas. In severely corrosive areas, epoxy polyamide, epoxy
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Table 1
Resistance To Environment
Vehicle
Weathering
Salt
Water
Acid
Caustic
Solvent
Long Oil Alkyd
Excellent
Fair
Good
Poor
Fair
Fair
Epoxy Ester
Very Good
Good
Good
Fair
Fair
Good
Vinyl Copolymer
Very Good
Excellent
Very Good
Excellent
Catalyzed Epoxy Excellent (Chalks)
Excellent
Excellent
Very Good
Excellent
Excellent
Inorganic Silicate
Excellent
Very Good
(Use topcoat)
Very Good
Excellent
Excellent
Excellent
Excellent
Fair
inch and heavier films can be built. Coal tar mastics are
usually applled at dry film thicknesses of 0.04 inch to 0.1
inch, and usually are not effectlve In heavier films.
Heavier coal tar mastics have a tendency to crack or
alligator when exposed to direct sunlight. In such cases,
the coal tar mastic should be coated with a coal tar emulsion.
Blast cleaning should be the method of surface
preparation for application of mastics. If blasting is not
feasible, another method of surface preparation can be
used, but the coating performance may be inferior.
It is common to apply primer before application of
asphalt mastics. A fast-dry primer can be used if the surface is blasted. The primer should be dry before applying
asphalt mastic. Coal tar mastics soften and destroy the
bond of conventional primers to the steel surface, so
primers are not used under coal tar mastics. There are,
however, coal tar primers available if a primer is
necessary.
111. EXTERIOR PAINTING

FIGURE 1
Good surface preparation, application and coatings contribute to
the appearance and the life of blast furnaces.
amine, epoxy polyester, vinyl and aliphatic acrylic

urethane coatings over an inorganic zinc-rich primer or
their generic primer are recommended. Inorganic zinc-rich
primers should not be used in an acid exposure without
topcoati ng.
Black, aluminum and iron oxide red finish paints are
the major exterior colors used in steel plants, but are by no
means the only ones. Many mills use more stable and
colorful pigmented paints on exteriors and interiors.
C. MASTICS
Bituminous coatings such as coal tar and asphalt
mastics have traditionally proved effective in protecting
steel against severe corrosion. Protection is afforded by
thickness and inertness to corrosive attack. Asphalt
mastics are applied at a minimum dry film thickness of 118
In exterior painting, the general aim is to repaint

before the coating has completely failed. (See SSPC-PA 4
Guide to Maintenance Repainting.) With little primer
touch-up and a complete coat of finish paint, costs can be
minimized and the out-of-service time of outside equipment can be minimal.
A. BLAST FURNACES
Repainting before the coating fails is difficult for
blast furnaces, since they cannot be painted while in
operation. Painting can be done only when the blast furnace ls down for relining, whlch may occur between four
and six years after the previous reline (Figure 1). After such
a service period, complete abrasive blast cleaning is usually necessary. The blast furnace stack, top, uptake, stove
bodies, gas mains, skip hoist and dust catcher are coated
with two coats of silicone acrylic. Temperatures of the
stove tops and downcomer can exceed 400F (204C).
They should have the surfaces prepared to SSPC-SP 6,
Commercial Blast Cleaning, be primed with an inorganic
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vironmental conditions. However, these areas are still aggressively corrosive. Primers, if left exposed, and finish
paints used without primer in non-corrosive areas of
steel plants will still fail prematurely. The service life of
such paints is often measured in months rather than years.
While black is the most common color in coke oven
plants, there are areas where another color is better. Colors must be chemically resistant and vehicles such as
phenolics, chlorinated rubber, urethanes and epoxies both air dry and chemically-cured types
provide good
protection.
Coal tar epoxy is being used on new types of quenching stations because of its moisture resistance.
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
FIGURE 2
Hot stacks require high temperature coatings carefully applied in
accordance with the manufacturers instructions.
zinc-rich primer and finished with a heat resistant silicone

coating system.
Alternatively, after commercial blast cleaning, all high
temperature surfaces are coated with silicone-zinc dust
primers of an appropriate temperature range. Steel surfaces with operating temperatures between 200F (93C)
and 450F (232C)
are finish coated with modified siliconebased coatings. Steel surfaces with operating temperatures above 450F are coated with heat resistant, siliconealuminum coatings.
FIGURE 3
Precoated corrugated siding shown on a coke battery pre-heat
tower.
B. COKE OVEN PLANTS

Problems in maintenance painting of coke oven plant
buildings, equipment and machinery have lessened
because of the installation of apparatus to improve enCopyright The Society for Protective Coatings
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C. HOTSTACKS
Hot stacks present an interesting painting problem.
Stacks can be divided into two classes: those with stack
temperatures from 450F (232C) to 900F (482C) and
those with stack temperatures below 450F (232C).
Temperatures refer to exterior steel surfaces and not to
gases inside the stacks (Figure 2).
Stacks should be cleaned and painted when out of
service. Surface preparation should be abrasive blast
cleaning, in accordance with the coating manufacturers
recommendations. Two coats of heat resistant paint are
usually applied. One coat can be applied to low
temperature stacks, i f recommended by the manufacturer.
If a top coat is desired with inorganic zinc-rich coatings, it
can generally be applied the day following application of
the primer.
Stacks with temperatures below 450F (232C) may
be painted with heat resistant oleo-resinous or silicone
paints, or with inorganic zinc-rich coatings.
Two coats of aluminum-pigmented silicone resin give
excellent protection at stack temperatures between 450F
(232 OC) and 900 OF (482 OC).
Premature coating failure of hot stacks should be investigated before repainting. Vibration and stress in
stacks are major causes of premature coating failures.
Poor surface preparation and failure to follow manufacturers application directions also cause failures.
andlor asphalt-modified polyurethane elastomeric coatings have been used for recoating weathered, built-up
roofing.
Stainless steel and 12% chromium steel sheets have
also been used for roofing and siding on mill buildings.
Practically no maintenance Is required, and generally they
are not painted if used in mildly corrosive areas. However,
if stainless steel sheets are installed in highly corrosive
areas, such as those involving hlgh chloride or sulphate
concentrations, painting extends service life.
D. ROOFS
E. SIDING
Corrugated, galvanized steel sheets are a common

type of roofing. Critical areas of the roofing are laps where
moisture collects, causing more corrosion than on the rest
of the sheet. This problem can be corrected by coating lap
areas with zinc dustlzinc oxide (TT-P-641, Type li) paint
before joining, by applying a butyl tape at the joint or by applying a fillet bead of sealant meeting Federal Spec
TTS-1543. Other procedures for painting roofs are to use
proprietary self-priming aluminum-pigmented epoxy
mastic coatings or asphalt-base, fibrated roof coatings
(non-asbestos).
If painting galvanized sheeting the usual primer is
zinc dustlzinc oxide or vinyl butyral wash primer. Prepainted sheets now supplant field painting because p r e
painted sheets are often less costly and provide a higher
quality finish paint. Coatings used on pre-painted galvanized sheets include: inorganically pigmented 70%
polyvinylidene fluoride; chromate-bearing epoxy prime
coat finish-coated with urethane; epoxy primer finishcoated with silicone-polyester; and epoxy primer finishcoated with vinyl plastisol.
On older buildings, built-up roofs with layers of tar
paper coated with coal tar are common. After careful examination for blisters, water pockets and paper tears,
which must be repaired, the roof can be recoated by spraying or mopping. Use the same coating as the original,
since coal tar and asphalt are not compatible. Coal tar
Galvanized corrugated steel sheets have long been

used as siding. Precoated corrugated galvanized steel
coils, protected with high quality coatings, are now being
used extensively for siding.

FIGURE 4
The attractive appearance of this major mill motor is evidence of
the meticulous maintenance that it receives.
F. OUTSIDE EQUIPMENT
The coating and surface preparation for painting outside equipment, such as tanks, towers, condensers,
coolers, piping, etc., may depend on the time allowed for
outside service and the environment. Alkyd resin paints
with hand tool cleaning are often used in non-corrosive
areas. In corrosive areas, the type of coating systems used
in coke oven plants should be specified.
Appearance is the primary reason for indoor painting,

although corrosion protection can be a factor. Colors
should be visible and distinguished from each other and
the background. Ease of cleaning is a factor in choosing
the type of coating. Standard safety colors must be used
where applicable. Light colors, such as aluminum, light
green, light gray and tan, are widely used in contrast to
black, dark brown, and dark gray used in the past.
Re-painting should be done before the old finish fails.
Surface preparation is recommended by solvent cleaning
or a mild detergent wash using a non-Ionic detergent
followed by a water rinse.
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IV. INTERIOR PAINTING
8627940 0003893 357
A. INTERIOR OF BUILDINGS
V. TANKS
Old mill buildings were usually constructed of brick,

masonry or protected metal siding, usually black. When
using colors other than black, the siding must be sealed,
usually with an aluminum paint such as SSPC-Paint No.
101. Aluminum pigment in a shellac vehicle is also good.
An aluminum pigmented paint can be the finish coat or the
base for a color coat.
Galvanized sheet steel should be primed with zinc
dustlzinc oxide or a vinyl butyral primer, prior to applying a
color coat.
Brick, masonry and block walls are collectors of dirt
and dust and should be washed before painting. They can
be primed with a sealer and finish-coated; or they can be
coated with a high build modified epoxy or an acrylic
coating, which allows some vapor transmission.
Concrete floors, where being attacked, must be
cleaned and neutralized to pH 7-8 and washed before painting. If the attack is chemical, the floor should be leveled or
smoothed and painted with a material that withstands the
chemical attack and traffic.
Wooden buildings are not common in steel plants.
However, old mill buildings may have wood roof decking,
which may have been painted with standard paints for noncorrosive conditions. There is a problem of fire protection
for wood areas. The use of intumescent fire-retardant
paints has increased materially because of this problem.
There is a wide variety of tanks in steel plants. Some

are in non-corrosive service where contents would not
seriously impair the finish coat. The finish can be an alkyd
synthetic resin paint, an acrylic latex or many others of the
desired color. Surface preparation requires a light wire
brushing, a solvent or water wash.
There are tanks and towers in very corrosive service
containing acids or other corrosive materials. These tanks
are usually lined with highly resistant linings that have a
relatively long service life. Prior to lining, white metal blast
cleaning, in accordance with SSPC-SP 5, is required.
Chemical-resistant coatings applied to the exterior of
tanks may be epoxy-phenolic, polyester, vinyl, chemically
cured epoxies or coal tar epoxies, depending upon the
chemical exposure.
When repainting is necessary, surface preparation is
important. Solvent cleaning and water rinsing must be
thorough to be sure all contaminants are removed from the
old surface. Abrasive blast cleaning should be done to the
degree necessary under the prevailing circumstances.
A. SAFETY COLORS
The use of safety color paints is a requirement in
maintenance painting and is a part of plant safety programs. Where hazards exist, the American National Standards Institute safety colors must be applied.
Pipelines must be at least circumferentially striped to
denote the material being carried. Care must be taken to
prevent abuse of the use of safety colors. It is advisable
that the plant Safety Department be involved in the selection and the application of safety colors.
B. MACHINERY AND EQUIPMENT

Machinery and equipment like rolling mills, motors,
machine tools, cranes, crane hooks, etc., are handled like
buildlng interiors. Practically all machinery and equipment
is primed prior to installation; cleaning and application of
a finish paint is all that is needed. Cleaning is usually by
wire brushing (SSPC-SP 2) with some spot priming. For r e
painting, good cleaning by solvent washing or steam
cleaning is necessary before applying finish paint. If
chemical resistance is needed, reprime with universal
primer then apply epoxy or urethane top coats (Figures 4
and 5).
Functional painting to distinguish moving parts of the
machines must be clearly delineated. Standard safety colors are required.
VI. RECORDS
Written records are the best way to collect information on paint system performance. Records should include:
what was painted
date of painting
surface preparation
quantity, type of paint and manufacturer
application equipment
FIGURE 5
Visibility is the most important function of the coating system on
this yellow coil carrier.
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
This chapter is a complete update of that by S . C. Frye which

appeared in the first edition of this volume.
chapter: William F. Chandler, Seymour K. Coburn, R. Dashner, W.
E. Kemp, James R. Lopata, Bruno Perfetti, H. R. Stoner, William R.
Wright, and William J. Wallace, Jr.
REFERENCE
Anonymous, Heat-Resistant Coatings Help Huge Mill Extend

Periods Between Shutdowns, Plant Services, page 51, July 1981.
BIOGRAPHY
Arthur R. Thompson was a
project engineer for the Inland
Steel Company. He obtained his
BSIM and MSIM from Purdue
University and worked with the
Inland Steel Company starting in
1964. He was in the Industrial
Engineering group from
1964-1973 and in EngineeringStandards and Specifications as
a project engineer beginning in
1973.
Seymour C. Frye was a
representative to the SSPC starting in 1952 and is a former Vice
Chairman of the Research Cornmittee. He is a Chemical Engineering graduate of Drexel
University and was employed by
E.I . du Pont de Nemours & Co.,
inc. Paint Division for 16 years,
last serving as laboratory supervisor on paints, enamels and
varnishes.
He joined Bethlehem Steel
Corporation in 1946 as a
research engineer specializing in the specification and use of paints
both in the plants and on structures built by Bethlehem Steel
Corporation. He was promoted to Staff Engineer, Research Department, and later to Manager of the Organic Coatings and Corrosion
Section at Bethlehem.
He has developed specifications for Bethlehem and for the
SSPC.
He has been a member of the American Iron and Steel Institute, American Society for Testing and Materiais and the American
Water Works Association; Chairman of the subcommittee on, and
former Director of, the Steel Water Pipe Manufacture? Technical
Advisory Committee of the AWWA; director of the National Association of Corrosion Engineers; and an accredited corrosion specialist.
Mr. Frye has presented papers on the cleaning and painting
of structural steel to many organizations and published papers in
the American Paint Journal, Transactions of the American Society
of Civil Engineers, Materials and Corrosion Prevention, Factory, and
the Journal of the American Water Works Association.
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CHAPTER 17.3
PETROLEUM REFINERY COATINGS

by
W. E. Stanford
sibilities for maintenance coating to people already overburdened or unqualified, emphasis on coatings and corrosion protection is reduced. Low priority given to coating
work can result in a series of rushed projects, poor
specifications, poor vendor selection, improper surface
preparation, hasty choice of materials, and, of course,
eventual higher costs.
I. INTRODUCTION
Protective coatings are one of the primary means of
controlling corrosion in refinery exposures. For this
reason, costs for maintenance painting can account for as
much as 15-25 percent of the maintenance budget. Adequate interest return is expected for every dollar invested
in painting. Production outages should also be reduced
and life expectancy of key process equipment extended.
Important by-products include improved appearance and
better morale and community relations.
Refinery painting, which includes process equipment,
storage tanks, piping, etc., presents a broad spectrum of
exposures that involves a variety of physical and chemical
conditions. Because of this, coating procedures and
materials selection change from area t o area. Although all
areas cannot be covered in this chapter, some of the most
common ones will be discussed to aid the refinery
engineers in creating an effective maintenance program.
IV. COATING SCHEDULES
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A coating program for the maintenance of refineries

should begin with an audit. The audit should include
verification of existing and new coating records and an upto-date appraisal of coating conditions in all areas of the
refinery. It is also important to note causes of coating
failure. With this data, assessment of coating material requirements, scheduled timing costs, manning, and equipment can be determined for the maintenance coating program. This audit and planning of refinery coating can be
handled effectively through inspection departments within
the refinery. In dayto-day activity, appraisal of progress in
coating application and general conditions of existing
coatings can be recorded for reference in program planning.
II. HISTORY OF REFINERY COATING

The evolution of coating technology in the past 20
years has resulted in more efficient materials performance
than was previously obtained from oil-base aluminum and
other similar coating formulations. With earlier coating
materials, painting was an annual occurrence. Today,
coating systems that will perform for up to 25 years are not
uncommon. A typical high performance system is organic
or inorganic zinc-rich primer with suitable topcoats. The
total dry film thickness of such high performance systems
should be 8-10 mils in atmospheric exposure. These
systems can be applied on new construction and are virtually maintenance free for the expected life of the equipment. Economics and investment return can be improved
significantly with properly administered maintenance
coating programs.
111. PERSONNEL
Individuals in charge of maintenance coating must
work effectively with the entire organization. The coating
engineer is called upon to be organizer, manager, corrosion engineer, record keeper, performance analyst, and
budget salesman, with a knowledge of materials composition, selection, application methods, and equipment.
Administration of good maintenance programs is
paramount to success and overall performance of
coatings. However, when management delegates respon-

V. TECHNOLOGY
Careful consideration must be given to normal and
upset operating conditions before coating materials are
selected for a specific refinery painting job. The data
should reflect temperatures (high and low), cycling,
chemical exposures and mechanical conditions the
coating will be subjected to. Also consider whether the
equipment is indoors or outdoors and its geographical
location. The coating engineer must also know how the
equipment will be used in the refining process. For example, tanks are used to store finished volatile products. In
order to decrease product loss from vaporization, storage
tanks are often painted white to reflect solar heat and
decrease vapor pressures.
Coating requirements often encountered in refineries
(from a technical and operational point of view) are resistance to chemicals (including crude oils), permeability,
tolerance of temperature extremes, abrasion and impact,
resistance, flexibility, and weather resistance. Other properties, such as heat emissivity and solar heat reflectance,
ahould be considered where insulating qualities or heat
transfer is important. With this background as a guide,
desired coating properties can be established.
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A. RESISTANCE (CHEMICALS AND

CRUDE OIL)
Petrochemicals produced in refineries deteriorate
coating films if proper materials are not selected. Crude
oil, for instance, can cause extensive corrosion damage,
especially when water separates from oil onto the bottom
of storage tanks. High concentrations of hydrogen sulfide
in crude oil also result in corrosion damage. For these
problems, applications of inorganic zinc-rich primers with
epoxy polyamide topcoats, coal tar epoxies and polyesters
have performed satisfactorily. These coating systems are
effective on exposures that can range from fumes, splash,
and spillage to total immersion.
B. PERMEABILITY
The rate at which water or solvents penetrate dry

coating film varies greatly among generic types of
coatings, seriously affecting service life of some systems
in operations where moisture condenses on equipment
during heating and cooling cycles and permeability
through the coat ing increases. Si mi larly, the permeabi Iity
rate increases in humid weather. Some coatings used to
control these conditions are aliphatic urethanes and norganic zinc-rich primers with epoxy polyamide or vinyl topcoats at a dry film thickness of 6-8 mils.
C. TEMPERATURE
High and low temperature resistance is often required in refinery coating. Temperature may be ambient
or steel skin temperatures of process equipment. In atmospheric temperatures the range can be from -40C
(-40F) in northern climates to 54C (130F) in southern
climates. The process temperatures will range from
- 4O"ClF to a high of 648C (1200F).Temperatures as low
as -40C will be found in refrigeration systems and on
boiler breaching as high as (648C) in the typical limits of
the refinery. Coating materials selected for this broad
temperature range include epoxy, modified epoxy,
phenolics, modified phenolics, acrylics, silicone acrylics,
urethanes, inorganic zincs, silicones, and heat inducting,
glass-fil led inorganics.
To obtain accurate steel surface temperatures, the
skin temperature of equipment surfaces should be
measured, since it can be higher or lower than operating
temperatures. Significant energy savings can result if the
proper coatings are selected.
D. ABRASION AND IMPACT

In a refinery coated surfaces can be damaged by airborne abrasives such as sand, coke dusts, andlor products
containing particulate matter. In daily maintenance operations and during refinery turnaround, coated equipment is
bumped together when new piping or vessels are installed.
During maintenance repair, heavy wrenches and tools are
often dropped on coated surfaces. Another source of
damage is steel cables and slings that are used to hoist
coated parts into place. Because of these conditions,

coatings must have properties that will resist abrasion
and impact. The coating selected should be a fast-cure
that will form a hard film within several hours. For these
applications, self-cure, ethyl silicate based, inorganic
zinc-rich primers and other similar fast cure primers
are used. In some areas, where pH ranges are between
6.0-9.0, the primer is not topcoated. Where top-coating
is necessary, epoxies, vinyls, acrylics, urethanes and
other fast-dry coatings are used to coat equipment after
installation.
E. FLEXIBILITY
Wind, temperature or process pressures can cause
materials to flex. For example, in large floating roof storage tanks, roof sections can flex as much as 10 inches under high wind velocity. In process operation, the heating
and cooling of thin shell vessels produces flexing as well
as contraction and expansion. Materials that will meet flex
requirements are, generically, epoxies (flexible), vinyls,
urethanes, neoprene, and other similar materials. Each parameter should be investigated before a coating system is
selected.
F. W EATHERABILITY
Weather resistance of coating materials varies widely. Close to the Equator, coatings must withstand intense
solar radiation. Close to the Arctic Circle, coatings must
withstand intense cold. In hot, humid and cold climates,
vinyls, epoxies, acrylics, alkyds, urethanes, chlorinated
rubber, and similar generic types are good candidate
materials.
G. HEAT EMISSIVITY
As the need to conserve energy increases, emissivity
becomes important. Coating materials can be used to
decrease or increase heat transfer to save energy. Consider compression areas where gases are passed through
piping to storage under pressure. In this case, compression requirements can be decreased i f process equipment
temperatures are decreased using solar-reflective
materials. In other applications, heat can be absorbed to
assist in raising the temperature of a tank's contents for
pumping, such as with some crude oils. Where reflectance
of solar energy is required to conserve volatile finished
products, white coatings can be used advantageously.
Heatllight reflection of black is near O, aluminum and
medium gray 40-50, and white above 80.
H. COMPOSITION
To select coating materials that will provide the performance expected, the material's generic composition
must be known. The binder, pigments, fillers, emulsifiers,
and other additives contribute to film properties and subsequently to film performance.
When referring to materials on coating specifications,
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details. They will not be reviewed here because of their

complexity.
the exact name of the generic materials coating formulation should be given. It is not good practice to specify by
broad generic names alone, such as epoxy, because of
the considerable difference among epoxy coatings. The
performance of epoxy polyamide and epoxy amine can vary
widely. There are areas where they should or should not be
used. For example, when the application of an uncured
coating is subject to condensation or high relative humidity, an epoxy amine may not cure properly. The amine catalyst can be leached out of the coating by moisture and
thus not be available to react with epoxy resins. Epoxy
polyamide should be used in such cases because cure will
continue even though moisture is present, although cure
may be at a slower rate. Other materials, such as self-cure
inorganic zincs and moisture-cured urethanes, can be
used under moist conditions.
VI. SPECIFICATIONS
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To assure satisfactory coating performance, clear, accurate specifications for coating application should be
written. A coating manual prepared by the combined efforts of research engineering and inspection departments
would make the job of writing specifications easier. The
manual will include information on surface preparation,
coating materials, areas to be painted, exposures, and
special applications. In Appendix A is a typical form used
by refinery management to initiate bids on work and pro.
vide a definitive coating specification. Other similar forms
are used for coating stationary and on-stream process
equipment. Whatever system is used, all specifications
should clearly establish the following items as they relate
to scope and objectives:
Paint and coating materials are manufactured by a

batch process. Components in a formulation can vary. To
assure consistent quality and composition, coating materials should be fingerprinted, using infrared methods described in ASTM Reference Paint Testing Manual. These
methods require little time but are very effective in
monitoring quality of materials. Other methods, such as
pyrolytic gas chromatography and mass spectroscopy are
useful in identifying components of dry films or liquid
samples. In critical projects requiring large quantities of
coating materials, samples from each production lot
should be tested. Lots should be scanned by infrared to
establish and ensure consistent material composition.
For coating applications in refineries, the generic
materials most frequently used are alkyds, acrylic latex,
coal tar epoxy, epoxy, epoxy phenolic, chlorosulfonated
polyethylene, inorganic zinc-rich primers, mastics, organic
zinc-rich primers, polyester, silicones, silicone acrylics,
urethanes, vinyls, and vinyl latex.
Type and grade of surface preparation, abrasives,

and anchor pattern.
Generic type of primer and finish coats.
Wet and dry film thicknesses of primer and finish
coats.
Number of primer and finish coats.
Equipment to be used for applying materials
(airless gun, spray gun parts such as nozzle, hoses,
etc.).
Safety precautions to be observed.
Weather limitations such as high relative humidity,
rain, cold temperatures, etc.
Inspection, type of tests to be performed, by whom,
and results to be expected; instruments required.
The manufacturers coating instructions, noted
and referenced.
Spot repair procedures.
When specifications are complete, they are used to
obtain contractor bids on the coating application. During
negotiations of the contract, any changes or additions to
the specifications should be agreed upon. From this point
until the job is completed, the specifications should be
closely followed to achieve optimum coating performance.
I. REGULATIONS
Federal, state and local regulations control abrasive
and solvent materials used to clean or coat equipment surfaces. The regulations that apply include those written by
the National Fire Prevention Agency (NFPA), Occupational
Safety Health Administration (OSHA), Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), Department of Defense Fuel Containers List (DOD), California Air Resources Board (CARB),
Texas Air Control Board (TACB) Regulation 1, Philadelphia
Regulation V, and similar local controls.
In coating internal storage tanks for military fuels, the
coating material should be approved and included on the
DOD list. If zinc or other extraneous liner material is found
in jet fuels, the product will not be purchased by the
government or by some domestic customers.
Other regdations are directed to controlling solvent,
dust and emissions of other materials into the environment where they are hazardous. The limits and federal regulations can be obtained from the Federal Register. State
and local regulations can be obtained from respective government offices. These documents reference regulation

VII. LABORATORY TESTING

An effective program for materials research and new
product evaluation should be maintained to update
technology and coating performance i n refinery
maintenance. Research projects provide guidance in selecting materials and improving coating service performance. The data provides a basis for projecting economic
costs and service life expectancy, and ultimately, for making decisions on coating system investment. At the same
time, materials that are not adaptable to refinery conditions are screened, eliminating early and costly maintenance coating repairs and replacement.
Laboratory screening tests should employ a series of
viable tests using simulated refinery conditions and ASTM
procedures. This approach can project what might be ex-
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pected in service environments. Test parameters for physical and chemical exposure must be accurately established
before testing can proceed. These parameters should include skin temperatures of equipment, surface irregularities, chemical concentrations, adjacent process effluent,
contamination drift, weather conditions, thermal shock or
cyclic conditions and other pertinent history available
from engineering and operations. With this background,
screening tests can proceed. Tests most often used are
agreement will result. To accomplish this a panel scriber

equipped with a metal saw is used. With this equipment
scribes are uniformly and easily cut to the desired depth
(Figure 1).
Abrasion - ASTM C-190

Cathodic Disbonding - ASTM G8-69T
Drying Time - ASTM D-1640
Exterior Exposure (Coastal & Inland) - ASTM
D-1014
e) Flexibility - ASTM D-6222
f) Synthetic Seawater Spray (4%) - ASTM B-117
g) Fresh Aerated Water Immersion - ASTM D-879
h) Synthetic Seawater Immersion Aerated ASTM D-870
i) Solvent Resistance - ASTM 0-2792
j) Temperature Resistance - ASTM D-2488
k) Weatherometer - ASTM D-822
I) Heat Emissivity - ASTM E-307-68T
m) Permeation - ASTM D-1653
To substantiate laboratory data, as much in-service
data as possible should be obtained. D-ocumanted
evidence, such as case histories of materials in similar
refinery conditions, should be considered. To reduce the
risk of making errors in the application of paint to test
panels in the laboratory, arrangements should be made
with the manufacturer to provide first-coated test panels.
Usually, the coating manufacturer will supply coated
panels andlor wet samples. Other manufacturers should
be excluded from test information. After the first series of
screen tests, some in-house panels should be coated to
establish material workability, ease of clean up, drying
times, hiding power, and other data. If some of the tests
are suspect, panels can be prepared for retesting.
Of current interest are rapid laboratory instrument
test methods and procedures using the scanning electron
microscope (SEM), pyrolytic gas chromotography (PGC),
infrared spectrophotometry (IR), emission spectroscopy
(ES), and ultraviolet spectroscopy (UV). Methods and procedures for these tests are available from ASTM Reference
Paint Testing Manual, STP-500, Thirteenth Edition, and
other sources. These procedures can be used to determine
coating film generic composition, mechanisms of film
deterioration, coating composition comparison with
similar products, and to control quality by infrared fingerprinting coating materials.
In laboratory tests of maintenance coating systems,
scribing is used to determine how effectively a coating will
protect metal after it has been abraded, chipped and exposed. A scribe
inch wide is cut in an X shape across
the coated test panel to a depth sufficient to expose the
metal substrate. Edges of the coating along the scribe
should not be damaged when the scribe is cut, or poor test
a)
b)
c)
d)
FIGURE 1
Panel Scriber
Courtesy Gulf Oil
VIII. FIELD TESTING
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Once initial screen tests are complete, field evaluation will substantiate laboratory results. This phase will
generate in-service data to assist management when making investment decisions on coating systems. Personnel
making the field tests also have an opportunity to evaluate
film forming, handling, and drying characteristics. Field
test applications on exterior and interior tank surfaces
yield beneficial data that can be effectively used to determine expected performance of a coating system.
To evaluate coating materials for internal use on process vessels, test racks are used. Racks are designed t o
hold about 10 to 12 (size 3 x 5 x IL) coated panels and
two mild steel Corrosion coupons. Metal frames and support rods used to construct racks are made of Monel or 316
stainless steel. When racks are assembled, support rods
are insulated from the frame with Teflon tubing; each
panel is separated from the other by one-half inch Teflon
spacers. Metal corrosion coupons are accurately tarred to
measure corrosion loss in the vessel. From field test data
suitable materials and necessity for coating can be
established (Figure 2).
At the refinery, test records are usually developed by
the Inspection Department. At regular intervals a report of
test items is compiled. This background and data is then
filed for future reference.

IX. SURFACE PREPARATION

In all refinery coating applications, proper grade of
surface preparation is vital in obtaining satisfactory
coating performance.
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poor intercoat adhesion. Galvanized surfaces should

be permitted to weather for several months to improve
paintability. Where neither approach is possible,
special primers can obtain proper bonding of the topcoat. Vinyls, epoxies, latex base coatings and wash
primers are widely used on galvanized surfaces.
Copper
FIGURE 2
Typical Test Rack Assembly For Internal Vessel Testing
Steel Structures Painting Council Surface Preparation Specifications and Photographic Standards (SSPCVis 1) are used to establish conditions and degree of
coating deterioration. With these procedures, we can identify specific surface preparation requirements. Other
conditions that should be observed for surface preparation
are
General Cleaning
All surfaces must be free of condensation or moisture
prior to surface preparation or coating.
Steel
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Where millscale is present, shop blasting and pickling

and blasting are effective and practical. When required, on-site blasting is preferred to hand cleaning.
On-site pickling is unsatisfactory due t o problems
with handling acid solutions and safety. In field
blasting, the first coat of paint should be applied the
same day that steel is blasted to prevent rust from
forming on the blasted surfaces (free of chromates or
other toxicants).
Dry Blast Cleaning
Abasives used in blasting should be selected from
materials of mesh size to produce the anchor pattern
required for the coating to be applied. Abrasives may
be sand, steel shot, grit and others that will not contaminate the etched surfaces.
Coordina tion
Operations of sandblasting and painting should be
coordinated to avoid embedding sand or other debris
in tacky or wet paint films. Lack of coordination can
cause coating problems, particularly when internally
coating tanks where dust from blasting can accumulate on surfaces to be coated.
Copper and its alloys are not coated since they form
their own protective oxide film. However, should
coating be necessary, copper should be allowed to
weather until dark oxides appear or roughening of the
surface develops. The primer used should be conventional alkyd or oleoresinous materials. Where coating
is not possible and discoloration of copper is objectionable, the use of lead coated copper should be cons idered.
Aluminum
Aluminum can be cleaned and etched by using a solution of water containing about lo/dwt. caustic or by
brush blasting (SSPC-SP 7). Effective proprietary solutions are also available for preparing aluminum to
receive coatings. Surfaces should be coated with zinc
chromate-base primer or other lead-free materials. If
lead is present, it will promote pitting of an aluminum
surface.
Wood
Before painting, wood surfaces should be tested with
a moisture meter to be certain the wood is dry. Where
new wood is finish coated with water dispersed latex
systems, the test should also be made, since primers
are usually oil base. Previously painted wood can
often be painted, even though some moisture is present, if water soluble latex coatings are used and priming is not required.
Masonry
New plaster, concrete, and brick should be allowed to
cure before coatings containing solvent are applied.
When new water soluble coatings are used, complete
cure is not essential. It is advisable to acid etch concrete with a muriatic acid solution 10 to 20% by
Hand Cleaning
When hand or mechanical cleaning (SSPC-SP 2) is
used to remove weathered miliscale and other contamination, the proper primer should be selected. The
primer should have good wetting and slow drying
properties and should be followed by compatible topcoats.
G alvan k i n g
New galvanized surfaces should be cleaned by oil
dissolving solvents, detergents, brush blasting or
chemicals before coating to avert disbonding and

FIGURE 3
Typical Refinery Tank Farm
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surfaces, detergents and steam generators are effective.

Final clean-up of bottoms can be accomplished using
mops and rubber squeegees to remove water and other
residue from low areas. Surfaces should be allowed to drv
can be used. When oil is present, the oil will fluoresce

under the black light. When no fluorescence is noted, oil
has been effectively removed.
=6
FIGURE 4
The Storage Tanks in Background are Large Floater Roof Type. In
the Foreground are Typical Roof Birdbaths That Fill With Water.
volume. The surface should then be neutralized with

ammonium carbonate, washed with clear water and
allowed to dry.
In refinery coating, costs for surface preparation will
vary widely on the U.S. labor market. For example in 1981
typical costs of white metal blast ranged from $0.60/sq. ft.
in Gulf coast states to $1.2O/sq. ft. in northern states. Surface preparation costs normally represent much of the
cost for coating.
Removal of oil, grease, and residue from tank bottoms
will be necessary before surface preparation can proceed
in many refinery applications. On the exterior, this can be
accomplished by using solvent (SSPC-SP l), detergents,
caustic cleaning, and brush blasting (SSPC-SP 7). Interior
removal is more difficult. For example, removal of sludge
collected on the bottom of a crude oil tank is a big problem, particularly when the tank is a large floating roof (250
m bblslcap). The sludge is usually a heavily caked or
viscous residue, difficult to shovel and expensive to
remove using other cleaning methods. The most effective
approach is to pump residue using a vacuum tank truck,
then haul it to a disposal area. Remaining wax or dirt-filled
residue can then be broken manually into chunks and
removed by shovelling. If the tank structure permits, a section of the shell can be removed so that a front end loader
can remove the residue. To remove residual oil on steel
FIGURE 6
Naphtha Feedstock Storage Tank in Figure 5 After Seams Were
Sealed With Flexible Epoxy.
In recent years, hydroblasting has been used to clean

exterior storage tanks and other equipment in areas where
airborne dusts are not permitted by regulation or where
equipment cannot be exposed to dust. When hydroblast is
used, the water should be inhibited to prevent surface
rusting.
X. COATING APPLICATION
Coating materials are often applied in refinery operations by qualified contractors in the area. Contractors handle all provisions related to materials, personnel and
equipment. Large jobs, such as exterior storage tank
coating, are usually let out for bids. At the refinery,
maintenance painting crews are also employed for special
coating applications on process equipment and smaller
projects.
Application equipment commonly used at the refinery
are paint spray guns (airless and conventional), rollers
(with proper roller composition), brushes, and specialized
guns. The type of equipment to be used for application is
given in coating manufacturers instructions. Specialized
spray equipment with intermix spray caps and fiberglass
choppers are sometimes used to apply fiberglass reinforced coatings on storage tank bottoms and shells. They
are also used to apply some type of fireproofing using
FIGURE 5
Naphtha Feedstock Storage Tank of Riveted Construction. Note
Seepage at Seams.

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fiberglass filler. Where heavy monolithic materials are

used, the gunnite process is also implemented.
If certain factors are overlooked, a good application
will not be achieved. Follow these guidelines to ensure a
good coating.
1. The primer must be compatible with the surface preparation and topcoat. Primers such as inorganic zinc-rich will not perform well over wire brushcleaned surfaces and cannot be topcoated with alkyd
or other oleoresinous materials, since saponification
of the topcoat will result.
2. All coatings should be applied in strict accordance with manufacturers instructions, observing
minimum application temperatures, catalyst type and
addition rates, thinners and amounts allowed.
3. Internal tank bottom coatings and buried
pipeline coatings should be checked for defects in the
coating using a suitable holiday detector. The holiday
detector specified in AWWA Specification C-203 is
satisfactory.
Voltages should never exceed the dielectric strength
of the coating film, or damage of the film will occur.
The greatest amount of steel surface to be coated in
refineries is contained in steel storage tanks. These tanks
range in capacity from 1 to 250,000 bbls. Figures 3 through
9 are typical refinery tank farms and battery limits exposures.
FIGURE 8
Spheres and Storage Tanks Painted White to Reduce Recompression Required and Vapor Loss.

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FIGURE 7
View of Refinery Stocks and Areas Where High Temperature
Coatings are Required.
When storage tanks or other refinery equipment are

coated, two general areas should be considered. They are
(1) new equipment, and (2) maintenance coating repair on
existing structures. The most effective and economical approach on new storage tanks and process equipment is to
shop blast and prime coat at the mill. This provides protection for steel tank plate while in outdoor yard storage prior
t o construction. When storage tanks are erected, weld
seams can be blasted and primed, and damaged areas can
be spot primed with portable equipment. Process equipment is usually coated by the manufacturer where it is
fabricated. With minor touch-up, coatings retain their appearance and protective qualities.
The second approach t o new storage tank painting is
to acid pickle the steel at the mill to remove millscale. The
tank is then field constructed, blasted, and coated by contractors. This can be more expensive and time consuming
tRan mill coating and can cause delays on process equipment in short turnaround schedules. Weather and atmospheric conditions can present difficulties when work
is done outdoors. For these reasons, shop coating is
preferred over field application, particularly when large
surfaces are involved.
FIGURE 9
Color Coding Used to Identify Refinery Chemical Storage Tanks.
When deciding whether to repair or replace existing

coating, consider economics, coating compatibility with
existing films, surface preparation of existing coating film
and the type of spot repair needed. As a guide to appraisal
of coated surfaces, reference is made to SSPC (Pictorial
Standard Vis 2.) to establish what course of action is required. NACE Standard TM-01-70is also an excellent guide
to follow. The criteria for recoating is the percentage of
coated area that is unprotected, such as the exterior of a
storage tank. When the unprotected area is 75% or greater,
the coating should be replaced. If the unprotected area
is below 75%, attempts to repair the existing coating
should be considered, unless the failures at lower percentages are widely dispersed, in which case full replacement
may be more economical than sandblasting and priming
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the entire area. When internal linings are involved, conditions that exist for specific equipment must be determined. When corrosion rates are low, repair intervals may
be extended. When corrosion rates are high and equipment failure is imminent and critical, repairs should be
made as soon as possible to avoid pitting damage and production loss.
To maintain the coating, regular inspections should
be performed and the entire coated surface tested with a
holiday detector, properly adjusted. Defects should be
marked with chalk and repaired by established repair procedures.
Coating process equipment on-stream has been increasingly used in refinery operations. To accomplish this,
detailed procedures relating t o safety and protection of
sensitive equipment components have been developed
(See Appendix B). In this approach, production interruptions are avoided and better corrosion protection is obtained.
Tables 1 and 2 summarize surface preparations and
coating systems suggested for refinery application.
XI. INSPECTION
In refinery coating operations, competent inspections
can yield big dividends. Adequate inspection averts production losses and improves materials performance and
operational efficiency. The three most critical periods for
inspection on coating application work are:
1. When quality of surface preparation is critical,
particularly when immersion conditions require a
white metal blast (SSPC-SP5).
2. When coating materials are sprayed, particularly when work starts, so that standards of work
expected from the spray gun operator are clearly
establ ished.
3. When final tests on coating films are conducted, and when repair of holidays is made.
As work progresses, the inspector should record application data and comment daily. These records can serve
as valuable future references.
The inspector should have test instruments available
and in good working order. Instruments should include a
pocket knife, wet film paint thickness gauge, dry film
thickness gauge, high and low voltage holiday detectors
(portable), magnifying glass with light source and a portable vapor-proof spotlight. With these it is possible to perform nearly all the initially required tests.
The inspection must determine proper cure time on a
coating material. Following are some tests used to determine cures.
a) A coin is used to strike the surface of inorganic zinc-rich primers. If no zinc metal is removed
from the surface, cure is adequate to topcoat.
b) Most coating systems attain a definite hardness when cure is complete. To determine cure,
prepare a standard with the coating system on a 6 x
12 x i/g mild steel panel to specified thickness. Cure

for the specified time and temperature. Test the hardness of the system with a portable hardness tester
(Rockwell C or other). Obtain the average hardness
from 10 readings until maximum hardness is indicated. The average hardness can be used as an index number to determine when final cure of the film is
reached.
c) A quick test for cure is t o briskly rub the
coating with a clean, white cloth dampened with solvent. If the coating is not softened and does not rub
off, the cure is complete.
XII. SAFETY
To avoid accidents, all safety regulations must be
strictly observed and should be included in coating
specifications. Before coating materials are mixed and
sprayed, cleaner and solvent composition should be
established. From this data proper safety equipment
selection (air masks, etc.) can be made. When coating
the inside of tanks and other confined spaces, atmosphere should be tested with gas and explosive meters
to determine if toxic or explosive concentrations from
process vapors exist. As work progresses, intermittent
gas tests should be performed to ensure that ventilation is adequate to keep solvent vapor at concentrations
below explosive or hazardous limits. The reference entitled Threshold Limit Values (TLV) of Airborne Contaminants for 1982 (revised annually) for Chemical Substances and Physical Agents in the Workroom Environment can be used to determine hazardous limits. This
document can be obtained from the American Conference
of Governmental Industrial Hygienists.
During application of coatings reinforced with
polyester fiber that require peroxide catalysts, fires may
occur, unless materials are handled carefully. It is important to dispose of old containers properly in specified
areas. To avoid fires from catalyst oxidation or spontaneous combustion, used containers with residual
aluminums and other pigment should not be emptied in
the vicinity of the storage tank farm. A checklist of some
safety concerns is given in SSPC-PA Guide 3, A Guide to
Safety in Paint Application, and in a separate chapter in
this volume.
XIII. ECONOMICS
In refinery coating operations, economics and investment returns should be considered for costs involved in a
project. This is a complex task for some operations, but
fortunately, for refinery coating cost comparisons, it is a
straightforward procedure. The one often used by the
Refinery Engineering Economics Section for coating
systems is Discounted Cash Flow. This can be effectively applied when making performance cost comparison
between extended service life and nominal life protective
coating systems. However, when determining investment
403 Not for Resale
ab27940 0003853 2Tb W
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
CRUDES LOW IN H,S
CRUDES HIGH IN H,S
FLOATING ROOF T A N K S
COATING
SURFACE PREP
SURFACE PREP
Sandblast t o
Near White,
SSPC SP-10
INSIDE BOTTOM
( A N D UP 15'
ON SHELL)
INSIDE SHELL
(UPPER RINGS)
1
I
INSIDE SHELL
(MIDDLE AND
LOWER RINGS)
INSIDE ROOF
OUTSIDE ROOF
I
I
1 Coat of
Zinc-Rich
Inorganic
@ 3-5 mils;
Plus 4 mils
CatalystCured Epoxy
Same as for Floatinq

Roof Tanks
- _ - - - _ - - or
-Sandblast t o
Near White,
SSPC SP-1o
I
1
--
No Coating
No Coating
I
1
1 Coat of
Zinc-Rich
Inorganic
@ 3-5 mils
White Metal,
SSPC SP-5
Same as Exterior
Tank Shell
Zinc-Rich
Inorganic
No Coatinq
Coal TarEpoxy.@ 16B

mils min.
No Coating
Sandblast t o
White Metal,
SSPC SP-5
Epoxy 16s
mils rnin.
~~
Sandblast t o
White Metal
SSPC SP-5
I
I
No Coating
No Coating
No Coating
No Coating
Sandblast t o
White Metal,
SSPC SP-5
'I
1 Coat of
Zinc-Rich
Inorganic
@ 3-5 mils
This recommendation i s for new tanks. For repairing old bottoms, glass-reinforced polyester and epoxy coatings are recommended.
T o be applied in number of coats t o achieve this dry f i l m thickness, but in n o case should this be less than t w o coats.
Coating t o then be checked with a Holiday Detector, normally at 1000 t o 2000 volts depending o n coating manufacturer's
recommendation.
C - For corrosion protection, it is advisable t o apply same coating system as on upper rings. F r o m a practical standpoint, however,
it is often not economically possible t o coat the underside of the roof because of structural supports, etc.

CONE ROOF T A N K S
COATING
404
Not for Resale
Same as Exterior
Tank Shell
SSPC C H A P T E R * L 7 = 3 93
m 8627940 0003852 132 m

Table 2
REFINERY PAINTING SYSTEMS

SCHEDULE FOR STEEL SURFACES
R ECO M ME ND E D SCHEME
I
SURFACE
PR EPAR AT ION
SURFACE
PRIMER
COMMENTS
FINISH
Buried Piping
Sandblast
(NearWhite)
Coal Tar Primer + 2 Coats Hot Coal Tar Enamel with

1 Glass & 1 Felt Wrap & Finish Coat of White Wash
(see AWWA Spec C-203)
Buried Structures,
other than piping
Sandblast
(Near-White)
Coal Tar-Epoxy (16 mils min.)*
Docks (Above Water)

& Mooring Buoys
Sand blast
(Near-White)
Catalyst-Cured Epoxy (8 mils min.)*
If black coating i s acceptable,

the alternate is lower cost and
just as effective.
~~
Docks (Below Water)

& Sheet Piling,
Before Driving
In addition to the coating,

cathodic protection should be
considered for maximum
protect ion.
( Near-Whitel
Galvanize or Aluminum Coat
Fence Fabric, Chain Link

(Uninsulated) Exchangers,
Vessels, Heaters, Stacks,
Above Ground Piping, Etc
--
_ _ --
To 200F
In relatively noncorrosive areas
-----
In seacoast or
corrosive areas
1 or 2 Coats
Inorganic Zinc-Rich
(2-1/2 mils min.)
Sandblast
(Commercial)
___-_
Sandblast
(White Metal)
1 or 2 Coats Epoxy
(2-112 mils min.)
- - - -- - ----(1 1 With some items galvaniz-
- -- _ _
1 Coat Zinc-Rich
inorganic (3-5mils)
----- --
- ----_
Sandblast
(White Metal)
1 Coat Heat-Resistant
Primer
1 or 2 Coats Heat
Resistant Topcoats
(normally modified
silicone)
Sandblast
(White Metal)
2 Coats Straight Silicone; Inorganic Zinc-Rich,

Zinc-Dust Gray preferred, aluminum is acceptable.
(Paint must be cured at 400" F within two weeks
of application 1.
Sandblast
(Commercial1
Coat Tar-Epoxy (8 mils min.)
__
----_-
---
ing may be considered instead

of coating.
(2) Compatibility of topcoat
with zinc-rich primer must be
determined before application.
_
~_ _ _ _ - - -
(1 I These are not perfect

materials but are probably the
best available recommendations for hot surfaces.
(2) The zinc-rich inorganics do

a good job of corrosion protection but some coating suppliers
may be able to furnish a suitable silicone topcoat, where
color is important.
~~
Insulated Surfaces Under Insulation if

Metal Skin Operating
Temperature will be
under 2 5 6 F
Prepainted Items
(Compressors, Pumps,
Motors, Etc.)
Structural Steel
None n o r m a l l y required
-- - -- - -- -
- --- --
In relatively noncorrosive areas
Sandblast
(Commercial)
or mill pickle plus
brush-off blast in
field
- - ----- - In seacoast or
corrosive areas
- - - - - -- - --- - - - -
Hot Dip Galvanize

(2-1/2 mils min.)
---
_----_---------
If galvanized or shop-coated
with zinc-rich inorganic, clean
and blast welds and touch-up
with compatible zinc-rich
coating after erection in field.
Galvanize
Note: Film thicknesses shown are to be measured dry.

Color of finish coat to be selected by owner.
All coatings t o be applied strictly in accordance with manufacturer's recommendations.
"To be applied in number of coats required t o achieve this film thickness, but in no case less than 2 coats.
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

Number of coats depending on

hiding required.
405
Not for Resale
SSPC CHAPTERxL7.3
73 m 8627740 0003853 079 m
Table 2 (Cont'dI

SCHEDULE FOR STEEL SURFACES
RECOMMENDED SCHEME
SURF ACE
PREPARATION
SURFACE
COMMENTS
FINISH
PRIMER
It is recommended that
micarta blocks (or similarly
effective materials) be cemented and sealed under pipeline
where they rest on supports.
Walkways, Handrails,
Ladders, Line Supports,
Nuts, Bolts, and
Miscellaneous Hardware
~
Tanks, Interior
Clean Petroleum
Products
(Finished Products)
- -_
Sandblast
(White Metal)
_ _ _ _ _ _ - _ _ _ _ _ ---
- -- - -
Brine or Waste Water
Sandblast
( Near-Whit e 1
Clean Water, or
Condensate
Sandblast
(White Metall
Crude, Bottom &

Up 18" on Shell
Sandblast
(Near-White)
- -- - - - - Crude, Lower &

Middle Shell
Plates, and Roof
Sandblast
commerciai or
Mill Pickle
__-_--
Crude, Top Ring

(Floating Roof Only)
Sandblast
(White Metal)
-_
In relatively
non-corrosive areas
- - -- -- - - .
In seacoast or
corrosive areas
------
Sandblast
(Commercial1
- - - - -- Sandblast
(White Metal)
--
-----Sandblast
(Near-White)
Coal Tar-Epoxy (16 mils min.)'
-------- - - - - - -
--- - - - - -- -
Catalyst-Cured Epoxy (8 mils min.)"
Use alternate only if crude

not sour.
----
- -_ - - - - -- -
1 or 2 Coats Rust
Inhibiting Alkyd Primer
(2-1/2 mils min.)
1 or 2 Coats Alkyd Finish

(2-1 /2mils min.)
1 Coat Zinc-Rich
inorganic (3-5mils)
1 or 2 Coats: Hi-Build
Vinyl or Catalyst-Cured
Epoxy Amine (4 mils min.
-------
For light products,a chalking

white finish is preferred to
minimize evaporation losses.
- -
- - - - -- -- -
Where pickup of dirt in the

atmosphere i s a problem on
light colored finish, overcoating with a soil retardant solution should be considered.
---------1 Coat Inorganic Zinc-Rich

(3-5miis)
-- -
_ _ -_--
- ----- - -
_______
Sandblast
Apply cathodic protection
Note: Film thicknesses shown are to be measured dry.

Color of finish coat t o be selected by owner.
All coatings t o be applied strictly in accordance with manufacturer's recommendation.
"To be applied in number of coats required t o achieve this film thickness, but in no
case should this be less than 2 coats.
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

- --- - _ -- -- should be FDA approved.

-_----_---
-__-___-___----
------
Below Grade Shell
If for any reason slight discoloration of brine i s objectionable, follow recommendations for clean water tanks.
If potable water, coating
Catalyst-Cured Epoxy-Phenolic (1 2 mils min.)"
---
Sandblast
(Near-White)
----_--
(1 1 Even if tank is not to be

coated, it i s recommended that
steel be sandblasted or pickled
to remove millscale. This is a
good protection against pitting.
(2)All coating formulations
should appear on Department
of Defense Acceptable List.
------
- --- - --.
Tanks, Exterior
Above Grade, Shell
& Cone Roof
__________
- _- -- - - -
-_-----
On entire interior, 1 Coat Zinc-Rich Inorganic

(3-5 mils) plus Topcoat Bottom and up 15" on
Shell with Catalyst Cured Epoxy ( 8 mils min.)"
406
Not for Resale
For alternate, if postcured

zinc-rich inorganic is used,
make certain curing agent is
removed before topcoating.
______----
In addition to coating,
cathodic protection should
also be considered for maxmum protection.
Set tanks on sand, pulverized
limestone, or concrete pad
slightly above grade where
possible.
Table 2 (Contd)

SCHEDULE FOR STEEL SURFACES OTHER THAN
RECOMMENDED SCHEME
SURFACE
PREPARATION
SURFACE
COMMENTS
FINISH
PRIMER
Do Not Use Lead Base

Primers on Aluminum
None Normally
Required
Aluminum
1 or 2 Coats White
Latex Block Filler
(Until Voids are
f i Iled)
Clean
Number of Coats depends on

hiding required.
1 or 2 Coats 2-Package
Polyester, or Catalystcured Epoxy (an alkyd,
vinyl latex, or acrylic
latex may be substituted where washability is
not important)
For previously painted walls,

check with block filler manufacturer on possibility o f
adhesion problems.
- -- - - - - -.
1 or 2 Coats White
Latex Block Filler
(Until Voids are filled)
Clean
1 or 2 Coats 2-Package
Polyester (an alkyd, Ext.
Vinyl Latex, or Ext.
Acrylic Latex may be
substituted.
--_
- -- (1 ) Preferred System cannot

be applied over conventional
alkyd or Oleoresinous Paints.
(2) Consideration should also
be given t o tile, other flooring
materials, and t o tinted
concrete.
2 Coats Catalyst-Cured
Urethane
allow t o dry
-- - - - - ---Tanks, Brine &

Waste Water
Sandblasting or acid-etching
may be required.
Coal Tar-Epoxy (16
Clean & Dry
None Normally Required
Copper
~
Galvanized
No Coating Normally Required for Several Years
Plastered Walls,
Offices, Halls, etc.
Clean
2 or 3 Coats Latex (Acrylic or Vinyl)
Clean
1 Coat Emulsion-Type
Prime-Sealer
______-
- - -- ---Washrooms, etc.
Wood, General
Outside Walls
-----
--
-__-_
F iretard
- - - -- - -
Clean
_-
- -- -
Clean & Dry
Oleoresinous
-- -
1 Coat Wood Primer

for Latex
Clean 81 Dry
Sanded, Clean & Dry
Insulation Coverings,
Canvas
2 Coats AI kyd or
1 Coat Wood Primer
Clean & Dry
(1 With Catalyst-cured
Epoxy, wall sealer may or may
not be required, depending on
manufacturer.
(2) Topcoat should be mildewresistant for humid areas.
2 Coats, 2-Package
Polyester or Catalystcured epoxy
-_ - -
Topcoats should be mildew

resistant for humid areas.
2 Coats Latex House Paint
-----
3 Coats Urethane Floor Varnish
---
2 Coats Emulsion-type FireRetardant Insulation Sealer
- -- -- - -- -- - - - - - - 1 or 2 Coats Fire-Retardant Paint
Bit u men
Mastics
N o t Normally Required unless color i s important
Urethane Foam
In accordance with Foam Manufacturers Recommendations
-- -- -- - - - -
Note: Film thicknesses shown are t o b e measured dry.

Color of finish coat t o be selected by owner.
All coatings t o be applied strictly in accordance with manufacturer's recommendations.
*To be applied in number of coats required t o achieve this film thickness, but in n o case should this
be less than 2 coats.

407
Not for Resale
Elastomeric Coating most

usef u I.
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Concrete, Interior
Walls
SSPC C H A P T E R * L i . 3
93
8627740 0003855 941
return, there are shortcomings related to dollar value and

time. For example, on extended service life coating
systems, it may be as long as four years from the time of
initial application before savings or returns are realized.
Even the poorest coating system will last four years, and
progressively less as severity of exposure increases,
before repair or replacement is necessary. Therefore, the
higher cost justification for extended service-life coating
systems must be based on performance derived in excess
of four years after the initial application.
To make a simplified comparison of any two coating
systems, the following items are required;
a) In the year of capital expenditure, the cost for
initial application, which includes surface preparation, materials, labor, etc., for coating system X and Y;
b) Cost for touchup at third year X and Y;
c) After five years the cost t o recoat X and
touchup Y;
d) Cost for touchup at seven years for X and for
applying cosmetic coat to Y;
e) After ten years the cost t o repaint X and
touchup Y;
f) Cost for touchup at 12 years for X and Y.
By determining the difference (X - Y) between these
costs, the savings possible will be indicated for a period of
12 years. With this data, calculations for discounted cash
flow can proceed. When this method is applied by the
economics engineers, if the sum including the initial investment is O or greater, the project will have the desired
return on investment. If the sum is negative, the decision
t o use the coating system should be negative.* Details
relating to discounted cash flow require lengthy definition.
Typical economic comparisons of alternative painting
systems are given in a separate chapter.
With continued changes in the national and international economy, each investment in materials should be
closely scrutinized before decisions are made.
tween laboratory and field exposures, with a good exchange of data between personnel.
d) Preparing coating specifications that clearly
specify proper surface preparation grade, materials
selection, and application procedures.
e) Inspecting and testing coating application,
safety provisions and regulation conformance.
f) Evaluating economics to establish viability of
coating invest ment.
g) Planning a maintenance coating program that
assures quality coating application on every project.
When these provisions are followed, corrosion protection is increased and overall annual costs for maintenance
can be reduced. In addition, longer equipment service life
and fewer production interruptions will be achieved. The
trend in refinery coatings is to use the higher performance
systems on long term projects (15 years and up) due to better return on investments and reduced maintenance costs.
The need for the old standard coating systems and
materials will continue for projects where service life up to
10-12 years is expected.
XIV. SUMMARY
Topics discussed in this chapter are believed to be
primary elements that are part of all successful refinery
coating programs. When proper coating materials and
systems are selected and properly applied, corrosion in
refineries is controlled. The guide t o effective refinery
maintenance programs should include the following items:
a) Selecting qualified personnel to supervise
work.
b) Establishing coating schedules based on an
accurate refinery coating audit.
c) Initiating cooperative programs for testing be'Another way to look at it; any combination of paint system, surface condition, and environmental condition creates a repaint cycle that yields a minimum average annual painting cost. Determining and using this cycle will result in minimizing painting
costs versus protection.
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

Not for Resale
SSPC C H A P T E R * 1 3 * 3 93
8627940 000385b 888
APPENDIX A
SURFACE PREPARATION AND PAINTING RECOMMENDATIONS
Zone
To
Tank
Dia.
Ht.
Area
WO Date
WO No.
Area: Roof-
Grounded
Shell-
CODE DESIGNATION
Surface Preparation
1 Completely sandblast to white metal
2 Spot sandblast to commercial grade
3 Completely sandblast to commercial grade
4 Completely scatter sandblast (brush blast)
5 Tool clean
Coatings
Coat
Material
Application
Method Sq. Ft.
/Gal.
Cat.
No.
Name
Thinner
Wet
Mils
Name
Cleaner
Cat.
No.
Pt./
Gal.
Name
Cat.
No.
RECOMMENDATIONS
Surf ace
Preparation
Coating
First Coat
Second Coat
Fourth Coat
Spot Complete Spot Complete Spot Complete Spot Complete
Ex terior
Entire Tank
Roof
Roof Accessories
Roof Stairway
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Shell
Stairway
Stair Runners
Stair Tread (Btm)
Stair Tread (Top)
Stair Railings
Platform
Platform (Top)
Platform (Btm)
Shell MW Covers
Foam Lines
Service Lines
Interior
Roof & Rafters
Shell
Bottom
1. Paint Tank No. and date on shell with
Corrosion Control Section
L.
3.
BY
Third
Coat
~-
409
Not for Resale
SSPC C H A P T E R * L 7 - 3 93 W 8627940 0003857 714
APPENDIX B
B. Tanks in this category may be sandblasted and

painted. The products of the tanks may be at any
level during that time. They may be pumped out of,
but shall not be pumped into, during actual preparing or painting operations.
C. The roof on both cone roof and floating roof tanks
in this category, as well as the shell, may be sandblasted.
D. When floating roof tanks are gas tested to determine i f they belong in this category, tests shall be
made at the following places on the roof: inside the
pontoon hatches, behind the shield covering the
seal, in the open sleeves which hold the adjustable
legs, at the lower slots of the slotted gauge pipe,
and around the roof hatches.
GENERAL SAFETY PROCEDURE

PREPARING AND PAINTING EXTERIOR OF
TANKS CONTAINING PRODUCTS
I.
GENERAL
A. This procedure covers the preparation for painting
and the painting of the exterior of refinery storage
tanks while they contain products.
B. The following items apply to all tanks which are to
be prepared or painted while they contain products. In addition to these, further specific items for
different categories of tanks appear later.
1. The Inspection Engineering Department shall inspect all tanks prior to any preparing or painting
operations. It will be their responsibility to
decide when tanks containing products may be
safely prepared for painting from the standpoint
of tank condition. This would include conditions
such as leaks, weak spots in the metal, holes in
the roof, etc. Results of the inspection shall be
reported t o the department in charge of the
tank.
111. TANKS WITH VAPOR SPACE IN EXPLOSIVE RANGE

A. For the purpose of this procedure, tanks containing vapors which test between 50 percent of the
lower explosive limit and the upper explosive limit
as defined in Section IV shall be considered to be
in the explosive range.
B. Cone roof tanks must not be sandblasted, hand
cleaned, or painted while they remain in the explosive range category. If the vapor space is enriched by being blanketed with inert or flammable
gas t o raise it above the upper explosive limit as
defined in Section IV, a tank may then be handled
under the procedures outlined in Section IV.
(Blanketing can be by either inert or flammable
gas for the following reasons: It has been found
that introducing a stream of inert gas into an explosive vapor space above a flammable liquid
will not have the effect of reducing the vapor
space test to a smaller percentage of the lower
explosive limit. On the contrary, it has the effect, by reducing the oxygen content, of eventually making the vapor space test above the upper explosive limit. The same test result is obtained when a flammable gas is added to the
vapor space. Therefore, either an inert or a flammable gas, when added in sufficient quantities,
will change an explosive vapor space into one
that is too rich to burn.)
C. Floating roof tanks which test in the explosive
range category shall be handled under the same
procedures as outlined in Section IV-C. (See test
locations specified for floating roofs in Section I I D.)
2. A hot work permit issued by the department in

charge of the tank shall be required before starting the preparing and painting operations. The
permit must be renewed at the beginning of
each day.
3. An explosibility gas test shall be required at the
beginning of each work day. Tests for toxic
gases shall be made where appropriate, as requested by the department in charge of the
tank.
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
4. The planner responsible for the tank to be

prepared or painted shall request the Fire Protection Section to provide a minimum of one
30-pound dry chemical extinguisher at the tank
site and to inspect the tank t o see that foam
chambers and fire screens on conservation
equipment are in good order. The department in
charge of the tank shall not issue the hot work
permit until those things have been done.
5. Painting operations mentioned in this pamphlet

may be by any method (brush, spray, etc.).
6. Hand cleaning operations mentioned in this
pamphlet refer to hand tools only, and not handheld power tools.
II. TANKS WITH VAPOR SPACE BELOW EXPLOSIVE LIMIT
IV. TANKS WITH VAPOR SPACE ABOVE

UPPER EXPLOSIVE LIMIT
A. For the purpose of this procedure, tanks containing vapors which test between zero and 50 per cent
of the lower explosive limit shall be considered
below the explosive limit.

A. For the purpose of this procedure, a tank shall be

considered in this category when an explosimeter
test of a vapor space sample, when mixed with an
41O
Not for Resale
SSPC C H A P T E R U L 7 . 3 9 3 H 8627940 0003858 650

equal amount of fresh air, indicates the mixture to
be above the upper explosive limit.
B. Cone roof tanks which test in this category shall be
handled as follows:
1. Sandblasting shall be done only on the shell.
The roof shall be hand cleaned.
2. Tanks should be filled to the point where the
vapor space is reduced to a minimum. They
must not be pumped into or out of during any
cleaning or painting operations.
3. Gas tests shall be made around the gauge hatch,
roof manholes, and conservation equipment to
check for escaping explosive or toxic gases. If the
gauge hatch or manholes leak gas, they shall be
sealed with masking tape or similar material. If
the conservation equipment shows escaping gas,
exhaust ducts at least eight feet high shall be
placed over it so as to carry the gas vapors away
from the work area.
4. A grounding and bonding system shall be
required when sandblasting tanks in this category
to avoid the accumulation of a static charge and
possible sparking. The bonding system shall
include: (1) grounding of the tank to the ground,
(2) bonding of the hose, and (3) grounding of the
sandblasting equipment to the ground. The total
grounding system shall not have more than 5
ohms resistance. The required hot work permit
shall be countersigned the first day of work by
the maintenance foreman as well as by the
operations foreman to indicate that the grounding and bonding system has been installed.
C. Floating roof tanks which test in this category shall
be handled as follows:
1. Sandblasting of the roof or the inside of the shell
shall not be done.
2. Sandblasting and painting may be done on the
outside of the shell. The same grounding and
bonding system shall be required for the sandblasting as outlined in Section IV.B.4. In addition,
a check shall be made to be sure that the bonding
from the roof to the
are
3. Hand cleaning and painting may be done on the
roof and the inside of the shell as long as frequent
gas tests of the immediate work area show it to
be free of gas.
4. There should be no movement of products while

these tanks are being prepared and painted. The
roof may be kept at any level. However, it must
be afloat, and not resting on its legs.
D. Spheres, spheroids, and LPG storage tanks shall be
hand cleaned only, and not sandblasted, while in
service. They must not be pumped into or out of
during the cleaning or painting operations.
In special cases it may be impractical to conform to the
above procedures. In those cases, minor deviations may be
agreed upon by the Operating and Maintenance Departments and the Accident Prevention Division as long as the
safety of personnel and equipment is not affected. Such
deviations, however, are not to be considered permanent
modifications of the outlined procedures.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
participation of the following in the review process for this chapter:
Emil Bereczky, William Chandler, T.A. Cross, D. Koenecke,
Marshall McGee, R.L. Merritt, William Milek, John Montle, C.
Munger, David Neill, J. Peters, L.M. Sherman, Rick Sline,
William Wallace. In addition special thanks goes to the Communications Processes Department of Carnegie-Mellon University.
BIOGRAPHY
W.E. Stanford, who has retired, served as a representative
of the American Petroleum Institute lo the Steel Structures
Painting Council Prior to his
retirement he was a Sr Project
Chemist in the Technology and
Materials Department of Gulf
Science and Technology Company, Pittsburgh, PA. He graduated from Kansas State College
with a B.S in chemistry and
attended the same school for
graduate work. He has also
attended other universities for SDecialized trainina in other materialsoriented fields. He provided technical assictake and counsel to
strategy centers throughout Gulf Oil Corporation on corrosion control and protective coating materials. He was active in several professional societies and in corrosion control activities.
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41 1
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SSPC CHAPTERa17.4
93
8627940 0003859 597 9

CHAPTER 17.4
PAINTING CHEMICAL PLANTS

by
J. Roy Alien and David M. Metzger
I. INTRODUCTION
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Chemical plant exposures represent a highly varied,

and in most cases, demanding technical challenge to the
design and application of effective protective coating
systems. These exposures are characterized by a generally
high level of chemical activity in the immediate environment and potential corrosivity to metal (carbon steel)
substrates. Properly selected coating systems for use in
chemical plants should minimize metal loss by protecting
substrates from attack by an environment that may contain, for example, any of the following:
Mineral acids
Organic acids
Alkalis
Corrosive salts
Solvents
Gases
Weather
The wide variety of exposures, often combined within
the same processing area or plant, necessitates proper
selection of painting practices and systems. Such conditions have spurred the development of many specialized
chemically resistant coatings, formulated for use in
systems at general total dry film thicknesses of 7 mils
(175 pm) or greater.
The recommended chemical plant painting concept
involves a systems approach that combines the elements
of material selection, surface preparation, application and
inspection to produce the desired level of protection for
structural steel and equipment in a corrosive environment.
Following is a synopsis of current guidelines and practices recommended for painting metal surfaces in chemical plants. The systems and elements described should be
regarded in the context of atmospheric exposure and
resistance to chemical splashes, spills, and fumes only.
Excluded from this discussion are linings or coatings intended for immersion service. They are covered elsewhere
in Volume I.
II. ECONOMICS OF PAINTING

Economic evaluation of maintenance practices, candidate coating systems and alternate materials of construction are key ingredients in the cost analysis of main-

tenance finishing. Further, reliable input is needed on

coating performance, expected life of project, level of
protection and appearance expected, and initial and continuing costs.
The initial cost of painting alone should not be the
overriding factor in the analysis of economic considerations. Rather, it is evaiuated in the context of continuing
repair costs estimated to maintain a desired level of protection and appearance for a stated period of time at a
minimum cost per sq. ft. per year (Figure 1).
The key to sound long-term economics consists of
adequate original painting followed by a continuing maintenance program. For example, painted steel surfaces in
chemical plants should be inspected immediately and between 6 and 12 months after painting. At that time touchup
repairs should be made to correct damage or defects in the
original job.
Establishing priorities and scheduling is very important. Touchup and repair or repainting at the right time,
before excessive failure occurs, can provide substantial
savings. Maintenance of painted steel surfaces should be
executed before coating failure reaches the point where
cleaning and priming more than twenty percent of the
surface area would be required (Figure 2). Another rule-ofthumb is to re-paint before Rust Grade No. 8 of SSPC-Vis 2
is reached as outlined in SSPC-PA Guide 4.
Not all painted surfaces in poor condition requiring
complete cleaning, priming, and finishing should receive
top priority. Delaying some of these does not significantly
increase the cost of repainting. A portion of the maintenance painting budget should be allocated for repair and
maintenance of painted surface with less extensive
failure. The objective is to maintain adequate protection
and appearance at minimum average annual cost.
111. SURFACE PREPARATION

While coating systems must meet certain requirements in the performance evaluation formula, surface
preparation, representing a significant part of total coating system cost, is considered by many to be the single
most important factor influencing performance. Since it is
often in this area that applicators will attempt to save time
and cost, surface preparation deserves close attention.
41 2
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SSPC CHAPTERxL7.4
-3 - *.
93
8 b 2 7 9 4 0 0003860 209
A-SSPC,SP2,ALKD,6
A 16.5 c/sq.ft./yr,
MILS
IB
B - SSPC ,SP6,ALK D (6MI L S

C- SSPC,SP-6, INORGANIC ZINC/
EPOXY(8 MILS
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1 - 04
- -I
14.5 c/sq.ft./yr.
-................
J--
C UMULAT 1VE
COST
2
$/sQ.FT.
I c 10.5$/sq.ft./yr.
10.5 $/sq.ft./yr.
........................
L
I -
0
0
d--
d
d
-0
In maintenance painting, where painting previously

painted surfaces is involved, careful consideration should
be given to deciding whether full or spot blasting should
be specified. Factors influencing this judgment include
the extent and distribution of paint failure, previous surface preparation, type and condition of paint, and compatibility of a newly specified coating with the existing
one. If paint failure is as high as 50 to 60 percent of the surface, and especially i f the steel has not been previously
blast cleaned, full blasting is advisable.
Where paint failure isless than 50 percent of the surface and the existing coating is sound and tight over
previously blast cleaned steel, spot blasting is recommended. Except in cases of highly corrosive- exposure,
high temperature or immersion, blasting to a commercial
standard (SSPC-SP6) is the recommended surface prepara-
Non-metallic abrasive blast cleaning is considered

the best field surface preparation. There are situations in
which it is not practical, permissible, or economically acceptable. However, from a costlperformance point of view,
it is more often justifiable to devise a means for making
blasting feasible in chemical plants than for applications
in less severe environments. Chemical-resistant coatings
depend on adequate surface preparation to optimize their
system performance properties.
How a surface is prepared depends on several factors, among which are compatibility with the environment,
the coating system to be used and, of course, economic
considerations. There is a variety of methods and equipment available for surface preparation. Dry abrasive blasting, wet blasting, water blasting, steam blasting, and
power water cleaning are the most efficient methods.
413
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FIGURE 2
Maintenance is being executed before coating failure on these
tanks reaches the point which would require cleaning and priming
of more than 20% of the total painted surface.
tion for atmospheric exposures.

Adequate and properly adjusted blasting equipment
is necessary for efficient cleaning. Frequent blasting
errors, which are detrimental to efficiency, include inadequate air pressure or volume at the nozzle and excessive
abrasive flow rates. Another important factor is the
abrasive used (type, particle size and shape). It should be
clean, hard and of a particle size that will produce 1-2 mil
(25-50pm) surface profile on the steel surface. If heavy,
tight rust or thick paint is to be removed, a coarserabrasive
with angular particles is suggested.
When regulations or operating conditions prevent abrasive blast dust from being released into the atmosphere,
wet blasting or high pressure water containing a pressureinjected abrasive should be considered. To limit flash
rusting, inhibitors are available for addition to the water
stream or to the surface after cleaning, but this treatment
must be compatible with the primer to be used. When
water-abrasive blasting is used as the only cleaning
method, the rust inhibitor is promptly applied to the
freshly blasted surface after cleaning. This cuts down consumption of the chemical inhibitor and improves its
effectiveness.
When surface or environmental factors prevent abrasive blasting, hand or power tool cleaning is often
recommended. While these methods are sometimes
necessary, experience has shown that they are not as effective as methods that create a higher level of surface
cleanliness. For example, when hand or power cleaning is
used, coating performance over chemically corroded steel
is greatly reduced (Figure 3). These methods are adequately covered in SSPC specifications. Excessive power
wire brushing can produce burnishing - a common mistake which, i f left uncorrected, is detrimental to paint
performance.
Steam and pressure water cleaning, usually with the
addition of cleaners or chemicals, are effective when surfaces are contaminated with alkali, acid, dirt or paint
chalk. Acid cleaners, such as phosphoric acid, neutralizes
alkaline contaminated surfaces. Detergents or alkaline
cleaner additions neutralize acid contaminated surfaces.

Steam and pressure water methods are frequently used in
conjunction with other methods of surface preparation.
These methods, with the addition of selected cleaners, effectively remove dirt, oil, grease, and paint chalk
from metal surfaces. When cleaners or chemicals are
added to the steam or water, the metal surface must be
thoroughly rinsed with clean water to ensure proper adhesion. The effect of residual surface contaminants on the
life expectancy of coating systems has been demonstrated. Trace amounts of sulfur and chlorine compounds
remaining on the surface of chemically-exposed steel,
even after stringent surface cleaning and abrasive blasting, can measurably degrade the performance of organic
coatings. The use of these cleaners prior to hand or blastcleaning, frequently necessitated by the relatively high
level of surface contamination, differentiates chemical
from general industrial plant painting (Figure 4).
IV. SELECTION OF CHEMICAL-RESISTANT

COATING SYSTEMS
Resistance to a variety of types and concentrations of
chemical exposure and good overall durability are primary
considerations in selection of a coating system for
chemical plant service. Because they have a proven track
record in chemical environments, several generic types of
high performance coatings are being used in chemical
plant maintenance and new construction painting:
Chlorinated Rubbers
Epoxies
Polyurethanes
Silicones (high temperature only, not highly
corrosion resistant).
Vinyls
Zinc-rich (as primer)
Combinations of these generic classifications are
possible when primer and topcoat are incorporated into a
system. The system choice depends on the type@) of
chemical resistance desired, the relative importance of appearance and the quality of surface preparation needed
before priming.
Since conventional alkyds and most water-borne
coatings are not as effective as those listed above in harsh
chemical environments, they will not be discussed here for
chemical plant application. However, they have been
generally acceptable for use in the peripheral areas of
chemical plants, such as tank farms, where severe
chemical exposure is not usually encountered. Future
development of water-borne technology is expected to provide coatings that will more fully meet the demands of
chemical plant exposures while providing environmentally
acceptable levels of solvent emissions.
Paint systems designed for chemical environments
are generally applied at heavier total film thicknesses than
those intended for milder exposures. Typically, for moderate to severe chemical exposure, a dry film thickness of
7.0 mils (175pm) or greater is required to counteract the ef-
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SSPC C H A P T E R s L 7 - 4 9 3
8 6 2 7 9 4 0 O003862 081
TABLE I
RESISTANCE CHART
Cure
Mechanism
Acid
Chlorinated Rubber
solvent evap.
VG
Epoxy (polyamide)
chem. crosslinking
chem. crosslinking
Generic TvDe
Polyurethane
(aIipathic)
Silicone (Alum.)
Vinyl
Zinc Rich
Inorganic
Organic
Oxidizing
Acid
Alkali
Salt
VG
VG
150F
VG
250F
VG
VG
VG
250F
solventlheat
solvent evap.
P
E
F
VG
F
P
G
VG
1000F
15OOF
hydrolysis
chem. crosslinking
E'
VG*
E*
VG *
E
VG
E
VG
E
VG
E*
VG *
Solvent
Max.
Temp.
Weather (dry heat)
75OOF"
3OO0F'*
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Rating Scale:
(E) Excellent - no effect, best selection where performance and appearance retention are desired.
(VG) Very Good - no effect on performance, very little appearance degradation.
(G) Good - little effect on performance, some appearance degradation.
(F) Fair - performance and appearance affected by exposure.
(P) Poor - not suitable, coating attacked.
'Results indicate zinc rich coating performance when topcoated. Use of these coatings untopcoated in chemical environments is not recommended.
**Limited by topcoat in the system.
fects of the environments and the substrate roughness

characteristics (blast profile). These systems generally include a primer, an intermediate and a topcoat, or a primer
and a high-build topcoat to achieve desired film thickness, in Table 1 the relative strengths and weaknesses
(resistance) of some generic classes of coating are indicated for various chemical exposures (including weather
and temperature). The cure mechanism operative for each
of these classifications is also shown.
Generally, the type of exposure and surface characteristics govern selection of the primer and topcoat system.
Component compatibility of a multicoat system is essential to achieve adequate performance. Compatibility can
usually be assured by using the same generic types of
coatings throughout the system. For example, the use of a
polyamide epoxy enamel over a polyamide epoxy primer
constitutes a compatible system, provided exposure
criteria are met by the system. Under certain conditions,
however, it is not practical to adhere to this guideline. For
example, when painting hand-cleaned steel prior to exposure in a chemical environment, use of an alkyd primer
may be warranted with characteristics providing good wetting of the adhering rust and mill scale. Chemical
resistance Of the
can then be achieved by
using a compatible intermediate and topcoat. Sufficient
drying time must be allowed between each coat.
FIGURE 3
The coating on the hand-cleaned and painted portion of this pipe
(above weld) totally failed after two years of service in a chemical
Diant. The coatina on the lower oortion which was sandblasted
prior to being painted did not fa.

415
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SSPC C H A P T E R a L 7 . 4 9 3
8627940 0003863 T L B
re-priming and re-painting. Normally, thorough cleaning

and application of chemical-resistant topcoats may be
all that is required for system maintenance (Figures 5A
and 5B).
In maintenance applications, if the old coating
system is not completely removed, compatibility with the
previous paint system may be a deciding factor in system
selection. In this situation, it may be necessary to use a
special barrier coat to prevent lifting of the original film.
Lifting can pose a problem when recoating alkyds or some
chemical-resistant coatings, which dry by solvent evaporation. If the original topcoat is unknown, or if lifting is
suspected, primers and new topcoats used for spot repair
should first be patch-tested to ensure that lifting or attack
of the old coating will not occur (See SSPC-PA Guide 4).
One key to effective corrosion control through the use
of high performance coating systems in harsh chemical
environments is simplicity - keep the number of selected
systems, adequate for the job, to a minimum. This reduces
chances of failure due to confusion and misuse of systems
or system components. Because the requirements for
coating chemical plants are demanding, a specialist or
reputable coatings supplier should be consulted prior to
maintenance painting. Cooperation and consultation with
a coatings manufacturer will help assure selection of an
optimum system.
An important element in selection of coating systems
for corrosive environments is experience, which can be
gained only over relatively long periods of time. Testing of
proposed or candidate coating systems with anticipated
surface preparation on tests panels provides an important
source of this experience. When panels are exposed to environmental conditions on test racks located at chemical
plant sites, the results of controlled tests can be excellent
real-time indicators of coating system performance. When
panels are prepared, as in the accompanying photographs,
performance can be objectively compared on flat surfaces,
edges, and damaged (scribed) areas. This testing overcomes the limitations of laboratory evaluations as the
ultimate test for prediction of field performance.
FIGURE 4
The upper portions of the two panels were abrasive blast cleaned
to white metal prior to 24 hours of outdoor exposure. Panel on the
right was steel corroded in a chemical plant. Rusting was rapid
and extensive on the corroded panel due to the presence of
residual chemicals after blasting. Little rusting occurred on the
new steel (on left).
An effective guideline for primer selection for

chemical environment is: i f the steel surface to be
painted (in a moderate-to-severe chemical environment)
can be abrasive blast cleaned to SSPC-SP 6 commercial
blast or better, the highest level of system performance
can be obtained by using inorganic zinc-rich primers.
While these primers must be topcoated when subject to
chemical environments, their ability to be topcoated with a
wide range of chemical-resistant finishes (e.g., epoxies,
polyurethanes, vinyls, etc.) and the level of protection that
they afford steel substrates make them sound economic
choices. The galvanic protection that zinc-rich primers provide is generally not matched by organic coating alternatives and thus pays dividends in the extension of coating
system life and reduction in the frequency and degree of
V. APPLICATION
The method of application affects the quality and
FIGURE 5
(right) was sandblasted and finished with an alkyd paint system.
New steel sandblasted, primed with inorganic zinc and finished
Failure noted after six years chemical plant exposure.
with a polyamide epoxy topcoat. No failure at scribe (rusting)
after six years chemical plant exposure (left). The new steel panel
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416
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SSPC C H A P T E R * L 7 = 4 73
8627740 0 0 0 3 8 6 4 954
order.
Higher production rates are possible with airless
spray when compared to conventional air atomization
spray. Spray application normally provides better film
build on round edges than brushing. Regardless of which
method is selected, film build on sharp edges requires
great care and often additional coats.
For proper spray application, the spray equipment
must have adequate controls, be large enough for the job
and capable of spraying the coating material. Information
is available from reputable manufacturers of coating materials and spray equipment and from the chapter on paint
application in this volume. Spraying should be done by
qualified people who will execute proper spray technique
to meet the specifications. When it is not possible to
spray, a roller should be the second choice, especially for
large surface areas. While application by spray or roller is
preferred, brushing is often necessary as a complementary
method. It serves well for cut-in, trim, and touch-up
(Figure 6).
Specifications for protective painting in chemical
plants should clearly define the required film thickness
and accepted methods of measurement. Adequate film
thickness is necessary for hiding and protection. The application must provide desired film thickness, uniformity,
and continuity. To this end, each coat in a paint system
should be a different color than the preceding coat thickness less than the critical minimum, which varies depending on the type of coating and exposure, results in a
drastic reduction in the protective life of a coating system.
SSPC-PA 2 is a specification for measurement of dry film
thickness. Careful inspection must be exercised throughout the application toensure that all specifications are met.
FIGURE 6
Roller application to this storage tank is the method of choice
when circumstances dictate against overspray.
economics of painting. Therefore, its selection should be

based on the type, nature, and size of the surface to be
painted; the application characteristics of the coating(s);
and the location of the item or structure to be painted.
Brush, roll, and spray are the most commonly used
methods of application. Spraying usually results in lowest
costs and highest application rates. Unless otherwise indicated, the general order of application preference is spray,
roll, brush. Application rates usually decrease in this
FIGURE 7
Surface preparation (abrasive blasting) and painting of subcosts, improves quality of application and results in improved
system performance.
assemblies on-site prior to installation reduces initial painting
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41 7
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8627940 0003865 890
Environmental conditions, such as atmospheric temperature, substrate temperature, humidity, wind, precipitation, and chemical contamination, can have a significant
effect on performance of a coating system. The desirable
atmospheric temperature range for coating application is
60 to 90F. Unless specifically formulated, coatings should
not be applied when the atmospheric temperature is below
40F (50F for epoxy) or above 100F. Temperatures below
45OF may retard curing or drying. High temperatures will
accelerate both. Substrate temperatures above 100F may
also cause rapid solvent release from some coatings and
result in bubbling and pinholing. Substrate temperature
does not have much of an effect on spray application of
slow drying materials.
Relative humidity, substrate characteristics, and ambient temperatures all affect the application. To avoid condensation, most protective coatings should not be applied
to steel unless the surface temperature is, and remains, at
least 5 OF above the dew point.
When materials containing solvents with high evaporation rates are sprayed, the material and surface
temperatures may be reduced considerably. For example,
i f the temperature drops below the dew point, moisture
condensation will occur on the surface and in the coating,
affecting adhesion and subsequent film integrity.
Relative humidity also affects drying and curing times
of coatings. High humidity generally slows drying time for
coatings that cure by air oxidation. High humidity accelerates, and a certain level may be required, curing
certain types of polyurethanes and inorganic zinc coatings. Information on the effects of temperature and
humidity and combinations thereof on drying and curing
should be obtained from the coatings manufacturer.
Coatings should not be applied outdoors when high
winds can (a) carry dust, dirt, etc., which become embedded in the coating causing pinholes and poor appearance;
(b) interefere with spray painting; (c) carry overspray to
areas where it is not tolerable; or (d) cause dry overspray.
Coatings should not be applied outdoors during precipitation or when it is imminent.
In chemical atmospheres, the coating system should
be completed within the shortest possible time, consistent
with proper drying and curing of each coat, t o avoid
chemical contamination between coats. If contamination
occurs, it should be removed, usually by washing with
detergent and water followed by thorough rinsing.
One means of specifying paint application in accordance with good practice is to cite SCPC-PA 1, Shop,
Field and Maintenance Painting.
As much cleaning, priming, and coating as practical

should be done before installation. Cleaning, priming and
sometimes applying the intermediate coat at the fabricators shop or at the site before erection is sound practice. This practice is economical and provides the best
application conditions. Proper care in handling during
shipping and erection results in little touchup before the
final coats are applied (Figure 7).
Design has a significant influence on cost and performance. Protective coatings should be included as one
factor in design considerations. Features such as back-toback angles, skip welds and inaccessible areas should be
avoided. Vents and overflow arrangements should be
located to minimize the effect on coated surfaces.
It is difficult to obtain off-the-shelf items such as
pumps and motors with chemical-resistant coating systems. Special coatings for these items are prohibitively expensive, and obtaining them unpainted may also be expensive. For critical exposures, it may be necessary to blast
clean and paint these items. A compromise is to obtain the
manufacturers coating system with the best surface
preparation offered and coat it with a compatible chemicalresistant finish or a barrier (tie) coat prior t o topcoating.
1
PROTECT ION
U
FIGURE 8
Unlike the chicken and the egg, proper protection provided by
painting has a definite beginning and end. All elements must
work together to achieve this fragile balance. Failure of any one
of these four elements results in a loss of corrosion protection.
VI. NEW CONSTRUCTION PAINTING
VII. SUMMARY
The easiest and best time for painting steel is at construction. Efforts to minimize capitalized costs and project
budgets frequently compromise the quality of original
coating systems. The quality of original painting has a
lasting influence on performance and cost of subsequent
maintenance painting, as well as on the life of the facility.
The importance of specifying and using the proper

paint system cannot be overemphasized. While initial expenditures for properly engineered, high performance
coating systems may seem high, this investment pays off
in considerably reduced long-term maintenance costs.
Once the best decision has been made on selection of

418
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SSPC C H A P T E R a L 7 - 4 93
93
m 8627940 0003866 727 m
the coating system, clearly detailed specifications are required to communicate and execute that decision. Painting
-~system sDecifications. such as those of the SSPC.
should indicate all of the following:
Coating description, including product numbers or
specificat ions;
Surface preparation description;
Special mixing andlor application instructions, application conditions;
Minimum (maximum) dry film thickness per coat;
Minimum (maximum) dry film thickness of total
system.
To be effective, detailed specifications should be supported by thorough inspection to ensure that ali elements
of the coating system specification are followed. Many
coating systems, properly selected and painstakingly
specified, have prematurely failed because inadequate inspection permitted improper application (Figure 8).
Specification and inspection should take safety into
account. Worker protection during rigging, surface
preparation, paint application and clean-up are paramount
Any special precautions to be observed in
operating or processing areas should be included in the
specifications or should be a topic of discussion before
placement of the painting contract. Painting a chernical
plant should always be considered from a Systems standpoint. Attention to all elements of the system provides the
best opportunity for economical and effective long-term
protection of steel.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
chapter: Darre1 Campbell, T. ArCross, Randy Fuikerson, Marshall
McGee, John Montle, C. Munger, William Pearson and William
Wallace.
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
BIOGRAPHIES
J. R. Allen has retired from
E.I. du Pont de Nemours and
Co., Inc. He served as a member of the Research Committee
of the Steel Structure Painting
Council. He graduated from the
Georgia Institute of Technology
in 1943 with a B.S. in Ceramic
Engineering. After service in the
U S . Army, he joined the staff
at the Engineering Research
Laboratory of du Pont and Co.,
Inc., where he was engaged in
research and development of
nonmetallic materials of construc:tion for chemical plants and eauiDment. From 1975 until his retirement, he worked with the Engineering Service Division as an engineering materials consultant,
specializing in protective coatings and thermal insulation.
David w. Metzger is a member of the SSPC Research Committee, He received his B.S.
degree in Business Managet-f~entfrom Lehigh University in
1968. He joined DuPont that
same year in the company,s Finishes Division of the Automotive
Products Department. Since that
time, he has held various technical sales and marketing positions, including Senior Product
Specialist with Maintenance Finishes Sales.
REFERENCES
C. Calabreseand J. R. Allen, Surface Characterization of Atmospherically Corroded and Blast Cleaned Steel. Corrosion Vol. 34,
No. 10, October, 1978.

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93
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CHAPTER 17.5
PAINTING PULP AND PAPER MILLS

by
This chapter provides the engineering and maintenance departments of pulp and paper mills with coating
systems effective for construction and maintenance.
Substantial monetary and productivity rewards are
derived from a good coatings program. The coatings
material and technology are available. The problem is how
to combine available materials and technology into working protective coatings programs that provide corrosion
protection, safety and appearance at the lowest cost. The
results of ineffective programs are lower productivity and
morale together with higher maintenance and replacement
costs.
information based on operating experience with protective

coatings.
Following are some of the functions and responsibilities of the Protective Coatings Committee.
I. SCOPE
This chapter deals primarily with protection of mild
steel, galvanized steel and other metallic and non-metallic
substrates exposed to the corrosive environment of pulp
and paper mills. For mills exposed to additional corrosive
elements produced by neighboring plants, good protection
can usually be attained by minor upward adjustments in
system film thickness or by wider use of bleach area
systems.
Special attention is directed to the concept and implementation of the protective coatings program as it
relates to construction and to maintenance. New facilities
and additions are covered under New Construction. Work
by plant painting crews and by outside painting contractors is covered under Maintenance.
II. THE PROTECTIVE COATINGS PROGRAM

A. MANAGEMENT SUPPORT NEEDED
To be effective, the program for construction and
maintenance needs to be professionally conceived and administered. It certainly needs managements support and
interest.
1.
3. Color Selection
Here again, close cooperation with the coatings
supplier is recommended for selection of colors.
When selecting colors full consideration should
be given to OSHAIANSI safety requirements and
corporate color standards.
B. PROTECTIVE COATINGS COMMITTEE

While there are several ways of developing a sound
protective coatings program, one choice is to assign
authority and responsibility for the program to a Protective
Coatings Committee headed by a qualified coatings
engineer and made up of selected personnel from
Engineering and Maintenance Departments. While the
primary concern of this Committee will be maintenance
coatings work, it can assist design engineers by providing
Corrosion Survey
The purpose of the survey is to identify the surfaces to be coated, taking into consideration the
following:
Location
Chemical nature of the environment
Operating temperatures
Practical surface preparation methods and
materials
Condition of existing coatings and their generic
composition (for maintenance painting)
Safety requirements
Physical factors involved such as abrasion
resistance.
2. Selection of Coatings Systems
Choice of exact coatings systems, including surface preparation, number of coats, film thickness,
etc. for each substrate and exposure should be
worked out through cooperation of the Committee
with one or two selected coatings manufacturers
or with the help of an independent coatings consultant. Also consider:
Length of service
Ease of maintenance
Compatibility of selected coatings with any existing coatings (for maintenance painting)
Conformance with applicable environmental
regulations
Special appearance requirements, e.g., color
stability, chalk resistance.
4.
Specifications
A vital connecting link between concept and
finished work is the coatings specification. There
are four basic types of specifications: new construction shop painting (see Appendix A), new
construction field painting, contract maintenance
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C.Edwin Wilkins and William F. Chandler
SSPC C H A P T E R * L 7 - 5 9 3
8627940 0 0 0 3 8 b 8 5 T T
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
Identification and location of project

Scope of work - surfaces to be painted
Services available, storage facilities, utilities,
etc.
Definitions
Schedule of work
Shipping instructions
Work by others
Specified systems and coating materials
Surface preparation - Excellent surface
preparation procedures are outlined by S.S.P.C.
and should be referenced. The life of a coatings
system is directly related to the degree of surface preparation.
Application
Pre-job conference and job standards - See
Chapter XVII
Introduction
Inspection parameters, equipment and responsibility
Special conditions
Inspection and Spot Repair
There is no better way to insure cost efficiency of
a coatings program than by instituting and maintaining a rigid program of inspection and spot
repair. No matter how well a coatings job has
been engineered and applied, its performance
cannot be taken for granted. A systematic program of inspection and spot repair within six
months of completion and every 18-24 months
thereafter is good insurance. Very aggressive environments, such as bleach areas, may need inspections every 6 months.
Approval
Final approval and acceptance of the coatings
work is the responsibility of the Protective
Coatings Committee or its representative.
Cost Estimates for Budgets
Making realistic estimates of coating maintenance costs projected for the coming year is a
proper responsibility of the Committee.
Cooperation with Design Engineers
Based on close working experience with coatings
performance in existing plants, the Committee
can assist its own in-house engineering department or the contract design group by recommending coatings specifications for new construction.
Reports and Records
Systematic reporting and recording of worker
hours, materials, and unit costs for all coatings
work in each area is of continuing help in planning
and controlling costs of future work.

111. NEW CONSTRUCTION

A. STRUCTURAL AND MISCELLANEOUS
STEEL
1. The Case for Surface Preparation and MultiCoating in the Fabricator Shop
Surface preparation of structural and most
miscellaneous steel by efficient centrifugal
blasting equipment and application of primer in
fabricating shops earned early acceptance for
new construction of pulp and paper mills. More
recently, the benefits of adding a second, and in
some cases, a third coat in the shop have been
recognized.
Per ton costs of multi-coating in the shop are
substantially lower than in the field. Time and
money are saved in surface preparation, application and inspection. Problems of intercoat contamination are practically eliminated, which is
especially important for additions to operating
plants.
Cost differences between b Iast ing, priming
and coating in the shop versus blasting and priming in the shop and finishing in the field can be
readily established by taking alternate bids on
each.
2. Advantages of Cleaning and Coating in the
Fabricator Shop
Advantages in the shop are as follows:
a. Blasting is more uniform and less costly.
b. There is less chance of contamination before
priming or topcoating.
c. Primer application is easier, more uniform and
less costly.
d. Intermediateltopcoat application is easier,
more uniform and less costly.
e. Inspection of surface preparation and coatings
application is easier and more effective.
f. No areas are inaccessible for painting.
3. Advantages at the Job Site

a. Less painting to be done.
b. Less conflict with other trades.
c. Lower painting costs.
d. Lower inspection costs.
e. Higher probability of a more durable, longerlasting coatings system.
4. Multi-Coat Coatings Systems for Application in
Fabricator Shop (Figure 1)
Coatings systems that have been successfully
adapted for multi-coat work on structural and
miscellaneous steel in fabricating shops include:
Epoxy Zinc RichlHigh-Build Epoxy

Inorganic Zinc RichlHigh-Build Epoxy
Inhibit ive EpoxylHig h-Build Epoxy
Gloss seal coats of epoxy, vinyl or aliphatic
polyurethane are often selected as a third coat for
use in more aggressive environments, such as
421
Not for Resale
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
painting and maintenance painting by in-house

crews. Each of these specifications vary
somewhat in content, but should cover all or most
of the following:
bleach plants. Gloss epoxy seal coats can be applied in the fabricator shop. Vinyl seal coats are
normally applied at the job site because of sensitivity to abrasion damage.
first coat is to be thinned for better penetration.

Slab rebar should be galvanized or coated with an
inhibitive epoxy primer.
5. Salt Cake Silo (exterior)

a. Shell - Use normal system for the environment, but add an extra gloss coat to bring the
total D.F.T. to 10 mils.
b. Flat Roof - Use inhibitive epoxy primer and
topcoat with 16 mils D.F.T. of coal tar epoxy.
Special attention should be given to welds,
edges, bolts and other sharp surfaces.
6. Conveyors
Back-to-back angle braces, skip welds and
difficult-to-reach areas are hard to protect. Backto-back angle braces should be sealed. Open
welds should be caulked. Three coats, including a
zinc rich primer, should be used to develop adequate thickness. lt is advisable to have idler arms
galvan i zed.
FIGURE 1
Multi-coatingin the fabrication shop. l h e conveyor at left brings

the steel from the centrifugal blaster. Then the steel is loaded onto bucks by overhead crane.
Courtesy Linc York
7. Chip Blow Line

A white or light colored finish coat reduces pipe
and air temperature.
B. SPECIFIC STRUCTURES (See Table i for typical

painting systems used on specific structures)
8. Storage Tanks for Hot Liquor, Etc. (exterior)

When expensive insulation is not justified, a corkfilled asphalt mastic may be used. This should be
applied over SSPC-SP 6 blasted steel and primed
with 2 mils D.F.T. of an inhibitive epoxy primer to
minimize underfilm corrosion. The flat roof of the
tank should receive one coat of coal tar epoxy at
12-16 mils D.F.T. Handrails and ladders should
also receive 12-16 mils D.F.T. of coal tar epoxy. It
is good practice to blast and prime the entire
tank and then apply the finish coats.
1. Field Erected Tanks

Field erected tank sections should be blasted and
exterior sides primed. When fabricating and
coating tank sections in a shop, a weldable
preconstruction primer should be applied. When
tanks have been erected, bare steel exteriors and
welds can be blasted and primed prior to application of a finish system. Interior steel tank surfaces are to be specifically treated after erection,
depending upon use (Figure 2).
9. Concrete Pipe and Pits Carrying Effluent to

Clarifier, Etc.
Severe corrosion andior erosion can be controlled
by applying 18-20 mils D.F.T. of coal tar epoxy.
The concrete must be sweep blasted and a coal
tar epoxy primer applied prior to application of the
coal tar epoxy topcoat.
Maximum Operating Temperature
1o. Steel Stacks
of 7OOOF
All surfaces must be sandblasted to SSPC-SP 5.
Apply 1.5-3.0 mils D.F.T. of an inorganic zinc rich
coating. An unmodified heat cured silicone
aluminum finish may be applied, if desired, at 1.5
mils D.F.T.
2. Steel Gratings
Steel gratings are difficult to blast clean and costly to paint. Most new construction utilizes
galvanized steel gratings, which can be degreased and acid etched prior to applying the
selected coatings system. Gratings are best
painted prior to erection. FRP grating is also finding use in the industry. No painting is required.
3. Handrails
Aluminum or galvanized handrails are often used
in new construction. Aluminum handrails are
usually not painted. Galvanized handrails should
be degreased and then acid etched or sweep
blasted prior to coating. Some mills defer painting
on new galvanized.
C. NEW EQUIPMENT
4. Concrete slab roof over wet end of machine

For all surfaces except top surface, which gets
roof coating, remove laitance by brush blasting or
by acid etching (followed by a rinse); apply 4 mils
D.F.T. of a high build, non-gloss epoxy.
The protective coatings system applied on original

equipment may not be suitable for service in aggressive
environments. When ordering equipment for critical or
severely exposed areas, it is good to request a description
of the coatings system the manufacturer intends to supply. If this system is not adequate for the projected service,
request a cost estimate for special finishing to conform
The above can be done most efficiently prior

to erecting the slabs. If two coats are used, the
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

422
Not for Resale
SSPC C H A P T E R * 1 7 * 5 73 W 8627740 0003870 158 W
TABLE I
TYPICAL PAINTING SYSTEMS FOR PULP & PAPER MILLS
GENERAL PLANT AREA
SURFACE TO BE COATED
Wood Preparation
Handling &
Chipping
Digester Area
Washing IL
Screening
Liquor
Preparation &
Storage
Bleach Plant &

Pulp Storage
Evaporators 81
Recovery
Boilers
Process Water
Plant
Steel or Iron
Waste
Treatment
Plant
Submit Details
1.1
3.2 or
3.3
1.1
1.1
1.1
1.1
1.1
1.1
36
34
Structural Steel
3.1 (1)
1.2
Convevor Steel
3.1 II1
1.2
Carbon Steel Pipe
3.1 (1)
1.2
1.1
3.2 or
3.3
1.2
1 1 or
3 5 (3)
1 1 (Hot)
1 4 (Cold)
Steel Tanks (Lining)
Steel Tanks (Outside)

Stacks, Ducts, Breechings, Kiln
When specification detail furnished
- Inorganic Zinc
11
with Silicone Topcoat Optional will be used i f painting required.
Handrails B Gratings (7)
1.4
1.4
1.4
1.4
1.4
1.4
1.4
Pipe Hangers: Brackets
3.1 (I)
1.2
1.1
1.4
1.1
1.1
1.1
Steel Doors, Windows, Frames
1.2
1.2
1.2
1.2
1.2
1.1
1.2
Machinery; Equipment B Motors
1.2
1.2
1.2
1.2
1.1
1.2
Paper Machine - Large

Process Equipment
1.2
1.2
3.3
1.2 (A)
1.1
1.2
Wood Surfaces
2.2
Masonry Surfaces
Exterior Concrete Block
4.1
4.1
4.1
Interior Concrete Block
4.2 I A
4.2 I A )
4.2
5.3
5.2
Exterior Concrete (Dry)

Interior Concrete (Dry)
Concrete Basin
Concrete (Weti
Concrete Floors (Wet-Chemical)
5.3
5.3
3.4
3.4
5.3
5.3
5.3
3.4
3.4
3.4
3.4
Brick, Plaster, Stucco

--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Pump & Equipment Bases (Wet)
Shops, Warehouse
PAPER MACHINE BUILDING
& Maintenance
Finish Goods
Areas
Stock Preparation Roll Finishing
Stores
3.4
Control Rooms
Change Houses
Administration
Office Areas
1.1 (2)
2.1 or
2.3
3.4
Power Plant
Steel or Iron
1.1
1.1
1.1
1.1
1 .I
1.1
1.1
1.1 (2)
1.1
1.1
2.1 or
2.3
1.1
1.1
Structural Steel
1.2
Conveyor Steel
1.1
Carbon Steel Pipe

Steel Tanks (Lining)
3.6
Steei Tanks (Outside)

Stacks, Ducts, Breechings. Kiln
1.4
6.1.1
1.4
1.4
1.4
1.4
1.4
1.4
Handrails B Gratinas
1.1
1.1
1.1
1.1
2.1or
2.3
1.3
Pipe Hangers, Brackets

423
Not for Resale
SSPC CHAPTER*L7=5
8 b 2 Y O 0003871
ow m
TABLE 1 (Continued)
TYPICAL PAINTING SYSTEMS FOR PULP & PAPER MILLS
GENERAL PLANT AREA
Shops, Warehouse
PAPER MACHINE BUILDING
8 Maintenance
Finish Goods
Stores
Areas
Stock Preparation Roll Finishing
Control Rooms
Change Houses
Administration
Ollice Areas
Power Plant
1.3
1.3
1.1
1.1
1.1
1.1
1.1
2.1 or
2.3
1.1
1.1
1.1
1.1
1.1
2.1 or
2.3
1.1
1.1
1.1
1.1
6.2.2
2.2
Steel Doors, Windows, Frames
Machinery; Equipment & Motors

Paper Machine
Equipment
2.2
2.2
Floors 6.7.1 (4)
- Large Process
Wood Surfaces
Masonrv Surfaces
6.4.1
~
4.1
4.1
4.1
4.1
42
42
41
42
Specify
Specify
Exterior Concrete Block
~~
641
5.2
5.3
5.3 (6)
3.4
5.3
5.1
STEEL
System 1.1
1 ct. Epoxy-Polyamide Zinc Rich
1 ct. Epoxy-Polyamide High Build
when detail is
when detail is
42
available from
available from
Exterior Concrete (Dry)
4.2
architect.
architect.
Interior Concrete (Dry)
5.2
Concrete (Wet)
5.3
Concrete Floors (Wet-Chemical)
5.1
Brick, Plaster, Stucco

Pump & Equipment Bases (Wet)
System 3.3 (A)
CONCRETE
1 CI.
Vinyl Primer
1 ct. High Build Vinyl Coat
1 ct. Vinyl Seal Coat
System 3.4
System 1.1 (A)

1 CI.
Inorganic Zinc Rich
1 ci. Epoxy-Polyamide High Build
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
S y r t m 1.2
1 ct. Epoxy-Polyamide Primer
2 cts. Epoxy-Polyamide Finish
System 1.2 (A)
1 ct. Epoxy-Polyamide Primer
1 ct. EpoxyEster Primer

2 cts. Epoxy-Ester Finish
System 1.4
1 ct. Epoxy.Polyamide Primer
1 ct. EpoxyPolyamide Semi-Gloss
1 cl. Aliphatic Urethane Gloss
System 3.1
1 CI.
Epoxy-Polyamide Zinc Rich
I.
High Build
1 CEpoxy-Polyamide
I.
Finish
1 CEpoxy-Polyamide
System 3.1 (A)
1 CInorganic
I.
Zinc Rich
1 cl. Epoxy-Polyamide High Build
I.
Finish
1 CEpoxy-Polyamide
System 3.2
1 ci. Inorganic Zinc Rich
1 ct. Wash Primer or Tie Coat
1 ct. High Build Vinyl
System 3.3
1 CUniversal
I.
Primer
1 ct. High Build Vinyl Coat
1 ct. Vinyl Seal Coat

System 5.1
2 cts. Acrylic Latex Masonry Coating
System 5.2
2 cts. Coal Tar Epoxy Coaling

System 3.5
2 cts. Chlorinated Rubber High Build

System 5.3
1 ct. Epoxy-Polyamide Zinc Rich

1 ct. Bituminous
System 3.6
1 CI.
Epoxy-Polyamide Clear
I.
Clear
1 CEpoxy-Polyamide
System 5.3 (A)
1 ct. Epoxy-Polyamide Tank Lining Primer

1 ct. Epoxy-Polyamide Tank Lining
1 ct. Epoxy-Polyamide Tank Lining (Opt.)
1 ci. Epoxy-Polyamide High Build

1 ct. Epoxy-Polyamide Gloss
System 1.3
interior Concrete Block
1 ct. Epoxy-Polyamine Concrete Sealer

1 cl. Epoxy-Polyamine Surfacer
1 ct. Epoxy-Polyamine Finish (opt.)
System 6.1
White or Yellow Traffic Marking Paint
WOOD
System 7.1
System 6.2.1
1 ct. Alkyd Primer
2 cts. Alkyd Enamel
1 cl. Epoxy-Polyamide Clear

2 cts. Moisture Cure Polyurethane Varnish
System 2.2
1 ct. Alkyd Undercoat
2 CIS.
Epoxy Ester Enamel
System 6.2.3
1 ct. Alkyd Primer
1 ct. Acrylic Latex Exterior Paint
FOOTNOTES
(I) Epoxy-Polyamide Finish for easy
repair of damage.
(2) Structural steel may be separated by
job lot for mild areas - Interior only.
(3) Insulation coating depending on r e

quirements based on heat, location,
and color specification.
MASONRY
System 4.1
1 ct. Acrylic Latex Concrete Filler
2 cts. Acrylic Latex Masonry Coating
System 4.2
1 ct. Acrylic Latex Concrete Filler
Epoxy Ester Enamel
2 CIS.
(4) Sand between coats.

(5) Where equipment is primed with
epoxy primer omit Universal Primer
from system.
(6) Apply under Paper Machine to permit

cleaning and waste removal.
(7) If galvanized. substitute acid etch for
primer.
System 4.2 (A)

1 ct. Epoxy-Ester Cementitious Filler
1 ct. Epoxy TiieLike Coating
1 ct. Epoxy TileLike Coating
Not for Resale
8627940 0003872 T20
with your system. If this cost is too high, as it may w.ell be,
the only alternative is to have the equipment delivered and
then finished according to your own system.
IV. MAINTENANCE PAINTING PROGRAM

While protection needs are essentially the same for
construction and maintenance, some variances in
specifications and procedures are necessary.
A. VARIANCES
1. Surface Preparation
It is often difficult to isolate selected areas so
sandblasting can be done without danger to personnel or equipment. Yet there is no adequate
substitute for sandblasting. Even so, blasting is
seldom used inside machine buildings. In some
cases, areas andlor equipment can be sectioned
off with polyethylene so steel can be blasted. In
others, the compromise of hand-tool cleaning
with power wire brush, disk sander, needle gun or
other similar equipment can suffice. Careful use
of power wire brushes and needle guns may be
the most effective surface preparation short of
sand blasting.
2. Drying the cleaned steel is essential but can be

difficult
Heat lamps andlor hot air blowers can be useful.
Do not use oil-fired heaters.
3. Protection of edges is extremely important

Pulp and paper mills are ever more relying on
epoxy zinc rich primers, intermediates and finish
coats because of their superior edge build, corrosion resistance and fast recoat characteristics.
Even with the best available materials, painters
need to pay special attention to application on
edges, welds and irregular shapes. An additional
brush applied coat of the finish coat improves
edge protection.
4. lntercoat contamination
Salt cake and other fallout can cause premature paint failures. To combat this, maintenance coating systems for pulp and paper
mills should perform well when applied almost
wet-on-wet. Some evaporation of solvent is
necessary before the succeeding coat is applied.
Complete drying should not be a requirement except in special cases. The heavier the rate of salt
cake fallout, the sooner the entire system
should be applied. This consideration is important
when planning and scheduling work. In selecting
specific coatings materials, credit should be
given to those demonstrating superior film and
edge build characteristics and fast recoatability.

B. MAINTENANCE BY PLANT PERSONNEL

Suggestions for increasing effectiveness of the protective coatings program:
1. Awareness
From top management to the newest painter,
everyone must feel that the coatings program is
important to the operation and profitability of the
mill. Managements skill in organizing and
motivating a competent plant painting crew pays
substantial dividends in efficiency.
2. Training
A training program should be established for
everyone involved, covering instructions on
coatings, rigging, equipment, application and inspection. Training programs should be set up by
the Committee with cooperation from the technical departments of coatings and equipment
suppliers or by a consultant. The training sessions should include lecture, discussion and onthe-job demonstrations. All persons involved
should understand what is expected of them, and
why their work is important and be challenged to
develop a sense of accomplishment, professional
competency and pride in the finished work.
3. Specifications
Should be well defined, measureable and enforced.
4. Personnel
Capable and motivated planners, supervisors,
and inspectors should be designated by and
report to the Maintenance Coatings Committee.
They should spend substantial time where the
work is being done and require that the work
meets specifications.
5. Records
An effective system should be created for recording the work done and detailing the area, workerhours, materials, equipment and the application
conditions.
6. Inspection
A systematic program of inspection and spot
repair should be instituted and maintained by the
Protective Coatings Committee.
V. MAINTENANCE BY OUTSIDE
CONTRACTOR
The Protective Coatings Committee is responsible for
coordinating work with outside contractors. Many mills rely on outside contractors for jobs requiring critical rigging
and for tight schedule work during shutdowns. The following areas should be considered:
i.Planning
Carefully implement the work with good specifica-
425
Not for Resale
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
SSPC C H A P T E R * 1 7 * 5 93
SSPC CHAPTER*L7.5
93
8 b 2 7 9 4 0 0003873 967
FIGURE 2
Coatings for structural and miscellaneous steel. Usually struccan be blasted and coated more successfully after erection.
Courtesy of Linc York
tural steel can be coated successfully and at lower cost (all coats)
in the fabricators shop. Tanks
insulated and non-insulated
the owner, and the contractor should work

together in a cooperative, professional relationship for the best possible finished jobs.
tions, time and safety requirements and a description of possible conflicts with plant operating requirements.
2. Screening
Screen and invite no more than three or four
qualified contractors to bid based on their record
for integrity, professional competence, reliability
and financial stability.
3. Bids
Arrange for pre-bid meetings (preferably with one
bidder at a time) so all bidders can ask questions.
Arrange to have necessary drawings available. A
representative of the Committee, the coatings
supplier and contractor should inspect areas to
be coated. Bidders should be made aware of the
owners concern for the work and the owners inspection plans.
4. Testing
If blasting is a major requirement, encourage bidders to test blast a representative area to
establish the rate of production possible and
understand owners interpretation of specifications.
5. Quality
At start-up of work, a job standard for quality acceptance should be set, with a representative of
the owner and of the materials supplier present.
(See chapter on Job Standards.)

VI. SUMMARY
Rewards for conceiving, implementing and administering an effective and professional protective
coatings program are substantial in terms of yearly costs
and production continuity. Collateral benefits include improved working conditions, employee safety, morale and
enhanced public image. The stakes are high. Affirmative
management action is recommended.
APPENDIX:
TYPICAL COATING REQUIREMENTS FOR
STRUCTURAL AND MISCELLANEOUS STEEL
COATED AT FABRICATOR SHOP*
Scope
These requirements detail the surface preparation,
coating, and handling of structural and miscellaneous
steel in the fabricator shop. These specifications cover
service at operating temperatures up to 200F. Also included are details on inspection, transfer of coated steel and
touch-up and repair in the field.
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
6. Selection
Some owners select and supply coatings on the
premise that by doing so they are more likely to
get the specified coatings thicknesses.
7. Cooperation
The Protective Coatings Committee, representing
8. Conclusion
At the conclusion of all major jobs by plant or
contract personnel a program of inspection and
spot repair will serve as a strong preventive
maintenance measure.
Alternatively, application may be based upon SSPC-PA 1 Shop,

Field and Maintenance Painting.
426
Not for Resale
SSPC CHAPTER*L7.5
8 b 2 7 7 4 0 0003874 8 T 3
73
Surface Preparation
All surfaces shall be blasted so as to meet the SSPC-SP 6
Commercial standard or better.
All blasted steel shall be coated within 10 hours of
blasting and before there is visible rusting.
FIGURE 3
Transfer and handling of coated steel. The proper use of dunnage
helps minimize damage to coatings in transit.
Intent
It is the intent of this specification to prescribe first-class
workmanship in all phases of coatings work. The following
important details shall be considered as a part of the
spec if cat ions:
The use of cutting oils shall be such that a minimum
of oil is deposited on the steel so as to minimize solvent
cleaning.
All contact surfaces connected by bolts shall be
blasted and primed before being shop-bolted. Faying surfaces should be primed but not topcoated. Most inorganic
zinc rich coatings are suitable for use on faying surfaces.
Where mild steel bolting (not cadium-plated or galvanized)
is used in the shop, the boltheads and nuts shall be
blasted and coated.
The cleaning of abrasive before reuse shall be such
that the blasted steel is free of smudge.
All back-to-back angles shall be blasted and primed
before assembly or designed out if possible.
Weld spatter shall be removed before priming.
Slivers and laminations shall be ground smooth
before priming.
All sharp, rough, or burred edges shall be ground
round.
All abrasive shall be removed before priming.
No bleed through materials shall be used for ID markings.
Bucks shall be cleaned of foreign paintslcoatings so
as to avoid contamination of the coating system.
Paint hoses shall be cleaned of dried paint to avoid
loose paint falling into wet coatings.
Special care shall be used by painters to assure proper thickness on flanges - inside and out.
If identification tags are welded to the steel, the weld
shall be continuous to avoid corrosion underneath the
tags.
Dunnage shall be used carefully to minimize damage
to coatings in loadinglshippinglunloading. Use of nylon
slings will minimize coatings damage.
At the jobsite the steel shall be unloaded so as to
minimize coating damage. In stacking the steel at the jobsite, ample dunnage shall be used. Again, nylon slings will
minimize coatings damage.
Coatings
Observe minimum and maximum limits for Dry Film
Thickness (DFT). Five readings out of 50, at least 6 inches
apart, on one piece of steel will be the basis of requiring an
additional coat (if below minimum) or reblasting and
recoating (if above maximum).* All areas where the primer
thickness is below 2.0 mils or above 5 mils shall be corrected. All areas where the two-coat system is below 5 mils
or above 12 mils shall be corrected.
Surface temperature of steel to be coated shall be
50F minimum and at least 5F above wet bulb air
temperature reading.
Coatings can be applied by airless or conventional
spray equipment.
System No. 1
Primer - Epoxy Zinc Rich
Topcoat - High Build Epoxy
2.5
5.0
7.5
System No. 2
Primer - Inorganic Zinc Rich
2.5
5.0
7.5
System No. 3
Primer - Inhibitive Epoxy
Po Iyam ide
2.5
5.0
__
7.5
Primer:
Minimum DFT
Maximum DFT
Full System
DFT Mils
2.0
5.0
- 2 Coats:
Minimum DFT
Maximum DFT
6.5
12.0
Allow the primer to cure prior to application of second

coat until it remains intact using the following test. Press
thumb onto coating using 10 pounds of pressure and
rotate 45. If primer is not damaged, proceed with topcoating. Allow coatings system to dry prior to handling until there is no damage to substrate when applying
moderate cutting pressure with the thumbnail.
*Alternate - Specify SSPC-PA 2 Measurement of Dry Paint
Thickness with Magnetic Gages.
**Thickness in accordance with manufacturers recommendations. Many recommendations, including those of SSPC, for
example, specify 3.0 f 0.5 mils for zinc-rich primers. Measure
according to SSPC-PA 2 unless otherwise specified.
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

Average DFT Mils*
427
Not for Resale
93
= 8627940 0003875
Inspection
Adequate inspection of surface preparation and coatings
application should be provided during the job. Full-time inspection isdesirable, but with intermittent work schedules,
this is not always possible. Full-time inspection is needed
at the job start and until work is progressing smoothly,
then as required to assure specifications are being met.
Transfer of Coated Steel (Figure 3 )
Handling, shipping and unloading procedures, if not properly executed, can seriously reduce the effectiveness of
even the best high performance coating systems. Coated
members must be handled with care t o avoid damaging
the coating system - particularly the edges.
Field Touch-Up of Coatings Damaged in Loadinglirection
All areas damaged to bare metal shall be prepared in accordance with SSPC-SP 3.
Spot prime all cleaned areas with Epoxy Zinc-Rich
Primer to 2% mils DFT. Dry to thumb-shear hardness.
Apply High Build Epoxy intermediate coat to primed
areas: 7 mils DFT (primer + intermediate coat). Dry to
thumb-shear hardness.
Apply Gloss Epoxy Topcoat if specified, to total DFT
of 9 mils, (2 mils DFT of topcoat).
BIOGRAPHY
C. Edwin Wilkins has a B.S. in
Chemistry from the University of
North Carolina, Chapel Hill. Until his retirement, his entire business career (42 years) was
concerned with high-performance coatings, the first 14 years
as a laboratory chemist. He has
performed technical service in
most of the United States, also
in South America, Europe, and
Near and Far East. For 27 years
he was involved in protective
coatings salesservice with
Mobil Chemical. After 1972 he served as Technical Sales Representative with Porter Coatings, Division of Porter Paint Co. He was a
long-time member of the Technical Association of the Pulp & Paper
Industry, the National Association of Corrosion Engineers, the American Chemical Society and active on many committees.
William F. Chandler - A biographical sketch and portrait of

William F. Chandler can be found at the end of Chapter 17.0.
REFERENCES
Paul E. Weaver, Industrial Maintenance Painting: National

Association of Corrosion Engineers, Houston, Texas. 1976
NACE Standard RP-01-78. Design, Fabrication, and Finish of
Metal Tanks and Vessels, 1977
L. W. Gleekman, Preparation, Application, and Inspection (P-A-1)
for Coatings Systems, Pulp and Paper Industry Corrosion Problems: NACE, 1974
Martinson and Sisler, industrial Painting - The Engineering Approach, Reinhold Publishing Company, 1961
Economics of Chemical Plant Maintenance Painting, NACE Publication 6D461. National Association of Corrosion Engineers, P.O.
Box 218340, Houston, TX 77218-8340.
Industrial Maintenance Painting Program, NACE Publication
6D160.
Contract and Plant Force Painting: Advantages and Disadvantages, NACE Publication 6D168.
Industrial Painter Education, NACE Publication 6D361.
DFT Mils
System
Minimum
Maximum
8.5
12.0
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Once steel has been erected, damage from handling

and welding should be repaired as soon as possible. The
sooner the damaged areas are corrected, the less surface
preparation will be required. Field touch-up and repair procedure should be part of overall specification along with a
clear definition of exactly whose responsibility it is to perform the touch-up and repair.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Special assistance in the preparation of this chapter was

provided by Linc A. York.
chapter: Jim Baker, Noel Duvic, Randy Fulkerson, Lewis
Gleekman, Marshall McGee, John Montle, John Perchall, Dave
Roberson, L.M. Sherman, Bill Wallace, J.N. White.

73T
428
Not for Resale
SSPC CHAPTERkL7.b
93
8627940 O003876 b7b
CHAPTER 17.6
PAINTING FOOD PLANTS

by
Steven L. Schmidt
types within each generic classification.

There is no place for lead, mercury or any other toxic
pigmentation in food plant coatings. The subject of USDA,
FDA and other regulations will be dealt with in some detail
later. With the conditions prevalent in most food processing plants, only the best high performance coatings stand
any chance of long-term survival and resultant per-squarefoot-per-year cost efficiency.
Since coatings material costs are usually less than
one-fourth of the total painting cost, it is essential to go
first class. The design or maintenance engineer who approaches protection and sanitary maintenance with cost
cutting in mind does so at the risk of classical penny
wise, pound foolish results.
Food processing plants are primarily concerned with

converting, producing, packaging and preserving edible
foods. There are hundreds of types of food processing
plants - beverage, brewing, distilling, canning, dairy, beef
and poultry packing, bakeries, flour mills, grain storage
and many others.
This discussion, therefore, concerns painting food
processing plants from a condition and environment
standpoint rather than from the standpoint of specific
products and processes. New construction and
maintenance painting are included as well as coatings
selection, surface preparation, application, inspection and
touch-up and repair.
Coatings must be resistant to physical, bacterial and
chemical exposures including varying levels of moisture,
condensation, steam, mold growth, organic wastes, cleaning solutions and abrasion. Floors, walls and machinery
are subject to chemical and moisture attack and usually
abrasion. Many areas are wet and warm while others are
cold and damp. Some may cycle from hot to cold causing
condensation and also exerting physical stress on protective coatings and their underlying substrates. Exterior surfaces are subject to the hazards of the weather as well as
the destructive effects of ultra-violet light on protective
coatings.
One of the most common problems in food processing plants is the growth of mold, mildew and other fungi.
These air-borne spores multiply and feed on food particles,
attaching themselves to a surface. They usually spread
and can actually digest coatings with a free oil nature.
Therefore, alkyd and epoxy ester coatings for use in food
plants should contain effective and approved fungicides
and bactericides.
Ideally, a food plant coating would be USDAIFDA approved, hard, tough, impervious to water vapor, resistant to
a wide variety of acids and alkalis, and prohibit the growth
of mold, fungi and mildew. It would be a self-priming, highbuild, high-gloss finish that could be brushed, rolled or
sprayed in a variety of temoeratures over steel, concrete,
block, aluminum, galvanized metal and any other number
of substrates. It would withstand high temperature,
caustic rinses and be available in hundreds of decorator
colors while possessing unlimited gloss and color retention when exposed to ultra-violet light.
Of course, no such miracle coating exists. A coatings
specification for a new food processing plant may call for
six or more different generic types of coatings and several
I. NEW CONSTRUCTION
A. DESIGN
PLANTS
NEW
A universally accepted objective of food plant design

is to assure economical, sanitary maintenance. The ideal
food processing facility would be constructed completely
of corrosion-resistant materials with a minimum of cracks,
edges, corners and inaccessible areas. Plant sanitation
could be easily performed with no adverse effects on the
appearance of structural integrity of the facility. This plant
does not exist because it would be prohibitively expensive
and time-consuming to build.
But many things can be done with common materials
of construction to design plants that are easy and
economical to maintain. Some of these are
Design the plant to accommodate the process
and afford ease of access for maintenance and
cleaning;
Avoid edges and crevices and design for
smooth, pin-hole free surfaces in all process
areas;
Provide ample drains with sloped floors to permit rapid removal of wastes and wash water;
Avoid bar joist and deck construction in process areas;
Avoid materials that have poor moisture
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

CONSIDERATIONS FOR
A separate treatment of painting food plants, written by Harry

Howard and emphasizing flow charts of process areas, is
available through SSPC.
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SSPC CHAPTER*L7.6 93 W 8627940 0003877 502 W
items should be included in the specification for

shop painting:
a.The use of cutting oils should be kept to a
minimum and grease and oils removed from
steel before blasting.
b. All contact surfaces connected by bolts should
be blasted and primed before being shop
bolted. Faying surfaces should be primed with
zinc-rich primer but not topcoated. Where steel
bolting is used in the shop, the boltheads and
nuts should be blasted.
c. All abrasives should be kept clean.
d. Back-to-backangles should be designed out or
at least blasted and primed prior to assembly.
e. Weld spatter should be removed before priming.
f. Slivers and laminations should be ground
smooth before priming.
FIGURE 1
Processing room with high moisture content in the air is coated
with a water-based epoxy system.
Courtesy of Carboline Company
B. SPECIFICATION FOR STRUCTURAL STEEL

Whether steel is shop or field painted, or both, a
detailed specification is necessary to insure maximum
performance of the coatings system.
h. All abrasives must be removed before priming.

i. Painting bucks and paint hoses must be kept
clean to minimize contamination.
j. Welded identification tags should be continuously welded to avoid corrosion underneath
the tags.
k. All blasted steel should be primed within 10

hours of blasting and before there is visible
rusting.
I. Dunnage should be used carefully to minimize
damage to coatings in loading, shipping and
unloading. Use of non-metallic slings will
minimize damage to coatings.
m.At the job site, the steel should be unloaded
carefully to minimize damage. The steel should
be stacked off the ground, and ample dunnage
should be used.
n. Primers and topcoats should be applied in
strict accordance with manufacturers instructions.
If the job calls for a second coat in the shop, application details should be spelled out. These include mixing,
application and temperature parameters. The specifier
should provide a table for film thickness, time intervals
between coats and all inspection procedures and handling
times. A job standard should be established prior to beginning to identify minimum acceptable standards for surface
preparation, application, film build and final appearance.
1. Shop Painting
Specifications for shop painting must detail surface preparation, coating and handling of the
steel. Inspection, transfer and field touch-up
should also be explained in detail. The following

430
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2. Field Topcoating
A separate specification is required for field topcoating work that takes place after erection of the
steel. Careful inspection of the steel is necessary
to determine surfaces requiring touch-up painting. Washing may be required to remove dirt and
contamination. Power tool cleaning (SSPC-SP 3)
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
resistance (drywall, plaster, plywood, etc.) in

process areas;
Enclose structural steel when possible;
Use high-quality, chemical, abrasion and
moisture resistant protective coatings for all
steel and concrete in process areas; and
Comply with FDA, USDA, OSHA, state and local
regulations.
Proper design and use of high-performance coatings
go a long way toward producing the ideal plant - one
that is functionally efficient and easy to maintain. There is
only one time to achieve this condition: when the plant is
constructed. This requires extensive study and careful
selection of construction materials. These in turn must be
woven into the design with an eye towards corrosion control, sanitation and plant maintenance. These steps should
lead to the generation of tight, well-written specifications.
The work must follow specifications under tight inspection
before the new plant is accepted by the owner.
With such a conscientiously designed and built facility, the maintenance engineer stands an excellent chance
of controlling maintenance costs. Unfortunately, not
enough projects go this way from start to finish.
g.All sharp, rough or burred edges should be

ground smooth before blasting.
SSPC
C H A P T E R * L - b 9 3 m 8627940 0003878 4 4 9 m
two-coat shop systems because not all coatings
manufacturers can supply them. Often two coats
do not provide adequate protection.
b. Top Coats - In addition to the polyamide and
polyamine epoxy finish coats, several other
generic types work well in food processing plants.
Aliphatic urethane, like polyamine epoxy, provides extra toughness and chemical resistance
for aggressive areas and is usually of very high
gloss. It does not yellow like the epoxy coatings
and has better caustic resistance than epoxy
polyester.
Acrylic-epoxy is recommended in place of the
solvent-based polyamide epoxy where a waterreducible, low-odor coating is needed. It performs
in a manner equivalent t o solvent-based
polyamide epoxy once fully cured. This topcoat is
not suited for humid areas.
FIGURE 2
The walls in this cold meat storage room are held at 45-48OFyear
round. Resurfacing with a water-based epoxy system is now a
routine matter every four years or more, whereas previously the
room was repainted every two years.
Courtesy of Carboline Company
Gloss epoxy polyester coatings (catalyzed, twocomponent and not to be confused with epoxy
ester) may be selected if a white finish is needed.
Unlike epoxies, it does not yellow with age. Do not
use in areas where caustic is present because it
has poor caustic resistance.
All of the above finish coats require a
minimum of 50F (10C) to achieve cure except
the aliphatic urethane which may be applied at
temperatures down to 35F (2C).
followed by touch-up with polyamide epoxy rustinhibitive primer and finish coat works well. The
polyamide epoxy primer is compatible with epoxy,
urethane and acrylic finish coats.
C. COATING SYSTEMS BY SUBSTRATES

1 . Structural Steel - Interior Process Areas
2. Galvanized Metal Decking

Metal decking can be very difficult to coat successfully.
a. Zinc-Rich Primers - In most cases the logical

choice for protection of structural steel is a zincrich primer with appropriate topcoat(s). This may
be achieved in several ways:
a. Factory finishing - The first recommendation

is to specify the metal decking to be galvanized
and factory finished with baked-on coating suited
to the service area. This requires careful handling
during transportation and erection. Any damage
can be spot primed and touched up.
6. Field finishing - The galvanized decking
should be specified to be phosphatized (preetched) or wash-prime treated by the fabricator.
After erection it should be thoroughly cleaned and
finished with 4.0-6.0 D.F.T. semi-gloss polyamide
epoxy (Appendix B, #D).
Method One: Shop prime, Field topcoat

Method Two: Field prime, Field topcoat
Method Three: Shop prime, Shop topcoat, Field
touch-up
The price depends upon many factors such

as job location, shop location, amount of fabrication and size of plant.
If Method Three is chosen, the primer and top
coat are applied in the fabrication shop; the
coated steel is shipped to the job site and erected,
and bolts and damaged areas touched up. Method
Three saves 10-40% over Method Two and makes
sense even if a third coat is to be field applied. If
only two coats are specified, Method One is less
expensive and a better method. It is also better
because uniform appearance of the finish coat is
assured.
With the three-coat systems, Method Three
should be specified with the third coat field applied after proper touch-up has been completed.
Considerable cost savings and higher quality
work results. Care must be exercised in selecting
3. Structural Steel - Exterior

Gloss epoxy finish coats are not recommended
for structural steel exposed to the weather, due to
chalking. They require acrylic emulsion or
aliphatic urethane finish coats to insure gloss and
color retention. The preferred system is SSPC-SP
6 (Commercial Blast Cleaning) followed by a
system of zinc-rich epoxy primer and high-build
polyamide epoxy intermediate coat applied in the
fabrication shop. After erection of the steel,
touch-up of damaged areas and bolts can be performed with zinc-rich epoxy primer or rustinhibitive polyamide epoxy primer. The third coat
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

431
Not for Resale
in operation. Dealing with contaminated floors

will also be addressed.
New concrete should age a minimum of 28
days and have a maximum moisture content of
8-10%. It is important to install vapor barriers
under ground level concrete floors to prevent
adhesion problems due to hydrostatic pressures.
Concrete floor surface preparation includes brush
blasting, centrifugal blasting and power tool
cleaning. As with ceiling panels, this may be accomplished by wet or dry methods. If wet blasting
is performed, !horough rinsing with fresh water is
necessary to remove blasting mud.
Two other commonly used methods are scarifying and shot blasting. Both achieve the same
results with no dust or water. Scarifiers remove up
to
inch of concrete surface with rotating sharp
knives in a self-contained unit resembling a plant
sweeper. Portable shot-blasters designed for flat
steel surfaces also work well on concrete. The
steel shot is centrifugally hurled against the floor
and blasted with no dust. While units have
vacuum attachments to pick up loose concrete
dust, it is good practice to follow with a thorough
vacuuming using an industrial sweeper.
Scarifying, shot blasting and sandblasting
remove laitance, curing compounds and surface
hardeners. For best results and long-term savings,
one of these should be specified and used on new
construction floors.
FIGURE 3
New structural steel in cool, damp storage area to be enclosed;
epoxy zinc-rich primer over SSPC-SP 6, Commercial Blast Cleaning; coated at the fabrication shop and touched up in the field;
no topcoat to be applied.
Courtesy of Porter Coatings
of aliphatic urethane can then be applied. This

system (Appendix B, #A) provides maximum
chemical and abrasion resistance and long-term
gloss and color retention. The alternate system is
SSPC-SP 6 (Commercial Blast Cleaning) followed
by application of an inorganic zinc-rich primer in
the fabrication shop. Bolts and damaged areas
are touched up with zinc-rich epoxy or rustinhibitive polyamide epoxy primer. Once touch-up
has been completed, the steel should be finished
with two coats of acrylic emulsion.
Concrete Ceilings
b. Floor Toppings - For toughest process areas

in food plants, an 8-15 mil paint system is not
enough protection. At the base of machinery
where constant spills occur, on floors that stay
wet with organic acids, and in areas where
forklifts drag, drop and push large steel pots, the
floors need maximum protection.
In these very rough service areas, heavily aggregated, trowel-applied Y4 inch floor toppings
provide the best protection. These are usually
100% solids epoxy or polyester materials that are
so heavily loaded with inert aggregate that they
require mixing in rotating drum mixers. They are
usually classified two ways - food and chemical
grade. Food grade toppings are USDA approved
and able to take most process area conditions.
Chemical grade floors are expensive and designed for areas where concentrated batch
chemical spills take place, such as concentrated
acids and alkalies. They are also designed to
withstand steam impingement, while food-grade
toppings soften under the same circumstances.
Properly prepared and coated concrete ceilings

are economical to maintain and to sanitize.
Careful surface preparation is essential. Curing
compounds, form-release agents and surface
hardeners can be removed by brush sandblasting.
Where dust is a problem, a water ring adjustment
or wet blasting is recommended followed by a
thorough rinsing to remove any blasting mud.
Filling holes is important. Holes of
diameter
or more should be grouted. Smaller holes should
be filled with water resistant cementitious filler.
Ceilings in aggressive areas should be finished with 8-10 mils D.F.T. of gloss epoxy (Appendix B, #G).An alternate system for less aggressive
service can be one or two coats of high build
polyamide epoxy semi-gloss (Appendix B, #D).
Two coats are needed to insure gloss uniformity.
5. Concrete Floors and Toppings

a. Concrete Floors - No other areas in a food
processing facility present more challenges to
protective coatings than do concrete floors. There
are few areas in food processing plants where
concrete floors survive unprotected. Concrete is
readily attacked by acids, strong alkalis, nitrates,
chlorides, sulfates, phosphates, sugars and some
fats and oils. The best time to insure protection is
at the time of construction and before the plant is
432
Not for Resale
6.
Concrete Walls - Block, Poured, Precast

Walls are usually constructed from concrete
block, concrete poured in place or tilt-up panels.
New food plants should not have plaster, drywall,
stucco or wood walls in process areas. Ceramic
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
4.
8627740 0003880 OT7
tile is often specified, but the mortar joints eventually erode from washing and chemical attack
and support growth of mold and mildew. Glazed
ceramic tile walls cost 4-6 times more per square
foot than walls using the best coatings available.
a. Concrete Block Walls must have expansion
joints to prevent cracking where the block meets
structural steel, lintels and corners. Without block
fillers, coatings flow into pores and a rough finish
with pinholes results.
The only surface preparation requirements
for concrete block is that it be clean and dry. Concrete block is steam cured during manufacture
and has no laitance. The block may be slightly
dampened prior to application of water-based
cementitious block filler, but should not be
dampened for any solvent-based material.
The preferred system of 8.0 mils D.F.T.
polyamine epoxy over the flush-fill block filing
system combines maximum chemical resistance
and washability with maximum epoxy attractiveness. Polyester should be avoided because of
its poor resistance to caustics.
b. Poured and Precast Concrete Walls - They
should be treated like concrete ceiling panels.
Surface preparation should be wet or dry sandblasting. Under no circumstances is acid washing
an acceptable method of surface preparation.
For heavy process areas, the dry film
thickness of the system should be at least 8.0
mils. Any damaged areas must be repaired following evaluation. The proper use of a wet film
thickness gauge during application can be helpful
to ensure proper dry film thickness.
7. Equipment
Structural steel, ceilings, floors and walls of a
food plant are often well protected, while
machinery and equipment are not.
Protective coatings applied on original equipment may not be suitable for service in aggressive
environments. When ordering equipment for
critical or severely exposed areas, request a
detailed description of coatings the manufacturer
supplies. If this system is not adequate, request a
cost estimate for special finishing to conform
with your selected system. If this cost is exorbitant, the alternative is to have the equipment
delivered and finished at the job site, according to
your own selected system.
If field welding is to be done during installation, it is best to specify that it be primed at the
manufacturer's shop and field topcoated after
welding. Damaged areas have to be cleaned,
prepared and coated. The rust-inhibitive
polyamide epoxy primer works well as a touch-up
primer.
If the equipment manufacturer cannot blast,
the specification should call for degreasing and

solvent cleaning (SSPC-SP 1) followed by hand or
power tool cleaning (SSPC-SP 2 and SSPC-SP 3)
and treatment with a phosphoric-acid-based
metal pretreatment.
8. Piping
Ideally, carbon steel piping should be blasted to
SSPC-SP 6 Commercial Blast and have 2.0-3.0
mils zinc-rich primer applied before reaching the
job site. This insures that no unprotected and inaccessible areas are formed when the pipe is
welded.
Once these steps are taken, the pipe should
be cleaned, and damaged areas touched up
before topcoating. Use the same topcoat options
over the zinc-rich primer as listed for structural
steel. If piping is inside the plant, gloss epoxy
finish coats work well. Outside, however, the
aliphatic urethane works best over 3.0-5.0 mils
polyamide epoxy because it holds its gloss and
color. Epoxies are a poor choice for exterior exposure due to their chalking in the presence of
uItraviolet Iight .
Operating temperatures of pipes must be
identified so that the coating system can be
specified. Following are temperature tolerances
of various systems for pipes.
Below 225F - Epoxy primer and aliphatic urethane finish coat (Appendix B,
#X).
225"F-3OO0F- Silicone-acrylic or silicone-alkyd
nish coat (Appendix B, #W).
300F Plus - Inorganic zinc-rich primer untopcoated or silicone-based highheat coating (Appendix B, #W).
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
SSPC C H A P T E R * L 7 - b 93
If the temperature of the piping is above

225"F, the surface preparation should be blast
cleaned.
All piping operating at less than 250F to be
insulated can be coated with an alkyd red oxide
primer. Pipes operating above 250F to be insulated require no coating.
9. Tank Exteriors
Exteriors of carbon steel tanks should be blasted
and primed at the shop and finish-coated at the
job site. If the tank is inside the plant, blast the exterior to SSPC-SP 6 and apply a zinc-rich primer at
2.0-3.0 mils D.F.T., followed by 3.0-5.0 mils of
polyamide epoxy or vinyl. Finish the job with a
suitable gloss finish coat of either polyamide
epoxy, vinyl, polyamine epoxy or aliphatic
urethane depending upon conditions (Appendix B,
#A).
If the tank is outside and exposed to sunlight,
use the system above with the aliphatic urethane
finish coat. If there is no strong chemical environment, a system of SSPC-SP 6 Commercial Blast,
433
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93
= 8 6 2 7 9 4 0 0003883
33
11. Painting Non-Ferrous Surfaces
- Copper to be painted should be

sanded and a coat of polyamide epoxy applied at
3.0-5.0mils. Do not use a rust-inhibitive primer,
since the inhibitor may react with copper. Use a
topcoat product. Finish with a thin coat of gloss
epoxy or aliphatic urethane.
b. Aluminum - is only difficult to coat if the layer
of aluminum oxide is not removed. This is accomplished by acid etching after detergent and
solvent cleaning. Once dry, apply a coat of
polyamide epoxy at 3.0-5.0mils dft and finish
with gloss epoxy or aliphatic urethane.
If aluminum is outside and is in a nonaggressive area, two coats of acrylic emulsion
works well after the proper surface preparation,
as outlined above.
c. Galvanized Steel - If there is no chemical environment, galvanized metal should not need
coating, except for color. But there are very few
areas in food processing facilities that are normal environments.
Surface preparation is the key to successfully painting galvanized steel. Solvent and
detergent cleaning removes all greases, oils, dirt,
emulsions and waxes. The metal must be etched
with a proper etching compound. Vinegar washes
and other household remedies do not work. Etching can be eliminated by ordering pre-etched
galvanize, but the solvent and detergent cleaning
must still be performed. For details, see the
chapter on painting of galvanized steel.
a. Copper
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
FIGURE 4
Structural steel in wet processing areas. Epoxy zinc-rich primer
and high-build epoxy intermediate coat applied in the fabricator
shop. Gloss epoxy finish applied after erection.
2.0-3.0 mils inorganic zinc-rich primer and two

coats of vinyl or gloss acrylic emulsion finish coat
works well (Appendix B, #C).
1o. Tank Linings
a. Dry Food Linings, such as grain hoppers or

flour bins, should have a USDA and FDA approved
system for food contact surfaces. Steel should be
blasted and coated with two coats polyamide
epoxy or polyamine epoxy in an FDA approved formulation. Total D.F.T. should be 10.0 mils
minimum. For dry food lining, concrete tanks and
silos, a three-coat system with 12.0 mils D.F.T.
minimum is recommended over a brush-sandblasted surface. The extra coat is necessary to
compensate for the sealing action of the first
coat.
b. Linings For Liquid Foodstuffs require highly
specialized materials and application. This subject is covered in the chapter on steel tank lining.
Since potable water is a foodstuff and may
be a direct food additive, use the same systems
as specified for dry food. The lining must be FDA
approved and should be acceptable under current
EPA guidelines. The coatings supplier should be
able to certify FDA compliance and have acceptability letters from the EPA and approval letters
from the State Health Departments.
No coal-tar based coatings or coating containing heavy metals or toxic materials are
acceptable for potable water service. Most rustinhibitors fall into this latter category.
Since the dependence is on a barrier coat in
potable water service, internal coatings systems
in all steel tanks should be checked for pinholes
with a suitable holiday detector.
D. THE MAINTENANCE PAINTING PROGRAM

It is much easier to apply first class coating systems
when a plant is under construction than after it becomes
operational. Once a plant is built, operational maintenance
painting becomes a continuing and expensive problem. A
well conceived maintenance painting program is worthy of
management attention and pays for itself through savings
and reduced downtime.
The maintenance engineer, with professional help
from a qualified coatings supplier, can work out practical
specifications for preparing and coating various surfaces.
Good specifications detail surface preparation, exact
coatings, number of coats, film thickness, application and
inspection procedures.
Outside painting contractors and plant maintenance
crews appreciate managements recognition of their contributions to successful plant operation.
Cooperative scheduling ensures that maintenance
coating can be done without interfering with plant operations.
434
Not for Resale
1. Selecting Maintenance Coatings
Use coatings recommended in the New Construction section of this chapter. Tie-coats of alkyd
SSPC CHAPTERbL7.b
8627940 0003882 97T
93
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
primer or polyamide epoxy should be used on old

and new coatings. Zinc-rich primers should be
used on steel surfaces whenever possible.
Aliphatic urethane fihish coats work best in process areas. Thermoplastic coatings, such as
acrylic, alkyd, vinyl and chlorinated rubber, should
be avoided in process areas. Alkyd and acrylic
finishes do not have the necessary chemical
resistance and do not stand up to washing and
sanitation rinses. They also develop mold and
mildew unless specifically formulated with
fungicides and bactericides. They may blister in
very wet environments, characteristic of many
food processing plants.
Vinyl and chlorinated rubber have good acid
and alkali resistances, but are not without problems. Both require meticulously clean surfaces to
avoid adhesion problems. Both have low volume
solids, which means large amounts of strong
solvents are liberated when these products are
used. Chlorinated rubber is dissolved by some
animal fats and vegetable oils. Neither vinyl nor
chlorinated rubber washes particularly well
because of poor abrasion resistance. Their use
must be carefully studied to avoid serious difficulties. Vinyls are used as linings for fresh water
tanks and as exterior surfaces.
2. Maintenance Surface Preparation
The key to successful maintenance painting in
food processing plants is surface preparation.
Nearly all surfaces in operating plants are contaminated by raw materials and finished product.
These include grain dust, greases, oils, sugars,
salts, mild acids, caustics, condensation and any
number of other compounds. These contaminants
must be removed before coating. Removal may involve any combination of degreasing, steam
cleaning, solvent washing, water blasting,
abrasive blast cleaning or power tool cleaning.
The fundamental goals of surface prepara
tion in this setting are complete removal of contaminants, increase i n surface area for
mechanical bond and removal of all coatings that
are not performing properly.
If carbon steel has mill scale remaining it
should be blasted to a Commercial Blast (SSPCSP 6). This may require extensive effort to protect
machinery and equipment, but can usually be accomplished by skilled applicators. The extra cost
of plastic wrapping and ventilation is inevitably
recouped by the long-term savings in corrosion
control costs.
Concrete surfaces that still contain laitance
should be blasted or acid-etched. Contaminated
surfaces must be cleaned prior to any wet or dry
blast operation.

Wherever possible, blast cleaning should be

specified. Dust and contamination can be controlled by wet blasting, vacuum blasting, centrifugal shot blasting or scarifying techniques.
Whole areas can be secured by using plastic barriers.
Power-tool cleaning and other marginal surface preparation techniques are labor-intensive
and therefore costly. Additionally, the service life
of maintenance coatings depend on the effectiveness of the surface preparation. New power
tool devices are promising in dust control, cost
and quality of surface.
3. Application
Film thickness of the coating system is a key factor in the success of maintenance (See SSPC-PA
2). All prominent points, such as bolt heads, sharp
edges and welds should receive an extra coat of
primer or topcoat with either brush or spray. When
a roller is used, two coats are usually required to
achieve the specified edge film thickness.
Temperatures during curing can be particularly

troublesome in food processing plants. Epoxy,
epoxy zinc-rich and epoxy polyester coatings do
not cure below 50F (10C). The curing process of
all coatings is directly related to temperature and
relative humidity. Some coatings dry at lower temperatures, but do not perform as well as if fully
cured at higher temperatures. Whenever possible,
process areas should be warmed to 70F and
dried to 50% relative humidity.
Painting of damp surfaces is not recommended. There are some alkyd-type products that
adhere marginally t o damp surfaces and form a
dried film, but maintenance painting of this type
is a temporary measure. See SSPC-PA 1 for paint
application requirements and checklist.
4. Inspection
Periodic inspections minimize maintenance painting costs. When problems are diagnosed, underfilm corrosion can be checked before it becomes
serious. Any plant maintenance program that
calls for annual inspection and painting during a
short maintenance shutdown is less than effective. Constant vigilance and ongoing maintenance
assure the lowest cost per square foot per year.
Proper inspection should be carried out during each step of maintenance painting. Surface
preparation should be checked to make sure
greases, oils and dirt have been removed. Where
blasting is specified, conformance to industry
specifications should be assured before application. The inspector should check equipment for
cleanliness and condition. Oil and moisture
separators, tip sizes, fluid filters and other
435
Not for Resale
S S P C CHAPTER*L7-6 93
8 6 2 7 9 4 0 0003883 806
be approved by the USDA. There are two types of

approvals: one for coatings applied to direct food
contact surfaces and one for what is termed incidental food contact surfaces. This refers to all
areas of a plant where the foodstuff is not in
direct contact with the protective coating and includes ceilings, walls, floors and all other fixtures
and equipment.
The coatings manufacturer must follow a
detailed procedure to receive USDA approval for a
coating product. The company must supply a dry
sample, formula and product label to the Compounds Evaluation Unit of the USDA. After evaluation and approval, the manufacturer receives an
approval letter. These are separate letters for
direct contact and incidental contact services.
Important: If the manufacturer changes the for-
FIGURE 5
Piping and Equipment. Rust inhibitive polyamide epoxy primer
with aliphatic urethane finish coat.
necessary items should be verified. During application, wet film thickness measurements
should be made and visual checks done for sags,
runs, curtains and other application problems.
After application full inspection should be performed on all coated surfaces. This should include dry film thickness measurements and
checks for adhesion and final appearance.
A conscientious and well structured
maintenance painting program saves dollars. It
also results in a cleaner, safer, more pleasant and
efficient processing plant.
E. USDAIFDA REGULATIONS FOR

PROTECTIVE COATINGS
Two government agencies are concerned with protective coatings used in food processing plants: the U.S.
Department of Agriculture (USDA) and the U.S. Food and
Drug Administration (FDA).
1. USDA
The USDA is required by law to maintain safe and
sanitary conditions in federally inspected meat
and poultry plants. The specific laws are the
Federal Meat Inspection Act as amended by the
Wholesome Meat Act of 1967 and the Poultry
Products Inspection Act as amended by the
Wholesome Products Act of 1968.
These statutes are enforced by the Animal
and Plant Health Inspection Service of the USDA
through the Meat and Poultry Inspection Program
(M PIP).
In meat and poultry plants, all coatings must
3. Simplified Interpretation
a. Meat and Poultry Plants - must have USDA approval on all coatings in process areas. Any direct
food contact requires the second level of USDA
approval. Coating manufacturers must provide
copies of letters to the user upon request.
b. Other Food Processing Plants - should have

USDA approved materials on all surfaces in all
process areas and must have FDA approvable
coatings on any direct food contact surfaces.
Coating manufacturers must provide USDA approval letters and FDA certifications to the user
upon request. USDA contact surfaces approval is
not a substitute for FDA compliance in these
plants.
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

mulation, product name, or product label, all approvals are lost and the coating must be resubmitted for evaluation and approval.
2. FDA
The FDA is responsible for maintaining safe and
sanitary conditions in all food processing plants,
other than those covered by the Meat and Poultry
Inspection Program.
The FDA does not approve coatings, but has
guidelines for acceptability of protective coatings
on food and drug contact surfaces. It is the
responsibility of the coatings manufacturer to certify that the coating product is acceptable under
FDA guidelines for this service.
The manufacturer must do two things: formulate the coating entirely of materials listed as
acceptable under FDA Title 21, Paragraph
175.300; and run specific extractability tests as
detailed in Paragraph 175.300. If a coating passes
the extractability tests, the manufacturer may certify its acceptability for application to direct food
contact surfaces. This certification letter is the
equivalent of a USDA approval letter for the same
service.
436
Not for Resale
SSPC CHAPTER*L7.6
93
8627740 0003884 742
APPENDIX A
TYPICAL PROTECTIVE COATINGS SYSTEMS

FOR
FOOD PROCESSING PLANTS
SURFACE
TO BE COATED
EXPOSURE
PREFERRED
SYSTEM*
SURFACE
PREP
ALTERNATE
SYSTEM
SURFACE
PREP
COMMENTS
Structural &
Misc. Steel
Interior
SSPC-SP 6
SSPC-SP 6
With System A the first two coats

may be shop-applied followed by
touch-up and application of third coat
in the field after erection. With
System E, epoxy zinc-rich primer only
to be applied in the shop.
Structural &
Misc. Steel
Exterior
SSPC-SP 6
SSPC-SP 6
Primer in System C may be shop- or

field-applied. If shop-applied, touch-up
of damaged areas should be done
with epoxy zinc-rich or rust-inhibitive
polyamide epoxy prior to top-coating
with acrylic emulsion.
Piping
Interiori
Exterior
(UP to
225F) (107C)
SSPC-SP 6
SSPC-SP 6
Piping should be blasted and primed

in shop. All pipe varnish must be
removed prior t o coating.
Piping
Interiori
Exterior
225 "-300"F
(107 "-149 OC)
SSPC-SP 6
Piping
Interior/
Exterior
300 "-700 "F
(149"-371"C)
SSPC-SP 10
None
CeilingsGalvanized &
Phosphatized
Steel
Interior
Detergent
Wash
Ceilings-Steel
Pre-coated not
Galvanized
Interior
SSPC-SP 7
SSPC-SP 10
and
SSPC-SP 3
Ceilings-Poured
or Precast
Concrete
Interior
SSPC-SP 7
SSPC-SP 7
Ceilings may be dry- or wet-blasted.

If wet-blasted, ceilings must be
thoroughly dry before application of
System H.
WallsConcrete Block
Interior
I
or
J
Paint only
clean, dry
surfaces
Paint
only clean,
dry
surfaces
System I will have best overall

appearance and washability. System J
should be selected i f stain resistance
is primary consideration.
Walls-Poured
or Precast
Concrete
Interior
SSPC-SP 7
SSPC-SP 7
Walls may be dry or wet blasted.
Floors-Poured
Concrete
InteriorVery aggressive
Areas
SSPC-SP 7
or
Scarify
or
Shot Blast
None
Floors-Poured
Concrete
InteriorNormal to
semi-severe
areas
SSPC-SP 7
or
Scarify
or
Shot Blast
SSPC-SP 7
or
Scarify
or
Acid Etch
or
J
"See Appendix B for paints used in each system

--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

437Not for Resale
This exposure is characterized by

splash and spillage of chemicals,
constant wetness or overflow of product. Severe abrasion also dictates the
use of a heavy monolithic system.
Under no circumstances should acid
etching be substituted as a surface
preparation method.
System M will provide clean finish
for dust control and will not yellow
with age.
SSPC C H A P T E R * L 7 * 6 93
8 6 2 7 9 4 0 0003885 b 8 9
APPENDIX A (Continued)
SUR FACE
TO BE COATED
EXPOSURE
PREFERRED
SYSTEM
(from Appendix 6)
SURFACE
PREP
ALTERNATE
SYSTEM
(from Appendix B)
SURFACE
PREP
COMMENTS
Pre-primed &
Pre-coated
Surfaces
Interior
SSPC-SP 1
and
SSPC-SP 3
None
*This includes door frames, handrails,

switch boxes, electric boxes, etc.
Tank LiningsSteel
Interior-Dry
Foodstuffs or
Potable water
SSPC-SP 5
None
NOTE: Linings for liquid foodstuffs

require highly specialized materials
and application. This subject is
covered in a separate chapter.
Tank LiningsConcrete
Interior-Dry
foodstuffs or
potable and
process water
SSPC-SP 7
None
Non-Ferrous
Metals
Copper
Interior
<225"F
(107C)
Sand to
remove
oxides
Sand to
remove
oxides
Non-Ferrous
Metals
Copper
Exterior
<225"F
(107 "C)
Sand to
remove
oxides
Sand to
remove
oxides
Non-Ferrous
Metals
Aluminum
Interior
SSPC-SP 1
and
acid etch
or
brush blast
SSPC-SP 1
and
acid etch
or
brush blast
Non-Ferrous
Metals
Aluminum
Exterior
SSPC-SP 1
and
acid etch
or
brush blast
SSPC-SP 1
and
acid etch
or
brush blast
Non-Ferrous
Metais
Galvanized Steel
Interior
SSPC-SP 1
and
acid etch
SSPC-SP 1
and
acid etch
Non-Ferrous
Metals
Galvanized Steel
Exterior
SSPC-SP 1
and
acid etch
SSPC-SP 1
and
wash prime or
acid etch
Plaster, Stucco
and Brick
Interior
Acid etch
Acid etch
Plaster, Stucco
and Brick
Exterior
Acid etch
None
High Temp.
Steel Surfaces
Interior &
Exterior
300 "-800"F
SSPC-SP 5
SSPC-SP 5
New Equipment
(Carbon Steel
Surfaces)
interior &
Exterior
SSPC-SP 6
~~
Third coat is necessary on concrete

to insure pinhole-free finish.
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

438
Not for Resale
SSPC-SP 1
and
SSPC-SP 3
Do not use rust-inhibitive primer

direct to copper.
Epoxy coatings systems should not

not be applied to conventional limeputty plaster
S S P C CHAPTER*17.b
93
A b 2 7 9 4 0 O 0 0 3 8 8 6 515
APPENDIX B
DESCRIPTION OF TYPICAL SYSTEMS

SYSTEM
Dry Film Thickness (Mils)
A.
1 ct. Epoxy or Inorganic Zinc-Rich Primer

1 ct. High-Build Polyamide Epoxy
1 ct. Aliphatic Urethane
2.5- 3.0
3.0- 5.0
1.5- 2.5
7.0- 10.5
1 ct. Epoxy or Inorganic Zinc-Rich Primer

1 ct. Semi-Gloss High-Build Epoxy-Polyamide
1 ct. Inorganic Zinc-Rich
2 cts. Acrylic Emulsion
C.
1 ct. Rust-Inhibitive Polyamide Epoxy Primer
E.
3.0
6.0
6.5-
9.0
2.5- 3.0
1.5- 2.5
1.5- 2.5
D.
2.54.0-
5.5-
8.0
4.0-
6.0
4.0-
6.0
2.0- 2.5
4.0- 6.0
6.0-
F.
1 ct. Universal* Alkyd Primer or Epoxy Primer

1 ct. Gloss Polyamide Epoxy Finish
2.0- 3.0
2.0- 3.0
4.0-
G.
1 ct. Cementitious Acrylic Block Filler

1 ct. High-Build Epoxy-Polyamide
1 ct. Epoxy-Polyamine
8.5
6.0
to f i l l
3.0- 4.0
6.0- 7.0
9.0- 11.0
H.

1 ct. Epoxy-pol yami ne
4.06.0-
5.0
8.0
10.0- 13.0
I.

to fill
8.0- 9.0
8.0- 9.0
J.

K.
1 ct. 100% Solids Epoxy Floor Sealer

1 ct. @ ,!,-Ih Monolithic Epoxy-Aggregate
Floor System
1 ct. Epoxy-Polyamine (Optional color coat)
to fill
4.0- 6.0
2.0- 2.5
6.0-
8.5
6.0-
8.0
125.0-250.0
6.0- 8.0
137.0-266.0
L.

(Non-Skid Additive Optional)
M.
4.0- 6.0
6.0- 7.0
10.0- 13.0
1 ct. Clear Polyamide Epoxy

1 ct. Clear Aliphatic Urethane
2.0-
2.5
2.5
3.5-
5.0
1.5-
*Capable of being recoated with strong solvent or epoxy urethane

439
Not for Resale
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
B.
SSPC
CHAPTERmL7.b
APPENDIX
93
8 6 2 7 9 4 0 0003887 451
B (Continued)
Dry Film Thickness (Mils)
SYSTEM
N.
2.0- 3.0
1.5- 2.0
1.5- 2.0
1 ct. Inorganic Zinc-Rich Primer

2 cts. Silicone-Acrylic Finish
5.0-
O.
2.0- 3.0
1.5- 2.0
1 ct. Alkyd Zinc-DustIZinc-Oxide Primer

1 ct. Silicone Alkyd Finish
P.
Q.
3.5-
5.0
1 ct. Inorganic Zinc-Rich Primer
2.0-
3.0
2.0-
3.0
2 cts. Epoxy-Polyamide or Epoxy-Polyamine

(Must be USDAIFDA Approved product for
direct contact with dry foodstuffs or
potable water)
5.0- 7.0
5.0- 7.0
Alternate: 3-coat vinyl system per AWWA specs.

R.
7.0
10.0- 14.0
4.0- 6.0
4.0- 6.0
3 cts. Epoxy-Polyamide or Epoxy-Polyamine

(Must be USDAIFDA Approved product for
direct contact with dry foodstuffs or
potab Ie water)
4.0-
6.0
12.0- 18.0
S.
4.0- 6.0
2.0- 2.5
1 ct. High-Build Epoxy Polyamide

I ct. Aliphatic Urethane
6.0-
T.
1.5- 2.5
1.5- 2.5
2 cts. FungusIMildew Resistant Alkyd

Gloss Finish
3.0U.
v.
8.5
5.0
2.0- 2.5
2.0- 2.5
2 cts. Acrylic Emulsion
1 ct. Epoxy-Polyamide
4.0-
5.0
2.05.0-
3.0
6.0
7.0- 9.0
W.
1 ct. Silicone-Alkyd Aluminum Finish
1.5- 2.5
X.
1 ct. Rust-Inhibitive Polyamide Epoxy Primer

1.5- 2.5
2.0- 3.0
1.5- 2.5
3.5-
Y.
Z.
1 ct. High-Build Rust-Inhibitive

Polyamide Epoxy PrimerlFinish
5.0- 6.0
5.0-
6.0
1 ct. Wash Prime Mil P 15328
0.3-
0.7
2 ct. Acrylic Emulsion
3.0-
5.0
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

5.5
440
Not for Resale
8627940 0003888 398 W
SSPC CHAPTERUL7.b 9 3
BIOGRAPHY
Steve L. Schmidt is Vice
President Marketing for Courtaulds Heavy Duty Coatings,
Louisville, KY. His eighteen-year
career has included experience
in all facets of protective coatings. He founded Porter International in 1989 and is the author
of numerous articles on protective coatings technology. He is
an active member of the National Association of Corrosion Enqineers and has served on
the Executive Committee of the Board of Governors of the Steel
Structures Painting Council.
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
chapter: A.R. House, John Montle, Dan Nemunaitis, Dave R o h son, Bill Wallace, Tom Wilhelm.

44 1
Not for Resale
SSPC CHAPTER*L7.7
93
8627940 0003889 224
CHAPTER 17.7
POWER GENERATION FACILITIES

bY
Ronald R. Skabo
This chapter deals specifically with painting power

generation facilities. While such facilities do not present
any major differences in the basic approach to good painting, and while a properly engineered coating system can
be developed for a power generation facility just as it can
for a chemical plant or petroleum refinery, each facility
has special conditions, environments or regulatory
restraints that will affect the selection of coatings
systems().
For the most part, power generation facilities,
historically, were not located in aggressive environments.
Thus, painting systems were often selected on the basis of
the lowest initial cost. While high performance was not a
major consideration, there were some exceptions, most
notably, power plants located in sea coast environments,
where higher quality coatings were justified because of
humid, salt-water environments.
Several major developments in power generation have
resulted in significant changes in painting attitudes, and
more importantly, in requirements for paint performance.
Nuclear power generating facilities probably had the
greatest impact on painting practices. Because of special
requirements for paint performance mandated by government agencies, the quality of surface preparation, application, paint and inspection has been raised to a level never
before required in the power generation industry (Figure 1).
In fossil fuel plants, particularly coal-fired, the enforcement of air quality standards has forced installation of flue
gas desulfurization (FGD) systems at many facilities.
These systems have created chemical plants in each
power station resulting in aggressive, corrosive environments that tax the best protection system.
Other factors that have resulted in painting changes
include increased maintenance cost and aesthetic
awareness.
In addition to protection required for structural steel,
there is a need for lining systems that can adequately
protect ferrous substrates in a totally immersed environment. These typically include hydraulic structures, various
storage tanks, and some process vessels. As is the case in
most industrial plants, painting is required in power plants
for protection against corrosion, for reasons of safety, or
for aesthetics, but not always in that order of preference.
in the United States comes from fossil and nuclear fueled

plants. They also represent the most demanding painting
and the greatest challenge to the owner. Equipment and
structures requiring painting are common to both types of
generating facilities, but there are special circumstances
in each type of plant that deserve attention. Nuclear power
plants have more regulatory restraints imposed which affect all facets of critical coating work.
I. SPECIFIC PLANT REQUIREMENTS
FIGURE 1
Installing the nuclear reactor at Hanford Station. The interior of
the containment vessel is coated with a special nuclear grade
coating.
A. NUCLEAR POWER PLANTS

For nonradiation areas of nuclear power plants, painting requirements generally are the same as for fossil
plants or other industrial complexes. However, in radiation
areas, a new set of criteria is imposed. It includes the ability to be decontaminated and the ability to withstand conditions postulated for a Design Basis Accident (DBA) or
Loss of Coolant Accident (LOCA) (Figure 2). There are
several ANSI and ASTM standards that pertain to coatings
in nuclear plants (ANSI N5.12(*, N101.2@),N101.44),and
D4082, D4256, D4227, D4228, D4537). Refer to Part 45 of
the ASTM Nuclear Standards for present and future standards pertaining to nuclear plant coatings.
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Courtesy Klaas Brothers, Inc. and

GilbertlCommonwealth
There are severalmethods for generating electrical

power. The greatest percentage of megawatts generated
442
Not for Resale
SSPC CHAPTER*L7=7 93
86279i.10 0003890 TLtb
Courtesy GilbertlCommonwealth
FIGURE 2
Three Mile Island Nuclear Power Plan!, Middletown, PA. Uni! 1 is on right. Uni! 2 in operation (prior to accident).
The potential for radioactive contamination

associated with nuclear plants requires concrete surfaces
to be painted with materials similar to those used on steel
substrates.
One of the most critical aspects of selecting coatings
for Coating Service Level I is determining which system
meets the criteria. Probably the most significant tests that
systems must pass include 1) the DBA, 2) exposure to
radiation, and 3) ability to be decontaminated.
The DBA test involves exposure to a temperature/
pressureltime environment, plus certain spray solutions
such as sodium borate, sodium thiosulfate, sodium
hydroxide, andlor boric acid. Depending upon the nuclear
reactor design, the temperaturelpressureltime sequence
can vary, with temperatures often exceeding 300F and
pressures approaching 70 psi. In addition, the coating
must withstand anticipated radiation levels and then be
able to be decontaminated to acceptable levels. The
severity of these tests limits the generic types of coatings
that can pass and places a greater than normal emphasis
on the total coating system including surface preparation,
application, and inspection. Coatings that meet these
criteria for steel surfaces are inorganic zincs (Figure 3),
epoxies, or modified epoxies. As with any critical application, there can be no compromise in the quality of surface
preparation and workmanship (Figure 4).
Code of Federal Regulations, Title 10, Chapter 1, Energy, Office

of the Federal Register, National Archives and Record Service,
General Services Administration. Obtainable from the Superintendent of Documents, Washington D.C., Part 50, Licensing of Production Utilization Facilities (10 CFR 50).
For many years, a great number of fossil fuel power

plants were fired with gas or oil. These are relatively clean
fuels that do not Create Serious atmospheric COrrOSiOn
problems or place Special demands on paint performance.
Even with coal fuel, there was little effect on paint re-
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Paint performance is of particular concern in areas where

failure could jeopardize plant safety.
ANSI Standard N5.12 defines the most critical areas
as Coating Service Level I pertaining to those coating
systems, applied to structures, systems, and components,
which are essential to the prevention of, or the mitigation
of the consequences of, postulated accidents that could
cause undue risk to the health and safetyof the public. Of
major concern are the consequences of failure on the safe
shutdown of the plant, mainly within the primary containment structure. Less critical areas exist in Service Level I l ,
which applies to those coating systems which are essential to the attainment of the intended normal operating performance.
The United States Nuclear Regulatory Commission
(NRC) exerts control over nuclear power plants pertaining
to public health and safety. Included are painting requirements.* The previously mentioned ANSI Standards
and more recent ASTM Standards detail critical items pertaining to painting nuclear power plants. The nuclear
power generating industry requires strict performance
criteria for coatings: extensive testing, quality assurance
and quality control programs for manufacturers, applicators and inspectors. The resistance of paint to longterm radiation exposure and decontamination procedures
becomes the first concern. Corrosion resistance (other
than from decontamination chemicals) and aesthetics are
less important.

B. FOSSIL POWER PLANTS
443
Not for Resale
C. COMMON PAINT PROBLEMS

Some areas in nuclear and fossil power plants have
painting requirements that are common with each other.
Some areas are innocuous, not requiring paint to provide
protection against corrosion but to fill aesthetic needs. Examples are the turbine-generator area and control rooms.
One of the more aggressive environments common to
both generating facilities is the water treatment area.
Demineralization units require acid and caustic for
regeneration, creating a potential for chemical exposure to
spillage areas and adjoining painted surfaces. Further
discussion on painting water treatment facilities appears
later in this chapter.
Special precautions must be taken if successful cervice life is t o be achieved with most lining systems in immersion service. There cannot be a successful service life
i f frequent inspection and maintenance are not performed.
The more aggressive the environment, the more frequent
the inspection. Few systems can be placed in immersion
service without some failure occurring in the first year of
service. A systematic program of inspection and repair can
achieve a good service life. Frequent wash down is recommended where chemical spillage occurs.
Courtesy Mobil Chemical and GiIbertlCommonweaIth

FIGURE 3
Inorganic zinc coating applied to liner plate prior to assembly of
nuclear reactor building at Calvert Cliffs Nuclear Plant.
quirements since coal was generally high quality and low

sulfur.
In recent years the use of high sulfur coals and
restraints of local, state and federal agencies against
discharging pollutants into the atmosphere have created a
whole new ball game for painting in fossil fuel power
plants.
The need for FGD systems on many coal-fired power
plants has created a very significant chemical plant operation on the end of these plants. The major impact has been
on various lining materials that are required in vessels, absorbers and ductwork, which often contain very aggressive
environments (Figure 5). Exterior exposures around these
FGD systems often expose coated surfaces to highly
alkaline environments due to the nature of the neutralization chemicals used (lime, limestone).
II. SURFACE PREPARATION

With few exceptions, prior to the existence of nuclear
plants and FGD systems, the power generating industry
was not prone to specify high quality surface preparation.
Such an attitude was acceptable since high quality
coating systems were not often specified. But now, a
higher degree of sophistication has developed in the
engineered approach to good painting practice because
of the need for higher performance coating systems t o
satisfy requirements for nuclear service, to withstand the
rigors of FGD systems, to reduce maintenance costs and
to provide better plant appearance.
Accepted standards for surface preparation have
been developed by the Steel Structures Painting CouncilB)
(SSPC). These are the final word on how a substrate should
be prepared. For immersion service, white metal blast
cleaning (SSPC-SP5) is much preferred.
Surfaces that are condensing and running wet (.e. inside of chimneys downstream of FGD systems) should be
considered as immersion service. Such an environment
can be more aggressive to coating systems than conventional immersion service because of the higher rate of
moisture vapor transmission. There are few situations or
coating systems that compromise the requirement for a
white metal surface for immersion service, but the compromise would only down-grade to SSPC-SP 10, near-white
blast cleaning.
In less critical areas of nuclear and fossil plants,
coating systems are being built from the substrate up, requiring good quality surface preparation for most surfaces. Because of the increased availability of centrifugal
wheel blasting equipment, either in steel fabrication or
paint shops, much of the major structural steel and equip-
Another problem created by plants burning high sulfur

coal is the highly acidic condition encountered around
the wet coal. Surface drainage from a pile of high sulfur
coal can have a pH value of 2 or less. This acidic condition
must be recognized when engineering a coating system.
Courtesy Ameron and Gi,bertlCommonwealth

FIGURE 4
Spraypointing of contoured panel as a part of nuclear qualifica.
tion of painters.
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

444
Not for Resale
S S P C CHAPTER*L7.7
93
ment is being cleaned and primed in the shop. In most

cases commercial blast cleaning (SSPC-SP 6) is usually
spec if ied.
Although there are exceptions, the use of hand tool or
power tool cleaning (SSPC-SP 2 and SSPC-SP3) is usually
limited to touch-up, repair, or small items. Seldom are
these methods specified for major equipment items and
structural steel. With many developments in abrasive blast
equipment and techniques, plus the greater desire to obtain high performance coating systems, there is an ever increasing use of higher quality surface preparation
throughout most power generation facilities.
111. TYPES OF PAINT

It is difficult to state which coating systems are
typical for the power industry. However, with the emphasis
on high performance coating systems, including improvement in surface preparation and a more engineered approach, the quality of coatings has reached a new high.
Their performance is gauged by durability in severe
chemical exposure (FGD systems); resistance to radiation,
chemicals and heat (nuclear plants); and overall
aesthetics. These performance parameters, and other
regulatory restraints make it uneconomical to address the
problem of paint selection casually. It is necessary to consider carefully all aspects of the painting requirements
and to specify the appropriate coating for each plant section.
8 b 2 7 9 4 0 0003892 819
TABLE 1
FOSSIL FUEL PLANTS
Coal Handling:
Commercial blast clean (SSPC-SP 6); inorganic zinc primer with epoxy topcoat, or a
total epoxy system (primer and topcoat).
Structural Steel:
Commercial blast clean (SSPC-SP 6); inorganic zinc primer with topcoats of either
epoxy, polyurethane, chlorinated rubber, or
acrylic latex for exteriors; silicone alkyd on
interior, but usually with alkyd primer.
Hydraulic
Structures:
Interior surfaces of circulating water lines,

condenser waterboxes, and water treatment equipment are often protected with
phenolic, epoxy or coal-tar epoxy systems,
flake glass polyesters, or sheet rubber.
White-metal blast cleaning (SSPC-SP 5) is
generally specified, although near-white
metal blast cleaning (SSPC-SP 10) is often
used.
High Temperature
Surfaces:
Commercial blast clean (SSPC-SP 6) or better; use an all-silicone system or an inorganic zinc alone or topcoated with a
silicone.
Mechanical
Equipment:
Commercial blast clean (SSPC-SP 6); alkyd primer and topcoat with alkyd enamel.
FGD Systems
(Exterior):
Commercial blast clean (SSPC-SP 6); epoxy

topcoat over inorganic zinc or use a total
epoxy system. Inhibitive pigments in alkyd
primers plus alkyd topcoats are used. Some
units are insulated.
FGD Systems
(Interior) (Stacks,
Duct Work, Venturi
Area):
White metal blast clean (SSPC-SP 5); conditions and designs vary greatly; reinforced
polyesters, fluoroelastomers, reinforced
epoxies, rubber, foam glass block, and
cementitious materials have all experienced varied success.
Water Treatment
(Exterior exposure):
Commercial blast clean (SSPC-SP 6); use an

inorganic zinc primer and topcoats of vinyl
or chlorinated rubber.
Potable Water:
White metal blast clean (SSPC-SP 5); use

coating systems suitable for potable water
such as epoxy or vinyl, per American Water
Works Association specifications.
Courtesy: GilbertiCommonwealth
FIGURE 5
Corrosion failure inside 1000 ft. flue gas stack of desulfurization
unit after 1% years service. Over 1700 holes were found in the
polyester lining and the stack itself due to acid attack. After reapplication of a fluoroelastorner, the unit is still in operation after
four years.
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A. PRIMERS
Economics are an important factor in daily operations. Time is money. This also applies to painting, particularly in fabrication shops. With large quantities of steel
being shop primed, shop production must not be
obstructed by long delays waiting for primers to dry. There
is a need for fast-dry primers.
Care must be taken when specifying primers if the majority of priming work is done in the shop. Fast dry primers
are available in most generic types including alkyds
(modified), epoxies, vinyls and inorganic zincs. Because of
their fast dry properties, these products usually require a
cleaner surface than slow drying penetrating primers.
Another consideration created by construction practices is the result of extensive on-site storage of shopprimed equipment and structural steel. Construction time
for most power plants, particularly nuclear, is 8 to 10 years,
with frequent delays being common. Most construction
primers were not intended to withstand long-term outdoor
storage without a top-coat. Frequently, shop-primed structures require total re-prime by the time they are ready for
top-coating because of their exposure to the elements. A
partial answer to this problem is found in zinc-rich primers,
particularly inorganic zincs.
As discussed in the chapter on zinc-rich paints, inorganic zincs have excellent resistance to most outdoor
weathering environments, but are not problem-free. Since
zinc is a very reactive metal and is amphoteric (corroded by
both acid and alkaline environments), it can be attacked if
the construction site storage area is subjected to acid or
alkaline fall-out from any up-wind facilities. Coal dust, a
fact of life around fossil plants, can be detrimental to inorganic zincs, either by their galvanic relationship (carbon
versus zinc) or the acidic conditions of some high sulfur
coals. There have been problems with storage of inorganic
zinc primed structures due to inadvertent contact with uncoated steel (again a galvanic corrosion problem). Corrosion occurs by the formation of zinc salts from puddling
water on the primed surfaces.
TABLE 2
NUCLEAR POWER PLANTS
Criteria for selecting these systems include
identification of specific surface and
substrate condition. Coatings criteria include temperature, humidity, radiation
level, decontaminability and chemical
resistance. Level 1 coatings tests involve
resistance to fire, radiation, design basis
accident and unusual environmental conditions.
Suppression
Chambers:
White metal blast clean (SSPC-SP5); use inorganic zinc primers (without topcoats),
epoxy or modified phenolic primers and
topcoats, or metallized aluminum, with
epoxy or epoxy-phenolic topcoats.
Steel
Containment:
White metal or near-white metal blast clean

(SSPC-SP 5 or SSPC-SP IO) with inorganic
zinc primer topcoated with an epoxy or
epoxy-phenolic, inorganic zinc primer (untopcoated), or prime and topcoat with an
epoxy or epoxy-modified phenolic.
Concrete Walls
and Floors
Epoxy surfacers and topcoats to meet ANSI

Standards.
Structural Steel:
(Outside of
Containment)
Generally the same as fossil plants.
Building Siding:
Same as fossil plants.
Hydraulic
Structures:
Generally same as fossil plants.
Mechanical
Equipment:
Same as fossil plants i f outside of containment.
B. FINISH COATS
Water Treatment
Same as fossil plants.
Application of the finish coat(s) is typically done after

erection of major steel components, even though many innovative techniques have been proposed and used, .e.
finish paint before erection. The variety of generic systems
and specific requirements for each plant makes it impossible to say that there are specific systems unique to the
power generating industry. The variety of generic types is a
help to the engineer who can tailor the paint system to
meet each specific requirement of his plant.
In many plants, aesthetics plays a major role, requiring
that painted surfaces maintain a new look (color and
gloss retention). A number of products can meet this
criterion including alkyd enamels, acrylic latexes, acrylics
and polyurethanes. At this time, polyurethanes represent
the newest development in industrial painting. They provide excellent color and gloss retention and give good cor-
rosion resistance. Acrylic-modified polyurethanes and

various water based epoxy coatings are also being used.
In nuclear applications, inorganic zincs, modified
phenolics and epoxy based materials have an edge over
other generic types. Rigorous conditions imposed by DBA
test criteria have shown that these materials generally perform best.
There are many generic paints that have worked in
power generating facilities. As in other applications, the
proper choice must be determined from many factors
(cost, environment, application, service life). A great
amount of work has been done by SSPC, NACE(5),ASTM,
and other technical organizations to acquire knowledge of
paint technology and optimize material selection.
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0003894 691 W
IV. TYPICAL COATING SYSTEMS

Tables 1 and 2 list coating systems that have worked
well for the specified application. They indicate no preference but list typical systems. The final choice m u s t be
made b y the coatings engineer, who m u s t tailor t h e select i o n t o meet his specific requirements.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
chapter: Duane Bloemke, J. Byers, Harlan Kline, M. Masciale, Marshall McGee, John Montle, Bill Pearson. T. Rudaitis, M. Shook, Bill
Wallace, Frank Windler.
worked in the petroleum industry, heavy chemical production, engineeringkonstruction, and consulting engineering. He is a
registered professional engineer in several states, and a National
Association of Corrosion Engineers (NACE) certified Corrosion
Specialist. He holds memberships in the Steel Structures Painting
Council, NACE, the American Society for Testing & Materials, the
American Water Works Association and serves on several technical committees in each organization.
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
REFERENCES
1. American Society for Testing and Materials, Manual of Coating Work for Light-Water Nuclear Power Plant Primary Containment and Other Safety-Related Facilities. ASTM, 1916 Race
St., Philadelphia, PA 19103-1187, 1979.
2. American National Standard Institute, ANSI N512, Protective
Coatings (Paints) for the Nuclear Industry. ANSI, 11 West 42nd
St., 13th Floor, New York, NY 10036-8002, 1974.
3. American National Standard Institute, ANSI N101.2, Protective Coatings (Paints) for Light-Water Nuclear Reactor Containment Facilities. ANSI, 11 West 42nd St., 13th Floor, New York,
NY 10036-8002, 1972.
4. American National Standard Institute, ANSI N101.4, Quality
Assurance for Protective Coatings Applied to Nuclear Facilities. ANSI, 1430 Broadway, New York, N.Y. 10018, 1972.
5 . National Association of Corrosion Engineers, Publications
6D170, Causes and Prevention of Coatings Failures. National
Association of Corrosion Engineers, P.O. Box 218340, Houston,
TX.

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CHAPTER 18
GOVERNMENT PAINTING PRACTICES

by
Richard W. Drisko and Howard G. lasser
cured for stocking and storage by the federal government,

GSA has responsibility for inspection and testing; if individual agencies procure such materials for their own
use, then they have the inspection and testing responsibility(*). Published specifications, standards and
qualified products lists are available from a single source,
the Navy Publications and Forms CenteP). In general,
when specifications and standards are used to provide a
service to the federal government, commodity documents
become secondary references, and documents dealing
with government contracts are used as the primary
reference~~.~).
The federal government is the largest purchaser of

paints and painting services in the United States, spending
hundreds of millions of dollars annually. Thus, in 1977, the
General Services Administration (GSA) spent about $58
million for 3400 paint items for stocking and subsequent
distribution to federal agencies. About 60% of government
painting is done under contract and about 40% (mostly
maintenance) by in-house personnel. The trend is to increase the amount done under contract. Contractorfurnished paint may be specification or proprietary and is
purchased directly from a supplier.
Thousands of federal governmental activities, some
very large and some quite small, each with its own
organizational structure, require painting services on a
periodic or continuous basis. In order for all these activities to procure quality materials and services in the
most economical and efficient manner, a common set of
published procedures, standards and specifications is
prepared. Although they may seem unnecessarily
numerous and complicated, they were prepared to meet
the many government requirements and still be fair for
suppliers. A new procurement policy, the Federal Acquisition Regulation (FAR), is being prepared for use by Federal
Executive Agencies. It will provide a uniform regulation
covering procurement and testing of paints.
This chapter provides basic information about operational procedures of the federal government and advises
state and local governments and private industry of
available specifications and standards. The federal
Freedom of Information Act makes all federal information,
except that with a security classification, available to the
public.
In 1921, a standardization section was formed at the
National Bureau of Standards to establish requirements
and a format for procurement specifications. This section
became the nucleus of the Office of Standards and Quality
Control in the GSA, which now generates federal specifications and standards. The GSA has responsibility for all
federal standardization documents, except those describing items specifically for military use. The first military
standard concerned the design of a rifle with interchangeable parts invented by Eli Whitney. From this the
military standardization program developed into the
Defense Supply Center located in Alexandria, VA.
The reponsibility for preparing procurement procedures for paints and coatings was assigned to GSA() to
provide uniformity. If paint and coating materials are pro-
I. MATERIALS SPECIFICATIONS AND

STANDARDS
There are about 320 federal and 240 military specifications for paint and coating materials. These specifications
are of two general types - those associated with compositional and those associated with performance requirements. The latter may have a qualified products list
(QPL) of approved suppliers for approved formulations(E).
Qualification may require both laboratory and exposure
testing for conformance to specification requirements.
The fact that a product has been examined, tested and
placed upon a QPL by the preparer of the specification
signifies only that at the time of inspection and test the
manufacturer could make a product that met all specification requirements. It in no way relieves the supplier from
the obligation to deliver items meeting all requirements.
There is a mandate from Congress to make greater use of
commercial standards because of availability and cost
considerations. These standards are described as rules,
conditions, or requirements established by commercial
standards-setting bodies concerning definition of terms;
classification of components; specification of materials,
performance, or operations; delineation of procedures; or
measurement of quantity and quality in describing
materials, products, systems, services, or practices(7.
There are standard p r ~ c e d u r e s ( for
~~~
preparation,
~~)
updating and cancellation of federal and military
specifications as the need arises. The user is responsible
for preparing a specification. The Materials and
Mechanics Research Center, which lists all projects in the
Federal Standardization Class 8010 for the Department of
Defense, establishes projects for each user requesting a
project nurnberlol.
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Titles of specifications for paint materials use one

key noun (e.g., coating, paint, enamel, compound, etc.)
followed by descriptive adjectives (e.g., textured, vinyl, anticorrosive, etc.). The federal code system for specifications for paint and coating materials usually starts with
TT-, followed by the first letter of the type of material (e.g.,
E for enamel, P for paint, C for coating, etc.) and a number.
A letter, starting with A, is added after the number as
modifications are made. Thus, TT-E-489F Enamel, Alkyd,
Gloss (For Exterior and Interior Surfaces) is the code and
title of the sixth revision of a specification for a commonly
used enamel. Specifications for similar materials are
sometimes grouped together. Thus, TT-P-300 to TT-P-500
are reserved for pigments. (Many of the pigment specifications that previously fell in this category have been replaced by ASTM specifications.)
in addition to specifications, there are federal tests
(Federal Test Method Standard No. 141) and a few federal
standards (e.g., Federal Standard No. 595 Colors) that are
available from the Specification Distribution Branch of the
GSA(ll). A listing of all such specifications and a Federal
Supply Classification listing can be found in the Index of
Federal Specifications and Standards, available on a
subscription from the Superintendent of Documents.
Single copies of specifications for bidding can be obtained
free from any GSA Business Service Center located in different cities.
Military specifications are distinct from other federal
specifications. They are generally written with the prefix
MIL- or DOD- (Department of Defense), followed by a code
letter designating the type of product and a number
assigned to each product. Federal and military specifications are being updated in metrics. When complete, the
MIL- is changed to DOD-. MIL-P-15328C Primer (Wash)
Pretreatment was changed to DOD-P-15328D. Navy
coatings for ships frequently have formula and specification numbers. MIL-P-24441 includes formulas 150 through
156. A few JAN (Joint Army-Navy) specifications, forerunners of the MIL specifications, are still used. Military
Specifications, Standards, and Qualified Products Lists
can be obtained from the Naval Publications and Forms
Center.
There are a few specifications that have been issued
by other federal agencies. These agencies include the
Maritime Administration, the Bureau of Reclamation,
Corps of Engineers and U.S. Postal Service. Many of these
specifications have been changed to federal or military
specifications. Specifications of such groups as the Steel
Structures Painting Council and American Association of
State Highway and Transportation Officials find occasional use by federal agencies.
Other procurement documents include purchase
descriptions, type specifications, guide specifications and
Military and Federal Construction Guide Specifications.
Purchase descriptions cover items for a single procurement. Type and guide specifications provide information
covering a description of services required for construcCopyright The Society for Protective Coatings
tion or maintenance of structures such as bridges, storage

tanks and buildings. They are frequently used in the
preparation of contracts.
Several compilations or summaries of documents are
available. A Guide to U.S. Government Paint Specifications is available from the National Paint and Coatings
Association. This contains abstracts of most government
documents with essential data on paint products and raw
material ingredients for quick reference (but not for bidding use) by paint technologists, formulators, buyers,
sellers and writers of specifications. It is updated about
every three months.
Visual Search MicroFilm (VSMF) is provided by Information Handling Services. It provides not only microfilms
of all federal and military specifications, standards and
QPLs, but also federal supply schedules, including GSA
catalogs and federal construction specifications, standards and regulations for use on microfilm readers and
printers. Microfilms of new and modified specifications
(Hot Specs) are distributed every 15 days.
The Department of Defense Index of Specifications
and Standards (DODISS) is published annually with
cumulative bi-monthly supplements for each part (Part I Alphabetical Listing; Part II - Numerical Listing). It is
available at a subscription rate from the U S . Government
Printing Office. An additional charge is required for foreign
mailing. The Federal Supply Classification Listing (a
cumulative listing of documents alphabetically within their
FSC classes) is also available from the U.S. Government
Printing Office at a subscription rate with an additional
charge for foreign mailing.
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8 b 2 7 9 4 0 0003896 464
II. PAINT SELECTION, PROCUREMENT, AND

TEST1NG
Many agencies prepare general guides for the selection and use of paints and coatings. One of the best known
is the Tri-Service Manual, Paints and Protective
Coatings(I*). Another is the National Bureau of Standards, Organic Coatings - Properties, Selection and
Use[131,available from the U.S. Government Printing Office. More specific instructions are also available. Of
special interest because of excellent technical contents
are Naval Ships Technical Manual, Chapter 631 (formerly
9190), Preservation of Ships in Service (Paints and
Cathodic Protection)[14,General Specifications Section
631, Guide for Painting Ships Under C ~ n s t r ~ ~ t i o n ~ ~ ~ ~
and U.S. Coast Guard Manual, Coatings and Color
Manua1(I6).The previously mentioned specifications also
provide much detailed information on painting specific
structures and provide guidance useful in preparing contracts.
Federal Specification No. 595 Colors presents a collection of standard colors used by the federal government
for a variety of materials, including coatings. These standard colors, identified by 5-digit numbers and defined by
colormetric data, can be used to select and procure a
coating with the desired color. The standard also includes
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m 8627940
%-by-I-inch chips for desk use and 3-by-5-inch chips

available in sets of 496 or as individual chips for inspection use. Kelly and Judd"') of the National Bureau of Standards describe a method or language of designating colors in simple, easily understood but accurately defined
leveIs.
GSA purchases and stocks commonly used specification paints in large volume so that it can supply these
paints to agencies at a low price. Paints stocked by GSA
are analyzed for conformance to specification and
checked annually at one of its regional laboratories. Use is
made of the Class 8010 listing of the Federal Supply
Classification. Agencies usually have the authority to purchase small volumes of paint from local suppliers.
Although GSA-supplied paints are tested for conformance to specification, a purchaser may have a paint tested
if there is reason to believe it has deficiencies. When
specification paints are purchased by a contractor for use
at 'a government agency, the agency may accept an affidavit from the supplier that the paint conforms to
specification or have the paint analyzed by the supplier, a
government laboratory or a private laboratory.
When government specifications list physical or
chemical requirements for paint, they reference or
describe the methods of testing. Referenced methods are
usually those of Federal Test Method Standard No. 141 or
the ASTM). The trend is to use ASTM rather than federal
standards. When the desired test is so unique that it has
not been published in either of these sources, the method
must then be written in full in the specification.
0003897 3T0
TABLE 1
ADDRESSES OF REFERENCED ORGANIZATIONS

1916 Race Street
Philadelphia, PA 19103-1187
General Services Administration
Federal Supply Service
Environmental 8, Engineering and
Commodity Management Center
Environmental, Engineering Policy Division (FCRE)
General Services Administration
Specifications Unit Branch
L'Enfant Plaza
GSAIFSS
Paints & Chemicals Commodity Center
Engineering Division (9FTE-1O)
GSA Center
Auburn, WA 98001
Information Handling Services
15 Inverness Way East
Englewood, CO 801 12
National Association of Corrosion Engineers
P.O. Box 218340
Houston, TX 77218-8340
111. SURFACE PREPARATION AND PAINT

APPLICATION AND INSPECTION

1500 Rhode Island Avenue, NW
Surface preparation standards used in government

contracts for painting steel surfaces are generally those of
the Steel Structures Painting Council118).The pictorial surface preparation standards prepared by the Swedish IVA
Corrosion Committee and jointly approved by SSPC, ASTM
and the Swedish Standards Association are occasionally
used in the field. Standards of the National Association of
Corrosion Engineers and Society of Naval Architects and
Marine Engineers are less often used. The equipment and
methods for achieving these standard conditions are
described in the Tri-Services Manual~lzl,National Bureau
of Standards Building Science Series 7113),type specifications, and special instructions, such as Chapter 631 of
Naval Ships Technical Manual(14)'.
The U S . Department of
Interior has published a paint manual describing the application and use of high performance systems for large
hydraulic s t r ~ ~ t ~ These
r e ~ ~publications
~ ~ ~ .
and the
specification itself provide general instructions for the
mixing, thinning, coverage, and application of specification coatings. Suppliers of proprietary coatings provide
product data sheets on their coatings.
Inspection of government painting contracts is usually conducted by trained government inspectors. These inspectors check for level of surface preparation, general ap-
Society of Naval Architects and Marine Engineers

601 Pavonia Avenue
Suite 400
Jersey City, NJ 07306
Standardization Documents Order Desk
700 Robbins Avenue, Building #4, Section D
Philadelphia, PA 19111-5094
Steel Structures Painting Council
4516 Henry Street
Suite 301
Superintendent of Documents
U.S. Government Printing Office
U.S. Dept. of the Interior
Bureau of Reclamation
Box 25007
Denver, CO 80225
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8627940 0 0 0 3 8 9 8 2 3 7
professional and honorary societies including Sigma Xi and Tau Beta

Pi and is a registered professional engineer in the District of Columbia and the states of California and Virginia.
pearance of canned paints, adequate workmanship during
application, required wet andlor dry film thickness, complete curing, acceptable appearance of applied paint, and
absence of holidays and other defects. They also check t o
determine that a l l health, safety, a n d environmental
restrictions are met in full.
The federal government has a unique system for the
procurement of painting materials and services. It w a s
designed to obtain such materials and services t h a t meet
satisfactory standards at minimum costs. It is only f r o m a
thorough understanding of t h i s system b y government a n d
private industry t h a t a satisfactory relationship between
t h e m c a n be reached.
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REFERENCES
1. Selling to the Military, Sup. Doc. Stock No. 008-000-00226-6,
Superintendent of Documents.
2. An Introduction to the Defense Supply Agency, Public A f fairs Office, Cameron Station, Alexandria, VA 22314.
3. A Guide for Private Industry, Department of Defense Single
Stock Point for Standards and Specifications. 4NDNPFC-412013 (Ref. 1-75), Plate No. 17023, Navy Publications
and Form Center.
4. How to Obtain Consideration for Architect-Engineer Contracts with Department of Defense, Office of Assistant
Secretary of Defense (I&L). Sup. Doc. No. 008-007-02778-6,
Superintendent of Documents, June 1976.
5. Selling to Navy Prime Contractors NAVMAT P-1030. Chief
of Naval Material, Navy Publications and Forms Center, July
1976.
6. F-M, Standardization Policies, Procedures, and Instruction, Defense Standardization Manual 4120.
Superintendent of Documents, Jan. 1972.
7. Executive Office of the President, Office of Management and
Budget letter to the Heads of Executive Departments and
Establishments, Nov. 30, 1976.
8. Outline of Forms and Instructions for the Preparation of
Specimens and Associated Documents, MIL-STD-961.Navy
Publications and Forms Center, Sep. 22, 1975.
9. Outline of Forms and Instructions for the Preparation Standards and Military Handbooks, MIL-STO-962. Navy Publications and Forms Center, Sep. 22, 1975.
10. Standardization Directory 1 July 1977, SD-1, Navy Publications and Forms Center (updated quarterly).
11. Paint, Varnish, Lacquer, and Related Materials; Methods for
Testing of, Federal Test Method Standard No. 141, Feb. 1,
1979 with later change notices, Navy Publications and Forms
Center.
12. Paints and Protective Coatings; Army TM 5-618, NAVFAC
MO-110, and Air Force AFM 85-3; Superintendent of Documents.
13. A.G. Roberts, Organic Coatings Properties, Selection and
Use. National Bureau of Standards Building Science Series
7, Feb 1978, Superintendent of Documents.
14. Preservation of Ships in Service (Paints and Cathodic Protection), Chapter 631 (Formerly 9190). Naval Ship Systems
Command (1979). US. Government Printing Office.
15. General Specifications for Ships of the United States Navy,
Section 631, Department of Navy, 1978, Superintendent of
Documents.
16. Coatings and Color Manual CG 263, Department of
Transportation, U.S.Coast Guard, with Amendments 1 and 2,
July 1973, Superintendent of Documents.
17. K.L. Kelly and D.B. Judd, Color - Universal Language and
Dictionary of Names. National Bureau of Standards, (Dec
1976). Superintendent of Documents.
18. John D. Keane, Systems & Specifications. Steel Structures
Painting Manual, Volume 2, 1982.
19. Paint Manual, U.S. Dept. of Interior, Bureau of Reclamation, 1976.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
chapter: AI Beitelman, Leon Birnbaum, Dave Bloodgood, R. Brady,
Paul Campbell, A. Chasan, T. Corboy, T.A. Cross, Hing Dear, Ted
Dowd, J. Foster, Harlan Kline, Melvin Sandler, and Bill Wallace.
The chapter was also presented to the following for advance
review: B. Appleman, Duane Bloemke, R. Brown, Jack Kiewit, and
Bill Pearson.
BIOGRAPHY
Richard W. Drisko has BS,
MS, and PhD degrees from
Stanford University. He has
been employed at the Navys
Civil Engineering Laboratory
since 1950 and is currently the
Director of the Materials Science Division. His special area
of expertise is protective coatings. He is a member of various committees of the SSPC. He
is also involved in the development of their inspection manual. He has belonged to several
technical societies such as the
American Chemical Society, the National Association of Corrosion
Engineers, and the Federation of Societies for Coatings Technology, serving in organizational offices and on technical committees,
chairing symposia and presenting papers, and authoring articles
in scientific journals. He has also served in offices of civic, health,
and professional organizations and is a registered professional engineer (corrosion) in the State of California.
BIOGRAPHY
Howard G. Lasser has BS,
ChE, and D.Eng. degrees from
Lehigh University, Columbia
University, and Darmstadt Polytechnic Institute, respectively.
He has worked for different organizations in the federal
government for about 30 years
and industry for 12 years
specializing in application and
uses of coatings. Currently he
is a chemical engineer with
Materials Research Consultants. He has authored about 500 technical articles and specifications and has received six patents. He is a member of numerous

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CHAPTER 19
TRAINING PROGRAMS FOR PAINTING

by
J a y / . Leanse
Training programs are used by many companies that

want employees to become efficient and productive, particularly where technical advances require improvement in
knowledge and skills. In the coatings industry the use of
high performance protective coatings, the critical need for
effective surface preparation and paint application, and
the development of sophisticated equipment make it
necessary to have ongoing training programs for workers.
There are increasing numbers of government regulations affecting the entire coatings industry. To comply,
manufacturers must develop new materials. Trends away
from low-solids systems have developed new technologies
including coatings with at least 70% solids, two-part
catalyzed systems, emulsions and latices, water-soluble
and colloidal dispersions, powders, and radiation-cured
systems.(V New systems require the development of different equipment and application methods. Regulations
are felt in the paint shop in new procedures and techniques. Changes in materials and equipment make the old
ways of painting unsatisfactory. New ways must be
learned.
Procedures associated with development of the latest
materials and equipment must be communicated to those
responsible for the work. Training provides an ideal forum
for transmission of information.
Training programs also make good economic sense.
Most companies cannot afford to have their employees
learn jobs by trial and error. For example, changes in resin
formulations are taking place in the coatings industry to
accommodate other new technologies and regulations.
Resin systems will be made of more constituents and
of higher priced raw materials. One anticipated result of
the changes in resin systems is that in ten years the
average price of a chemical coating is expected to be three
to five times present levels. Higher prices makes it increasingly expensive to waste materials.
Waste is not the only consideration with higher-priced
coatings. Painting a 50-foot freight car requiring an
average of 29 gallons of paint cost $350 in 1977, including
stenciling and labor.@)A decade from now the cost of the
paint alone will be at least $500 - four times more than
the $130 spent for the paint in 1977.
Programs aimed at demonstrating correct procedures
and techniques help to better use expensive materials and
reduce costly mistakes caused by uninformed employees.

Another way to use training is to target and eliminate
specific or recurrent problems. If, for instance, delivery
dates are constantly missed or certain coatings consistently present application problems or failures, a company should take measures to correct the problems. Once
identified, paint defects, which result in costly and timeconsuming work, can be eliminated. Thorough instruction
in airless equipment, for example, may be all that is
necessary to reduce operator problems associated with
high pressure spray equipment.
Training can be regarded as a motivation tool or as a
productivity initiator. People generally want to do quality work. But all workers must understand why things are
done in a recommended way. If workers know why
coatings must be applied in a particular way, they take
greater pride and satisfaction in the work, and the owner
gets desired results.
II. STEPS FOR SUCCESSFUL TRAINING

Application procedures must be followed correctly to
produce high quality coatings. For this reason, emphasis
on motivation is an integral part of any training program.
Workers must have a sense of pride and of the importance
of their work. Without that feeling even the most dedicated
worker can lose interest.
For training to be effective, the company must be
receptive t o change. Management must understand the
need and objectives of training and support it. Training will
not attain its potential if employees are not allowed to
practice what they have learned. Acceptance must come
from everyone - from upper management to supervisors
and co-workers. In a study of problems that exist between
learning and changes in behavior on the job, Katz@)says
that once a worker recognizes a need to improve, and
wants to learn how, other conditions must exist in the work
environment. Primarily, it must be a permissive climate
where new knowledge and skills can be used. A company
not hostile to change can reap the benefits of an
employees training experience.
Once the need for training is recognized, the next step
is to determine the areas of need. Specific problems must
be pinpointed. This task is more difficult than it first appears.
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A. IDENTIFY TRAINING NEEDS

A systematic approach helps determine the training
needs of a company. For example, a trainer wishing to
develop materials for painters and blasters must know
specifically what those workers should learn. The question
asked by the trainer, precisely what do the operators need
to know to do the best possible job? is commonly
answered, they must know everything about cleaning the
surface and the equipment. This may be true, but the
answer is too general to be of any value. The identification
of specific tasks required of the operators must follow so
that appropriate and useful materials can be developed.
Trainers have developed a number of approaches to
determine training needs. They include performance
reviews, records, patterned interviews and surveys. One
systematic approach includes four relatively simple techniques.WThe first of these is an individual performance appraisal. Once a person or groups performance has been
evaluated, training can be developed in areas that
specifically need improvement. A supervisor or worker
should be able to isolate the problem. A second approach
is to conduct a more general survey. A list can be given to
supervisors asking them to rank the degree of need for different areas. Results can determine the content of the
training program. A third method is to pre-test trainees to
find what they already know. In training first-line supervisors, for example, their field experience is a sound training basis. Simply build on and reinforce knowledge that
already exists. If skills are going to be taught, a performance teat should be designed; i f knowledge or attitudes
are to be taught, a written test is appropriate.
The fourth approach is to seek help from an advisory
committee of key people in the company. The committee
helps to determine training needs and later to implement
the program once designed. The trainer should be able to
present the committee with materials for consideration,
rather than asking broad and general questions. The purpose of the committee is to advise from different viewpoints within the company. This kind of committee is
valuable when asking for reactions to information
previously collected or for recommendations on how to
proceed with training.
The four approaches provide a basis for a training program. However, determination of needs alone does not
assure a successful program. Once needs are identified, a
logical step is to determine whether the problems can be
solved by training, or whether procedural changes would
be more effective. Training objectives should be outlined.
B. WHOM TO TRAIN
Once objectives are determined, a training program
can be designed and trainees selected. A program could
be designed for the entire paint department, with special
emphasis for different job categories. For example, firstline supervisors can be trained for management duties
while painters receive training in airless spray equipment,

application of inorganic zinc or in safety and health procedures. Who is trained depends on the previously determined needs. There is a great difference in training for
skills development and management responsibilities.
Training related to painting procedures can also be
designed for employees in other departments. If an objective is to design clearer specifications, then spec writers
should receive training, perhaps in conjunction with the
foremen in the paint shop. Other personnel who may be
trained in the paint shop are QA and QC managers, field inspectors or supervisors and program managers.
An effective level for training is with new employees.
At this point basic skills instruction can be taught,
especially if the employees are new to the field and unfamiliar with elementary painting procedures. This is also
a good time to introduce company policy to employees, no
matter what their status.
Employees already with the company can also be
trained. If an objective is to introduce new and better
equipment and techniques to painters, employees must be
brought up-to-date on changes. Training can be used as a
motivational tool, especially when an employee has potential and desire to move up.
Up and down the career ladder, all employees can
benefit from training, but only if the program is designed to
meet specific needs. It cannot be over-emphasized that
problem areas must be carefully determined and analyzed
to set objectives and decide which employees will benefit
most from a training program.
C. TRAINING METHODS
Once a company decides whom to train and what to
teach, several training methods can be chosen. It is important to remember that training adults is different from formal schooling. Training should be compatible with the way
adults learn. Trainers have identified certain patterns of
adult learning that are important when preparing training
programs. The following rules suggested by John Randall
apply to every type of learning, whether it is acquiring
skills, facts or changing attitudes.()
Adults must want to learn; they must have some
sort of an incentive, such as job advancement or a
raise in salary.
Adults learn only if they feel a need and can see the
immediate benefits, such as learning a technique
that makes a job easier.
Learning and retention rates are highest among
adults if they have active involvement in the learning process, such as immediate practice and continued use. This is especially true when learning
new and unfamiliar skills.
Adults build new learning on their previously acquired knowledge and experience. This is both an
asset and liability in terms of training. If knowledge
interpreted in terms of past experience does not fit
well with previous experience, it is likely to be rejected.
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An informal environment is best. Even in classroom

sessions adults should be treated as adults, not
chi Idren.
Adults learn better if information is presented in
several ways. The instructor should make strong
impressions on the five senses, particularly seeing
and hearing. The more senses involved, the greater
the learning. The shotgun technique of using lectures, visual aids and group discussions appeals to
the wide range of individuals.
Adults want guidance, not grades. They want to
know how to measure their own progress without
fear of failure or humiliation.
In selecting a training method, advantages and disadvantages of each kind should be considered.
Probably the most questionable training is in selftaught programs. The success of these programs depends
on the student, who must have enough discipline and interest to read materials, absorb information and use what
has been learned. Self-teaching programs present material
in only one way and do not include practice, discussion,
guidance and feedback. This method is more suitable as a
guide rather than a teaching instrument.
Ideally, on-the-job training is best. Since people are
not perfect, they will make mistakes and acquire bad
habits on the job. When one person passes knowledge
to another, the bad is picked up with the good. This is
especially true in the buddy system. Even the most exemplary worker, one who makes very few mistakes, may
not be able to explain the hows and whys of the job. In addition, an experienced worker may have developed a
unique method or style of doing a job that works well for
him but not for an inexperienced co-worker.
Experience and practice for a new employee in on-thejob training is valuable and can be effective when combined with formalized training in a classroom. This training
can be implemented either by company staff or by outside
trainers.
D. WHO TRAINS
The use of staff members is a cost savings to a company implementing a training course. For example, a paint
shop foreman may be chosen to develop training materials
for painters because of experience in the field. The
foreman is familiar with the company policies, procedures
and objectives, as well as methods used. Trainees may
know the foreman and there is no need to establish
credibility.
There are some drawbacks. First, he may have no
experience in developing training materials and courses.
An excellent foreman may be a terrible instructor. Second, his responsibilities as a trainer are an addition to
his regular work. The training program is therefore not a
top priority and the extra work may cause resentment.
if the paint foreman is unfamiliar with designing and
implementing training courses, the company can send him

to a public course. In many cases, materials used in these

courses can be brought back and adapted to the training
needs of a company.
Outside courses offered by experts may be more costly than in-house training but offer advantages. Primarily,
the courses are given by specialists who are also
established trainers. In this situation people from different
companies share and interact and receive feedback from
trainers.
A public course brings together trainees from different companies that have similar jobs. In many courses
there are opportunities for small work groups where
trainees discuss and solve problems. They may also be
assigned certain tasks, such as writing a specification. By
interacting with workers from other companies a trainee
must not only rely on his knowledge and skills, but can
pick up valuable information from others.
Training specialists can also design courses
customized to a particular company. All the advantages of
having in-house training can be realized along with the extra benefit of working with experts who have training experience. There may be a cost-savings because the company can hold the course on-site and train a large number
of employees at once without additional costs of transportation.
E. EVALUATION OF TRAINING
After implementing a training program a company will
want to know if it was worth the time and expense.
Trainers are continually trying different techniques of
measuring changes in human behavior.(4) One way to
evaluate a training program is to measure it in terms of onthe-job results. A successful program will meet the objectives set out in the beginning. Does the program address
specific areas of need determined by the company? If
workers are applying knowledge and skills, are on-the-job
improvements visible? Have the costs been reduced or production increased? In addition to observing workers,
trainees can be asked if they felt it was effective. Trainees
reactions and evaluations may provide valuable insights
for future programs.
Unexpected benefits can also arise, for instance, improved morale, a greater sense of identification with a
company and a decrease in organizational tensions. One
study indicated that from the supervisors viewpoint, what
they learned was a secondary benefit of training.(3) Researchers found the primary benefit was that trainees had
an opportunity to share and discuss problems with others
in similar fields. The fact that the company had involved
them in a training program showed their problems were a
concern of management. Being included in the program
also instilled a sense of importance among a group of
workers who found themselves easily frustrated by their
jobs. All of these factors contributed to a decrease in personnel tensions.
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Even the m o s t successful training program should not

be considered a cure-all for a companys problems. Nevertheless, a properly-implemented program, designed for
specific needs, provides a m o r e effective workforce and
contributes t o the companys u l t i m a t e protective coating
objectives.
B y implementing a training program a company can
fill i t s ranks w i t h efficient employees w h o will increase
productivity. Educated employees are likely t o b e more efficient workers than those who have received no training.
W i t h greater efficiency among employees, productivity is
increased and c o s t s are reduced. Trained workers do a j o b
right the first t i m e and t h u s eliminate work and c o s t overruns.
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
chapter: Robert F. Brady, Jr., Alexander S. Chasan, Dr. Richard
Drisko, Robert Klepser, R. McClelland, Marshall McGee, E.
Praschan, L.M. Sherman, and William J. Wallace, Jr.
BIOGRAPHY
Jay I. Leanse is Chairman of
the Procos Group of Companies,
manufacturers and distributors
of paints, coatings and color. In
addition, he is President of the
Institute of Applied Technology,
a technical and training organization concerned with painting
and coating practices and
productivity.
REFERENCES
1. John D. Keane and Joseph A. Bruno, Jr., Evaluation of LowSolvent Maintenance Coatings for Highway Structural Steel,
Steel Structures Painting Council, October 1981.
2. Anonymous, Working on the Railroad, Modern Painfs and
Coatings, October 1978.
3. James A. Belasco, and Harrison Trice, Unanticipated
Returns of Training, Training-and Development Journal, July
1969.
4. Ronald J. Burke, A Plea for Systematic Evaluation of Train.
ing, Training and Development Journal, August 1969.
5. Robert Katz, Human Relations Skills Can Be Sharpened,
Harvard Business Review, July-August 1956.
6. Donald L. Kirkpatrick, Determining Training Needs: Four
Simple and Effective Approaches, reprint from Training and
Development Journal, 1975.
7. John Randall, You and Effective Training: Part 2 - The Learning Process, Training and Development Journal, June 1978.

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CHAPTER 20
THERMAL SPRAYED COATINGS

by
S.J. Oechsie and J.N. Childs, Jr.
pounds per hour (27 kglhr) or aluminum at the rate of 17

pounds per hour (7.7 kglhr). This is equivalent to 1000 sq. ft.
of zinc coating per hour 1 mil thick (93 sq. ml25p) or 1250
sq. ft. of aluminum coating per hour 1 mil thick (116 sq.
mi25p). Because of field conditions, such as erecting scaffolding, changing wire, moving, etc., these rates are rarely
practical and actual rates are more likely to be 60-65% of
these amounts. Such wire guns typically weight three to
five pounds (1.4-2.25kg) are used in much the same manner
as paint spray guns and can be readily handled at the end
of a considerable length of oxygen, fuel and air hoses,
often in excess of 200 ft. (60 meters). The hoses and feed
wire make the handling of the gun a little more difficult
than would be suggested by the light weight of the gun
alone.
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Thermal spraying, formerly called metal spraying, or

metallizing, is an effective type of protective coating,
either by itself or in combination with organic coatings. In
practice, the two most common metals applied by the
technique are zinc and aluminum.
Thermal spraying is the only practical method of applying metallic coatings to large fabrications, often in the
field. The metallic sprayed surfaces are excellent bases
for accepting sealers andlor applying top coats that bond
strongly to the metal coating.
Metallic coatings with or without topcoats often offer
unique properties to help solve some corrosion problems
that organic coating systems alone cannot provide, particularly in galvanic protection or abrasion resistance.
This discussion provides familiarity with thermal
spraying, and covers the types of thermal spraying equipment, principles o f operation, hazards involved,
characteristics of sprayed metal, nature of protective functions, the extremely important subject of surface preparation and the use of sealers and topcoats.
The American Welding Society through its C-2 subcommittee on thermal spraying is an up-to-datesource on
all aspects of the subject and publishes a wide variety of
information. In particular, its publication, "Corrosion Tests
on Flame-Sprayed Coated Steel - 19 Year Report", is a
valuable practical report on the results one can expect
from actual tests in a wide variety of industrial and marine
atmospheres.
The large subjects of thermal spraying for repair of
mechanical parts and for obtaining desired surfaces in the
manufacture of new equipment and engines are not
discussed in this article.
Another type of thermal spray gun is the plasma spray

gun. In this process the metal is introduced into the
plasma arc cavity in powder form in a gas stream and projected onto the prepared surface by the force of the
plasma jet. The gun is light, like the oxygen-fuel gas gun
described above, but attached to it are two fairly stiff electric leads and the powder feed hose, all of which tend to
decrease maneuverability. The metal-sprayed deposit rate
is about the same as with the oxy-fuel gas equipment. The
plasma spray equipment requires a special power source,
and the lead distance from this source is appreciably less
than the case of the oxy-fuel gas equipment.
Some oxy-fuel gas thermal spraying equipment uses
powder as a source of coating material. As in the plasma
arc equipment, the powder is introduced in a gas stream
(usually air) into the combustion area. The oxy-fuel gas
powder equipment is of interest because it can be used for
the thermal spraying of certain organic materials such as
powdered thiokol or polyethylene.
Another type of thermal spraying equipment is the
electric arc gun. In this equipment the tips of two wires are
brought together so they arc continuously in the presence
of an air jet. The molten metal is conveyed to the prepared
surface by the air jet. This equipment is bulkier and
somewhat heavier than any of the equipment described
above and with six leads (two power cables, two wire
feeds, one air hose, and one electric control cable) is more
awkward to handle. On the other hand, the deposit rate is
considerably higher, by a factor of two to three. The
deposit is usually slightly less dense than in the case of
the oxy-fuel gas equipment.
The requirement that the power supply be relatively
I. TYPES OF EQUIPMENT
The thermal spraying process consists of melting the
metal or ceramic and then spraying it onto a prepared surface by means of compressed gas, which aids in the division of the molten particles and the projection from the
vicinity of the melting onto the surface. One tool commonly used is a hand-held gun with an air motor that draws the
metal in wire form through knurled feed rolls into an
oxygen-fuel gas flame where the wire is melted. The
molten metal is then projected onto the prepared surface
by the products of combustion augmented by an air blast.
The metal wire, (usually zinc or aluminum) is ordinarily
or Jlis" (3.2mm or 4.8 mm) diameter. Such a gun is capable
under ideal conditions of spraying zinc at a rate of 60

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close to the gun tends to limit maneuverability, particularly

when scaffolding is involved.
sprayed coatings are formed helps in understanding these

characteristics. As the molten particles are torn away from
the wire tip, they assume a roughly spherical shape that is
maintained in transit. Upon striking the surface, the particles flatten into irregular-shaped discs and at the same
time flow into the pores and irregularities of the surface.
Part of the attachment is due to mechanical interlock, and
part of it is due to the chemical affinity of the sprayed
metal for the prepared surface. The measurements of bond
strength between the coating and the base are not fully
verifiable; but indications are that it varies from a few
pounds to about three thousand pounds per square inch,
depending on the type of surface preparation, the kind of
coating metal, and the method of measurement.
As the coating is built up, a thin oxide film is formed
on the particles as they accumulate on the surface. Total
oxide in the coating runs from 0.5% to 3.0%,depending on
the coating metal and the spray technique. Because of oxide inclusion and the incomplete filling of pores, the
specific gravity of the coating is 85% to 95% of that of the
parent wire.
As the molten particles flatten and are quenched
against the surface, the contraction of freezing and normal
thermal contraction produce a tendency to shrink. This
tendency varies with different metals, and is important in
deciding the type of surface preparation needed, since the
shrink imposes a stress on the bond to the base. Thick
coatings require a more thorough blast preparation (.e.,
coarser abrasive, higher pressure) than thin coatings,
since the stresses developed are cumulative.
Zinc and aluminum are the only metals widely used in
preventing corrosion of steel structures. Some of the
physical properties of sprayed deposits of these metals
are given below. The practical thickness of a sprayed
aluminum coating is in the range of 0.002 inches to 0.010
inches (0.05 mm to 0.25 mm) applied over a minimum surface profile of 0.002 inches (0.05 mm) at the lower coating
thickness range and over a minimum roughness etch of
0.0045 inches (0.1 1 mm) at the 0.010 inch (0.25 mm) coating
thickness range.
Sprayed zinc, with its greater ductility, can be practically applied over a much larger thickness range, ,003
inches (0.08 mm) to 0.025 inches (0.64 rnm) or more, over a
minimum surface profile of 0.001 inches (0.03 mm) at the
lower coating thickness range and over a surface profile
etch of 0.003 inches (0.08 mm) at the 0.010 inch (0.25 mm)
or more coating thickness range.
Bond strengths of three thousand pounds per square
inch are achievable, and with plasma or electric arc equipment can be considerably higher. The most important
practical element in obtaining good bond strength is surface preparation. The appearance of the metal sprayed
surface is similar to that of medium grit sandpaper.
II. OPERATIONAL PRACTICE

Most field work in thermal spraying is performed with
oxy-fuel gas, wire fed equipment. The discussion that
follows will describe the practical hook-up and operation
of such equipment. Much of the discussion also applies to
use of plasma, powder, or electrical arc equipment.
Oxygen and fuel gas (usually acetylene or propane,
particularly the latter i f the hoses are long and safety considerations keep acetylene bottles from certain areas) are
connected through two stage regulators to the gun. For
best operation, flowmeters should be used. Flowmeters
(usually tapered glass calibrated tubes) permit accurate
volumes and ratios of gases to be obtained independent of
inaccurate regulators or hose friction. Excess oxygen
results in coatings containing considerable oxides accompanied by low spraying speeds and poor atomization. The
compressed air should be as free of excessive oil and
moisture as is practical, and some kind of filter should
always be used. A pressure regulator just for the gun itself
is important in producing a good and consistent quality
coat ing.
Areas to be sprayed should be marked off, and the required amount of wire for each area should be weighed
carefully and placed on a wire reel stand. Once the gun
is ignited, the wire speed is adjusted to obtain proper
atomization and deposit, usually by adjusting a regulator.
In order to minimize fatigue on the operator, he normally
does an area about 18 inches square (.46 m sq.) completely
before proceeding to another area. The gun should be held
at 6 to 10 inches (15 cm. to 25 cm.) from the surface and as
nearly perpendicular to the surface as possible. Straight
uniform passes should be made, overlapping somewhat on
each pass. After the square is covered, the operation
should be repeated - this time with the passes at right
angles to the previous passes.
The thickness of the deposited coating can be
checked with a magnetic thickness gage. After a little
practice, an operator will learn about how fast he must
move to put down a given coating thickness per pass
(usually 2 to 3 mils or 0.05 to 0.08 mm). Inspection of a fairly large area (approximately 100 sq. ft. or 9.3 sq. m.) should
be made with a magnetic thickness gage soon after it is
finished. This will permit additional metal to be deposited
in areas before the surface has a chance to become damp
or otherwise contaminated.
l. CHARACTERISTCS
OF SPRAYED METAL
Certain characteristics are common to all sprayed
metal deposits, and a knowledge of the manner in which

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TABLE 1
PROPERTIES OF SPRAYED METAL DEPOSITS
Sprayed Metal
Aluminum
Tensile Strength*
(PSI) kgkm2
19,500 (1371)
Shrink
(infin.)
0.007
13,000 ( 914)
0.01o
Zinc
Spec. Gravity
(Yo of
Orig. Wire)
(Rockwell)
94.1
H 72
89.0
H 46
Hardness
*These figures will vary with the method of measurement and are intended as a guide only.
IV. NATURE OF PROTECTION
tions inherent in the usual cathodic protection systems.

Sprayed coatings of these metals protect electrochemically in atmospheric exposures as well as underground or immersed in water. When steel is exposed, as by mechanical
damage, the adjacent sprayed metal will confer electrolytic protection over considerable areas in some environments.
Aluminum coatings are usually slightly cathodic to
steel when freshly sprayed, due to the oxide film surrounding the particles that make up the coating. As the coating
weathers, the potential reverses and the coating becomes
anodic. This reversal requires only a few minutes or hours
in salt water but may require several weeks in atmospheric
exposures. As a result, unsealed sprayed aluminum when
exposed in a humid atmosphere will often show a light red
oxide staining on the surface after a few days. An examination of the aluminumlsteel interface will disclose no
visible rusting of the base, and the bond to the base is not
measurably impaired. But since stained surfaces are unsightly, a sealer is generally used on sprayed aluminum for
atmospheric exposures. Sometimes the fresh, aluminum
sprayed surface is treated with an anodizing solution to
make the surface almost immediately anodic.
Cathodic sprayed metal coatings such as bronze,
monel, stainless steel, etc., are seldom used as protective
coatings on structural steel because their cathodic
nature stimulates attack of the base steel when steel is exposed to alkaline solutions with a pH of 11 or more.
There are three basic methods of protecting steel

against corrosion. The first and most common method is
the exclusion of the environment from the metal, by means
of painting, plating or dipping, metallizing, vitreous
enameling, cladding, or sheet lining. The second is based
on reducing the aggressiveness of the reagent which
reaches the surface. This may be done with inhibitive
pigments in paints or by inhibitors added to the reagent, as
in a re-circulating water system. The third is by cathodic
protection.
The protection provided by sprayed metal systems
employs to some extent all three of these principles. These
principles will be discussed in the order given above.
Exclusion of the environment may be accomplished in
some cases by using sprayed metal with no sealer. As
sprayed, the coatings are slightly porous and will transmit
moisture more readily than even a very poor paint system.
However, in some environments the pores are soon filled
with salts formed within the coating itself, and thus the
coating becomes relatively impermeable. Since it is not
always easy to determine the effects of the environment,
sprayed metal coatings are frequently given a sealing
treatment.
Inhibitive pigments used in paint systems for steel
structures may be added to the prime coat, and may also
be a part of the body or top coats. Generally, such
pigments as zinc chromate are slightly soluble and their
use is limited to the prime coat. When sealers or paints are
used with sprayed metal, a prime application containing
an inhibitor is generally useful and often essential. Such
coatings passivate the surface and have some compatibility with moisture, in addition to their inhibitive properties.
It should be noted here that primers are not needed to promote bonding of body or finish coats to the sprayed metal;
the texture of sprayed metal is such that peeling of paint
coats is not encountered unless there is a rather violent
reaction under the paint film.
Cathodic protection provided by sprayed zinc or
aluminum coatings is not subject to many of the limita-
V. SURFACE PREPARATION FOR

METALLIZING
In order to bond properly, sprayed metal coatings require a thoroughly cleaned and roughened base. For most
corrosion preventive work, only abrasive blasting can produce suitable surface characteristics. Cleanliness is important regardless of the type and thickness of the coating
metal. Fingerprints or other traces of moisture or contamination may result in practically no bond. Slight rust
discoloration, such as may appear on blasted surfaces
after a few hours, does not necessarily impair the bond
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the sprayed metal.

It requires even more paint i f the final surface is
to be relatively smooth for easy cleaning.
Because not every organic sealer or top coat is
compatible with the sprayed metal, considerable care must be exercised in selecting a
formulation.
seriously, but the presence of rust indicates a strong probability that some adsorbed moisture will seriously affect
the bond.
Oil or moisture originating in the air used for the blast
operation can cause trouble. Thus, additional oil or
moisture separators are often required or specified in the
compressed air lines. Occasionally, even the humidity of
the air in contact with the area to be sprayed must be controlled. Dehumidifiers with large volumes, for instance,
can be used inside closed vessels and ships.
Thick sprayed metal coatings require a rougher surface than thin coatings, and aluminum requires a rougher
surface than zinc of equal thickness. With any given
abrasive, roughness may be increased somewhat by increasing the air pressure. As a rule, however, the required
roughness is obtained by selection of the proper abrasive.
Several types of abrasive, so long as they are angular
and sharp, may be used for the blast cleaning operation.
On inside work where the abrasive can be reclaimed,
angular chilled iron grit or aluminum oxide is generally
used. This material may be reused from ten to one hundred
times if kept free from contamination and excessive fines.
The most commonly used material for inside work is
angular chilled iron grit, size numbers SAE G-18and G-40.
The size depends on degree of roughness and bond
strength required. Suction feed, force feed, and centrifugal
blast machines are used. Adequate ventilation or respiratory protection and eye and ear protection must be provided for the operator.
C. REQUIREMENTS FOR SEALERS

The principal requirements of paints or sealers to be
used with sprayed metal are as follows:
1. They must be resistant to the environment.
However, paints that might fail by crazing or
loss of adhesion on other surfaces can
sometimes be used because of the better anchor
available over sprayed metal.
2. Coatings must be chemically compatible with the
sprayed metal. Some formulations that perform
well on steel fail rapidly on zinc or aluminum. For
example, short oil phenolic varnishes generally
fail rapidly when applied to sprayed zinc and exposed to a wet environment. Vinyl copolymers applied directly to zinc, without a wash primer,
sometimes blister in a short time. Films formed
from tung or linseed oils or alkyds may become
slightly acidic under some conditions and may
disbond when used in paints applied to aluminum.
Bituminous paints or enamels should be used
with caution over zinc, but have stood up well on
aluminum in some cases.
VI. COMBINATION SYSTEMS

At first consideration it would seem unnecessary,
redundant, and overly expensive to treat a zinc or
aluminum sprayed coating with a sealer or to apply a
paint, but there are many advantages to doing so and present practice is to employ such treatment in almost all
cases.
3. Coatings must have good penetrating ability.

Heavy, viscous paints applied directly to the
sprayed metal may do more harm than good. Such
paints allow moisture to enter unfilled pores in
the sprayed metal and to cause blistering. Heavily
pigmented paints should be avoided except as
topcoats after the pores are filled with one or
more coats of sparingly pigmented paint.
The fact that organic materials must be compatible with
the sprayed metal cannot be emphasized too strongly.
There are far too many examples of failures because one
application firm applied the metallized coating and a second applied a paint coating on top of it that should not
have been used. It would have been far better to leave the
metallic coatings bare and uniformly corroded than to
cause spot failures and localized corrosion.
A wash primer, preferably of the polyvinyl butyral type
containing not over 4% by weight of phosphoric acid in
the mixed material, should be used with coating systems
that will be exposed to wet environments. It should also be
used, regardless of environment, i f there is any chance
that the sprayed metal has absorbed any moisture prior to
the painting operation. If the wash primer is omitted,
blistering is almost certain under the above conditions. A
suitable wash primer is US. Military Specification DODP-15328; application is covered by Steel Structures Paint-
A. ADVANTAGES OF SEALERS
Among the advantages of combination coatings are:
Providing both barrier and cathodic protection
against corrosion;
Providing superior adhesion for painting as
compared to most metal surfaces;
Permitting the wide variety of color finishes
that are available in paints;
Reducing tendencies of the sprayed metals to
retain dirt and dust; and
Offsetting the relatively high cost of sprayed
metal by using a thinner sprayed coating and a
proper sealer.
B. DISADVANTAGES OF SEALERS
Disadvantages of sprayed metal as a paint base are:
It usually requires more paint to cover a given
area because of the rough and porous nature of
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zinc and aluminum coatings does not depend

on the surface preparation (other than a clean,
dry, abrasive blasted surface preparation). The
use of a steel flash-bond coat is not essential.
ing Council Specification SSPC-Paint 27, Basic Zinc

Chromate-Vinyl Butyral Wash Primer.
Sealers or top-coats based on vinyl co-polymers or
vinyl-alkyds have given excellent results with sprayed
aluminum. Formulations of this type perform well with
sprayed zinc, but in the case of zinc the wash primer
should be used. Generally, phenolic base paints or varnishes should not be used over sprayed zinc, and the use
of straight oil base paints is not recommended.
As a rule, the pigments used in paints are not a
critical factor, particularly in the newer vehicles, which
provide films having low permeability. However, red lead
pigments have not been satisfactory in paints used over
sprayed zinc, and some failure of red lead pigment paints
applied to sprayed aluminum have been reported.
Pigments such as zinc, zinc oxide, aluminum powder or
flake, titanium oxide, or white lead have all been used in
paints that performed well over both zinc and aluminum.
VIII. RECOMMENDATIONS AND COSTS

The principal choices in connection with a specific
application are whether to use zinc or aluminum as the
coating material and whether or not to use a sealerltop
coat. The characteristics and special evaluations of these
choices may be summed up in the following paragraphs:
A. ZINC
Zinc wire with a minimum purity of 99.9% is used. A
coating 0.003 inches (0.08 mm) thick provides one and onehalf ounces per square foot of surface (460 glsq. m.)
and compares in weight with the average galvanized
coating. However, the user is not limited to this thickness,
but may apply coatings up to 0.020 inches (0.5 mm) thick.
Zinc applied by hot-dipped galvanizing has a life roughly in
proportion to its thickness. The same is generally true of
heavy coatings of sprayed zinc and of light coatings i f
properly sealed. Unless sealed, thin coats of sprayed zinc
0.001 inches to 0.003 inches (0.025 mm to 0.076 mm) may
corrode quickly because of electrolysis which occurs at
the voids. Under conditions that result in the formation of
dense, relatively insoluble salts in the pores of the zinc,
sealing may not be necessary. Such a condition would exist in well aerated fresh water having a pH value of 8 to 9.
Zinc is at its best in the pH range of 7 to 10, but under some
conditions it may show good resistance in slightly acidic
environments.
On outside structures having areas not readily accessible, zinc probably has an advantage over aluminum
because of the greater electrolytic protection it affords. In
a sense, sprayed zinc coatings can often be considered as
a form of cathodic protection. Sprayed zinc used on
underground or immersed surfaces will confer a measure
of protection to other parts of the structure that are bare.
While there may be some superficial rusting at adjacent
areas, heavy attack and pitting is often prevented in the
same way that zinc slabs on a ship hull prevent serious pitting at breaks in the paint. The coating will, of course,
sacrifice to the extent that it protects bare steel areas, and
if the ratio of bare area to coated area is large, the coating
cannot be expected to last very long.
Highly reactive wash prime treatments containing
over 4% by weight of acids, which may be suitable for hotdipped zinc, should not be used prior to applying sealers or
top-coats. Straight oil bases, alkyd-oil bases, and short oil
of 100% phenolic bases are not generally satisfactory.
Recommendations of recognized contract shops should
be taken with regard to the proper sealers, usually special
vinyls. Chlorinated rubbers are not recommended.
VII. EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
A program sponsored by the American Welding Society subcommittee on Thermal Spraying studied the actual
results of more than four thousand test panels exposed to
various environments at eight different test sites for nineteen years. The results of this program have been published in Corrosion Tests of Flame-Sprayed Coated Steel
19-Year Report, AWS-C2-14-74,Miami, Florida. Exposures
include total and half tide immersion in sea water, as well
as rural, seacoast and industrial atmospheres. (See Appendix A.)The report lists the results in eight general areas
as follows: (See Appendix A of this chapter for the conclusions as they appear in the 19-Year Report.)
1. Aluminum-sprayed coatings
2. Unsealed zinc-sprayed coatings

3. Severe marine atmospheres
4. Thincoats of aluminum coatings
5. Damaged aluminum coatings
6. Effects of surface preparation
7. Flame sprayed coatings
8. Chlorinated rubber
For those who have followed these tests through the
six-year and nine-year reports, the most striking results
were:
Many of the metallic coatings look as though
they will continue to succeed for another nineteen years.
The aluminum sprayed panels survived the exposure better than the zinc sprayed ones.
The thickness of the sprayed aluminum does
not appear to be a major factor in protection.
The corrosion protection afforded by sprayed

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TABLE 2
TYPICAL THERMAL SPRAYED SYSTEMS
EXPOSURE
SPRAYED METAL
Rural Atmospheres
Aluminum
0.004
THICKNESS
0.1
Rural Atmospheres
Zinc
0.003
0.076 mm
Industrial Atmospheres
Mild (light)
Aluminum
0.004
0.1
Aluminum
0.006
0.15 mm
SEALING OR PAINTING
mm Sealed with 1 coat of clear vinyl or

epoxy.
Painted with 2 coats aluminum vinyl

or 1 coat of anti-corrosivevinyl with
colored vinyl or vinyl alkyd top coat.
mm Sealed with 1 coat of clear vinyl or

epoxy.
Severe (heavy)
Painted with 2 coats of aluminum

vinyl or colored alternate as above.
Marine Atmospheres
Mild (light, no salt spray)
Zinc
Severe (heavy with spray)
Zinc
Wash primer and aluminum vinyl optional.

0.012 0.3 mm Wash primer and aluminum vinyl optional.
0.006 0.15 mm Wash primer and aluminum vinyl.
0.004 0.1 mm Painted with 3 coats of aluminum
vinyl.
0.006
Severe (heavy with spray) Aluminum

High Humidity Atmosphere Zinc
0.15 mm
Fresh Water Immersion

Below 120F. (49C.)
pH above 6.57.5
Zinc
0.010 0.25 mm
Salt Water Immersion
Zinc
0.012
Salt Water Immersion
Aluminum
Aluminum
0.006
High Temperature
0.006
No subsequent treatment.
mm Wash primer and aluminum vinyl op

tional.
0.15 mm Wash primer and aluminum vinyl.
0.15 mm Two coats aluminum silicone
paint.
0.3
B. ALUMINUM
C. TYPICAL METAL SPRAYED SYSTEMS
The results of the AWSC2.14-74 19-Year Report have

done much to do away with any hesitation regarding use of
sprayed aluminum as a protective coating.
Aluminum has many advantages over zinc for certain
classes of work. It has better resistance to slightly acid environments, and has been used in contaminated waters
having a pH value as low as 3.0. It has better resistance
than zinc to sea water, brine, or salt atmospheres. It has
much better resistance to industrial atmospheres than
does zinc, whether used as sprayed, or as a paint base.
When only a small part of a submerged structure is to
be coated, aluminum should be used instead of zinc. The
potential difference between aluminum and steel is low
enough so that aluminum will not sacrifice rapidly, except
in extreme cases. Zinc, on the other hand, will dissipate
rapidly under such conditions.
The same factors in selecting sealing or top-coats applicable to zinc are generally applicable to aluminum.
Selection of chlorinated rubber is not recommended. A
coating 0.004 inches thick (0.1 mm thick) provides one
ounce per square foot of surface (305 glsq. m.).
Thickness of sprayed metal coatings is determined by

the severity of the exposure and by the required life of the
coating system. Obviously, it would be wasteful to apply a
protective system that would be expected to last twenty
years to a structure that will be obsolete in five or ten
years. Furthermore, on structures where periodic repainting will be done to maintain good appearance, thin
sprayed metal coatings will serve as well as heavier and
more expensive coatings.
Table 2 shows thicknesses and supplementary treatments commonly recommended for the various types of
exposure. When the term sealed is used, it indicates a
single application of clear sealer such as vinyl lacquer or
clear phenolic varnish. The term painted indicates a
treatment that not only fills the pores but also forms a film
on the surface, with materials such as vinyls, vinyl alkyds,
or suitable enamels. These recommendations are useful
as a general guide. However, each job should be considered as an individual problem, with special factors to be
considered before specifying the coating system to be used.
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TABLE 3
TYPICAL METAL SPRAYING DATA*
The following numbers are from tables contained in a typical equipment handbook and
represent the theoretical performance of new equipment under optimum conditions. Use with
discretion.
Wire Size
Inches
mrn
Aluminum
7
16
4.76
Aluminum
'is
%6
Zinc
'i,
Zinc
Weight
Pounds
kg
Consumption Per Hour

Oxygen
cu.ft.
CU. rn.
Acetylene
cu.lt.
CU.
rn.
Coverage
Per Hour"
sq.lt.
sq. rn.
17.6
8.0
80
2.27
39
1.12
250
23
3.17
10.7
4.86
78
2.21
38
1.1
157
15
4.76
61.0
27.7
84
2.38
41
1.16
247
23
40.7
18.5
81
2.29
40
1.13
160
15
3.17
'Theoretical data based upon 100% capacity and no lost time.

"Any
applied zinc coating 0.005" thick (5 mils or 0.127 mm) requires the spraying of approximately 0.25 Ibs. (4.0 oz.) of
zinc per square foot (1223 g1sq.m.).

An aluminum coating 0.005" thick (5 mils or ,127 mm) requires the spraying of approximately 0.07 Ibs. (1.12 oz.) of aluminum
per sq. ft. (342 g/sq.m. for ,127 mm thickness). These are average deposition efficiencies for normal metallizing operations but do not allow for edge or other unusual losses.
A more typical comparison table used by an experienced contractor might be as follows:
INORGANIC
'h" AL.
ZN
7,s " AL.
Xe"
ZN
ZINC
One hour gun operation
100 sq.ft./hr.
150 sq.ft./hr.
100 sq.ft./hr.
150 sq.ft./hr.
350 sq.ft./hr.
with good clear open
(9.359 sq.m./hr.)
(13.9 sq.m./hr
(9.31 sq.m./hr
(32.5 sq.m./hr
(32.5 sq.m./hr)
space, no scaffolding,
5 mils thick
(.127 mm)
7# AL.
5 mils thick
5 mils thick
5 mils thick
4 mils thick
(.127 mm)
(.127 mm)
(.127 mm)
(.1 mm)
10.W AL.
(3.2 kg)
(4.8 kg)
25# ZN
(11.4 kg)
38# ZN
(17.3 kg)
n o time out for measurement, operator change,

breaks, etc. Cannot
be maintained for
eight hours.
ZINC RICH
350 sq.ft./hr.
(32.5 sq.m./hr.)
2% mils thick
(.O64 mm)
A small area, approximately I/z inch x $/Z inch (12 mm

x 12 mm) can be marked by a chisel and the sprayed
Inspection of all operations must be thorough for

good results; failures that have occurred have been traced
to improper procedures. The blast cleaned surface should
be inspected to determine that the surface profile is sufficiently rough and that adequate cleaning has been done.
Blast abrasives should be checked for sharpness,
cleanliness, and proper size; proper air pressure and clean
air are essential.
There are several instruments available for the nondestructive measuring of the thickness of applied sprayed
metal over a steel substrate. Most of them respond to the
magnetic reluctance of the gap caused by the non-ferrous
film.
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Field Performance:
coating lifted off with a knife to give a rough indication of

bond strength and thickness.
The damage done by such a bond test is readily
repaired by reblasting and recoating.
D. COSTS
Blasting costs, subject to a great deal of variation, are
discussed elsewhere in this manual. It should be noted
that the blasting requirements for thermal spraying work
are high, and fall in the category classified as "White
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REFERENCES
Metal Blast Cleaning, SSPC-SP 5.

Thermal spraying costs are also subject to considerable variation. Accessibility of the work is one of the
largest variables, but it should be noted that any scaffolding suitable for blast cleaning will also be suitable for
thermal spraying. Transporting personnel and equipment
and setting up equipment constitute a small percentage
of total cost when large areas are involved, but it may
greatly increase the cost per square foot on jobs involving
small areas or remote locations.
The configuration of the work introduces another
variable: edge loss on bridge trusses or light steel towers
may be considerable, while on a ship hull or water tank
they are negligible.
Each job must be treated as an individual problem of
cost. The variables must be evaluated and added to the
total. Information necessary to compute basic costs and
consumptions for the actual thermal spraying operation
are given in Table 3, which is based on a wire-type thermal
spraying gun of the latest design.
1. American Welding Society, C2.2, Recommended Practices

for Metallizing; Part 1B - Application of Aluminum and Zinc
for Protection of Iron and Steel, 1967.
2. American Welding Society, C2.1, Recommended Safe Practices for Thermal Spraying, 1973.
3. American Welding Society, C2.14, Corrosion Tests of FlameSprayed Coated Steel, 19-Year Report, 1974.
4. American Welding Society, Corrosion Tests of FlameSprayed Coated Steel, 12-year Report, 1967.
5. American Welding Society, Corrosion Tests of FlameSprayed Coated Steel, 6-Year Report, 1961.
6. H.S. Inghram, and A.P. Shephard, f l a m e Spray Hand Book,
Metco, inc., Westbury, NY, 1964.
7. American Welding Society, PR. Preprints of Papers
Presented at the Eighth International Thermal Spraying Conference, 1976.
8. J.A. Catheral, Measurements of Bond Strength of FlameSprayed Deposits, Metal Construcfion, January 1972.
9. R.D. Greene, Metallizing Developments Utilizing Stabilized
Methyacetylene Propadiene, Welding Journal, Vol. 45, No.
12, pp. 992-998, 1966.
10. W.E. Ballard, Metal Spraying and the Flame Deposition of
Ceramics and Plastics, 4th ed., London, 1963.
11. W.E. Stanton, Contraction Stresses in Sprayed Metal
Deposits, Second International Metal Spray Conference,
Birmingham, AL, 1958.
E. HAZARDS

Appendix A
- Eight Conclusions as
They Appear
in 79-Year Report
1. Aluminum-sprayed coatings 0.003 in. to 0.006 in.

(0.08 mm to 0.15 mm) thick, both sealed and
unsealed, gave complete base metal protection
from corrosion in sea water and also in severe
marine and industrial atmospheres.
2. Unsealed zinc sprayed coatings required 0.012 in.
(0.30 mm) minimum thickness for complete protection in sea water for 19 years. In severe marine
and industrial atmospheres, 0.009 in. (0.23 mm) of
unsealed zinc or 0.003 in. to 0.006 in. (0.08 mm to
0.15 mm) of sealed zinc are needed for 19 year protection.
3. In severe marine atmospheres, the application of
one coat of wash primer plus one or two coats of
aluminum vinyl enhanced the appearance and extended the life of zinc coatings at least 100/~.
With aluminum, the sealing system primarily
enhanced appearance, because both systems
showed no base metal rust after 19 years.
4. Thin coats of aluminum perform better because
they have less tendency to develop pits and
blisters and therefore extended life is expected.
Vinyl also seems to perform better because it
must penetrate to the base metal.
5. Where aluminum coatings showed damage such

as chips or scrapes, corrosion did not progress,
suggesting the occurrence of galvanic protection.
6. The corrosion protection afforded by zinc and
aluminum coatings is not affected by the method
of surface preparation used for this test.
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Metallizing with zinc or aluminum may be carried out

safely i f certain basic facts are recognized. Fire and explosion hazards are normally associated with gas fuel
systems. Safety considerations often require that propane
be used in preference to acetylene. Zinc dust and fumes irritate the eyes and will cause nausea and zinc chills if
breathed to excess. For this reason, a force-feed mask is
generally used unless very good ventilation is provided,
and even on outside work a force-feed mask may be required. The minimum requirement for outside work is a
nose respirator.
It has been reported that finely divided aluminum dust
has been used to inhibit silicosis. However, a force-feed
mask must always be worn when working in closed
vessels, since some carbon monoxide may be present. It
has been reported that the thermite reaction can result if
rusted steel is coated with aluminum and struck sharply.
Although the spraying of lead and cadmium is not
covered in this chapter, it should be stressed that these
metals are extremely toxic, and special precautions must
be taken if they are to be used.
Metal dust that is allowed to accumulate is a potential explosive hazard. All finely divided metals will ignite
under the right conditions. When spraying in a closed
space as in a tank, the concentration of dust in the air will
not ordinarily approach the explosive limit, but due precaution must be taken to protect against unforeseen contingencies. It is particularly dangerous to allow large quantities of dust to accumulate, and then to blow out with an
air hose.
The hazards involved in sandblasting and in the use of
organic coatings have been covered elsewhere in this
manual; metallizing safety measures are covered in
another specification of the AWS2.
SSPC CHAPTERlc20.0
93
8b27940 0 0 0 3 9 1 1 5 T 0
BIOGRAPHY
S. John Oechsle, Jr. has been
Specifically, a steel flash-bond coat is not essen?

tial. For large parts, or where coating thickness
will exceed 0.006 in. (0.15 mm), a coarse abrasive
is recommended.
a Senior Associate with S.G.

Pinney &Associates since 1988.
In prior years he was President
of Metalweld, Inc. and President
of Surface Protection Engineering Consultants, Inc. He is a consultant to the SSPC and a retired
member of the Metco System
Contractors Association (President 1957).
He has been active in the National Association of Corrosion
Engineers (NACE) as Chairman
of 19 committees and task groups; the American Welding Society;
the Young Presidents Organization; the Air Force Association; the
American Society for Testing and Materials; and, the Utilities Nuclear
Coating Work Committee (Vice-chairman 1972 to 1983). He is a
registered professional engineer, NACE Corrosion Specialist, and
a Registered Nuclear Coating Engineer.
He has broad and responsible pioneering experience in ship painting, metallizing, FRP pipe and lining, rubber lining, and painting
of nuclear power facilities in the United States, Japan and Taiwan.
He has delivered 61 lectures and addresses on painting technology, and is the author of 11 technical papers. He received the Citation of Recognition for Outstanding Contributions to NACE in 1975.
7. The use o f flame-sprayed aluminum and zinc

coatings i s recommended as a means to extend
the life of such iron and steel structures as
bridges, highway or street light poles, marine
piers or pilings, ship hulls, storage tanks, industrial structures, etc. Corrosion is thereby combatted, and the natural resources needed in the
manufacture of iron and steel are conserved.
8 . Chlorinated rubber is an unsatisfactory seal coat

for both aluminum and zinc thermal sprayed
coatings.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

palrticipation of the following in the review process for this
chapter: Roy Bishop, H. Campbell, Pam Claassen, B. Cook, F.W.
Gartner, E. Horvick, K. Karsten, Frank Longo, Frank Porter, H.W.
Raths, William Wallace.
BIOGRAPHY
Prior to his retirement, John
N. Childs, Jr. served as Chairman of the Board of Metalweld,
Inc. He had also held the positions of Vice President - Engineering, Treasurer, and of
Manager, Industrial Maintenance Division. Before his employment with Metalweld, Mr.
Childs was employed as an engineer at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, where he
received his B.S. in Electrical
Engineering, and served as Engineer and Project Engineer at the
Naval Research Laboratory in Boston.
Mr. Childs professional activities have included membership
in the American Welding Society, the American Institute of Electrical Engineers, the American Society of Mechanical Engineers, and
the National Association of Corrosion Engineers. He is a Registered
Professional Engineer in the states of Pennsylvania and California.
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CHAPTER 21
HOT DIP GALVANIZING

by
Ernest W. Horvich
Hot dip galvanizing is a simple, but versatile process

used to coat steel or iron in all shapes and forms with zinc.
The process is applied to finished articles and also to
semi-fabricated materials - sheet, strip, wire and tube.
Galvanizing after fabrication has the advantage of
completely sealing edges, rivets and welds, so that there
are no uncovered parts where rusting can start and
penetrate recesses. Complete protection is given to what
would be corrosion sites with other coating systems. The
process is applicable to fabrication of geometrical shapes
ranging from nuts and bolts to large tanks and structural
members. With existing molten metal vessels 52 feet long
and larger, structural members 90 feet long can be handled
by double dipping. Since double dipping has occasionally
been misused or misinterpreted, an explanation of this
practice is covered in the text.
The ability to coat large pieces and to bolt or weld
prefabricated sections after galvanizing allows almost any
structure to be galvanized. Complex shapes and open
vessels can be zinc coated inside and out in one operation.
While wire, tubing and strip can be hot dip galvanized, the
emphasis in this chapter is on geometric shapes, such as
structurals.
The fundamental steps in the galvanizing process are:
Soil and grease removal: hot alkaline or solvent
cleaner is usually used to remove oil, grease,
shop oil, and soluble paints. This will not,
however, remove such things as epoxy, vinyl,
asphalt, or welding slag. These soils must be
removed by grit blasting, sand blasting or other
mechanical cleaning not normally the responsibility of the galvanizer.
Scale removal: accomplished by acid pickling
or abrasive blasting.
Fluxing and hot dipping: the hot dip galvanizing
process consists after cleaning of fluxing the
surface of an iron or steel article and immersing
the articles in molten zinc. There the base metal
and zinc react to produce several intermetallic
compounds that usually form distinct layers on
the iron or steel. When the reaction subsides
after proper length of time, the article is
withdrawn from the molten bath. As it emerges,
it carries with it a layer of unreacted zinc that
quickly freezes to cover the iron-zinc alloy
layers with a bright lustrous metallic coating.
The material so processed has enough zinc on it as a

surface film to give the desired coating for protection from
corrosion. The amount of pickling of the material to be
galvanized, proper regulation of the zinc kettle
temperature, fluxing of the surface of the molten zinc and
the position of the material as it is lowered into thszinc all
are important factors. Each of these factors affects the
quality of the coating produced.
Galvanizers have no time tables regulating the
amount of pickling or the time that the material must be
immersed in the molten zinc to insure proper alloying. The
process of commercial galvanizing is a skill. Few pieces of
structural steel being galvanized are the same size, shape
or even of the same type material; therefore, the quality of
the galvanizing depends on the skill of the craftsman performing the process. Once the steel has been properly
prepared, the development of a galvanized coating is
generally predictable for a given set of steel and operating
conditions.
II. INTRODUCTION
Many methods have been employed to fight the expensive corrosion of steel. These include painting, cladding with a relatively thick layer of metal less susceptible
to rust and developing special steel alloys to withstand
highly corrosive conditions. One of the most widely used
methods for protecting steel is to coat it with a relatively
thin layer of some other metal.
Among the common metals used for this purpose are
zinc, lead, tin, copper, nickel, chromium and aluminum.
Because of its special advantages, zinc is used for protective coatings far more than any other metal. The principal
reasons for its use are that it has inherent corrosion
resistance; it is easy to apply (relatively low melting point,
787F); it is relatively inexpensive and readily available;
it has a hard, smooth surface which is comparatively resistant to abrasion; and it is highly amenable to continuous
processing.
Zinc is one of the most versatile materials available
for coating other metals. It can be applied as a metal by
hot dip galvanizing, flake galvanizing, electrodeposition,
thermal spraying or metallizing, mechanical or peen
plating, sherardizing or cementation, brush scratching or
rubbing, plasma arc spraying, shot blasting, vacuum
metallizing and non-vacuum vapor condensation deposition. Zinc dust can also be used as a pigment in protective
paints. Each of these methods of applying zinc coatings
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I. ABSTRACT
SSPC CHAPTERUZ3.O
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has its specific reason for being and in certain applications is to be preferred. While there is always at least one
process applicable to any particular set of circumstances,
the processes are complementary rather than competitive,
so that rarely are more than two to be seriously considered
as the best choice for a particular job. Economic aspects
are important factors in making the decision. Where there
is little difference in cost, consideration should be given to
the serviceability required.
Factors such as size, shape and complexity have to
be taken into account in choosing the most suitable process for a particular application.
In hot dip galvanizing, thoroughly cleaned steel or iron
is immersed in molten zinc and withdrawn to provide a
smooth, even coating that frequently has a crystalline,
spangled appearance. The galvanized coating is applied
by various means: hand-dipping of fabricated items of irregular shapes, either singly, e.g. for items such as structural beams, or in baskets for coating nails, bolts and
similar products; intermittent or semi-continuous
mechanical dipping of pipe; and a highly automated dipping that enables steel strip and wire to be galvanized by
passing continuously through molten zinc. Coatings produced by the third method are quite uniform in thickness
and are very ductile.
In the hot dip galvanizing operation the steel is first
cleaned of all foreign material before immersion in thezinc
bath. This is generally accomplished by removing grease,
oil and other foreign contaminants either by alkaline or
solvent degreasing and thorough rinsing, then by acid
pickling or blast cleaning and fluxing which further cleans
and activates the surface. One type of continuous
galvanizing surface preparation is effected by gas pickling
in an atmosphere which reduces and eliminates the oxide
film generally found on exposed steel. The steel is then immersed in the molten zinc which readily wets the clean
surface of the base metal and fuses with it to form the
coating. The thickness of the coating is largely determined
by the temperature of the bath, time of immersion, fluidity
of the bath, the rate of withdrawal from the bath, and the
thickness and weight of the article. On withdrawal from
the bath, coating thickness of strip sheet, wire and pipe is
further controlled by mechanical means. This text,
however, will concen?rate on hot dip galvanizing after
fabrication.
The process is very versatile and has been used to
protect articles ranging in size from very srnail to very
large. This size range, together with the ability to bolt (friction grip or conventional using galvanized bolts) or weld
prefabricated sections after galvanizing, enables almost
any structure to be galvanized. Of particular interest to the
process industries is the fact that tubes, open vessels and
complicated shapes can be galvanized inside and out in
one operation. All types of plain carbon and some low alloy
steels can be galvanized, as well as iron and steel
castings.
111. SURFACE PREPARATION

While a clean surface is necessary for the successful
application of any coating to a base metal, it is especially
so for applying a zinc coating by hot dip galvanizing to
steel. Because the molten zinc fuses with the base metal
to form a metallurgical bond with it, the steel surfaces
must be practically surgically clean to allow the reaction
to take place completely. The molten zinc cannot bond to
the steel if anything foreign is present.
Surface preparation, in general, requires a number of
steps. Cleaning is necessary to remove dirt or grime accumulated during shipping, storage or manufacture.
Removal of paint or similarly adherent materials requires
other means to be discussed later. Degreasing with an
organic solvent or hot alkali solution removes oils or
similar organic materials.
A. PICKLING
Since pickling is considered fully in another chapter
of this Manual, only those aspects pertinent to hot dip
galvanizing will be mentioned here. While the previous surface preparation procedures aim toward complete removal
of dirt, grime, grease and other contact contaminants,
scale has to be removed by pickling or blasting.
For pickling, suitably diluted sulfuric or hydrochloric
acid is used. The time required for pickling will depend
upon the surface condition and nature of the steel and the
thickness of the scale. Usually 10 to 15 minutes of immersion is sufficient.
Immersion time should be as short as possible to
minimize hydrogen absorption and undesirable attack on
the work surface. Inhibitors are recommended to minimize
attack on the metal. They lower acid consumption, reduce
hydrogen absorption, decrease acid fuming and help prevent burned work. In addition, they improve general
working conditions around the pickle tank.
If an effective inhibitor is used, no harm results from
leaving the material for a prolonged period in the pickling
acid. If no inhibitor i s used, hydrogen evolved when the
iron dissolves in the acid is liable to be absorbed by the
steel and may cause embrittlement or give rise to a
blistered coating when the material is dipped in the molten
zinc bath.
Hydrofluoric acid is required to properly prepare surfaces contaminated with silica from sand molds or
welding rods.
Scale removal must be complete to obtain high quality zinc coatings. Scale, if not removed, will result in uncoated or roughly coated areas. Although scale removal is
mandatory, overpickling will yield abnormally heavy zinc
coating and occasionally poor adhesion of the galvanized
coating.
Small articles are pickled in baskets or crates of
wood, monel metal or other suitable acid-resistant
material. Sheets are held in acid-resisting frames and are
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often agitated mechanically, while pipes are raised and

lowered at an angle inclined to the horizontal to ensure
adequate movement of the acid through them.
molten zinc. Spowers, a notable galvanizing authority,

recommends a flux solution of zinc ammonium chloride of
composition ZnC12*3NH,CI. Proprietary fluxes consist of
zinc ammonium chloride with the addition of a wetting
agent.
The solutions may be made up from the ammonium
and zinc salts in correct proportion and wetting agents.
Flux baths contain 20-30% by weight of the salts, and are
normally operated at temperatures around 50F (10 OC),
though they may be left cold.
Pickling leaves a film of dissolved iron salts on the
surface of the iron or steel. Whether or not these are
washed off the surface depends on which galvanizing
techniques is used.
There are a number of different processes. These include the so-called Old Dry Process, in which the salts
from a hydrochloric acid pickle are dried on the work and
act as a flux, the Wet Process, where work is usually taken
directly from the rising tank to the galvanizing bath that
has a blanket of molten flux floating on the zinc, and the
Dry Process, in which the pickled work is rinsed, immersed
in a tank of flux and then dried. It coats the works with a
thin layer of salt that protects the steel from air until it is
galvanized. Generally this is required for complex parts.
Pickling plus flux assures the fabricator that the entire surface of the work is covered with a fresh layer of flux
leading to a better and more consistent finish. Work that
has been pickled and dried should be galvanized without
delay as the flux coating picks up moisture from the air
and also tends to oxidize.
The fresher and more fluid the flux, the greater is its
effectiveness and the more readily is it dispelled from the
surface of the steel. Because of local chilling action before
it enters the bath, the steel invariably carries with it some
salt. Time must be allowed for the steel to reach the
temperature of the bath and for the article to be held in the
zinc bath until bubbling subsides and a preliminary inspection has shown a continuous coating of zinc has formed.
B. WASHING
Except when the pickling acid (hydrochloric acid)
serves also as a flux, an undesirable practice, the work
must be thoroughly washed after pickling. The first rinse is
best done in warm water because the iron salts dissolve
more easily. But a warm rinse must be kept slightly acid
(pH 3-4) to prevent hydrolysis of the ferric salts formed by
atmospheric oxidation; in the absence of acid, ferric
hydroxide would be deposited on the steel. The warm,
slightly acid rinse needs to be followed by a second dip in
cold running water to complete the removal of iron salts. It
is suggested that only cold water should be used for rinsing, and that the quantity should be kept small, again to
reduce hydrolysis.
C. BLAST CLEANING
Grit, shot or sand blasting are not commonly
employed as methods of surface preparation for hot dip
galvanizing. Acid pickling is less expensive and more practical; where it can be employed, it is generally used. In the
past, blasting was confined mainly to cleaning of ferrous
castings or heavily rusted articles. It is especially applicable to ferrous castings, since their complex and irregular surfaces require excessive pickling time which can
result in uneven, heavy galvanized coatings. Also, castings
do not respond to the conventional chemical cleaning
process employed by most galvanizers, primarily because
of burned-on sand from the casting operation.
Blast cleaning precludes hydrogen embrittlement, a
condition that can result from acid pickling. Its peening action has a tendency to minimize or eliminate stresses that
might be induced by severe cold work during fabrication.
Unlike acid pickling, it removes only surface contamination and does not attack the steel.
Very thick galvanized coatings can be obtained by
deliberately roughing the surface of work by blast cleaning. Also, it eliminates some problems of disposing of acid
waste.
E. DRYING
After fluxing and draining, the work is dried in a low
temperature oven. In the case of plates, spacers are
sometimes used to improve drying. Heat can be supplied
conveniently by passing the flue gases from the galvanizing bath through separate compartments forming the
sides of the oven. Products of combustion containing
sulphur must not enter the oven or come in contact with
the work before dipping. The temperature of the oven
should not exceed 300F (149"C), since the flux may
decompose if it is heated too strongly in drying. Iron salts
can also be formed during drying by interaction between
the flux and the metal surface, thus, the drying
temperature and time should not exceed what is
necessary to produce a degree of dryness that avoids
splashing during the subsequent galvanizing dip. In an
oven with a sufficiently high draught, rapid drying can be
done at 212F (100C).
D. FLUXING
After thorough washing, the work is dipped in a flux
solution. Fluxing is mandatory to dissolve any oxide film
that has formed on the steel after pickling and galvanizing,
and to absorb any remaining impurities on the metal surface, all to ensure that clean steel or iron contacts the
molten zinc. It also acts as a preheating and drying
medium to permit wet material to be immersed into the
galvanizing bath with a minimum of spattering. Reducing
oxidation of the molten zinc surface greatly lowers zinc
ash formation, minimizing bath degradation. Proper fluxing reduces the cost of galvanizing as well as heat loss.
The flux, of course, facilitates wetting of the steel by the
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IV. DIPPING PROCEDURES

A. START-UP OF A NEW KETTLE
Slab zinc should be stacked vertically on edge in the
pot to insure the best contact of the zinc slabs with the kettle walls. Additional rows of vertically stacked zinc should
also be set on edge, from kettle walls toward the center.
Some space should be left, usually near the center of the
kettle, for thermal expansion and moisture release. This
vacant space may be filled with water to insure fairly
uniform heating of the entire contents of the kettle up to
212F (l0OC).To avoid overheating, the temperature
should be raised very slowly until melting starts. As the
zinc slabs melt and the pool of liquid zinc increases, the
rate of heating may be increased gradually.
Once galvanized baths have been started up, they are
usually maintained hot throughout their operating life
because solidification of the zinc in the bath may cause
warping and fracture of the bath walls. The design should
allow the pot to be changed without difficulty when a new
one is required.
For wet galvanizing, a fresh fluid blanket of flux
should cover the end of the kettle where the material being
dipped enters the zinc. Zinc ammonium chloride or ammonium chloride flux is used and maintained in an active
condition by the frequent addition of small portions of
fresh flux. Accumulation of heavy, pasty flux immediately
above the molten zinc should be removed frequently. Items
are Withdrawn at the opposite end of the galvanizing kettle
through a clean zinc surface. The work is immersed in the
galvanizing bath with tongs or by the aid of suitable
overhead tackle, or automatically. When large parts are being galvanized, they should be pre-heated before dipping.
Parts should be immersed only until they reach the
temperature of the bath. Flux patches can be avoided by
withdrawing the finished work through a portion of the
bath surface from which the flux and oxide coating has
been skimmed back.
When immersed in the galvanizing bath, iron and steel
are immediately wetted by the zinc and react to form ironzinc layers. At normal galvanizing temperatures of
835855F (446-457%), the rate of reaction is very rapid at
first with a boiling-off action. The main thickness of
coating forms during this initial period. Subsequently,
reaction slows down and the coating thickness does not
increase greatly if the article is immersed in the bath for a
much longer time. The normal period of immersion is a
minute or two, but longer for work that is particularly heavy
or requires draining from internal spaces.
Galvanizing proceeds until a normal coating
develops. As the work is removed from the bath, some
molten zinc is taken out on top of the alloy layers, the
whole coating being metallurgically bonded to the base
metal. Thus, the galvanized product has a coating made up
of two major parts: the zinc-iron alloy layer, which is the
portion that forms in the kettle and is influenced by the
steel chemistry, immersion time, and galvanizing bath
temperature, and a covering of bath metal which gives the

galvanized product its characteristic bright, shiny appearance.
If the coating consists of zinc-iron reaction products
only, it has a matte gray finish. The free zinc portion of the
coating varies in thickness and in the percentage of total
coating weight, depending upon the speed of the
withdrawal and the wiping practice, i f any. There is no real
line of demarcation between the steel and the zinc, but a
gradual transition through a series of iron-zinc alloys that
provides a metallurgical bond.
B. SIZE OF KETTLE
The capacity of the kettle should exceed what is
necessary to accommodate the material being handled:
the articles have to be heated to the temperature of the
zinc during immersion, and unless the bath has sufficient
heat content and ample heating surface areas, high rates
of heating which shorten the life of the pot are required. A
formula for estimating the permissible throughput of a
galvanizing bath is that the weight of steel galvanized per
hour should not exceed one-twentieth of the weight of zinc
in the bath. If this formula is adhered to, rapid temperature
fluctuations can be avoided.
The real limiting factor is, however, the temperature of
the bath wall. Zinc melts at 787F (419C) and in the
molten state attacks all ferrous metals, the rate of attack
depending primarily upon the temperature and becoming
rapid about 878F (479C). The galvanizing bath should,
therefore, be run at the lowest possible temperature and
hot spots must be avoided. Hot spots can be prevented i f
the bath is very uniformly heated, and temperature carefully controlled.
C. WITHDRAWAL RATE
Rate of withdrawal from the spelter also influences
formation of spots. Steel strip of known spotting tendencies was galvanized under identical immersion time and
temperature. Samples withdrawn rapidly revealed considerably less spotting because zinc did not drain so rapidly from the surface, resulting in a heavier coating which
froze before it had opportunity to diffuse into the base
metal to form a spot. Slow withdrawal was accompanied
by deposition of 1.012 ounces of zinc per square foot with
bad spotting compared to 1.258 ounces per square foot for
rapid withdrawal with little spotting.
The rate of withdrawal controls the thickness of the
coating between quite wide limits; the faster the rate, the
heavier the coating. Thus, for control of thickness and
elimination of waste, a multi-speed, power driven hoist is
advisable for most large work. Five feet per minute has
proved a convenient and satisfactory withdrawal rate for
many types of larger work.
In addition to the speed of withdrawal, the free zinc
portion of the coating will be influenced by the temperature of the bath. For a given withdrawal speed, the
amount of free zinc that mechanically attaches itself to
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k e d coatings. It works effectively on small parts such as
nuts and bolts that are galvanized in a wire mesh basket or
perforated cage. After removal from the galvanizing bath,
this basket is immediately placed in a low speed centrifuge to get rid of excess zinc on screw threads and other
areas and to prevent the articles from sticking together.
High centrifuging speeds are not required. Small thick
parts, castings or forgings, are usually quenched in water
to make the coating set quickly.
Slow delivery to the centrifuge spinner or low to
medium spin speeds require heating the spinner. Labor
savings are possible using a spinner as it eliminates hand
wiping or hand shaking. A spinner generally assures more
consistent coating thickness and conserves zinc. Limited
production, high production and automatic centrifuges are
available.
the existing work will decrease as the temperature increases. This is due to a slight change in the fluidity of the
zinc and also to the improved drainage that results from
the higher temperature metal.
When the coating is completed, the submerged parts
are moved to the flux-free area of the kettle, which should
be cleaned of oxide with a skimmer. Then the work should
be withdrawn with a slow, steady pull. The work is held
over the bath for a short time and allowed to drain. Shaking
the piece will facilitate draining. At this time, parts should
be inspected for uncoated spots, which usually appear
black. If such spots appear, they may be eliminated by
dusting the spot area with a pinch of sal ammoniac (,CI)
and reimmersing in the bath.
D. DROSSING
Galvanizing baths should be freed from dross at weekly or somewhat longer intervals. The bath should be allowed to stand for three hours before drossing to allow the
dross t o settle, at a temperature sufficiently low to
minimize the quantity of iron actually dissolved in the zinc.
H. DOUBLE-DIP PROCESS MISUNDERSTOOD

Double-dipping in the galvanizing trade is not dipping
a product in the molten bath, withdrawing and reimmersing it in the bath. Double-dipping means immersing onehalf of a structural in molten zinc, withdrawing, and then
dipping the other half in the bath. Thus, an item 85-90 feet
or even larger can be galvanized. Should the length be
such that the center portion would not be galvanized, that
area can be zinc coated by thermal spraying.
E. TUBE GALVANIZING
Unfabricated tubes generally used for electrical conduits are usually galvanized by the manufacturer who has
a galvanizing plant designed for semi-automatic handling.
The protective coating forms on the inside as well as on
the outside of the tube. Normal practice is to smooth and
then to blow steam under pressure through the inside of
the tube to remove molten zinc and leave a smooth bore.
Consequently, the coatings on unfabricated tube are
usually thinner than those on tubular fabrications.
I. EMBRITTLEMENT
To prevent embrittlement during galvanizing, all
malleable castings should be heated to 1,200 to 1,500F
(649-816C) and water quenched. The holding time and the
temperature of the quench water are not important.
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F. PIPE ASSEMBLIES
J. APPEARANCE OF ZINC COATINGS
While the surface must be thoroughly cleaned to produce the galvanized coating, pipe commonly presents two
special cleaning problems. The mill coating (varnish,
iacquer and similar materials) applied by the manufacturer
is normally removable at the galvanizing plant at extra
cost. However, because some formulations, both foreign
and domestic, are extremely difficult to remove with common cleaning solutions, blasting may be required. Removing this mill coat at the galvanizing plant can be avoided by
ordering uncoated pipe from the supplier. Welding millcoated pipe burns and carbonizes the varnish in the surrounding heated areas. This soot requires blasting or
other mechanical removal. The burned coating could be
removed when blasting to remove weld flux, but if welding
has been done with an uncoated rod, any blasting or other
hand cleaning is expensive and highly impractical. Most
pipe is galvanized by the steel producer. Such pipe is used
as electrical conduit.
Varying with different types of steel, the rate of alloying is determined by composition of the base material.
With some compositions of the steel base, the rapid
reaction between zinc and steel produces coatings consisting entirely of (or almost entirely) zinc-iron compound.
These may be gray, with matte surface, and are usually
thicker with ordinary steel compositions. This condition
may be planned, as with pole line hardware using higher
silicon steels to secure unusually heavy coatings, or it may
be the unexpected result of the use of certain low-alloy,
high strength steels for their increased elastic strength.
Where undesirable appearance or reduced adhesion of the
coating accompanies such excessive growth, the
galvanizer may be able to modify his operations to relieve,
in part, this condition. Some of these fast growing
coatings consist of an intimate mixture of zinc-iron compound with zinc of the composition of the bath, and as
such are two phase materials with potential difference of
several tenths of a volt between the constituents. This may
adversely affect corrosion resistance in wet exposure, and
is usually accompanied by reduced adhesion of the
coating. Such structures are termed diffuse alloy.
G. CENTRIFUGING
Centrifuging or spinning is a common practice used
to control the thickness of the free zinc portion of galvan469
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K. COATING THICKNESS
Coating thickness depends on the composition and
physical condition of the steel being treated and on a
number of factors within the control of the galvanizer. For
example, heavier coatings tend to be deposited on rough
surface and coarsegrained steel, and, at the same time,
the total thickness of the alloy layers tends to be slightly
greater at corners than at hollows.
The coating weight is controlled by the growth of the
iron-zinc alloy layer. Articles galvanized after fabrication
generally have coating weights of at least two ounces per
square foot of surface or the equivalent thickness of about
3.4 mils. The usual range is from 3.5 to 5.0 mils. Normally,
about half the coating thickness is iron-zinc alloy and half
is practically pure zinc.
When very long life is required, extra thick galvanized
coating can provide it. Prior grit blasting of mild steels will
enable the coating thickness to be increased by up to
50-1O0 O h wit hout c hanging the ga Iva nizi ng tech niques.
Coatings to five mils may be produced on reactive siliconcontaining steel (e.g. silicon-killed).
These thick coatings are very protective but will tend
to be a dull, dark grey because the alloy layers extend to
the outer surface. The galvanizer should be consulted if
coatings thicker than those normally given in ASTM and
other standards are required.
With steels of unknown compositions or those having
less than the optimum surfaces required for good galvanizing, constant monitoring should take place to check on the
coating thickness applied to ensure that zinc is not being
utilized uneconomically. Unfortunately, it is not possible
or practical to check the composition of each piece of
steel processed.
L. MEASUREMENT OF COATING THICKNESS
tegral part of products made from steel and iron and

should be considered at the design stage.
It is not too difficult to protect a smooth, flat surface
to which a coating can be applied in a continuous film of
proper thickness. But the coating problem becomes more
difficult when the structure has a variety of angles, corners, welds, rivets and edges. In these areas film thickness
and adhesion are often inadequate, making them susceptible to corrosion. Minor modifications in design to
eliminate areas that would be difficult to coat adequately
can substantially reduce maintenance costs throughout
the life of the structure.
A. LIAISON
Considering that design, fabrication and zinc coating
are the three important areas in the production of a
galvanized product, close liaison must be maintained
among designer, fabricator, and galvanizer before the
product is manufactured and arrives at the galvanizing
shop. This three-way consultation can eliminate many
galvanizing problems before they arise.
Subjects worthy of joint decision-making are steel
selection, combinations of materials or surface, welding
procedure, cold forming, size and shape, venting and draining, pipe assemblies, minimizing distortion, overlapping
surfaces, castings and moving parts.
The galvanizer can explain how design and manufacture influences the quality of galvanizing. To derive maximum benefit from his services, it may be helpful to consult him frequently and become familiar with the requirements of the galvanizing process.
B. DESIGN FEATURES THAT AFFECT THE

LIFE OF A ZINC COATING
Ideally, materials should be designed so that the corrosive attack never has a chance to get a foothold and
begin its destructive work. All features that trap or hold
moisture and atmospheric grime should be avoided because they remain damp long after the rest of the structure
has dried.
Nooks, crannies, and horizontal ledges should therefore be avoided, and for the same reason butt welds are
preferred to lap joints. Where such features are essential,
they should be designed so that water runs off them and is
not retained on the surface. Also, rounded corners are
preferable to sharp ones, both on exterior and inside surfaces.
Poor assembly techniques and designs that include
blind pockets and cavities will prevent the galvanizer from
applying a complete coating. Moving parts such as
handles or hinges should be galvanized separately and
assembled after galvanizing to prevent freezing.
Regular measurements of coating thickness by the

weight, strip weight method or by microsectioning are time
consuming and destructive, while the copper sulphate
(Preece)test is suitable only for checking the thinnest area
of a coating. Magnetic gages provide simple and convenient non-destructive means of testing coating thickness.
They measure either the magnetic attraction between a
magnet and the base metal (e.g. the Tinsley Pencil Gage)
or the reluctance of a magnetic flux path passing through
the coating and the base metal (e.g. the Elcometer). ASTM
Standard E376 describes recommended practice for using
these instruments. In converting coating weight to coating
thickness, one ounce per square foot of surface is
equivalent to a thickness of ,0017 inch.
V. DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS FOR

GALVANIZING
The quality of a zinc coating is determined to a major
degree by the design of the steel or iron to be protected.
Because poor design can reduce the effectiveness of a
coating, the protective system should be regarded as an in-
C. MATERIAL AND SURFACE COMBINATIONS

Galvanizing becomes complex when assemblies of
different materials andlor structures must be coated.
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When galvanizing structural steel, miscellaneous

metals (steel and iron), or other work such as pipe or corrugated sheets, special requirements are introduced into
the design. ASTM 385 outlines precautions to be taken.
Plain carbon and some low alloy steels, iron, and steel
castings can be galvanized. Soldered components cannot
be galvanized, and before brazed and welded assemblies
are designed, the galvanizer should be consulted. Pickling
times vary with different ferrous materials (also for old and
new steel). Thus, a fabrication consisting of various
materials should be avoided because uneven pickling affects the uniformity and appearance of the coating.
cavities turns to steam when heated in the hot dip

galvanizing process and can result in an explosion of the
member, endangering personnel. In service, processing liquors will penetrate into the cavities, probably remain there
and lead to rapid attack of the metal. For tube assemblies,
internally open-mitred joints should be used at all time to
avoid sealed sections.
F. TANKS
Tanks to be galvanized must be designed to produce
uniform coatings of correct thickness, especially on the inside surface. To be effective, the design must enable
careful handling.
There should be at least four openings 1 to 2 in
diameter in each tank, preferably two on one lengthwise
centerline on the shell and the other two on opposite
diameters to these, as close to the heads as is practical. It
is also desirable to have an opening in each head.
The opening must be placed so that the flux on the
part can float to the surface of the bath. It must also prevent air pockets that will keep pickle solution from completely cleaning the inside areas.
Vessels must be filled with pickling and cleaning solutions and emptied several times prior to galvanizing. The
cost of handling is determined by the size of the openings.
To prevent bare spots, side openings must be provided for
gas from pickling to escape. All openings inside the tank
must be flush.
In the submersion of a tank or fabricated product in
molten zinc at approximately 850 F (454OC), the proper
design allows for fast and complete filling of the tank with
zinc through a bottom opening while gas and moisture can
be freely liberated from a top opening.
In the removal of the tank, vessel or structure from the
bath, the zinc should flow from the bottom opening rapidly,
draining out excess zinc while air is freely admitted
through the top opening.
D. OVERLAPPING SURFACES
When contacting surface such as back angles and
channels cannot be avoided, all edges should be completely sealed by welding, since the viscosity of the zinc
prevents it from entering any space less than y32n.
There are further problems with tightly overlapping
surfaces. Pickling liquids that are trapped will volatilize to
steam when immersed in the galvanizing bath. The blowing out of this steam can prevent zinc from adhering to
the area adjacent to such a lap. If there is any retained
pickle liquor, it will weep out and can then damage the
galvanized coating while in service.
Pickling salts can be retained in these tight areas due
to the impossibility of adequate rinsing. The galvanized
coatings may be of good quality in the adjacent area, but
humidity encountered weeks or even months later may wet
these acid salts and cause unsightly rust staining to run
out on top of the galvanized coating.
Oils and greases trapped between tightly contacting
surfaces will not be effectively removed by the cleaning
solutions. They will partially volatilize at the galvanizing
temperature and prevent a satisfactory zinc coating in the
immediate area of the lap joint. Contacting joint surface
should be thoroughly cleaned before fabrication and then
completely sealed by welding.
If the area of an overlap is large, there should be
vented holes through one or both sides into the lapped
aieatopreventanymoisturethat gets in through a pin hole
in the weld from building up explosive pressure. This venting becomes more and more important as the area is larger
or as the steel is thinner.
G. TUBULAR STRUCTURES AND COLUMNS
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Pipe assemblies present the same problems as tanks

and closed vessels. They must be designed to permit free
flow of molten zinc and the exoulsion of all air and
moisture. They must not contain unvented sealed sections.
Molten zinc must enter all sections. Drainage holes
must be placed in the pipe so that molten zinc can flow into all areas and on all surfaces. If these holes are not large
enough, the withdrawal speed will be greatly reduced,
resulting in lowered quality of the galvanizing. Frames
fabricated from channels and gussets on fabricated columns should have cropped corners to allow the free flow of
metal.
E. CLOSED SECTIONS, FILLING, VENTING

AND DRAINING
The design of products which are to be galvanized
should provide for proper drainage of all sections. Hollow
articles must f i l l rapidly with molten zinc. The gases must
escape and the zinc drain completely in order to give a continuous and uniform coating.
For the safety of personnel, internal pressures produced by the combination of heat, air and moisture must
be allowed to vent to the atmosphere.
Sealed cavities or those having small openings
should always be avoided. Moisture trapped in such
H. VENTS FOR PIPE STRUCTURES

With internal vent holes, drainage of zinc occurs
through the bottom of the vertical member. This gives the
optimum galvanizing results.
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coating thickness.
However, certain combinations of elements may
result in a coating that is all or mostlyzinc-iron alloy. While
a description of the mechanism that causes the alloy type
coating is complex, the description of the coating
characteristics is not.
Even in cases where a steel is selected for considerations other than galvanizing, and the chemistry of the
elements (C, Mn, P and Si) exceeds the previously mentioned limits, it usually can be galvanized satisfactorily.
The grade of steel selected should be qualified with the
galvanizer so that he can determine what special galvanizing processing is required. Every attempt should be made
to see that steel to be galvanized is specified accordingly.
Grit blasting the entire assembly minimizes these differences in pickling requirements and results in a heavier
galvanized coating that gives a longer life at higher initial
cost.
Different techniques for pickling (solution concentrations, temperatures, immersion time) and galvanizing (both
temperatures, immersion time) are required for excessively
rusted surfaces; pitted surfaces; machined surfaces; cast
iron (especially with sand inclusions); cast steel; malleable
iron; hot rolled steel; cold rolled steel; and steels containing more than normal carbon, phosphorus, manganese
and silicon.
For acceptable quality, the galvanizer must be
notified of any steel compositions other than low carbon
steel. Combinations of steel, such as low carbon (0.15%
max.), medium carbon (0.15-0.30%), high carbon
(0.30-0.5%), high strength low-alloy, and high silicon will
result in different coating thicknesses and surface appearance. While this is not necessarily detrimental to certain applications, the designer and fabricator must consider it and consult their galvanizer in the planning stages.
With external vent holes, draining zinc flows over the
surface of the pipe and results in a generally rougher
coating. All sections of pipe must be vented to allow complete circulation of molten zinc through every area of the
fabrication.
A. MOST STEELS CAN BE GALVANIZED

Hot dip galvanized coatings are applied to a wide
variety of ferrous metals, ranging from cast iron to low carbon and alloy steels.
Most of the known methods may be used to produce
steel that is to be galvanized. The selection depends on the
physical requirements of the end product and the limits of
the processing equipment at the mills.
Following is a general classification of open hearth
steels commonly used on galvanizing orders:
RIMMED STEEL
1. Regular low carbon rimmed
2. Extra-low carbon rimmed
VI. WELDING PROCEDURE AND WELDING

FLUX REMOVAL
SEMI-KILLED STEEL
1. Partially killed with silicon
2. Partially killed with aluminum
Very important points t o the galvanizer are

cleanliness of the weld area after welding and the metallic
composition of the weld itself. Several welding processes
have been found to be most satisfactory for galvanizing.
Since welding flux residues are chemically inert in normal
pickling solutions, they will not be removed by standard
cleaning techniques and must be chipped away or otherwise mechanically removed by grit or sand blasting, wire
brushing, or power abrasive wheel cleaning. This flux
removal is normally the responsibility of the fabricator, or
by mutual agreement, by the galvanizer. It is, therefore,
good to choose a welding technique which will nearly slag
itself or which produces no slag at all.
Galvanized items can be joined by bolting (including
friction grip connections), welding, riveting and adhesives;
but where welding has taken place after galvanizing, the
actual weld must be protected by the application of a fresh
zinc layer.
FULLY- K ILLED STEEL

1. Fully killed with aluminum as chief deoxidizer
2. Fully killed with silicon as chief deoxidizer
CAPPED STEELS
1. Mechanically capped
2. Silicon capped or killed in the top
B. SELECTING THE BASIS METAL

The composition of the base metal is varied where
necessary to obtain certain desired characteristics in the
zinc coat.
With regard to carbon content of the base metal, the
form of the carbon is as important for galvanizing considerations as is the amount of carbon. (High carbon steels
are not generally considered suitable for galvanizing.) In
malleable cast iron it exists as temper carbon; in cast iron
in the form of graphite flakes; in steels, both low and high
carbon mainly in the form of ironlcarbon compound Fe&.
The effect that carbon content has on iron cannot be
generalized, but must be seen in terms of each individual
case. Roughly speaking, however, the higher the carbon
content, the greater the zinc-iron reaction.
Copper is frequently added to steel in quantities over
0.2 percent to improve corrosion resistance, and occasionally ingot iron sheets made from highly refined iron are
used as the base metal for the same reason.
VII. STEEL SELECTION

The galvanized coating has as its basis the reaction
between clean steel and molten zinc. This reaction results
in the formation of a series of zinc-iron alloy layers that are
covered by a layer of zinc as the steel is withdrawn from
the galvanizing bat h.
Most hot rolled steels respond to the galvanizing process in a predictable manner, .e., the zinc-iron alloy portion
of the coating will represent 50 to 70 percent of the total
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C. INFLUENCE OF STEEL ON GALVANIZING
the molten zinc tends to establish an equilibrium, and

keeps the liquid phase at a constant iron content. It is
necessary to remove dross from the pot at regular weekly
intervals to prevent it from interfering with the normal
coating operation.
The ASTM Standard Specification for galvanized products simply states that the zinc used for the coating shall
conform to Specification ASTM B06, for zinc metal (slab
zinc) and shall be at least equal to the grade designated as
Prime Western . Latest issue of the galvanized coating
specification deletes the section on Impurities - the
aluminum content of the bath during actual galvanizing
operations shall not exceed 0.01 percent. Prime Western,
the grade commonly used for hot dip galvanizing, requires
maximum percent content of 1.4 lead, 0.05 iron and 0.02
cadmium. ASTM BO6 states in a footnote that aluminum in
Prime Western Zinc shall not exceed 0.05%.
The effect of elements that are either found in or may
have been added to the coating bath vary considerably.
The impurities found in slab zinc must be known to the
galvanizer if he is to achieve all the desired economies, as
well as the best quality coating.
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Galvanizing is much more tolerant of defects in the

base metal than most other coating processes. The
absence of defects ensures a better quality coating, particularly where appearance is important. Excessively
rusted or pitted steel may require longer pickling time than
steel that is not rusted, and the resultant rough surface
may pick up a substantially heavier zinc coating. Blast
cleaning before pickling will help to equalize differences in
surface finishes.
Steel chemistry has pronounced effects on various
aspects of galvanizing, for example, the effect of galvanizing time on coating microstructure. This is clearly depicted
in the difference in the metallurgical bond and zinc coating
thickness obtained from unkilled (rimmed) and siliconkilled steels.
Steels containing carbon below 0.25%, phosphorus
below 0.05%, and manganese below 1.35%, either individually or in combination, will normally develop a
typical galvanized coating when conventional galvanizing techniques are used, providing the silicon is .05% or
less.
In general, steels containing greater than 0.25% carbon, 1.35% manganese, or 0.06% or more silicon,
such as might be found in structural steels, are highly
reactive and will develop excessive coating weights under
normal galvanizing conditions. However, there are controls
available to the galvanizer to assist in minimizing coating
weight. Phosphorus and silicon affect the alloying rate
more than most other steel constituents. An increase in
silicon content from 0.06 to 0.20 percent will triple the rate
of alloying. Fabricators and consumers should be aware
that a gray or matte (non-harmful) appearance may occur
with silicon content in excess of .O6%.
Welding wire containing a high percentage of silicon
will tend to produce a poor galvanizing job. Some welding
wire materials may also tend to be reactive in the pickling
acid. Welding flux residues and slags must be removed.
A. IRON
The influence of any minor elements in the galvanizing bath on the galvanized product is of primary interest to
galvanizers. The first element to be considered is iron,
since reaction between iron and zinc is the basis for hot
dip galvanizing. As the work passes through the galvanizing bath, molten zinc reacts with the steel to form zinc-iron
alloys on the steel. These alloys constitute a true
metallurgical bond between the steel being processed and
the zinc in the kettle. Although the galvanizing process
depends upon the reaction of iron and zinc, iron has a very
low solubility limit in molten zinc. At about 850F (454C),
the solubility limit is 0.034% iron.
The presence of iron in the bath cannot be avoided in
practice, but it can become undesirable when enough of it
is in suspension as dross to be carried mechanically into
the coating. In abnormal quantity, it may form undesirable
projections or irregular patches of crystalline particles in
the coating.
VIII. TYPE OF ZINC

A number of grades of commercial zinc are available
for use as a coating metal. They may vary considerably in
composition, but the grade commonly used in the galvanizing industry is designated as Prime Western, although
any of the grades could be used.
The content of impurities in the coating bath can be
controlled within definite limits for most contaminants or
alloying elements with the exception of iron. As steel
passes through thezinc bath, some iron goes in solution in
the zinc. However, the maximum solubility of iron in zinc is
soon reached, and the excess precipitates as an intermetallic alloy of iron and zinc. Minute crystals of this
alloy are held in suspension in the molten zinc and eventually aggregate into larger particles which settle to the
bottom of the pot as dross. This process takes place during the life of the bath so that the precipitation occurring in

0003720 503
B. LEAD
While some consider lead - in the amounts that are
soluble in zinc - as having no influence on the physical
properties or life of galvanized coatings, it is commonly
felt that its presence improves the coating. A certain percent of it is necessary for the production of spangles. lt
should be noted, however, that lead concentrations that
are too high may adversely affect adhesion between free
zinc and zinc alloy layers if the parts are exposed to
elevated temperatures.
The specifications for Prime Western Zinc sets a maximum limit for lead content at 1.4%; typical lead contents
are 1.0-1.3%. The solubility of lead in zinc is governed by
the temperature of the bath.
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However, copper is soluble in zinc up to about 2% at the
galvanizing temperature. A high copper content (.4% Cu) in
the galvanizing bath can lead to some structural change in
the basic galvanized coating and to rapid erosion of
galvanizing kettles. However, the copper concentration required is much greater than that usually encountered in
the galvanizing bath, unless some exogenous copper is introduced into the bath, e.g. from using the brightener alloy
of high copper content.
Copper, in concentrations of less than 0.2% by
weight, does not affect zinc coatings. In greater amounts,
copper increases the thickness and the speed of formation
of the brittle alloy layer, and can cause a spotting reddish
scum on the bath. When exposed to acid environments,
the galvanized coating will turn black.
Research has shown that additions of lead up to

about one percent do not change the viscosity of the
molten zinc. However, that level of lead in the bath reduces
the surface tension by more than 40% - compared to
pure zinc. This reduction in surface tension tends to help
the drainage of the bath metal from the work as it exits
from the galvanizing bath and probably accounts for the
improved drainage reported by many galvanizers using
lead-saturated baths.
A layer of molten lead about 2 to 4 deep is kept
in the bottom of the bath to facilitate the removal of
hard zinc (dross), which floats on the lead layer. The
solubility of the lead in molten zinc is about 1YO,so unless
the zinc added to the bath contains this amount of the
metal, deliberate additions of it must be made so that the
lead layer is maintained.
F. MAGNESIUM
C. ALUMINUM
G. TIN AND ANTIMONY
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Magnesium, in concentrations of about 0.05% by

weight, is reported to improve corrosion resistance.
Magnesium also has a tendency to promote the formation
of zinc ash on the surface of the bath.
Aluminum is not normally found in the zinc metal;

rather, it must be added to the galvanized bath. The
presence of aluminum in galvanizing baths has a number
of well-defined effects. By forming a thin impervious film
of aluminum oxide on the surface of the metal, aluminum
retards the growth of the heavy zinc-oxide films that may
interfere with the smooth flow of zinc over the surface of
the work, and gives the bath the appearance of greater
fluidity. The normal concentration of aluminum is about
0.005%, and because it is preferentially oxidized, small
regular additions to the bath are necessary to maintain
constant level.
Small amounts of aluminum markedly increase the
brightness, tightness and uniformity of galvanized
coatings. Small additions of aluminum also improve the
drainage of zinc from the work as it exits from the galvanizing bath.
The effect of aluminum is to decrease the thickness
of the alloy layer between the base metal and the zinc
coating, by retarding the reaction between the molten zinc
and the ferrous metal surface.
Both tin and antimony have been used to influence

the spangle or crystalized appearance. Additions of up to
1OO/ of tin increase the solidification range of the coating
and give rise to bigger zinc crystals. Both additions are
said to decrease the ductility of the coating and may result
in staining.
The effects of tin, like those of other agents, are
modified by the bath temperature, cooling rate, thickness
of the base metal and the concentration of the agent in the
bath.
Antimony may be used as a brightener to improve
spangle appearance. About 0.1 YO by weight is considered
maximum, as larger quantities could embrittle the
coatings or cause staining as the antimony oxidizes.
IX. PROCESS VARIABLES

D. CADMIUM
A. INFLUENCE OF TEMPERATURES
Cadmium is a common impurity in zinc ore and frequently is found in remelted varieties. It does not have a
detrimental effect upon the galvanized bath or the
galvanized coating. It might be present at a level of up to
0.1 Yo in commercially available Prime Western Zinc.
Cadmium significantly reduces the oxidation rate of
molten zinc, promotes coalescence of iron compounds,
which minimizes floating dross, and has a beneficial effect
on the flux blanket. When used alone it contributes fluidity
to the bath. Its effects are influenced by the presence of
small amounts of other elements. With antimony it gives a
medium to large frosty spangle.
After steel that has been dipped reaches the bath

temperature, since the flux further reduces the surface tension and enables wetting to occur very rapidly, fusion
takes place at a rapid rate.
The molten zinc bath should be maintained at the
lowest temperature consistent with the free drainage of
zinc from the work during withdrawal. Low temperatures
help reduce dross and ash as well as increase kettle life.
Generally speaking, all work to be processed can be
satisfactorily galvanized when the zinc bath is maintained
between 800F (425C) and 860F (460C). Very little
galvanizing work is done below 820F. It should be noted
that the zinc alloy layers grow faster at the higher
temperat ures.
E. COPPER
The typical copper content of Prime Western Zinc
used in galvanizing is almost always less than 0.5%.
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2. Roughness
Surface roughness of the galvanized coating is
due to several factors. One of the causes is excessive or uneven growth of the alloy layers arising from the composition or surface condition of
the steel, which are factors outside the control of
the galvanizer. Features of the galvanizing process which can also give rise to general roughness
are over-pickling, excessive immersion in the bath
or excessive bath temperature.
The surface uniformity of the coating is controlled primarily by the drainage of the zinc as the
work leaves the galvanizing bath. A lumpy and
uneven coating results when the rate of
withdrawal is too fast or the bath temperature too
low to allow surplus zinc to run back into the bath.
Runs may also occur because of delayed drainage
from bolt holes, folds, seams and other pockets
where zinc collects. A similar effect may result
where articles are withdrawn in contact with each
other.
Often, however, the condition is due to high
silicon content of the steel. Another cause of
rough areas on galvanized surfaces is the
presence of dross inclusion in the coating
manifested as protrusion or nodules. In applications where the rough finish is aesthetically unacceptable or would interfere with the intended use
of product, it is rarely possible for the galvanizer
to effect any improvement; steel composition and
surface condition should be more closely
specified.
B. INFLUENCES OF TIME
The development of the galvanized coating is a function of the time in the zinc bath. Steel should be submerged as rapidly as possible and in line with safety practices for the operators safety. The total immersion time
will depend on the size and composition of the part. The
surface of the work must reach the melting point of the
zinc before galvanizing can begin. Once the steel has
reached the galvanizing temperature, the reaction between
the molten zinc and steel proceeds very rapidly; with additional time, the growth rate is much reduced.
C. INFLUENCE OF SURFACE PREPARATION

Surface contamination is a prime consideration. It is
the fabricators responsibility to see that all compounds
are free from welding slag, anti-spatter compounds, paint
and varnish, oil and excessive rust.
Normal pickling will not remove these contaminants,
and an extra cost will be incurred if the galvanizer has to
clean the article before pickling. All overlapping surfaces
must be particularly clean before fabrication, since any
oils and greases will volatilize during galvanizing and prevent the zinc from sealing open edges.
Careful preparation throughout cleaning, pickling,
rinsing and prefluxing assures that the work about to be
dipped will react freely with the molten zinc to provide a
continuous and tightly adherent coating. Various pickling
operations develop different steel surface roughness,
coating structures and weights when galvanized.
D. DEFECTS
3. Peeling
Occasionally, defects in the galvanized coating mar

the appearance of the coating and may affect the coating
performance. In some cases, the causes of a particular
defect can be determined from the surface appearance of
the galvanized product. They may be due to the steel quality, inadequate processing of it prior to coating operation,
faulty galvanizing practice or other factors. By using the
correct technique for specific products the galvanizer can
determine the quality of the coating.
1. Adhesion Problems
Galvanized coating adhesion problems are encountered occasionally, but adhesion of the zinc
coating should not be a problem unless a reactive
steel is galvanized, i n which case the
characteristically thick, gray and somewhat brittle coating may be encountered. Under these conditions, some loss of adhesion may be expected;
bare spots should be touched up with zinc-rich
paint or metallizing. Loss of adhesion on nonreactive steels probably indicates poor surface
preparation, and the work would probably be rejected on the basis of bare spots. The coating
must adhere well enough to withstand subsequent handling, fabrication and final application.
Peeling results from detachment at the inter-face

of the zinc layer and the contacting zinc-iron alloy
layer. It occurs where the product has slowly
cooled after removal from the galvanizing bath
and subsequently heated to temperatures below
the melting point of zinc. Typical examples are
bundled tubing or thick structurals that have been
stacked on top of each other soon after removal
from the galvanizing bath. Examination shows
that, even where the coating seemed to be unaffected, there is an almost continuous break in the
coating at the bath metallzinc-iron alloy interface.
The same type of defect occurs when a galvanized
coating is subjected to elevated temperatures.
The free zinc layer peels from the zinc-iron layer
leaving a total alloy coating.
Peeling can be minimized by quenching
material immediately after galvanizing. Hot
galvanized products should not be stacked on top
of one another immediately after removal from the
galvanizing bath.
4. Rust Stains
Rust stains on the coating generally arise from
contact with or drainage from rusty steel sur-

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ing but have not welded. Examples are lamina
tions, laps and folds, and non-metallic impurities
rolled into the metal surfaces. Defects of the first
type are sometimes detected before or after pickling, but sometimes may not become apparent until opened by the heat of the galvanizing bath. In
the case of rolled-in impurities, conventional
methods for surface cleaning are generally ineffective. Minor flaws in the steel may be removed
by local grinding, but little reclamation is possible
where the steel surface is seriously defective.
d. Articles in Contact. The importance of allowing
the zinc free access to all parts of the surface and
preventing articles entering and passing through
the galvanizing bath cycle while in tight contact
with each other is self-evident and requires no
elaboration.
faces. The galvanized coating remains intact

under the stain and will fully protect the base
steel. Rust staining can also be caused by
seepage of entrapped pickling acid from seams
and joints; this will cause damage to the coating
and requires modification in design. Early staining can also sometimes occur i f the coating consists entirely of zinc-iron alloy and arises from the
iron in the coating itself. It should not be confused
with rusting of the base steel. It is not harmful to
the corrosion resistance of the coating since exposure trials have shown that the corrosion resistance of the alloy is similar to that of the zinc
itself.
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
5. Pimples
Pimples are caused by inclusions of dross in the
coating. These may arise from iron salts carried
over on the work from the pickling tank which are
unable to escape from the surface of the coating.
Contamination may also arise from agitation of
the dross layer at the bottom of the bath. Dross
has a rate of corrosion similar to zinc, and its
presence as finely dispersed pimples is often objectionable. However, major dross inclusions are
normally grounds for rejections as they tend to
embrittle the coating.
7. Blisters
Blisters are occasionally encountered in galvanized surfaces. They vary in size from minute projections to large defects. Small fine blisters
sometimes are barely discernible to the eye.
Blisters are known to be caused by discontinuities in the basis steel traceable to the
presence of non-metallic inclusions, laminations,
piped steel, imperfectly welded blowholes,
seams or other faults. The nascent hydrogen
liberated by the reaction of the acid on the steel in
pickling diffuses readily through the steel and is
absorbed in these voids or inclusions. Upon
subsequent heating in the galvanizing operation,
the substantial increase in volume of the
hydrogen gas exerts pressure great enough to
raise the steel surface at points of discontinuity.
Properly made rimmed steels have a heavy
skin and are relatively free from the surface
blowholes that are a direct cause of seams, and
the occurrence of the defect is largely confined to
semi-killed and killed steels.
If the blister is in the free zinc layer, which it
usually is, it can be eliminated by regalvanized
without stripping. The free zinc layer is melted by
the galvanizing bath, allowing the gas to escape,
thereby eliminating the blisters. Similar blisters
can occur on malleable iron castings caused by
moisture or flux entrapped by the irregular surface profile.
6. Bare Spots
Because of the sacrificial action of the zinc,
localized flaws are usually self-healing and have
little effect on the coating life. Where considered
necessary such spots may be patched using one
of the repair methods available for restoring damaged galvanizing. Gross uncoated areas, however,
should be rejected unhesitatingly. Some of the
causes of bare spots in galvanized steel are
described below.
a. Under-Preparation. Remnants of paint, oil,
grease, scale, or rust are perhaps the most common cause of uncoated spots. Such residues are
not wetted by the molten zinc and, therefore, deter
the normal coating reactions. It cannot be
overstressed that thorough preparation of the
steel is the foundation of good galvanizing practice and calls for the utmost care and diligence in
its execution.
b. Welding Slag. Slag deposits from arc welding
are resistant to normal pickling acids and must be
completely removed before the work enters the
galvanizing process. Grit or sand blasting is
strongly recommended for this purpose and is
preferable to the less reliable method of hand
chipping and wire brushing. This cleaning is
usually done by the fabricator.
c. Rolling Defects in Steel. These defects may be
broadly classified as discontinuities in the steel
that have been closed and elongated during roll-

8. Gray Coatings
Gray coatings appear in small localized areas or
as a complete dull gray surface, with no spangle
at all usually, but on occasion in very small
spangles. This appearance is commonly caused
by diffusion of iron to form the zinc-iron alloy
phase at the surface of the coating. It first
develops as a localized dull patch or lace-work
pattern on an otherwise normal surface but may
extend over the entire surface. Gray coatings
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generally occur as a result of the combination of

steel chemistry and galvanizing conditions.
While there are numerous factors related to
the formation of gray coatings, the major ones are
attributable to a defective steel base. For instance, the steel base may be an over-oxidized
steel base, usually accompanied by an excess of
inclusions and porosity. An over-pickled steel
base results in excessive amounts of absorbed
hydrogen and a porous surface, both of which interfere with the normal crystallization of the zinc.
Over-pickling also may cause embrittlement.
The composition of the steel base can affect
the formation of gray coatings. The silicon content is especially important, and gray coatings
result with increasing severity as the silicon content is raised from 0.05 percent to 0.20 percent.
Some other conditions that favor the formation of
iron-zinc alloys will result in gray coatings, for instance, decreasing the rate of cooling by artificial
means, as in the manufacture of dull coat
coatings or the effect of heavier gauges in cooling
from the coating temperature. Another factor is
the degree of roughness of the surface as it provides more or less surface for the alloying action
to progress.
Gray coating can sometimes be minimized by
c o n t r o l l i n g i m m e r s i o n time, galvanizing
temperature, and quenching time. For example,
galvanizing a delineator post for five minutes at
850F and air cooling resulted in a gray coating.
Reducing the galvanizing time to 2% minutes at
850F and water quenching produced a coating
that displays the typical shiny galvanized coating
appearance. Water quenching is important in
reducing the frequency of dull gray coatings
because it restricts the alloy layer growth and
results in the presence of a free zinc layer on the
surface of the coating.
However, this is a cosmetic defect only; the
corrosion protection afforded by a gray coating is
comparable to that of bright shiny coatings. Gray
coatings can be eliminated by specifying the steel
composition to preclude silicon-killed and semikilled steel, i f possible. Otherwise, the material
should be galvanized at low temperatures for
short times and then water quenched as quickly
as possible after withdrawal from the galvanized.
bath. Since these coatings are often thicker than
the normalbright coatings, they will give a longer
life. It is rarely possible for the galvanizer to
minimize this effect when it is due to the composition of the steel.
may result in non-symmetrical stressed pieces.

Precautions shall be taken to avoid distortion
or warpage of members during galvanizing. The
procedures suggested in ASTM-A 384 Recommended Practice for Safeguarding Against Warpage and Distortion During Hot-Dip Galvanizing of
Steel Assemblies should be observed. Material
failing to meet the required criteria for
straightness and length should be rejected.
10. Strength and Ductility
Normally, no significant changes occur in the
mechanical properties of construction steel due
to galvanizing. In applications which require
heavy cold working of steels that are susceptible
to strain or age hardening, stress relieving may be
needed before galvanizing (or any other process
involving a similar heating cycle) to ensure adequate ductility in the product.
11. Lumps and Runs

in utilitarian applications lumps and runs caused
by uneven drainage are not harmful to the life of
the coating. Fabrications with drainage spikes of
such a size that they can be knocked off, exposing
bare steel, require remedial action, either repair or
reject ion.
12. Fluxing Defects
Serious corrosion of galvanized coatings is invariably caused by the inclusion of flux, especially
when it has lost its fluidity due to loss of most of
its ammonia content, or to oxidation. It will then
become too viscous to flow out freely from tiny
crevices on the metal surface or the pockets in the
irregularly growing alloy layer.
13. Residues
A number of reaction products or residuals stem
from the hot dip galvanizing process. These are
dross, ash, and flux skimmings. While their forma
tion cannot be totally-eliminated, it can be
minimized by exercise of controls and care in
practice. Dross is a pasty solid comprised of zinciron alloy and much adhering zinc. It is denser
than zinc and sinks to the bottom of the kettle.
While zinc-iron alloys contain 6-12% iron, dross
removed from the bottom of the galvanizing bath
analyzes at about 97% zinc and 3% iron.
X. AFTER-TREATMENTS
After galvanizing, the work may be quenched in water
or cooled in air, Small parts, such as nuts, bolts, and
washers that are galvanized in baskets in a batch are
usually centrifuged to remoye excess zinc before it
freezes.
No after-treatment is essential, but components are
often quenched to allow handling and to limit further
growth of the alloy layers that have a dark gray appearance.
9. Distortion
Because galvanizing takes place at the low end of
the stress-relieving temperature range, some
stress relief takes place and distort.ion or warping
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Another line is characterized by a continuous anneal
during which the strip is exposed to a complex gas containing hydrogen chloride.
A fourth type of line includes controlled oxidizing and
reducing steps prior to coating. The cold-reduced strip
passes from the uncoilers through an open-flame oxidizing
furnace, which also serves as a flame degreaser, into a
reducing furnace where it is annealed or normalized, and
the oxide film formed in the first furnace is reduced by
hydrogen gas.
A fifth type of line, which may or may not use alkaline
cleaning or acid pickling, anneals the steel in a gas-fired,
direct-flame-impingement reducing furnace and cools it in
a closed compartment containing a reducing atmosphere
from which the steel enters the zinc bath.
In other installations, strip material is alkaline
cleaned, rinsed and dried, bright annealed, cooled to
slightly above pot temperature, and introduced into the
coating bath while still protected by the furnace atmosphere.
Where work is likely t o be stored or transported under

bad conditions of ventilation, a simple chromating treatment may be used to prevent wet storage stain (white rust).
Such treatments are usually not suitable as a pretreatment for painting.
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A. TREATMENT FOR WET STORAGE STAIN

Wet storage stain is the name given to the bulky white
or grey deposit that may form on the surface of closely

stacked, freshly galvanized articles that become damp
under poorly ventilated conditions during storage or transit. In extreme cases, the protective value of the coating
may be seriously impaired, but the attack is often light
despite its appearance. This porous deposit is not protective and must be removed even i f the attack is superficial
as the essential protective patina of tightly adherent corrosion products will not form in these areas. Light deposits
can be removed by brushing with a stiff bristle brush.
Heavier deposits can be removed with a 5 per cent solution
of sodium or potassium dichromate with the addition of
0.1 per cent by volume of concentrated sulphuric acid. This
solution is applied by brush or spray and left for about half
a minute before thorough rinsing and drying. After removal
of these heavier deposits, a check should be made on the
coating thickness.
B. ELECTROGALVANIZING
In electrogalvanizing, steel strip or wire is fed continuously through suitable entry equipment, a series of
washes and rinses, and a plating bath. The pure zinc
coating deposited is highly ductile. Because of its excellent adhesion, electrogalvanized steel strip and wire
have good working properties, and the coating remains intact after severe deformation.
1. Strip and Sheet
Electrogalvanized steel is produced in strip coils
or sheets. Most products have a coating weight in
the range of 0.06 to slightly less than 0.2 oz. per
sq. ft. (0.00005 to 0.00017 in. thick on each side). A
small amount carries considerably less - about
0.025 oz. per sq. ft. (0.000021 in. on each side).
Electrogalvanized sheets are produced in
various tempers suitable for simple bending or
forming, for curving, and for rolling into cylinders
without fluting. Spot welding is easily accomplished provided care is taken.
Electrogalvanized steel is easily prepared to
receive decorative finishes. Much of it is produced
with a phosphate treatment or an organic coating.
The phosphate treatment provides adequate
tooth for a good bond with organic finishing
materials. Organic coatings applied over electrozinc so treated maintain good adhesion in
adverse conditions such as sudden changes in
temperature and high humidity. Phosphatized
electrogalvanized steel is used for parts subject
to atmospheric corrosion or salt spray, and for
parts that are to be lacquered or printed.
Phosphate treatment increases corrosion
resistance to a marked degree, particularly in atmospheres with a high sulfur content.
B. MARKING FOR IDENTIFICATION

Units to be galvanized must be free from marking
paint such as might be used for addresses, shipping instructions, and job numbers.
For temporary identification use water soluble paint
or detachable metal labels. For permanent identification
to be legible after galvanizing use large heavily punched or
embossed marks.
XI. OTHER METHODS OF GALVANIZING

While this chapter is mainly on products hot dip
galvanized after fabrication, it is pertinent to mention two
other zinc coating fields. These are continuous line
galvanizing of steel strip and wire, and electrogalvanizing
of steel strip and wire. Strip continuous galvanizing is by
far the largest market in that, in an average year, about 7
million tons of steel are zinc coated.
A. CONTINUOUS HOT DIP GALVANIZING

Several designs of continuous hot-dip galvanizing
lines are in commercial use. In the simplest arrangement,
a continuous strip of box-annealed and temper-rolled steel
is passed from an uncoiler through a long acid pickling
tank into a galvanizing pot.
A more elaborate design utilizes the so-called dryfluxing practice. In this modification, a thin film of flux in
aqueous solution is applied to the strip after it leaves the
cleaner, and the strip then passes through a drying furnace into the zinc pot.

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Appendix
Specifications for Galvanized Coatings
Pertinent ASTM specifications concerned with zinc and
some technical practices are:
A 53 Standard Specification for Pipe, Steel, Black and Hot
Dipped, Zinc Coated Welded and Seamless
A 90 Methods of Test for Weight of Coating on ZincCoated (Galvanized) Iron or Steel Articles
A 111 Spec. for Zinc-Coated (Galvanized) Iron Telephone
and Telegraph Line Wire
A 112 Spec. for Zinc-Coated (Galvanized) Steel Tie Wires
A 116 Spec. for Zinc-Coated (Galvanized) Iron or Steel
Farm-Field and Railroad Right-of-way Wire Fencing
A 120 Spec. for Black and Hot Dipped Zinc-Coated
(Galvanized) Welded and Seamless Steel Pipe for
Ordinary Uses
A 121 Spec. for Zinc-Coated (Galvanized) Steel Barbed
Wire
A 123 Spec. for Zinc (Hot Galvanized) Coatings on Products Fabricated from Rolled, Pressed, and Forged
Steel Shapes, Plates, Bars, and Strip
A 143 Rec. Practice for Safeguarding Against Embrittlement of Hot Dip Galvanized Structural Steel Products and Procedure for Detecting Embrittlement
A 153 Spec. for Zinc Coating (Hot-Dip) on Iron and Steel
Hardware
A 385 Standard Practice for Providing High-Quality Zinc
Coatings (Hot-Dip)
A 591 Standard Specification for Steel Sheet, Electrolytic
Zinc-Coated for Light Coatings Mass Applications
A 641 Spec. for Zinc-Coated (Galvanized) Carbon Steel
Wire
A 642 Spec. for Steel Sheet, Zinc-Coated (Galvanized) by
the Hot Dip Process, Drawing Quality, Special Killed
A 767 Standard Specification for Zinc-Coated (Galvanized)
Steel Bars for Concrete Reinforcement
A 780 Standard Practice for Repair of Damaged and Uncoated Areas of Hot-Dip Galvanized Coatings
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2. Applications
Electrogalvanized sheet is used for manufacturing water cooler housings and exterior panels on
ranges, freezers, dryers, washers, air conditioners
and other major appliances. It is used for deepdrawn parts for kitchen cabinets, refrigerators
and allied products instead of plain cold-rolled
sheet because zinc holds better in the dies and
cuts down greatly on breakage. Bakery equipment
and other merchandizing display cases, stud systems for steel building construction, acoustic
ceiling members, and television masts are also
made of electrogalvanized steel.
ASTM Standard Specification A525 for Steel
Sheet, Zinc Coated (Galvanized) by the Hot Dip
Process is the master specification for galvanized sheet. It spells out the general requirements,
whereas other specifications go into specifics
more clearly. It lists the different kinds of surface
finishes available as well as supplementary
finishes to further retard corrosion such as oiling
and chemical treatments. The latter includes the
various chromate conversion coatings or
modifications thereof that are used for white rust
control.
ASTM Standard Specification A591 for Steel
Sheet, Cold Rolled, Electrolytic Zinc Coated is
the document covering the parameters of electrogalvanized steel.
XII. ADVANTAGES AND LIMITATIONS

An important advantage of the hot-dip galvanizing
process is that unless zinc is removed by mechanical
devices (a practice confined to the specialized galvanizing
of sheet, strip, wire and tube), the work is bound to be
thoroughly covered and to carry a thick coating, usually
weighing from 1.8 to 2.2 oz. of zinc per square ft. of surface. All edges, rivets, seams and welds are thus sealed by
the hot-dip process. Furthermore, it will often be the most
economical process where large amounts of steel have to
be treated.
Galvanizing can be specified to good advantage on
many construction projects. The architect and specification writer should be selective in their use of galvanizing,
just as they are selective in the use of other materials.
Technical and economic requirements must dictate the
choice of materials.
B 6 Spec. for Zinc Metal (Slab Zinc)

B 454 Spec. for Mechanically Deposited Coatings of Cadmium and Zinc on Ferrous Metals
B 487 Measurement of Metal and Oxide Coating
Thicknesses by Microscopical Examination of a
Cross Section
B 498 Spec. for Zinc-Coated (Galvanized) Steel Core Wire
for Aluminum Conductors, Steel Reinforced (ACSR)
B 499 Measurement of Coating Thicknesses by the
Magnetic Method: Nonmagnetic Coatings on
Magnetic Basis Metals
B 504 Measurement of Thickness of Metallic Coatings by
the Coulometric Method
B 555 Guidelines for Measurement of Electrodeposited
Metallic Coating Thicknesses by the Dropping Test
B 571 Test for Adhesion of Metallic Coatings
XIII. CONCLUSION
Hot dip galvanizing methods and practices have improved considerably. The technical aspects of galvanizing
have .been emphasized. It is hoped that the design
engineer will benefit as well as the corrosion engineer
from this discussion. Zinc coated steel is the dominant
method used for economical long-term protection of steel
structures.

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B 695 Standard Specification for Electrodeposited Coatings

of Zinc on Iron and Steel
E 376 Rec. Practice for Measuring Coating Thickness b y
Magnetic-Field or Eddy-Current (Electromagnetic)
Test Methods
B 633
Spec. for Electrodeposited coatings of zinc or steel

(see 6454)
A 591 ASTM Standard Specification for Steel Sheet, Cold

Rolled, Electrolytic Zinc Coated.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The authors and editors gratefully acknowledge the active participation of the following in the review process for this
chapter: Willard Lantz, Howard Lasser, Marshall McGee, John
Montle, Jack Oechsle, Walter Pregmon, Walter Radut, Melvin
Sandler, and William Wallace, Jr.
REFERENCES
1. Specifying Galvanized Steel For Construction Projects. The
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Construction Specifier, October 1973.

2. U.S. Steel Corporation, The Making, Shaping and Treating of
Steel, 1971.
3. Faults in Hot Dip Galvanizing, Max Planck Institute
Booklet, 1975.
4. American Society for Testing and Materials, Annual Book of
Standards, 1980.
5. Fabricating Continuous Galvanized Steel, Steel Processing
and Conversion, June 1958.
6. Zinc - Science and Technology of the Metal, Its Alloys and
Compounds, C.H. Mathewson, Ed. American Chemical
Society Monograph Series No. 142 (1959).
7. Inspection Manual for Hot Dip Galvanized Prducts, Zinc InstitutelAmerican Hot Dip Galvanizers Association, 1979.
8. The Design and Fabrication of Galvanized Products, Zinc InstituteiAmerican Hot Dip Galvanizers Association, 1979.
9. The Galvanizing Manual, St. Joe Minerals Corporation, 1974.
BIOGRAPHY
Ernest W. Horvick has worked for the Zinc Institute, Weirton
Steel Company, Bell Aircraft and Minneapolis Honeywell, in
technical, supervisory and marketing capacities. He is a member
of ACS, the American Society for Metals, the Society of Die
Casting Engineers, the American Society for Testing and Materials, the National Association of Corrosion Engineers and is a Society of Manufacturing Engineers Certified Manufacturing Engineer
in the field of Inorganic Coatings.

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CHAPTER 22
PAINTING OF GALVANIZED STEEL

by
Richard W. Drisko, Ph.0.
I. INTRODUCTION
Hot-dipped galvanizing of steel is achieved by immersing cleaned steel in a bath of molten zinc. The zinc is metallurgically bonded to the steel to form a tight metallic layer
that provides both barrier and cathodic protection. Cathodic
protection comes into play wherever there are imperfections
in the zinc protective film.
The length of protection provided to steel structures is
related both to exposure environment and to the thickness
of the zinc, which is sometimes expressed in ounces per
square inch. Mils increasingly are also being used to describe
the thickness of the zinc film. Electrodeposition of zinc usually
results in much thinner films of zinc than does hot-dipping,
so that the latter is usually preferred for long-term protection.
Although galvanizing itself may provide many years of
protection to steel structures, coating will extend the period
of protection as well as provide other desirable features. This
chapter addresses the benefits of coating galvanized steel
and how best to achieve them. For more information on galvanizing, see chapter 21.
II. REASONS FOR COATING GALVANIZING

There are basically three reasons for coating galvanized
steel structures: extended corrosion protection, color coding and appearance.
FIGURE 1
Galvanizing may be painted to extend corrosion protection. Early
corrosion of galvanized steel in tropical environment, caused by
water drainage problems.
A. EXTENDING CORROSION PROTECTION
required for cathodic protection on buried or immersed structures. The cathodic protection provided by galvanizing, or
an external cathodic protection system protect organic coatings from undercutting at holidays and other imperfections
that arise in the paint film with time.
Although galvanizing may protect steel for 30-40 or more

years in moderate environments, this period of protection
may be much less in severe environments. Being amphoteric (attacked by both acid and alkali), zinc is especially susceptible to attack in acidic and alkaline environments.
Properly selected and applied coatings can significantly extend the life of galvanized coatings on steel surfaces in a
range of environments.
There is some evidence that galvanizing and coating
with an organic finish have a synergistic effect in protecting
steel, .e., the total time of protection is greater than the sum
of the times normally provided by the zinc and the organic
coatings. This additional protection is said to be similar to
the combined effects of cathodic protection and organic coatings on buried or immersed steel structures.
Organic coatings reduce the rate of zinc consumption
from galvanizing just as they reduce the amount of current

B. APPEARANCE
Hot-dipped galvanizing of steel results in a metallic finish that may not be pleasing to some people for some applications. They may desire a finish to produce a more pleasing
appearance.
C. SAFETY MARKING/COLOR CODING

Galvanizing may also be coated when regulations require safety coding. For instance, OSHA regulations require
that workers be alerted to physical hazards using a safety
color code system. Under this system, the color red signi-
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circumstance which could cause a worker to trip or fall, to
be caught in between two surfaces or to strike against
something.
Aviation regulations also require some color coding. Tall
galvanized structures such as antennas may constitute a hazard to aircraft unless treated by a system that provides a
quick visual identification by pilots.
111. BACKGROUND
Historically, there have been problems obtaining good
performances from organic coatings on galvanized steel.
These have usually been related to improper cleaning of the
galvanizing or improper selection of the organic primer.
A. PROBLEMS RESULTING FROM IMPROPER

CLEANING
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Necessary cleaning of galvanizing for coating includes

removal of all surface contaminants that would adversely affect primer adhesion. After the hot dipping of steel, the galvanized finish is sometimes coated with a thin film of oil or
given a hexavalent chromate treatment to protect it from formation of white rust (zinc corrosion products) during exterior storage. Galvanizing is susceptible to accelerated
crevice corrosion during exterior storage, if water gets between sheets or other components.
Galvanizing may be painted when the appearance of a structure is

a consideration.
FIGURE 4
Rusting of steel through galvanizing. Zinc was badly corroded due
to exterior storage of siding.
Oil and chromate protective treatments will prevent good

adhesion of primers, so these materials must be removed
prior to priming. The oil is easily removed by solvent cleaning
(SSPC-SP 1). The hexavalent chromate treatment is more
difficult to remove, and so its use should be prohibited if the
galvanizing is to be painted with an organic coating. ASTM
D 2092 Appendix X2 describes how the chromate can be
identified using 1,5-diphenylcarbohydrazidesolution and removed by weathering for 6 months, abrading the surfaces
by sanding, or brush-off abrasive blast cleaning (SSPC-SP 7).
FIGURE 3
Galvanizing may be painted for the purpose of color coding hazards, for instance aviation hazards.
fies danger, and is required for danger signs and for safety
cans containing flammable liquids. Red also signifies stop,
and is required for emergency stop bars, buttons or switches
on hazardous machines. The color yellow signifies caution
and is used to signal a structure, piece of equipment or other

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Either the solvent or the steam cleaning alternatives
of SSPC-SPI should be used. Do not use the alkali alternative, since it may damage the galvanizing.
5. PROBLEMS RESULTING FROM IMPROPER

SELECTION OF ORGANIC PRIMER
1. Alkyd Coatings
Alkyd coatings using such primers as TT-P-641
were once used by direct application to galvanized
steel surfaces, with limited success. Galvanizing always has a film of alkaline zinc corrosion products
on its surface. This alkalinity saponifies (hydrolyzes)
alkyd or other oil-containing primer binders and may
cause disbonding of the total coating system after
only 6 months.
Treatment of galvanized surfaces with an acidic wash primer (e.g., SSPC-Paint 27 or MILP-15238) increased the adhesion of alkyd primers
and the performances of alkyd systems, but performances were still significantly poorer than those
of other generic systems.
2 . Abrasive Blasting and Waterblasting

There is some concern in cleaning weathered galvanizing or galvanizing which has localized rusting
that abrasive blast cleaning may remove significant
amounts of the zinc. It has been shown, however,
that only very slight amounts are removed by waterblasting or brush-off abrasive blasting (SSPC-SP 7).
Localized rusting may have been initiated during improper exterior storage.
3 . Weathering
Another approach to obtaining improved primer
adhesion and coating performance is to allow the
galvanizing to weather for six months before painting. Although the surface roughness may contribute to better primer adhesion, surface contaminants
on weathered galvanizing may adversely affect the
coating performance. Thus, deliberate weathering
of galvanizing prior to coating is not recommended.
2. Cement Coatings
Cement coatings have been used on galvanizing,
but they are too rigid to expand and contract with
the metal. Also, they have saponification problems,
if drying oils are incorporated into their formulations.
4. Shop YS. Field Cleaning

It is preferable to clean and coat new galvanized
steel in a shop before erection of a structure. When
this method is used, there is no problem with adhesion of the recommended coating systems to new
galvanizing, and the cleaning and application will
be much more effective in a controlled environment.
Field cleaning and application is especially difficult
on tall structures.
3. Vinyl, Acrylic and Chlorinated Rubber Lacquers

Vinyl, acrylic, and chlorinated rubber lacquers have
been successfully used over wash primed galvanizing but will not be discussed further here, because
they cannot successfully be formulated as low-VOC
coatings (coatings with low solvent content required
in locations with poor air quality.)
4. Bituminous (Coal Tar and Asphalt)
B. COATING
Bituminous (coal tar and asphalt) and coal tar epoxy

formulations are not recommended for exterior
service, because they become embrittled by the
suns ultraviolet light.
1. Spraying
Application of coating systems is best accomplished
by spraying. This is another reason to coat galvanizing in a shop environment, where overspray will not
drift to some undesired surface.
5. Home Remedies
A number of home remedies have also been used
in the past to promote adhesion of the primer to galvanizing. These include washing with vinegar or a
solution of copper sulfate to produce surface texture. Neither was advantageous.
Surface treatments for galvanizing prior to
coating are not recommended, because they are
not necessary with the recommended coating systems and thus comprise an unnecessary expense.
Also, if not properly done this procedure may be
detrimental.
2. By Brush
Application of coatings by brush is normally
preferred in the field, where spraying may be a
problem. It can result in fairly uniform dry film
thickness.
3 . By Roller
Application of coatings by roller may be very effective on flat surfaces. It is less effective on surfaces
that are not flat and usually results in greater film
thickness variations than does brush application.
IV. HOW AND WHEN TO CLEAN AND COAT

GALVANIZED STEEL
4. By Mitt
Application using a synthetic wool mitt is often done
on tall structures but is not recommended. It always
results in a great variation in coating thickness and
is usually messy.
A. CLEANING
1. Solvent Cleaning
New galvanizing is easily prepared for coating by
solvent cleaning (SSPC-SP 1) to remove any grease
or oil or washing with a mild detergent solution to
remove any dirt or other loose surface contaminant.
5. Striping
Prior to application of the primer coat, it is recom-
mended that all galvanized steel edges, corners,
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6. Acrylic latex - Use SSPC-PS 24. Apply 2-3 coats
crevices and other surfaces that are hard to paint

receive an extra coat of paint, a procedure known
as striping. These hard-to-paintsurfaces usually receive only thin films of paint by conventional
methods of coating application and thus only limited protection from corrosion.
2 . New interior galvanizing

Apply two coats of epoxy polyamide (e.g., MILP-24441, Formulas 150 and 152) to give a minimum
of 6 mils total dry film thickness.
V. RECOMMENDED COATING SYSTEMS FOR

NEW EXTERIOR GALVANIZING
VI. RECOMMENDED COATING SYSTEMS FOR

MAINTENANCE PAINTING
A. GENERIC COATING SYSTEMS
Maintenance painting may be required to correct fading, discoloration or limited intercoat peeling, or when the
existing orange and/or white painted bands on tall structures
fail to meet the requirements of the color chart of the FAA
Advisory Circular 70/7460-lG.
of the system to give 5-7 mils DFT.
Two generic coating systems are recommendedfor galvanizing, an epoxy system (with an aliphatic urethane finish
for exterior service) and an acrylic latex system.
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
A. PROCEDURE
1. Surface Preparation
The only surface preparation required for cosmetic repairs is removal of paint chalk andlor other
loose surface contaminants by washing or scrubbing with a bristle brush. The weathered coating exteriors will have sufficient texture to permit good
adhesion of finish coats.
The damaged coating should be scrubbed with
a bristle brush to remove all loose coating material
and clean any exposed galvanizing. The sound
coating adjacent to cleaned damaged areas should
be feather-edged by light sanding to permit tight
bonding of repaired areas onto existing sound
coating.
FIGURE 5
Test racks used to evaluate the performanceof particularcoatings.
1. Relative Merits
The epoxy systems will provide long-termperformance, while the acrylic latex system will provide a
cheaper, easier-to-applysystem with a wider range
of colors and glosses at a slight reduction in service life. Both systems are readily available in VOClimited and lead- and chromate-free formulations.
Examples of appropriate government and
SSPC specifications are included. The recommendations are based on extensive long-term exposure
testing of the Naval Civil Engineering Laboratory at
Florida and Bermuda.
2. Compatibility
Maintenance painting to correct coating defects,
other than cosmetic, requires use of repair materials that are compatible with the existing deteriorated coating. Generally, this means use of the same
system already on the tower. Where the existing
systems are no longer permitted (e.g., vinyl and
chlorinated rubber systems in geographical areas
with VOC limitations), another compatible system
must be used.
If the generic type of the existing finish coat
is not known, a solvent-solubility test should be
done. To do this, soak a portion of cloth or a cottontipped swab stick in methyl ethyl ketone or acetone,
rub it against the existing finish, and visibly check
whether it has picked up the finish. The finish is
classified as solvent soluble if paint is picked up,
and as solvent insoluble if not.
2. Application
With the epoxy and epoxy urethane systems, it is
best to apply the topcoat on the day after application of the primer. If a delay of more than 7 days
occurs before topcoating, apply a thin film (1-2 mils
wet film thickness) of the primer and allow it to cure
for 4 hours before applying a full coat of the finish.
This will result in good adhesion of the finish coat.
B. SPECIFICATIONS
B. SPECIFICATIONS
Alkyd and epoxy systems are also included for coating

damaged areas where rusted steel but no galvanizing is
present.
1. Maintenance Painting of Galvanized Steel with
No Rusted Steel
Galvanized steel with damaged coatings but no
more than a few pinpoint areas of rusted steel
1. New exterior galvanizing

a. Epoxy polyurethane - 1) Apply one primer coat
of epoxy polyamide (e.g., MIL-P-24441, Formula
150) to give 3 mils dry film thickness. 2) Apply one
finish coat of aliphatic urethane (e.g., MIL-C-85285)
to give a minimum of 5 mils total dry film thickness.
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(1) Apply two coats of alkyd primer (e.g., TT-P-645)

to the cleaned steel each at 2 mils dry film thickness.
(2) Apply two coats of alkyd or silicone alkyd (e.g.,
TT-E-489 or MIL-P-24635) finish over the primer
each at 2 mils dry film thickness.
b. Solvent-lnsoluble Coating - If the existing finish
coat is known to be urethane or epoxy or if it was
found to be solvent insoluble
(1) Apply a thin film (1-2 mils wet film thickness) of
epoxy polyamide primer (e.g., MIL-P-24441,Formula 150) to the repair area and allow it to cure for
4 hours before applying two coats of this primer
each at 3 mils dry film thickness.
(2) For exterior service, apply a finish coat of aliphatic urethane (MIL-C-85285) at 2 mils dry film
thic kness.
(3) For interior service, apply a finish coat of epoxy
polyamide (e.g., MIL-P-24441, Formula 152).
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
should be painted by System A or B, depending

upon the type of existing coating to be repaired.
a. Repair System A - If the existing finish is known
to be oil, alkyd, latex, vinyl or chlorinated rubber or
was found to be solvent soluble, apply two coats
of quality acrylic latex coating (e.g., TT-P-2784 or
SSPC-PS 24) each at 1 1/2 mils dry film thickness.
b. Repair System B - If the existing finish is known
to be urethane or epoxy or was found to be solvent insoluble:
(1) Apply a thin film (1-2 mils wet film thickness) of
epoxy polyamide primer (e.g., MIL-P-24441, Formula 150) to the repair area and allow it to cure for 4
hours before applying a full coat of this primer at
3 mils dry film thickness.
(2) For exterior service, apply a finish coat of aliphatic urethane (e.g., MIL-C-85285) at 2 mils dry film
thickness.
(3) For interior service, apply a second coat of epoxy
polyamide (e.g., MIL-P-24441, Formula 152) at 3
mils dry film thickness.
(4) High-build zinc dust tower paint can be used for
repair of galvanized utility towers. (Stainless steel
flake can be added to increase the life expectancy
in corrosive or coastal environments). Apply a single coat of 8-10 mils DFT.
For these repair systems, overlap the repair
area 1 inch onto the surrounding sound coating. If
the color match of the repair area to the existing
coating is adequate, topcoating of undamaged
areas will be unnecessary.
4. Total Coating Replacement

When coating deterioration occurs extensively on
galvanizing that is still in good condition, it will probably be necessary to remove the remaining coating and recoat as recommended for new
galvanizing. Brush off blast cleaning (SSPC-SP 7)
or high pressure water jetting (10,000 psi or greater) are suitable methods for removing the existing
deteriorated paint.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The authors and editors gratefully acknowledge the active participation of Donald H. Wetzel in the review process for thic chapter. Pictures were provided by: Dr. Drisko, Donald H. Wetzel and
Keeler and Long. Ernest V. Horwick wrote an earlier chapter.
2 . Maintenance Painting for Appearance (Cosmetic Defects)

Apply two coats of a quality acrylic latex finish (e.g.,
TT-P-2784 or SSPC-PS 24) to completely hide the
existing paint.
3 . Maintenance Painting of Galvanized Steel with
Rusted Steel
If the coating deterioration and the zinc corrosion
have occurred to the extent that significant areas
of rusted steel but no galvanizing are exposed, spot
repair of the surface is more complicated. The rusted steel must first be hand tool-cleaned (SSPC-SP
2) or power tool-cleaned (SSPC-SP 3 or 11) to remove rust and loose paint.
The preferred method of cleaning is SSPC-SP
11. Power Tool Cleaning to Bare Metal, because
it not only removes all visible rust but also produces
a roughened surface. Powered needle guns and
grinders with flexible wheels and disks can be used
to produce the SP 11 surface. Cleaned steel should
be primed the same day before flash-rusting occurs. If flash rusting occurs before priming, the steel
must be recleaned.
a. Existing Solvent-Soluble Coating - If the existing finish coat is known to be oil, alkyd, latex, vinyl, or chlorinated rubber or was found to be solvent-soluble:

BIOGRAPHY
A portrait and biographical sketch of Richard W. Drisko appear at the end of the chapter on Government Painting Procedures.
REFERENCES
1. American Galvanizing Association and Zinc Institute. Painting
Galvanized Structural Steel. 1986.
2. American Galvanizing Association. Zinc Coatings. 1988.
3. American Galvanizing Association. Touch-up Material for Galvanized Steel. 1979.
4. R. W. Drisko, D. R. Polly, and L. K. Schwab. Salt Spray Evaluation of Coated Galvanized Steel. Journal of Protective Coatings and Linings, February 1985, pp. 30-39.
5. M.F. Lichenstadter, Lloyd Smith, Dean M. Berger, Gary Satterfield. Problem Solving Forum: How Is Galvanized Steel
Painted? Journal of Protective Coatings and Linings, September 1986, pp. 19-24.
6. D. John Long. The Painting of Galvanized Transmission Towers and Substation Structures. Journal of Protective Coatings
and Linings, November 1987, pp. 32-41.
7. D. John Long, Bruce Delventhal, W.D. Dickinson, Jr. Problem
Solving Forum: Most Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) Safety Colors Contain Lead Color Pigments.
Does the Lead Content Constitute a Hazard in Application or
Removal of These Coatings? Are Suitable Alternatives Available? Journal of Protective Coatings and Linings, December
1992, pp. 9-1 1.
8. Jan F.H. Eijnsbergen. Duplex Systems. (To be available,
1994).
485
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CHAPTER 23
CAUSES AND PREVENTION OF

PAINT FAILURE
by
Charles G. Munger
adequate thickness control, pinholes, overspray,

improper drying, lack of cure or holidays can
cause rapid failure.
7. The design of the structure itself is often a cause
for severe failure. Sharp edges, crevices, skip
welds, back-to-backangles all are focal points for
failure.
All paints, and particularly many of the more advanced coatings, are complex chemical mixtures that
must react in place on the surface over which they are applied. Paints and coatings contain a number of interacting
ingredients: resins, plasticizers, curing agents, pigments,
extenders, catalysts, fungicides and solvents. These
are applied to the surface as a very thin film, a few
micrometers or thousandths of an inch in thickness. The
solvents must evaporate properly. The non-volatile portion
of the liquid coating must deposit in a continuous even
film over the surface. It must adhere to and possibly react
with the surface. It also may react with internal curing
agents, with oxygen from the air or with water from the air
in order to become an insoluble, relatively inert film of low
permeability which has good appearance. This thin film
must then withstand rain, wind, the suns rays, humidity,
cold, heat, oxidation, physical abuse, chemicals, biodegradation and other forces. With all of the variables
involved in the formation and use of paints or coatings, it
is obvious that there can be many causes for coating
failures.
The common causes for paint or coating failure which
are listed above will be taken up individually.
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Coatings or pair s are the prin ipal materials of corrosion protection for all steel structures. This is true almost
without regard to the use of the structure, whether it be a
bridge, ship, chemical plant, tank farm, refinery, high rise
office building or underground pipe line. Every exposure of
a coating is different, even though it may be used for the
same purpose at different locations. Bridges in Florida are
exposed to vastly different conditions than bridges in the
northern part of the United States or Canada, and a tank
farm in California is exposed to conditions quite different
from one on the Gulf Coast. As coatings are the primary
protection for all of these vastly different exposures, it is
understandable that failure of coated surfaces is inherent
and that time to failure is the critical dimension in this
phenomenon.
Failure can occur for a number of reasons:
1. Improper selection of the coating for the service.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Too often, a coating designed for steel surfaces

may be extended out over a concrete or wood surface from the steel structure with rapid failure occurring on the non-metallic surface. Also, a
coating which might be excellent on the exterior
of a storage tank may be a complete failure on a
chemical reaction vessel. Proper selection of a
coating for any specific purpose is extremely important.
The coating may fail from causes inherent t o that
specific coating. Such failure could be chalking,
checking or alligatoring.
Adhesion-related failures are most numerous and
can be catastrophic. Such failures are blistering,
flaking and peeling.
Failure can occur from the surface to be protected
(the substrate). The coating may be incompatible with the surface; there may be a chemical
reaction between the surface and the coating; or
the density or smoothness of the surface may
cause the coating to have poor adhesion.
The coating may fail from exterior forces such as
chemical exposure, abrasion or severe weathering.
I. SELECTION OF THE COATING SYSTEM

The primary requirement of a coating system is that it
shall resist deterioration by the environment in which the
coating is to serve as a protection for a substrate. Since no
one coating, or type of coating, is resistant to all environments (atmospheric, aqueous, or chemical), many
types of coatings have been developed for service under
special conditions and for application by various methods.
Selection of a paint from among these many types can be
made intelligently only on the basis of the following factors: the known performance of coatings in similar applications, the known chemical composition and physical
properties of the paints, and the results of exposures of
6. The coating may fail because of poor or inadequate surface preparation or application. Here,
surface contamination, poor surface profile, inCopyright The Society for Protective Coatings
486
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93
b 2 7 9 4 0 000393Li O T B
recommended by the manufacturer, nor should the products of one manufacturer be mixed with that of another.
Only the manufacturer can know the true compatibility
characteristics of the paint system which he has
developed and is recommending. Selecting parts of paint
systems from different manufacturers or from different
generic types without basic knowledge of the products is
almost a guarantee of failure.
There are many failures of coatings due to the basic

formulation, the resins used, the pigments or the many
other ingredients used in coatings. The relation of the inherent coating failures to coating classes should be considered: .e., those based on organic materials and those
based on inorganic vehicles.
FIGURE 1
Note chalking of primer on deck.
the coatings under consideration to test environments

simulating the conditions of use.
Of these factors, the best basis for critical judgment
of the relative suitability of a paint system is previous experience with the performance of that coating. Nevertheless, actual first-hand observations of the serviceability
of a coating can be misleading i f the new environment in
which the paint is to serve is dissimilar or i f the composition of the paint has been modified. Knowledge of the
chemical and physical properties of a coating (e.g., acid
and alkali resistance, heat resistance, abrasion resistance,
etc.) is a selection aid but should not be the sole basis for
final selection.
If the durability of a coating has not been proved in
field tests or by service in commercial uses, the paint
should be evaluated by accelerated tests. However, it must
be emphasized that evaluation by accelerated tests should
be used cautiously and then only for comparison purposes. The results of such tests must not be valued too
highly unless there is correlation between their results and
the observed performance of the paint in actual use. Unfortunately, correlation between the results of accelerated
tests and performance during service is usually not
available.
A source of information by which to select a coating
is the manufacturer of the paint or the supplier of
materials for paints. Yet, such information can be incomplete or misleading if a precise description of the conditions to be met is not given to the persons whose advice
is sought or i f the basis on which their recommendations
are made is not disclosed to the potential user of the
coating. Selection of paint on the basis of price only or on
the unsubstantiated opinion of a salesman can prove to be
extremely costly.
Mixing of paint systems is often practiced by persons
with limited knowledge of coatings, usually as a matter of
expediency. This can result only in costly failures. The
compatibility of one coat with another is extremely important to the satisfactory service life of a paint. Generic
types of coatings should generally not be mixed unless

A. ORGANIC COATINGS, FORMULATIONRELATED FAILURES

i. Chalking
With chalking, the organic binder in the coating
tends to gradually disintegrate on the surface
releasing the pigments and allowing them to remain on the surface as powder or chalk. This is
strictly a surface phenomenon. While in some
cases it can result in rapid reduction in coating
thickness, it is generally a relatively slow process
and one which does not result in catastrophic
failure or severe corrosion to the substrate. Chalking, or powdering, is primarily caused by the action of the actinic rays of the sun on the organic
binder. Permanently shaded areas seldom chalk.
Humidity and oxygen from the air also play a part
in this phenomenon.
The resins which make up the binder are the

key to the chalking rate. As an example, many
epoxy coatings have a strong tendency to chalk.
Properly formulated, they chalk minimally;
however, there have been epoxy formulations that
chalk at a sufficient rate so that a coating of eight
or ten mils thickness can be reduced to the point
where the primer is visible in a one-year period. On
the other hand, acrylic, silicone, and polyurethane
resins are only slightly affected by the suns rays,
and a coating system formulated from these may
remain in a chalk-free condition for several years.
Pigments also play a very important part in
the chalking reaction. Some pigments, such as
anatase titanium dioxide, chalk very readily and
rapidly, while most rutile titanium dioxide
pigments are very resistant to chalking. Many
pigments tend to catalyze the chalking reaction.
Some black pigments will chalk after a short
period of time, while others will remain for years
487
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--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
II. COATING FAILURES WHICH ARE

INHERENT WITHIN THE COATING ITSELF
(FORMULATION RELATED)
SSPC CHAPTERr23.0
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--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
with little surface effect. Iron blue pigments tend

to bronze as the first step in their chalking process.
The influence of pigments on chalking is not
all bad inasmuch as they tend to reduce chalking
by shielding the resin from the suns rays.
Aluminum pigmentation is an excellent example
of this type of shielding. The shingle effect of the
leafing aluminum flake pigment prevents the
suns rays from penetrating to the coating vehicle.
Almost any coating vehicle is more resistant to
chalking when formulated with leafing aluminum
pigment.
The use of the newer resins, such as the
acrylics and aliphatic polyurethanes, combined
with chalking resistant pigments and the use of
coating additives, such as ultra-violet absorbers,
has resulted in paints and coatings which remain
free of any surface change or change in gloss over
a period of several years.
The chalking reaction has been one used by a
number of manufacturers to produce coatings
with self-cleaning properties. When chalking is
properly regulated through the prudent selection
of the coating binder and the pigments, the chalking reaction can be controlled to the point where
the surface erodes slowly, but at a sufficient rate
to keep the surface free from any grime or dirt
which might otherwise accumulate from the atmosphere. In these cases, the reduction in
thickness is uniform and relatively constant so
that sufficient coating remains to fully protect the
surface over a number of years. Chalking may
result in some color change and a reduction in
gloss of the coating, and such factors must be
considered in selecting a product.
Of all the types of coating failure which can
occur, chalking can be considered preferable to
the rest. A clean, chalked surface, which is free
from other types of failure or corrosion, is considered a satisfactory surface over which to apply
additional coats of paint for maintenance.
T34
because of the greater erosion of the raised area.

Erosion of this type can best be prevented by the
selection of a chalk resistant coating as described above and one which tends to flow out to
a very smooth film.
ASTM-D 662 describes degree of erosion of
exterior paints. ASTM-D 821, describes degree of
abrasion and erosion. ASTM-D 913 describes
degee of chipping of traffic paint.
3. Checking
Checking is an age-related failure of a coating. It
is characterized by uneven and generally nonlinear, non-continuous breaks in the coating.
These breaks are primarily a surface phenomenon
and do not penetrate the full depth of the coating.
Checking can be characterized as visible i f the
checks can be seen with the naked eye, or microscopic if they can be seen only under low
magnification.
There can be several causes of checking. It is
generally a formulation problem which results in
surface stresses in the coating. It can occur when
solvents evaporate very rapidly from the surface
and cause the surface to shrink more rapidly than
the body of the coating. It can be caused by resins
which oxidize on the surface or by certain
pigments which apparently catalyze the checking
reaction on the surface. Essentially, it is a stress
set up in the surface which causes the small
checks to appear while the body of the coating IS
not subject to the same reaction. Wetting and drying, heating, cooling and sunlight exposure may
all contribute to the checking of a coating.
While initially the checks in a coating do not
2. Erosion
Erosion is a type of failure caused by the wearing

away of the coating down to the base surface or
to the primer. This wearing away of the surface
may be related to the above chalking mechanism.
On the other hand, it may often be aggravated by
the surface being exposed to heavy rainfall, hail,
high winds or a combination of high winds and
rain. Sand erosion of the coating caused by high
winds and sand, such as encountered in beach
areas or in the deserts of the west, cannot be considered in this same category since such erosion
may be catastrophic from one storm.
Erosion is often seen in brushed coatings
where the high ridges of brush marks are exposed
FIGURE 2
Badly eroded paint. (Federation of Societies For Coatings
Technology Photo)
488
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93
m 8627940
pene.trate, if the coating is left without

maintenance, the coating will eventually break
down by further checking in the same area until
the checks become cracks and the underlying surface is exposed. Checking is prevented primarily
in the selection of the coating. A coating formulated with weather resistant resins should be
selected, with pigments that do not contribute to
checking and with reinforcing pigments that aid
the coating in resisting surface stresses.
ASTM Standard D-660-44, reapproved 1976,
provides a standard method for the evaluation of
the degree of checking in exterior paints.
4. Cracking
Cracking is also an age-related failure caused by
similar conditions to those described under
checking. It contrasts with checking in that it is
not a surface phenomenon but one where breaks
in the coating penetrate to the underlying surface.
This makes it a much more damaging type of
failure than checking, since corrosion can rapidly
take place at the breaks in the coating. It may occur in an irregular pattern where the coating
stresses are rather uniform. It may be linear,
following brush marks or even some spray patterns, or it may occur in a curved pattern with the
cracks meeting and intersecting in a rather typical
form. A surface such as wood that rapidly expands and contracts can contribute to cracking.
Excessive thickness of coatings can also cause
cracking because of increased stresses on drying
or curing.
Cracking is a formulation defect which can
be overcome by the use of proper weather resistant resins and pigments plus the addition of two
additional ingredients that help materially to
reduce the interior stresses within the coating.
One of these is reinforcing pigments. Such
pigments are fibrous or acicular and act very
much like chopped glass fibers in reinforced
plastics. They definitely add physical strength to
the coating film. The second is a permanent
plasticizer or soft, compatible resin that increases the elasticity of the coating. Increased
reinforcing and elasticity both reduce the
physical stresses caused by weathering, heating
and cooling or wetting and drying.
Coatings made from oxidizing materials,
such as oils or alkyd resins, or internal curing
resins such as epoxies, are often susceptible to
this type of failure since they continue to cure,
become more brittle and shrink with time. Fully
polymerized materials, such as vinyls, acrylics
and chlorinated rubbers, when properly formulated, are less susceptible to cracking since
they continue to cure, become more brittle and
shrink with time.
000393b 970
FIGURE 3
Checking magnified ten times. (Federation of Societies for
Coatings Technology Photo)
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
SSPC CHAPTER*23.0
ASTM Standard D 661 provides a method for

the evaluation of the degree of cracking in exterior
paints.
5. A Iliga toring
Alligatoring can be considered a macro-checking
failure and is caused by internal stresses set up
within and on the surface of the coating. The
stresses cause the surface of the coating to
shrink much more rapidly and to a much greater
extent than the body of the coating. The strong
surface stresses, because of the shrinkage, tend
to create very large checks in the surface that do
not penetrate t o the substrate. These can be
caused by rapid polymerization of the resin on the
surface, rapid oxidation of the surface of the
coating or a very rapid release of solvents or
volatile plasticizers from the surface.
As an example, some air drying or chemically
cured coatings, when applied over a cold surface
and then heated on the coated surface to speed
the drying, often alligator. Such a reaction may be
found on coating the interior of tanks or tank cars.
This is caused by shrinkage of the surface while
the body of the coating, because of the cold
metal, does not change at the same rate as the
coating surface. Basically, it is a physical
phenomenon whereby the coating surface hardens and shrinks at a much faster rate than the
body of the coating itself. It may also be caused
by the application of a very strong, tough, hard top
coat over a softer, more resilient primer. In this
case, the undercoat flows and moves as the top
coat tends to shrink.
It is almost a rule of thumb that a hard, tough
top coat should never be applied over a soft undercoat. Asphalt and coal tar coatings are often subject to this phenomenon. The surface hardens due
489
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--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
more rubbery one.

6. Mud-Cracking
Mud-cracking can be considered a macrocracking phenomenon where the breaks in the
coating usually go down to the substrate. In this
way, it is a much more dangerous failure than
alligatoring. It can cause immediate corrosion
and result in the chipping and flaking of the
coating from the surface. It is not a common
failure of organic coatings that are properly formulated for weather exposure. It may occur where
coatings are very highly filled and where they are
applied to a surface that dries the coating extremely rapidly.
Mud-cracking is often a phenomenon of
water base coatings and improperly cured inorganic zinc-rich primers. Because most water
base coating materials are emulsions or dispersions, very rapid drying prevents the resin par-
FIGURE 5
Alligatoring
ticles from coalescing into a continuous film. By

contrast, where the resins are dissolved in a solvent, a true solution exists and the resin is in a
continuous phase as the solvent evaporates. Mudcracking can be prevented by proper formulation
to prevent the too rapid drying of water base
coatings and by the use of reinforcing pigments.
Mud-cracking can also be prevented by satisfactory drying conditions, by application of the
coatings in thinner films and by elimination of
sags or puddles where rapid drying could cause
this type of failure.
Ethyl silicate zinc-rich primers will mud-crack
i f applied too thick (over 6 mils). This generally
is caused by the lack of moisture (too low
humidity). Thus, a heavy film would not allow
moisture to penetrate and properly cure the zincrich primer.
FIGURE 6
FIGURE 4
Cracking due to overthickness of coating.

Mud-Cracking
490
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surface and in the body. However, when a paint

contains an excess of surface driers, the surface
of the paint will swell by absorption of oxygen and
will wrinkle. Such a reaction depends on air
temperature, surface temperature and coating
thickness.
Excessive thickness aggravates the wrinkling process, since the body of the paint cannot
cure sufficiently to resist the change in volume of
the paint surface. The temperature of cure can influence the rate of wrinkling. Paints that cure
without wrinkling, at normal temperatures, may
wrinkle if curing is accelerated by baking. Also, if
the amounts of surface driers and body driers are
balanced for curing at a given temperature, a
paint may wrinkle at a higher temperature,
because the increase in the temperature tends to
cure the surface more rapidly than the body of the
paint.
To prevent wrinkling, make certain that airoxidized or air-reacting coatings are properly formulated for the conditions under which the
coating will be applied. Where wrinkling of a
coating appears to be a problem, the coating
should be applied in a thin, even film with no
areas of excessive thickness such as runs or puddles.
FIGURE 7
Mildew on painted surface. Microscopic examination is often
necessary to determine the difference between mildew and dirt.
(Federation of Societies for Coatings Technology Photo)
7. Wrinkling
Wrinkling is the formation of furrows and ridges in
the surface of a paint system. It occurs when the
surface of the paint film expands more rapidly
during drying than does the body of the paint. It is
proportional to the thickness of the surface layer
that dries more rapidly than the body of the paint
film and to the difference between the drying
rates and the expansion of the surface layer and
the main body of the paint.
Wrinkling results from a formulation failure
and is most common with oil base paints or
alkyds containing driers that increase the rate of
drying. Driers serve two general purposes: to dry
the surface of the paint, and to dry the body of the
paint film; that is, surface driers and body
driers, respectively. Cobalt compounds are a common type of surface drier; zinc and lead compounds are classified as body driers.
Ordinarilv.
Daints are formulated so that the
,, .
drying process proceeds at the same rate on the
8.. Microorganism Failure

Both bacteria and fungi can cause coating failure.
They primarily attack biodegradable coatings
where the fungus or bacterium derive their energy
from the materials making up the coating. Oil type
coatings, alkyds, polyamide epoxies and coatings
using biodegradable plasticizers are most often
affected. On the other hand, coatings made from
vinyl chloride acetate resins or chlorinated rubber
coatings using non-biodegradable plasticizers
have excellent resistance to biological attack.
One example of the comparative resistance of two
similar coatings is in their exposure to sewage
conditions. A polyamide epoxy may rapidly
disintegrate due to bacteria or fungi attack under
severe sewage conditions. On the other hand, a
polyamine epoxy can remain unaffected under the
same exposure. A fungus attack often occurs on
the north or shady side of a structure under damp,
humid conditions. A coating under these conditions turns grey or green, with black splotchy
areas over the surface. In these areas, a 10-power
glass reveals fungus growths acting on and within
the coating. Prevention of such attack is primarily
by formulation of the coating.
Fungus attack is reduced or completely
eliminated in oil type coatings by the addition of
zinc oxide, fungicides, bactericides or a combination of the three to the formulation. In non-oil type
coatings, such as pure epoxies, vinyls or
FIGURE 8
Failure of inorganic zinc-rich by pinpoint rusting.
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

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TABLE 1
A SUMMARY OF
FORMULATION-RELATED FAILURES
COATING FAILURE
FAILURE APPEARANCE
CAUSE OF FAILURE
REMEDY
Organic Coating Failure

Surface soft and powdery.
Easily removed by wiping surface.
Surface disintegration by actinic

rays of sun on the organic resin
binder; improper pigmentation.
Select coatings formulated

with radiation resistant
resins (acrylics) and noncatalytic, high hiding pigments.
2. Erosion
Similar to chalking. Surface

removed on high spots and brush
marks to base coating or primer.
Chalking mechanism with coating

surface removed by weathering
and abrasion.
Select a tough chalk resistant

coating with a good flow out
to a smooth film.
3. Checking
Surface phenomena - uneven,

small, non-continuous fissures in
coating which do not penetrate
to the substrate.
Surface stresses caused by shrinkage Select coating formulated

with weather resistant
due to weathering and continued
coating polymerization and oxidation. resins and inert reinforcing pigments in addition
to non-catalytic colored
pigments.
4. Cracking
Small breaks in coating to substrate. May be linear, crosshatched, or curved. Cracks may
or may not be continuous.
Stress set up in coating due to

continued polymerization and oxidation - improper pigmentation, or
improper coating system.
Select coating formulated

from non-reactive weather
resistant resins,
reinforcing pigments and
non-reactive colored
pigments. The primer must be
compatible with intermediate
and finish coats.
5. Alligatoring
Very large macro-checking,

generally cross-hatched pattern.
Internal stresses where surface

shrinks more rapidly than body of
coating. Hard top coat applied over
soft undercoat.
Apply thin coats and

thoroughly dry before
adding additional coats.
Never apply hard top coats
(epoxy) over soft undercoats (asphalt).
6. Mud-Cracking
Large macro-cracking. Coating

may curl at cracks and lose
adhesion.
Rapid drying of highly filled

coatings, especially water based
materials (water emulsion paints)
Use coatings with strong adhesion.

Apply coatings under proper
drying conditions and
prevent sags, puddles or
areas of excess thickness.
7. Wrinkling
Furrows and ridges in coating

surface. May be linear or
random pattern. Wrinkle may be
fine or quite large.
Surface reaction where surface of

coating expands more rapidly during
drying than does the body of the film.
Choose coatings with even,

thorough drying characteristics. Apply evenly,
avoid excessive thickness.
8. Microorganism
Softening or slime reaction of

coating. Blotchy brown or black
spots on coating surface causing
poor dirty appearance.
The biodegradation of the coating by

bacteria or fungi. The coating is
used as a source of nourishment.
Use oil paints which contain

permanent fungicides or
bactericides. Non-oil
coatings should use nonbiodegradable modifiers.
9. Discoloration
Yellowing, greying or darkening

of coating.
Resin or pigment color change due to Select coating formulated

with both color stable
weather or chemical action.
resins and pigments.

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1. Chalking
SSPC C H A P T E R U 2 3 - 0 93
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TABLE 1 (Continued)
COATING FAILURE
FAILURE APPEARANCE
CAUSE OF FAILURE
REMEDY
Inorganic Coating Failure

1. Checking
Usually fine visible or microscopic checks. Do not penetrate

to the substrate.
The zinc pigment to binder ratio

is high - rapid drying conditions
cause surface checking.
Formulation should include

reinforcing pigments.
Apply coating as thin as
recommended. Second coat,
if necessary. Apply under
favorable drying conditions.
2. Mud-Cracking
Fine t o fairly large segments

( Y i ") flaking from surface.
Application of coating too heavy.

Rapid drying conditions.
Apply coating at no more

than recommended thickness.
Apply under favorable drying
conditions.
3. Chemical
Pinpoint rusting progressing

from limited to continuous
rusting.
Acid or alkali reaction on both

silicate binder and on metallic zinc.
Apply resistant topcoats

over inorganic zinc
coatings.
4. Pinpoint Rusting
Pinpoint spots of corrosion

progressing from a few per square
foot to almost continuous.
Uneven coating thickness - thin

coated areas show first failure.
This is normal failure

pattern for inorganic
zinc coatings. Apply
maintenance coat at first
sign of pinpoint failure.
5. Pitting in Seawater
Strong anodes (rust tubercles)

form in breaks in coating.
Reaction of chemicals with

surface of inorganic zinc or galvanizing, causing it to become inert and
thus a massive cathode.
Top coat the inorganic

zinc with a strongly
adherent resistant
coating system.
MOISTURE VAPOR TRANSMISSION RATES

OF CHARACTERISTIC COATING TYPES
Coating Type
Epoxy polyamide
Permeance
Perms'
0.16
Test
Thickness
Mils
8.10
Gramsll00 sq. in./

24 Hours
.17
Amine catalyzed
epoxy
0.19
7.5
.30
Vinyl Chlorideacetate
0.31
5.5
.a3
Vinyl acrylic
0.54
5.10
.a3
Alkyd (short oil)
2.4
5.10
'Perms = grains of moisturell hr./sq.ft./P (in. of Hg)

493Not for Resale
3.7
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
TABLE 2
SSPC C H A P T E R * 2 3 - 0 93 m 8b27940 0003941 238 m
9. Discolora tion
Because appearance may be as much a function of a coating as its corrosion resistance,
coatings that change color after application and
become unsightly can be considered to have
failed. This type of failure is, of course, one based
on formulation and arises from a number of
causes.
Many of the resins used to formulate
coatings contain unsaturated photosensitive
groups which, on exposure to sunlight, cause
darkening, yellowing or other discoloration of the
vehicle. Vinyl chloride-acetate coatings, as an example, i f used as clear coatings will turn dark
brown or even black within a few weeks of exposure to sunlight. Some epoxy resins tend to
yellow as do some of the more resistant polyurethane resins. Proper pigmentation to shade the
basic resin from sunlight is one of the prime
methods of preventing discoloration.
Often, however, pigmentation is not sufficient. Coatings subject to strong sunlight and
weather conditions should preferably be formulated with silicones, acrylics or aliphatic
polyurethanes in order to reduce any possible color change to a minimum. Many pigments can also
cause color change in a coating. Some orange
pigments are color reactive and darken. Certain
yellow pigments tend to grey and whiten. Lead
pigments are particularly susceptible to attack in
sulfide atmospheres and turn dark or even black.
Iron blue pigments tend to bronze or turn brown.
Obviously, these pigments should not be used in
formulations where the appearance of the coating
is important and where it is exposed to severe
weat her conditions.
10. Sulfide Discoloration
This is the staining of the film by hydrogen
sulfide. Hydrogen sulfide attacks paints containing lead or mercury turning them gray or black in
patches or streaks. Exposure of copper base antifouling paints not only turns them black but can
inactivate the copper causing them to foul rapidly.
This often occurs in contaminated water.
This blackening may be distinguished from
mold growth by treatment with dilute hydrochloric
acid; disappearance of the blackening indicates
the presence of sulfide.
When repainting or painting in hydrogen
sulfide areas, use paints that do not contain mercury, lead or copper pigments or lead driers. If
emulsion paints are used for repainting, it would
be necessary to remove any undercoats which

contain lead or mercury.
B. INORGANIC COATINGS, FORMULATIONRELATED FAILURES

Inorganic zinc coatings also have some inherent
failures because they are made primarily from silicate
vehicles and metallic zinc.
1. Checking
Inorganic zinc coatings are particularly subject to
checking if the formulation or the application
are not proper. These coatings are highly filled
with powdered metallic zinc and other pigments.
The ratio of the pigment to a relatively low
viscosity binder is high, and under these conditions, rapid drying can cause the surface checking
of the coating.
Many formulations contain fibrous pigments
to help prevent checking as well as special solvents and silicate binders to aid in controlling the
drying rate. The tendency to check can also be improved or prevented by proper application. The
coating should be applied as thinly as is practical,
with a second pass if necessary to reach the
recommended thickness. As rapid drying increases the tendency to check, application should
be under controlled temperature conditions or
under less severe drying conditions, .e., applying
it under cover, or when in the open, in the early
morning or late afternoon. The application conditions established by the manufacturer should be
closely followed.
Since checking is a surface phenomena and
does not extend through the coating, i t is much
less of a problem with inorganic zinc coatings
than with organic coatings. As long as the adhesion of the inorganic zinc is unimpaired, the fine
checks will gradually fill with zinc reaction products, and the effectiveness of the coating will be
maintained. Evaluation of checking is covered by
ASTM-D 660.
2. Mud-Cracking
Mud-cracking, because the breaks extend through
the coating to the substrate, is a more serious
problem than checking. Adhesion is often impaired with the coating flaking from the surface.
Mud-cracking is primarily a problem of excessive
thickness where the thickness exceeds the manufacturers recommendations. It is found, for the
most part, in runs or puddles or where heavy
overlapping occurs.
The reason for this type of failure is similar to
the reason for checking. The volume of the
pigmentation is high compared to the volume of
the vehicle in the dried film. Where applied in excessive thickness, the volatile ingredients in
water base zinc-rich coatings evaporate rapidly
494
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chlorinated rubbers, plasticizers or modifiers

should be nonbiodegradable.
ASTM-D-3274 describes degree of surface
disfigurement by fungal growth or soil and dirt
accumulation.
~~
SSPC C H A P T E R * 2 3 * 0
93
86279YO 0003942 174
with shrinkage taking place throughout the

coating before any chemical reaction can occur.
Such areas will eventually pull themselves away
from the surface and chip or flake.
To eliminate or prevent this problem, apply
the coatings in relatively thin films (not over the
maximum thickness recommended by the manufacturer).
Heavy coats (over 6.0 mils) tend to mud-crack.
For ethyl silicate zinc-rich primers, mud-cracking
is caused by lack of moisture needed to cure the
coating beneath the surface of the film.
3. Chemical Resistance
Obviously, coatings containing zinc, organic zinc
coatings, inorganic zinc coatings or galvanizing
should not be used alone or without top coats in a
strongly acidic atmosphere. Because of the zinc
in the coating, acid attack is rapid and the coating
would be subject to failure. Under these conditions, galvanizing would tend to fail faster than
the inorganic zinc coatings, inasmuch as the zinc
in the inorganic coating is partially protected by
the silicate matrix. Strong alkali will tend to react
with the silicate vehicle as well as with the zinc at
pH values above 10.
4. Pinpoint Rusting
Zinc coatings, either galvanized, inorganic zinc or
organic zinc, normally fail at the end of their
useful life by pinpoint rusting. This occurs
primarily in areas that are thinner than the remainder of the coating, starting with an isolated
pinpoint of rust showing here and there in these
thin spots. As time goes by, the pinpoints will
become closer together, and finally, at the time of
full failure, the spots of pinpoint rust will be
almost continuous and general over the entire surface.
Such failure usually occurs after many years
of service, even under marine atmospheric conditions. While this type of failure can be expected, it
can also be prevented by proper maintenance and
repair of the thin areas that first show failure.
ASTM Standard D 610 provides a method of evaluating rusting. A maintenance coat of inorganic
zinc may be applied over itself or over galvanizing
at the time of the first indication of failure. Light
abrasion of the surface by hand sanding or brush
blast is necessary for proper adhesion of the
maintenance coat.
5. Pitting in Seawater
Inorganic zinc coatings or galvanizing immersed
in seawater may pit after exposure of from 12 to
24 months. This phenomenon occurs because of
the reaction of some of the salts in the seawater
with the surface of the zinc to such an extent that
the surface becomes insoluble and no longer provides zinc ions to protect the steel surface from
corrosion. Normally, zinc coatings provide

cathodic protection to the steel surface; however,
CIS the chemical reaction from seawater takes
place on the surface of the zinc, the surface
becomes inert, although it is still conductive.
1Jnder these conditions, since zinc ions are no
longer available, the zinc coating becomes
cathodic and the holiday or break becomes an
anode. When this happens, pitting will take place
where breaks occur or where there are sharp
edges, abrasion or holidays.
Pitting can be prevented with a compatible
and proper organic coating system over the zinc,
wherever it is exposed to seawater immersion.
III. AD HES1O N-RELATED FA1LU RES

1. Blistering
Blistering is one of the most common forms of
adhesion related coating failure, particularly
where the coating is immersed in water, seawater
or other liquids. It can also occur in areas of high
humidity where there is continuing or intermittent
condensation on the surface.
Blistering is caused by gases or liquids
within or under the coating that exert pressures
stronger than both the adhesion and the internal
cohesion of the coating. This allows the coating
t o stretch and to form the hemispherical blister.
The blister will generally increase in size until the
tensile strength of the coating is greater than the
internal pressure. If the pressure is greater than
the tensile strength, the blister will break. This is
often the case where a brittle coating with little
extensibility is involved. After the blister breaks,
frequently the substrate will be readily attacked,
causing rust.
F STEEL
b
FIGURE 9
Osmosis
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

495
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As an example, if a coating were applied in a

marine atmosphere to a piece of steel having a
salt deposit on the surface, and if after the
coating were applied and dry the steel were subject to immersion, moisture would be forced
through the coating from the water on the outside
of the coating to the salt crystalson the underside
of the coating. The salt crystals would absorb a
small amount of moisture in the beginning,
creating a solution with a high concentration of
salt. Osmotic pressure is created by the moisture
vapor which has passed through the coating from
the more dilute side to the more concentrated
side of the membrane. The pressure built up on
the underside of the coating may be quite high
(several ounceslsq. in.). Moisture vapor being
forced by the osmotic process through a coating
with poor adhesion can cause blisters to form.
But coating may have adhesion stronger than the
osmotic pressure that develops and thus will not
blister.
There are several forces that contribute to

the formation of the liquid or gas underneath or
within the coating. In addition to strength of adhesion the key to most blistering is the moisturevapor transmission rate of the coating. Each
coating formulation has its own characteristic
moisture-vapor transmission (MVT) rate, the rate
at which molecular water passes through the
inter-molecular spaces in the coating. Any area of
poor adhesion will tend to accumulate moisture or
moisture-vapor at the interface between the
coating and the substrate. Moisture-vapor in this
area creates a vapor pressure that causes blisters
to form.
Generally, coatings with the lowest MVT rate
(the greatest resistance to the passage of molecular water through the coating) will have the least
tendency to blister. Table 2 lists some typical
MVT rates for several of the common coating
types. It must be stressed again that these
rates are for specific coating formulations
and do not necessarily indicate a positive relationship between coating types. Permeation is influenced by film thickness, coating pigmentation
and means of application.
As blistering is an adhesion-related failure,
there is a general rule of thumb that applies: a
coating with excellent adhesion, even with high
MVT, will have a low tendency to blister. At this
point, it should be stated that there is no correlation between the moisture absorption of a coating
and the moisture-vapor transmission rate.
Moisture absorption is the amount of molecular
water which is held within the molecular structure
of the coating. There are some coating materials
which may have a rather high moisture absorption
but which do not have a high moisture-vapor
transmission rate. The converse is also true
There is one synthetic resin material which has
zero water absorption, yet has an extremely high
MVT rate. This being the case, moisture absorption is not necessarily a good measure of the
blistering tendency of a coating.
Osmosis also contributes strongly t o the
transmission of water or moisture through a
coating. Osmosis occurs when moisture vapor
passes through a semi-permeable membrane
from the water solution having the lesser concentration to the one with a higher concentration of
dissolved solids.

--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Osmosis can also cause blistering if water

soluble materials are incorporated into the
coating itself. Oftentimes, primers contain inhibitive pigments having a degree of water
solubility, for instance, zinc yellow or zinc
chromate. This pigment is an excellent inhibitor of
corrosion; on the other hand, if a primer made
with zinc chromate is top coated and immersed,
blistering will often result. In this case, because
of the solubility of the chromate, osmosis conditions are set up within the coating itself forcing
water to the area where the soluble chromate is
located. Coatings formulated with such soluble
pigments should not be used for immersion purposes.
Table 3 lists several chromates that have
been used or are presently being used in coatings.
The ones with the lowest solubility are preferable
from the standpoint of resistance to osmosis and
blistering.
Another blister forming process is that of
electroendosmosis. In this process moisture
vapor or molecular water is forced through
the coating by an electrical current in the
direction of the electrical pole with the same
charge as the coating. Most coatings are
negatively charged, and if the underlying metal
surface is cathodic, or has a source of negative
electrons, moisture is then drawn through the
coating towards the negative pole. Under these
conditions, if there are areas of poor adhesion,
blisters form readily. Incidentally, this process
has caused coatings on structures subject to excessive cathodic protection to blister away from
the surface. Cathodic potentials in excess of 1.0
volt cause many coatings to blister and lose adhe-
496
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SSPC C H A P T E R * 2 3 - 0 93
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the paint before the solvent is removed. After

rnost of the solvent has evaporated, the baking
temperature can be increased to cure the paint
completely.
Blistering can be caused also by hydrogen
absorbed in the surface of the steel during pickling, that is, during the process of removing rust
and mill scale before the surface is coated. If,
after the coating has been applied, the temperature of the coated object is raised, this hydrogen
will leave the metal; and, if the rate of hydrogen
evolution is more rapid than the rate of diffusion
of the gas through the paint, pressure areas will
be formed at the metal-paint interface. When the
pressure of the gas under the coating exceeds the
force of adhesion between the two surfaces, the
paint will be lifted off the metal in blisters. After
pickling steel plate or shapes, hydrogen can be
eliminated by heating the steel prior to applying
the coating. Preferably the coating should be applied while the steel is still warm.
There is a strong tendency for some coating
materials to blister on cast iron. Cast iron is much
more porous than steel and contains gases that
expand, particularly when heated. Coatings applied even to clean, sand blasted cast iron, when it
is cold, often blister as the temperature increases.
If the cast iron is heated sufficiently to release the
gases and the coating is applied to the cast iron
while it is still warm, blistering will not occur.
Chemical exposure often causes blistering
and loss of adhesion of coatings, particularly
where a coating may be subject to volatile acids
such as acetic acid, hydrochloric acid or nitric
acid. These volatile materials can penetrate the
coating and react with the underlying metal surface. With moisture vapor always present, a
strong acid solution is formed that not only has a
strong osmotic pressure, but also is strongly reactive with the metal surface, creating hydrogen
TABLE 3
SOLUBILITY OF CH ROMATE PIGMENTS
Pigment
Calcium Chromate
Grams of CrO, in
Solution in 1000 CC.
Water at Equilibrium 25OC
17.0
Zinc Yellow
1.I
St ront i um Chromate
0.6
Basic Zinc Chromate
0.02
Barium Chromate
0.001
Lead Chromate
0.00005
sion. Coated pipelines in wet soil conditions have

often shown this type of failure.
Blistering most often results from poor surface preparation or applying a coating over a dirty,
greasy, moist or contaminated surface. Such a
surface is the cause; osmosis or electroendosmosis is the process that makes it take place.
A coating can also blister when it is used as a
lining and is subject t o a warm water solution, with
the steel substrate being considerably cooler than
the liquid (for example, an uninsulated tank containing liquid at a higher temperature than the
outside air). In this case, the moisture passes
through the film, and because the steel surface is
cooler than the vapor, it condenses underneath
the coating causing blistering.
Another cause of blistering is entrapped
solvents. These are solvents that remain in the
coating for some period of time, usually by solution in the coating resin. If the temperature of the
coating system is raised and the rate of diffusion
of the solvent vapor through the film is slower
than the rate of formation of the vapor, then
blistering will take place.
Many coatings that dry rapidly on the surface
are subject to this type of blistering, particularly
where applied in the sun or on a heated surface.
When the pressure exerted by the solvent vapor
becomes greater than the adhesion of the paint,
blisters will be formed and will increase in size until equilibrium between the pressure and the
strength of the film is established. If the pressure
becomes greater than the cohesive strength of
the film, the blisters will break.
Blistering due to entrapped solvents is common when baked finishes are used. It can be
avoided i f the coating is prebaked at a
temperature high enough to drive out all the solvent but not high enough to cure the surface of
ELECTRO-ENDOSMOSIS
C A T H O D I C A R E A OF
MOISTURE PENETRATION
ANODIC
C A T H O D I C AREABLISTERS F O R M I N G
TOWARD NEGATIVE CHARGE
AREA
IN T H I S A R E A
.?
STEEL
FIGURE 10
Electroendosmosis
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

497
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SSPC C H A P T E R W 3 . 0 9 3
8627940 0003945 983
substrate over a period of time, thus substantially

reducing the adhesion.
3. Flaking and Scaling
These two types of failure are adhesion-related.
Flaking is a term describing a condition where
small pieces of coating detach themselves from
the surface of the substrate. Its edges are generally raised up from the surface and the small pieces
can be rather easily removed, leaving the bare
substrate.
Flaking is quite common on wooden surfaces
and tends t o occur after oil paints have oxidized
for a period Of years. It is a common sight on
fences and old wooden buildings. Flaking also occurs on metal surfaces, particularly those which
have been galvanized. Alkyds or oil type paints applied to galvanized surfaces eventually age and
oxidize t o the point where the film shrinks sufficiently to pull itself away from the surface. There
can also be an interfacial chemical reaction,
creating a zinc soap between the organic coating
and the zinc substrate, which causes loss of
adhesion and flaking.
Scaling is similar to flaking, except that the
pieces that break away from the surface are much
larger. This is a common type of failure on coated,
galvanized surfaces. Pieces of coating several
inches in diameter may crack due to aging
stresses, curl and come off in large flakes. Scaling can also occur where a new coat is applied
over a very old, well oxidized coating. The adhesion between the two surfaces, where surface
preparation is poor, is low and the top coating on
aging will tend to curl and to scale.
The prevention of flaking and scaling is
primarily one of surface preparation. Clean sur-
BLISTERINQ DUE TO
THBRMAL GRADIENT
FIGURE 11
Theirmal Gradient Across Coating
gas. Acetic acid is a good solvent for many

coating materials, but its presence increases the
probability of blistering.
Blistering conditions can best be prevented
by using a coating with very strong adhesion
characteristics and a low moisture-vapor
transmission rate and applying the coating over a
perfectly clean surface. The best surface is perfectly clean and white-metal blasted (SSPC-SP5).
It has been proven by many tests and hundreds of
actual coating applications that (with all exposure
conditions being equal) proper surface preparation can reduce blistering to a minimum or completely prevent it. ASTM Standard D 714 provides
a good method of describing the degree of blistering of paints.
2. Peeling
Peeling is a coating failure usually caused by a
coating having a tensile stength greater than its
bond strength to the surfaces. This was a common early-day cause of vinyl coating failure. It has
been overcome by vinyl primers now having superior bond strength when they are applied to
clean - preferably abrasive blasted - surfaces.
Any coating will peel or pull from the surface i f it
has less adhesion to the substrate than it has tensile strength, or i f it reacts adversely with the
FIGURE 12
Blistering
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

498
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faces, with a good anchor pattern, combined with

a coating that has strong adhesion and good aging characteristics will prevent this problem.
ASTM Standard D 772-47 (reapproved 1975) is a
standard method for the evaluation of the degree
of flaking and scaling of exterior paints.
4. Intercoat Delamination
This is the failure of one coat to adhere to an
underlying coat, whether applied as one coat
following the other or where the top coat is applied as a maintenance coating after some period
of time. The cause is generally within the coating
itself. Air-reactive coatings, either those that require oxygen or moisture for cure, or coatings that
react internally by the action of catalysts or reactive resins are subject to this type of failure. Compatibility of one type of coating to another is
essent ial.
In the case of air-reactive coatings, either by
the absorption of oxygen or water, the surface
becomes rapidly insoluble and dense. In the case
of internally reactive coatings, the entire coating
becomes insoluble and dense. In both cases, the
coatings are insoluble in the original solvents in
the liquid coating. Solventless coatings are also
subject to intercoat delamination.
The second coat should be applied over the
first after the initial set of the first coating, but
before that coating has been completely cured
either by internal or exterior forces.
The temperature of application is also
critical. Since the curing reactions are
temperature-dependent, the higher the temperature, the more rapidly the second coat should be
applied over the first. Manufacturers instructions
should be closely toiiowed where internally or ex-
FIGURE 14
ternally cured coatings are used. Polyurethanes,

epoxies, coal tar epoxies and oxidizing coatings
are subject to this type of failure. Where catalyzed
epoxy is applied at low temperatures, an exudate
may remain on the surface causing incompatibility with subsequent topcoats.
Coal tar epoxy coatings have special problems of intercoat delamination. In addition to the
normal internal curing of the coating, external
forces also create intercoat delamination. Even
though the curing of the coating has not progressed to the point of insolubility, if the coating
is subject to condensation, rain, or moisture prior
to the application of the second coat, intercoat
delamination is probable. Also, if the coal tar
epoxy coating is applied in the sunlight, even
though the coating has not reacted to the
point of insolubility, intercoat delamination
may occur due to the heat and actinic rays of the
sun, causing the surface to cure beyond the point
where good adhesion between the two coats can
result. Whenever any of the above phenomena
occur and the second coat is applied over an insoluble coat, there is a positive interface between
the coats. When water or moisture penetrates to
the interface, any apparent adhesion between the
two coats is lost, causing delamination to occur.
Lacquer-type coatings, such as vinyls,
acrylics or chlorinated rubbers are not as subject
to this type of failure as are the reactive type
coatings. Lacquer-type coatings are permanently
soluble in their own solvents, thus allowing the
second coat to dissolve into the first coating,
reducing the chance of any interface forming
between the two coats.
An additional major cause of intercoat
delamination is the contamination of the first
coat before the application of the second.
Moisture, dust, fumes, chemical fall-out, oil and
FIGURE 13
Peeling

499
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--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Flaking
SSPC CHAPTER*23.0
8627940 0003947 7 5 b
FIGURE 15
Scaling
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
grease all can cause this result. The method of

prevention is obvious: prevent the contamination
from reaching the coating during application.
Where this is impossible, particularly when applying coatings to structures or tanks subject to fallout from adjacent plants or adjacent operations,
very fast drying lacquer coatings, vinyls or
acrylics, i f applicable from a corrosion standpoint, should be used. The second coat should be
applied as rapidly as possible following the first
to provide good results.
5. Undercutting
Undercutting is another type of adhesion failure
that involves the gradual penetration of corrosion
underneath the coating from a break or pinhole in
the film or from unprotected edges.
FIGURE 16
Intercoat Delamination

Undercutting often occurs when a coating

has been applied over mill scale. Moisture and
oxygen penetrate the coating and react with the
scale causing it to lose adhesion and thus form
progressive corrosion beneath the coating. The
application of coatings over a very smooth, dense
surface where adhesion is critical also creates a
condition inviting this type of failure. Most of
these undercutting failures can be substantially
reduced by proper surface preparation prior to the
application of the coating and the use of a coating
with strong adhesion characteristics.
One of the preferred methods of preventing
undercutting on steel surfaces is the application
of an inorganic zinc coating as a permanent
primer before the organic coating is applied. The
inorganic binder reacts chemically with the steel,
providing very tight adhesion and preventing the
undercutting which is characteristic of most
organic paints or coatings. This coating system
has been successful on hundreds of millions of
square feet of surface exposed to extreme marine
or industrial conditions.'
I
\.
93
IV. FAILURE DUE TO THE SUBSTRATE

The substrate is not often considered as being a major factor in the failure of protective coatings, but it is extremely important. The common surfaces that need to be
considered are steel, aluminum, zinc, copper, concrete and
wood. Each of these have a very different effect on the
coating. One coating may be very effective over one surface and completely ineffective over another.
An example of this is the coating of steel surfaces for
exposure to sodium hypochlorite. Even though the coating
applied may be completely pinhole free, because of the
breakdown reaction of the sodium hypochlorite on aging
into nascent oxygen and sodium chloride, coatings applied over a steel surface generally last only a very short
period of time. Nascent oxygen will penetrate the coating
and react with the surface underneath the coating.
Tubercls are formed which break the coating, allowing
corrosion to proceed very rapidly. On the other hand, if the
same coating were applied over concrete, long life could
be expected because the concrete itself is unaffected by
the nascent oxygen. While this is rather an extreme example, it nevertheless demonstrates the importance of the
substrate to the life of the coating.
Steel may be the best and the easiest surface over
which to apply a coating. It is a very dense, and essentially
non-porous material; therefore, a coating can be applied
over it as a continuous film with relative ease. While the
steel surface is reactive, it is less so than many other surfaces over which coatings are applied, and most coatings
or paints adhere reasonably well over a clean dry steel
substrate. Coating compatibility with the steel is not as
critical as it can be with other materials.
To assure consistently good coating life, abrasive
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93
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
must be eliminated. The surface must receive a coat of cement plaster, hard troweled as described above, or a
resinous concrete surfacer must be applied which will fill
all the concrete surface imperfections, have some penetration into the concrete for maximum adhesion and provide a
smooth, pore-free base for the subsequent coatings. Both
of the above methods are applicable for the best coating
service under difficult conditions. Where concrete or stucco surfaces are coated for decoration only, such surface
treatments may not be required.
Aluminum generally has a dense, smooth surface with
a tight aluminum oxide coating on the surface. While this
surface is relatively stable, it can cause adhesion problems for some coatings. Where there are breaks, particularly under alkaline conditions, undercutting and even perforation of the metal may occur.
Copper provides a dense surface with a copper oxide
film over it. Many coatings fail to obtain proper adhesion
to this surface. In many ways, it is similar to aluminum,
although it is not as reactive a surface so that coating
failure is not as prevalent. The failure of many effective
coatings is caused by these types of smooth, dense surfaces. A light dust blasting with used sand or very fine
sand and low pressure air will break up the surface, increase the surface area and allow adhesion that cannot be
obtained by any other means on either of these two types
of surfaces.
l
FIGURE 17
Undercutting
blasting of steel is recommended to remove all contamination and oxidation and to increase the surface area for
maximum coating adhesion. SSPC-Vis 2 provides a standard for evaluating the degree of rusting on painted steel
surfaces. This standard is also available as ASTM-D 610.
Concrete, on the other hand, is a chemically active,
non-uniform, porous surface filled with water and air
pockets, thus making a surface that is very difficult to
paint properly with a continuous coating. In addition to a
very variable surface, it is sensitive to moisture, and when
the moisture is confined under a coating, a pH of up to 13
may be encountered. Only a very inert, highly alkaliresistant and penetrating coating can be expected to perform satisfactorily.
As can be seen in Figure 19 the problems of coating a
concrete substrate to obtain a failure-free coating are
primarily physical. The surface is variable with the most
consistent concrete being a hard, steel-troweled surface
(sidewalk finish). This surface is preferred for coating.
However, because it is often glazed due to the troweling
action, the glaze must be removed by acid etching (1 part
commercial hydrochloric acid and 5 parts water followed
by a clean water wash) or a light brush blast for consistent
coating adhesion. A poured concrete surface as shown in
Figure 19 is the most difficult of all surfaces over which to
apply a consistent, uniform, pore-free coating.
All surface imperfections, air pockets and pinholes

Zinc is a more reactive metal than aluminum, which is

the reason for its use as a galvanic coating. Galvanizing
and inorganic zinc coatings have proven to have a very
long life in many atmospheres. In spite of this, under certain marine or highly humid conditions, when used as a
base coat, zinc may react under the top coat producing a
voluminous white corrosion product. This causes coating
failure by white salts of zinc corrosion that completely
undercut the coating and lift it from the surface.
There are also coatings that react with the various
alkaline zinc hydroxides to form zinc soaps. These are oil
paints or alkyd coatings and are not recommended for
direct application over galvanizing or inorganic zinc. Top
coats for zinc surfaces should be inert, thoroughly compatible with zinc, have high adhesion and a low MVT rate.
UNDERCUTTING OF AN ORGANIC COATING
BY RUST QR CORROSION
FIGURE 18
Undercutting
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TABLE 4
SUMMARY OF ADHESION-RELATED FAILURES
REMEDY
COATING FAILURE
FAILURE APPEARANCE
CAUSE OF FAILURE
1. Blistering
Minute
to large ( 1 " + )
hemispherical bubbles in coating
containing gas or liquid. May
range from 1 per square foot to
several hundred per square foot.
See ASTM Std D 714-56 (revised
74).
Blistered coatings have adhesion

Select a coating with very
problems due to poor surface prepara- strong adhesion charaction, internal soluble materials or
teristics and a low moisture.
poor wetting of substrate. Osmosis,
vapor transfer rate. Apply
electroendosmosis, gases absorbed in- to a clean, abrasive blasted
surface with care.
to the metal surface or solvent entrapment cause blisters to form.
2. Peeling
Coating may be smooth and lying

on surface or it may be hanging
in shreds. Little or no adhesion
is evident.
Adherence is less than the tensile

strength of the coating. When broken
the coating can easily be pulled from
the surface leaving the original
surface of the substrate. Coating
may react with substrate and lose
adhesion. Coating usually flexible.
Select a coating as outlined

under blistering.
3. Flaking or scaling
Small ('A,") to large (1 " + )

pieces of coating, curling at the
edges - easily removed from the
surface leaving bare substrate.
Coating usually brittle with internal

shrinkage characteristics in addition
to marginal adhesion. Oil type
coatings may scale or flake from a
galvanized surface.
Select a coating as outlined

under blistering. For
galvanizing use a primer
compatible with zinc.
4. Intercoat
The top coat does not adhere to

the undercoat. It may lie on
surface, blister, flake or peel.
The top coat is not compatible with

the undercoat; the surface of the
undercoat may be contaminated;
the undercoat may be over-cured to
complete insolubility.
Select coatings with good

compatibility and adhesion
between coats. Make
certain undercoat is clean
before application of the
second coat. Do not expose
coal tar epoxy coatings to
water or excessive sunlight
before overcoating.
Corrosion tends to build up

under coating, at breaks, edges or
holidays; corrosion is progressive under the coating.
Poor adhesion due to surface contami- Select a coating with

nation, a very smooth surface or lack very high adhesion. Apply
of compatibility with the surface.
over a clean, abrasive
blasted surface. Using
inorganic zinc coatings as
a first coat reduces undercutting.
delamination
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
5. Undercutting
rather porous, soft summer grain. This is very

characteristic of woods such as Oregon pine, cedar, ash
and many other open-grained woods. Maple, birch and
woods which are very dense are somewhat less of a problem, although both types of surface, .e., summer and
winter grain, are present. These grains tend to expand and
contract at a different rate due to varying humidity and
temperature, and any coating which is applied over these
surfaces and which will not expand and contract with
them, will tend to fail rather quickly along the grain boundaries (Figure 20).
Any coating which is applied over a surface must be
thoroughly compatible with that surface, must have strong
permanent adhesion to it and must not chemically react
with it. Unless the coating has these capabilities, failure is
inevitable.
Certain vinyls, epoxies and chlorinated rubbers work well.

Zinc also has a smooth surface; however, once it is oxidized by exposure to the atmosphere for a period of
several weeks or months, the smooth surface tends to
disappear, providing much better adhesion. If a new
galvanized surface must be coated, it should be lightly
dust blasted, as indicated for the aluminum or copper surfaces, or it should be chemically treated with a zinc surface treatment (commercially available) prior to coating.
Wood has its own inherent characteristics which
cause coating failures. It is very moisture sensitive and
will swell during times of high humidity and shrink when
conditions are dry. This dimensional change can take
place on a daily cycle, in addition to climatic changes
which occur over longer periods. Wood has two types of
surfaces: that provided by very dense winter grain and the

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penetrate the coating, causing early failure in the previously corroded area.
There are two methods that can be used to improve
this situation. 1) After the original blasting, react the surface with a dilute phosphoric acid solution (5%), allow it to
dry, and then re-blast the surface. This procedure produces
a reaction that allows the minute amounts of corrosion
product to be removed on the second blasting. 2) The second procedure, where an inorganic zinc coating can be
used as a permanent primer, is a very satisfactory one. The
inorganic zinc coating tends to react with the minute
amount of corrosion product on the surface, eliminating
its corrosive tendency, and at the same time to react with
the steel surface to provide a very strong chemical bond.
Following the application and cure of the inorganic zinc,
the required top coating can then be applied.
FIGURE 19
Poured Concrete Surface
FIGURE 20
Paint failing on wood grain.

FIGURE 21
Adhesion Retention
sand blasted vs. cold rolled steel. Panel
#69, sand blasted, and panel #73,cold rolled steel, both exposed
to water for the same period, demonstrate the benefit of physical
adhesion.
Do not underestimate the problems involved with used

steel surfaces. Untold failures of coating have occurred
because this problem of prior use was not recognized.
Used aluminum and zinc surfaces are less of a problem. However, care should be taken whenever a surface
has been subjected to serious corrosion.
Wood and concrete are definitely affected by previous
use. Both can absorb and retain soluble or reactive
materials, which if not removed prior to the application of
the coating, will cause blistering, lack of adhesion and
coating failure.
The density or smoothness of a surface over which a
coating is applied is extremely important. As an example,
cold rolled steel is much more difficult to coat than hot
rolled steel with the mill scale removed. Cold rolled steel
has an extremely dense, smooth surface, and it has proven
in the laboratory many times that a coating applied over
such a surface compared to a coating applied over a sand
blasted, cold rolled surface will fail much faster when both
are subject to the same conditions. The problem, of
course, is that the very dense, smooth surface does not
allow the same quality of adhesion of the coating as does
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--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
The failure of a coating over a used surface is much

more probable than when applied over a perfectly new,
original surface. This has been proven many times. As an
example, tanks in the west Texas oil fields, where
sulfides are a problem, have been repaired by the use of
new steel sheets. The entire surface of the tank was then
sand blasted to white metal and the coating applied with
equal care over the new and the old surface. In a matter of
just a few months, the coating applied over the old surface
failed, while it was still completely effective over the new
steel.
This same phenomenon occurs aboard ship where
corrosion has taken place on steel plates. It occurs in
chemical tanks and on the exterior of structural steel
bridges. This problem occurs to the greatest extent on
steel surfaces and in areas where severe corrosion conditions exist. The previous use of the steel must be taken into consideration in order for the coating to be effective.
The problem is the retention of very minute quantities of
corrosion product in the rough corroded areas of the steel,
and when the contamination is not completely removed,
they continue to react with the moisture vapor which can
SSPC C H A P T E R a 2 3 . 0 9 3
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TABLE 5
SUMMARY O F SUBSTRATE-RELATED FAILURES
COATING FA1LURE
FA1LURE APPEARANCE
CAUSE O F FAILURE
1. On Previously
Blistering, rust, tubercles, loss

of adhesion in areas where steel
was previously exposed to corrosive conditions.
Retention of minute amounts of corro- Wash blast surface with

water or dilute phosphoric
sion product or contaminant on
acid solution and reblast.
the steel surface, even though
Apply an anticorrosive
blasted to white metal.
primer with strong adhesion.
Used Steel
REMEDY
Where applicable, an inorganic zinc primer may react

with the minute surface
corrosion after first blasting and provide a base coat.
White zinc corrosion product form- Formation of zinc salts (oxide, sulfide, oxychloride, zinc soap),
ing under the coating or actually
underneath coating.
breaking through the coating.
3. On Aluminum
White corrosion product causing

pinpoint failure in coating loss of adhesion because of very
smooth surface. Possible blistering.
The very smooth aluminum oxide sur- Very lightly dust blast the
aluminum surface, or where
face. No physical adhesion.
applicable, treat with commercial aluminum treatment.
Apply a primer with known
compatibility and strong
adhesion to aluminum surface
Greygreen corrosion product,
Very smooth copper oxide surface.

No physical adhesion.
Brush blast copper surface

or etch with commercial
copper treatment. Apply a
primer with known high
adhesion to copper.
4. OnCopper
loss of adhesion, blistering.
5. On Wood
Checking and cracking of coating.

Flaking from hard winter grain.
Blistering of dense coatings with
a low MVT rate due to
absorption and evaporation
of moisture from the wood.
Expansion and contraction of wood

due to varying temperature and
humidity. Differential expansion
of the grain. Very hard
dense winter grain combined with
soft porous grain, causing
a variation in coating adhesion.
Start with a clean, newly

sanded wood surface. Apply
low molecular weight, highly
penetrating paint, preferably oil base, with sufficient elasticity to expand
and contract with the wood
surface. Paint should
have relatively high moisture porosity to allow wood
to breathe.
6. On Concrete
Blistering of coating. Formation

of calcium salts under coating,
forcing coating from the surface.
Loss of adhesion and peeling.
The chemical reactivity and moisture

content of concrete. Its nonhomogeneous, very porous structure.
Pinholes, water and air pockets in
poured concete surfaces.
The concrete should be clean

and the surface dry. It may
be acid etched or lightly
blasted to obtain proper
surface condition. Use a
low molecular weight, highly
penetrating primer with
strong alkali resistance
(liquid epoxy). Primer
should be heavy body and
thixotropic to fill imperfections in concrete surface.

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Brush blast zinc surface or

treat with commercial zinc
treatment. Apply a non-oil
base, inert strongly adherent primer.
2. On Galvanized or
Metallic Zinc
Surfaces
SSPC C H A P T E R * 2 3 . 0
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= 86279YO
tured. In the mixed state, the consistency of the

formulation is uniform and the pigments are evenly dispersed. During prolonged warehouse storage, pigments tend to settle to the bottom of containers. Also, the surface of some paints may be
covered with a tough skin. It is essential that a
paint be carefully remixed before application is attempted. All settled pigment must be redispersed
and any surface skin must be removed. Failure to
effect such complete mixing can cause early
failure of the paint system.
the one that has been roughened and that allows mechanical adhesion in addition to normal wetting of the surface.
Cleanliness of the surface is vitally important, of
course, to the life of any coating. It is a rule of thumb that
any coating applied over a perfectly clean surface will last
longer and be more effective than the same coating applied over a lesser surface. This applies to metals, concrete and wood to the same degree. It also applies to the
repair and maintenance of coatings as well as to original
coating installations.
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
2. Thinning
As previously stated, the consistency of a paint or
coating is usually correct as it is received from the
manufacturer. Most manufacturers attempt to
provide the liquid coating at the proper consistency in order to prevent failures related to thinning.
There is no universal thinner for the wide range of
sophisticated coatings that are necessary today.
Improper thinning can cause many different types
of failure. As an example, mineral spirits can be
tolerated by liquid vinyl coatings in certain
amounts; however, i f added excessively to a vinyl
coating poor adhesion will result. Improper thinning of an epoxy coating can increase the viscosity rather than reduce it. An alcohol type solvent
for a polyurethane could cause immediate jelling.
While thinners are an essential part of any
coating, they are incorporated in the manufacture
for proper application, proper leveling on the surface and proper drying.
It is occasionally necessary to decrease the
viscosity of a paint by the addition of thinners.
Such adjustment of the consistency should be
made only as directed or advised by the manufacturer, by means of the proper specified thinners
and at ratios specifically recommended. Substitution of other thinners for the specified ones
should not be undertaken without consultation
with the suppliers; for none of the many thinners
available are generally adaptable for all paint formulations.
Thinners should be added slowly and with
constant stirring. Adding a large amount all at
once may result in local overdilution and may
cause curdling of the paint or flocculation of the
pigment. This precipitation may appear to stir in,
but that portion of the mix that has curdled or flocx l a t e d is never restored to its original condition,
zausing early failure.
V. APPLICATION -R ELATED FA1LURES

Application-related failures are undoubtedly the
cause of the majority of difficulties encountered with protective coatings or paints of all types. Paints and coatings
are failure-oriented, particularly on large structures,
bridges, off-shore platforms, ships, nuclear energy plants
and similar structures, for a number of reasons.
The painting or coating operation is the last item of
work on most large projects. The contractor, the owner and
the engineers are pushing to have the job completed. Many
times their completion deadline may be passed, which
puts pressure on to complete the coating job as rapidly as
possible. This get the job done fast philosophy is a
source of many coating failures.
There is also a natural tendency on the part of people
to overlook and resist the proper cleanliness and the proper surface preparation that is needed for an effective
coating job. There are untold examples of this where chewing tobacco, cigarettes, small rocks, mud, steel shot and
similar trash have been carefully coated over.
Most of the defects that occur in applied coatings are
not related to the coating manufacturer, a poor formulation or the selection of a wrong material, but are peoplerelated. This is caused by lack of knowledge, lack of training and lack of understanding of the consquences of a
poorly applied coating. Other contributing factors are a
lack of proper coating application specifications and a
!ack of proper inspection. Care in writing the application
specifications, proper training of applicators, care in the
application itself, and care in the inspection of the finished
coating are essential for a proper coating application and
for an effective coating result.
1. Mixing
Paint, as supplied by the manufacturer for a
specific use, is usually ready for application by
brushing or by spraying when received by the applicator. Such paint will have been formulated to
have more than sufficient durability in the environment where it is to be used, and no change should
be made in the composition or in the adjustment
of the consistency of the liquid coating unless
specified by the manufacturer.
For proper application, a paint must be a
homogeneous mixture, as it was when manufac-

0003952 013
3. Atmospheric Conditions
Painters normally determine the time of applica1tion, which can contribute to the success or
failure of the coating, depending on the condition

>f the atmosphere. Certainly, it is a poor decision
:o apply a coating before an approaching rain
jquall, and yet this is often done. Painters have
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SSPC C H A P T E R * 2 3 . 0
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also been observed wiping condensed moisture

from the surface of the steel structure and then
applying the coating. Inorganic zinc coatings have
been applied to steel surfaces which were sufficiently cold to freeze the water from the liquid
coating, making the coating useless. Water base
coatings do not evaporate properly when the
humidity is too high or the temperature too low,
and the coating will not form properly under these
conditions.
The condition of the atmosphere while the
paint is being applied and cured can contribute to
its success or failure. Paint should be applied
during relatively dry conditions. The relative
humidity should be 80% or less with the dew
point at least 3 C o (5 F") less than the ambient
metal or surface temperature. When the metal
temperature is above 38C (IOOOF), precautions
must be taken to make certain that the paint or
coating does not dry too rapidly. Organic coatings
tend to overspray or surface dry and blister. Inorganic zinc coatings may form a powdery soft
film that does not harden properly.
Temperature is critical for the cure of many
coatings, particularly epoxies and coal tar epoxies. Because they are internally reactive, unless
the temperature is proper, they will not cure to a
satisfactory coating. Such materials should not
be applied at temperatures less than 25C (60F)
except on recommendation by the manufacturer.
It is wise not to paint if the ambient temperature is
below5"C(40"F),orlessthan3C0(5F")abovethe
dew point. Application should be restricted to
those hours when the temperature is sufficiently
high to offset the possibility of condensation of
moisture during application and the drying period.
4. Coating Thickness
A coating is a relatively thin film or barrier
separating two reactive materials: the atmosphere on one side and the substrate on the
other side. This barrier must have an even
thickness over the entire surface to be protected;
otherwise, there will be areas prone to early
failure because they are too thin to separate properly the two reactive elements. Thickness,
therefore, is extremely important. Each coating
should have optimum thickness, depending upon
the surface over which it is applied and the atmosphere in which it is to operate. This optimum
thickness can be determined only by actual experiment or by consulting the manufacturer of the
coating.
While too thin a coating can cause early
failure, an excessively thick coating can also
cause early failure. This is particularly true of inorganic zinc coatings. Where they are applied too
thickly, they tend to mud-crack. Internally reactive
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

506
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coatings, such as epoxies and polyurethanes,

tend to crack and disbond due to internal stresses
within the coating because of shrinkage during
the curing reaction. Many such coatings have
literally pulled themselves off the surface due to
excess thickness. Any painter or coating applicator should understand the problems arising
from either too thin a coating or one which is considerably over the optimum thickness for proper
use.
It must also be recognized from a practical
standpoint that the coating applicator cannot apply a completely uniform coating, particularly to
complicated structures. Coating specifications
often give a minimum thickness, such as "the
coating shall be applied in two coats to a
minimum of 10 mils". Such a specification does
not recognize the excess thickness that may
result. A proper specification should recognize
the practical aspects of application and provide
the applicator with a range of thickness which, if
followed, will provide the proper average coating
thickness for the use involved.
The thickness of a coating can be measured
during the application process by a wet film
thickness gage. While this is not a positive instrument, i t does indicate what the thickness of
the coating will be after it has dried. A number of
instruments provide the thickness of the coating
after it has dried. Such an instrument is an essential part of the equipment of any paint foreman or
inspector who is doing a proper job.
5. Overspray
Overspray is a major cause of pinpoint rusting of
steel surfaces. Many modern, high-performance
coatings have a tendency to overspray unless
properly applied. These include coating types
such as solvent-based inorganic zincs, organic
zincs, solvent-dry vinyls, chlorinated rubbers,
acrylics, heavy-bodied epoxies, and other similar
formulations. Overspray is the adherence of semidried coating particles to the surface to be
coated. The dust or coating particle dries partially
in the air between the spray gun and the surface,
and does not then flow together with or join other
particles to form a continuous coating. There are
bare or very thin areas between these discrete
coating particles. These bare areas act the same
as pinholes, and pinpoint rusting results.
Because overspray is the result of incorrect
spray technique or improper adjustment of spray
equipment, it can occur in any coat from the
primer to the final top coat. It may be caused by
the spray gun being held too far away from the
surface to be coated, being held at a long angle to
the surface rather than perpendicularly, or having
been adjusted with too little material pressure
SSPC C H A P T E R * 2 3 . 0
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8627740 0003754 996 W
and too much air pressure.

With airless equipment, overspray can be
caused by too small a gun tip or one with too wide
a spray pattern. Airless equipment is preferred for
application of a material with a tendency to
overspray because there is no air atomization involved.
The proper technique to prevent overspray requires optimum spray gun adjustment for both air
and liquid volume and the application of an even,
wet coat over the surface, with each pass of the
coating being overlapped 50 percent. This method
ensures that any minor dry particles at the edge of
the fan are incorporated into a wet coating surface.
Existing overspray on a surface being coated
must be removed or pinhole failure will almost
surely occur. At best, an unsightly coating application will result. The dry, adherent particles
should be wiped, scraped or sanded from the surface before a proper wet coat is applied, or, i f
pinholing of the coat applied over existing
overspray has already taken place, the overspray
area should be given a wet brush coat to work the
coating into the existing porous overspray area.
Top coats with slow drying characteristics or with

high solids and a low solvent content help to
alleviate this condition.
Pinholes are an immediate problem. Once
they occur, they will persist no matter how many
subsequent coats are applied. As one coat is
sprayed over another, or over pinholes in the
substrate, the existing pinholes will act as a reservoir for solvent vapor from the following coat. The
vapor pressure in the pinholes will then cause a
bubble in the following coat that will eventually
break, leaving a passage to the original pinhole
and the underlying surface.
Mechanical force is necessary to f i l l the
pinholes with liquid coating. This filling is accomplished by brushing a coat into the pinholed
area. Several passes over the same area may be
required to fill all pinholes.
Pinholing occurs most readily in lacquers
and solvent-dry coatings. Extra care should be
taken during application of these coatings to prevent pinholes from forming.
7. Spatter Coating
Spatter coating is caused during the spraying
process where the liquid coating particles hit the
surface, but the number of particles is insufficient
to form a complete and continuous wet coat. This
is often caused where a painter does not sufficiently overlap each pass of the spray gun, or
where he tends to flick the spray gun at a long
angle to the surface at the end of his spray pass.
Oftentimes, particularly under poor lighting conditions, the surface may look as though it is completely coated. On the other hand, once the
coating has been exposed for a short period of
time, particularly on steel, general pinpoint
rusting will occur over the area where the spatter
coating exists. These pinpoints of rust will take
place wherever there is an opening between the
droplets of the coating. While it doesnt seem like
this type of coating failure should be common, it
is one which is quite prevalent on many steel
structures.
The answer to this, like many other application related failures, is care during the application
process, making certain that each pass of the
spray gun is overlapped at 50% with the coating
going on as a wet film, making sure that the spray
gun is held perpendicular to the surface and that
the gun is not flicked at an angle at the end of the
spray pass. Cross spraying is also a method of application which helps to provide an even, uniform
coat ing.
8. Holidays
A painters holiday is any place on a structure the
painter has missed. This can be behind angles,
around rivets, longitudinal areas on pipe, or any
6. Pinholes
Pinholing is a common type of application failure.
It may result from several causes. The formulation
of the coating itself can cause pinholes, primarily
because of improper solvent balance when solvents evaporate too rapidly at one stage of the
drying process. Another, more common cause is
improper application, usually during spraying.
The spray gun may be held too close to the surface with excessive atomization pressure, or excessive material pressure may be combined with
low atomization pressure.
A third cause of pinholes may be the surface
itself. Concrete may already contain innumerable
bugholes that must be filled if an impervious
coating is to be obtained. Pictorial descriptions of
bugholes in concrete are found in the ASTM
Manual of Coating Work for Light Water Nuclear
Power Plant Primary Containment and Other
Safety-Related Faci Iit es.
One cause of pinholing is the top coating of
inorganic zinc primers with organic top coats.
During a period shortly after the inorganic zinc
coating has been applied, it remains a porous film
and solvents from the organic top coats can easily penetrate into the inorganic coating. When the
top coat is applied in the sun or under warm conditions, the penetrated solvent evaporates rapidly
causing vapor pressure within the inorganic zinc
and under the organic top coat. This vapor
pressure may create small blisters or bubbles
which, when they break, cause pinholes to form.
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SSPC CHAPTER*23=0 93
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Once the cratering has occurred, it Is difficult
to overcome inasmuch as a second coat applied
over the same area may again crater in the same
spot. The procedure suggested in these cases is
to physically roughen the cratered area by hand
sanding or other means, and then apply the
coating over the area by brush, working the
coating into the cratered areas in order to
physically coat the bottoms of the craters and
make sure that the coating thoroughly wets the
surface. Where this is not practical or it does not
prevent the cratering, the coating must be removed and the surface reprepared, making sure
that the cause of cratering is eliminated before
applying the repair coating.
10. Bleeding
This is the transfer of a soluble colored pigment
or vehicle in a dried film to a subsequently applied
topcoat. It may also be the discoloration caused
by the diffusion of soluble ingredients in the
substrate.
To correct this situation, coat the film containing the bleeding ingredient with two coats of a
sealer in which the bleeder is insoluble. An
aluminum or emulsion finish over asphalt vehicles
or solvent type primers over wood substrates are
examples. For areas of serious corrosion any
sealing material must be selected with care to
make sure of compatibility and proper adhesion.
11. Blushing
This is the hazing or whitening of a finish as the
result of absorption and retention of moisture
formed on the film during or immediately after
spraying. It is normally restricted to lacquers. Correction of this problem is not always possible
without reducing humidity; however, recoating using a mist coat of retarder or a slower evaporating
reducing thinner may help. Correct air pressure at
the gun is important. Avoid using higher air
pressure than needed as this will cause rapid
evaporation and thereby increase moisture condensation.
12. Lifting
This usually occurs when the solvents in a topcoat attack and swell the previously applied film
resulting in distortion, blisters or the formation of a wrinkled finish. It may also be caused by
wax on the surface, use of incorrect thinner, poor
dry of undercoats or poor adhesion of old film.
To correct, remove finish from affected areas
and refinish. Make sure surface is clean and dry.
Allow longer drying time before recoating the
undercoat. Make sure the solvent in the topcoat is
compatible with the previous coat or undercoat
before recoating.
area where the coating has failed to be applied.

Spatter coating is related to holidays in that,
as previously indicated, some areas of the
coating appear finished, even though the coating
is not continuous in that area. Holidays can be
overcome only by care on the part of the painter
during the application.
9. Ciatering
Cratering in a coating can be a most difficult application problem. Most cratering is encountered
during the application of slow drying or baked
coatings, such as pure phenolics, epoxy
phenolics, pure epoxies, polyurethanes, etc. The
internal cure coatings appear more susceptible to
this phenomena than faster drying coatings such
as vinyls and chlorinated rubbers. Cratering can
be caused by several different conditions.
(a) One of the most common causes is oil in the
blasting or atomizing air. Here the condition
will be general and caused by minute droplets
of the incompatible oil on the surface or incorporated into the liquid coating during application.
(b) Minute particles of dust or contamination
from the atmosphere may cause pinholes. They
can fall on the surface either before or during
the application and may come from steam blow
off, dust or soot from boiler stacks, fall out from
paper mills, fertilizer plants or other similar
operations. Fallout from jet aircraft around airports may cause problems.

--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
(c) Some cratering has been found which is due

to the various protective skin creams used by
workmen during the surface preparation or
other sources during application of the coating.
Silicone creams are particularly difficult.
Cratering in these instances is usually localized
and due to contamination of the surface by
those materials. Most silicone resins are incompatible with other coating vehicles thereby
causina- craters to occur.
Cratering can be defined as the formation of
small bowl shaped depressions at a point of contamination on the surface. The craters are caused
by the surface tension of the coating being
greater than the surface tension of the contaminant. A repelling of the coating away from a point
due to a difference in static charge between a particle at the point and the coating itself will cause
a crater. At times, the coating itself may be the
cause of the difficulty, having sufficient surface
tension so that heavy areas of the coating will
tend to pull together.
Irrespective of the cause, failure of the
coating can be expected in the low areas of these
craters, usually in the form of pinpoint rusting
starting at that point.
13. Orange Peel
This is a bumpy pattern inherent in nearly all
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sprayed films, caused by either the spray pattern

or the drying characteristics of the finish. It is an
appearance problem and should not cause
coating fail Ure.
If the degree of orange peel is objectionable,
then improvement in flow can be obtained from
better spraying technique, application of a good
wet film, or addition of a small amount of slower
solvents.
14. Runs or Sags

Runs are downward movements of a paint film
resulting when excess material continues to flow
after the surrounding surface has set.
Sags are downward movements of a paint
film between the times of application and setting
resulting in a curtain appearance.
Both of these problems may be caused by the
use of too much wet paint. Coating failure can oc-
TABLE 6
SUMMARY OF APPLICATION-RELATED FAILURES
COATING FAILURE
FAILURE APPEARANCE
CAUSE OF FAILURE
REMEDY
1. Improper Mixing
Thin coating - non-uniform pigment distribution. May be areas

of poor adhesion, uneven color,
checking or cracking.
Most common cause is improper pigment-vehicle ratio, where settled

pigment remains in the bottom of the
can.
Thoroughly mix the liquid

coating (preferably by
mechanical means) t o an
even, smooth, homogeneous
liquid with no color variation. Continue mixing as
necessary during use.
2. Improper Thinning
of Coating
Poor adhesion, pigment float or

flooding (uneven color). Separation of pigment and vehicle
after application - pinholing,
blushing (coating turning white
after application).
Thinner incompatible with resins

or pigments. Improper drying change in surface tension. Thinner
evaporation too rapid, causing moisture to condense on liquid coating.
Use only manufacturers

recommended thinners, add
slowly with thorough mixing.
3. Poor Atmospheric
Conditions for
Coating Application
Poor adhesion and blistering from

humid, damp conditions. Overspray - powdery coating where
drying is too rapid. Soft
uncured film.
Condensation of moisture on the surface prior t o application. Lack of

proper cure due t o too low or too
high temperature during application.
Apply coatings at relative

humidity of 80% or below
and at least 3 C o (5 F)
above the dew point. Apply
paint and coatings at 5C
(40F) or above except for
internally reactive materials which should be 25C
(60F) or above.
Areas of pinpoint corrosion between areas of solid coating

where coating is thin. Checking,
cracking, flaking where coating
is overly thick.
Thin areas, spatter coating, holidays. Runs, puddles, excessive

number of spray passes in areas
where coating is difficult.
Careful application - even

spray passes with each pass
overlapped 50%. Use cross
spray technique.
5. Overspray
Very rough coating surface. May

appear like sand in the coating.
Some dry coating, like dust, on
the surface.
Improper spraying technique. Uneven

spray passes with gun too far from
the surface. Spray pressure too
low, atomizing air pressure too high.
Lacquer type coating most subject t o
overspray.
Apply coating with care

and with even wet spray
passes overlapped 50%.
Use wire screen and
sandpaper t o obtain smooth
surface before topcoating.
6. Pinholes
Small, visible holes in the

coating (YS2). Holes generally
appear in concentrations with a
random distribution.
Improper spray technique. Spray gun
Apply coating with care with

spray gun at the optimum
distance from the surface.
Make sure spray gun is
properly adjusted. If pinholes already exist, apply
coating by brush, working
it into the surface.
of Coating
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
4. Improper Coating
Thickness

too close to the surface with air
bubbles being forced into the coating. Spray pot pressure too high
with atomizing air pressure too low.
Pinholes may exist in the substrate
(concrete).
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TABLE 6 (Continued)
COATING FAILURE
FAILURE APPEARANCE
CAUSE OF FAILURE
REMEDY
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
7. Spatter Coat
Area of thin coating, usually at

end of spray pass or around a
complex section of structure.
Small spots of coating which are
noncontinuous over substrate.
In poor light, may seem continuous.
Discrete coating droplets which are

not continuous over the surface.
Inconsistent spray passes not overlapped 50%. Spray gun flipped at
end of spray pass. Catalyst cured
coatings most subject to spatter.
Apply coating with care.

Use even, wet spray with
each pass overlapped 50%.
Use cross spray technique.
8. Holidays
Bare areas of the surface which

were uncoated by the painter.
Most often in difficult areas
to coat.
Poor, inconsistent application. Lack

of care.
Apply coating in a careful,

consistent manner, making
certain that no areas
remain uncoated.
9. Cratering
Bug eyes, fish eyes or craters

randomly dispersed over coated
area, May be more prevalent in
in thicker sections.
Improper solvent mixture, oil in

atomizing air, surface contamina.
tion, particulate fall-out during
application, high surface tension,
silicone contamination.
Once cratering occurs, sand

or roughen crater area.
Apply another coat by brush,
working coating into cratered area. Make sure
contaminant is removed.
10. Bleeding
Staining of top coats.
Soluble resins or pigments in undercoat.
Seal with coating in

which bleeding ingredient
is insoluble.
11. Blushing
Haziness or whitening of film.
Condensation of moisture on coating

due to rapid dripping of solvents.
Wait for improved

humidity conditions.
Reduce atomizing air
pressure to a minimum.
12. Lifting
Wrinkling, swelling or blistering

of film.
Attack or swelling of film by solvents

in top coat.
Remove old coating and

recoat.
13. Orange Peel
Overall bumpy pattern. Surface

is smooth but irregular.
Spraying technique, drying characteristics of the film.
Apply a wet spray coat.

Add a slower solvent.
14. Runs or Sags
Coating running in droplets down

vertical surface causing curtain
effect.
Excessive application.
Apply thinner coats.

Check surface temperature.
May be too cold for
proper drying.
Following are a number of typical areas, primarily on

steel structures, where coating problems are much more
prevalent than on plain surfaces.
cur because of thin coating above the sag or run.
Reduce material according to label directions, apply thinner coat i f rolled or brushed on.
Regulate fluid adjustment on the spray gun t o cut
down flow of material. Make sure temperature of
surface and coating are at acceptable level.
If runs or sags are objectionable, the surface
should be removed with solvent or sanded smooth
and refinished.
1. Edges
Edges are always a problem on structures using
steel shapes, where the number of lineal feet of
edge compared to the ptain surface is large. The
edges of sheared plate are one of the worst areas
because they are very sharp. The rounded edges
of steel shapes, such as on I-beams, H-beams and
angles are less of a problem; however, almost invariably where failure occurs on a steel shape, it
will be on the edge first.
One cause is that many of the more
sophisticated coatings, such as vinyls, epoxies or
polyurethanes, have a high surface tension and
also tend to shrink during curing. A high surface
tension of the coating tends to pull the coating
away from an edge, in many cases leaving an extremely thin coating at that point. This being the
case, failure is inherent along the edge. On
VI. DESIGN-RELATED FAILURE

Many coating failures occur because of the design of
the structure. Unfortunately, most structures are not
designed with the painting or coating process in mind.
This being the case, many failures are due not to the
coating or its application, but merely to difficult problems
of application created by the design. Where there are
design problems that make a structure difficult to coat
adequately, proper selection of the coating and careful
and proper application can overcome many of the inherent
problems created by the design.

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I-beams, angles and similar shapes, the applicator more often than not sprays on the plain
surface while the edge is at a tangent to the spray
and only becomes spatter coated, even though it
may look well covered.
Horizontal surfaces on structural shapes
(I-beams, H-beams, etc.) tend to accumulate dust,
dirt and chemical fumes that flow toward an edge
when any condensation or precipitation occurs.
As a result, a relatively strong chemical deposit
forms and remains on the edge. Such a situation
makes the edge even more susceptible to coating
f ai Iure.
There should be a direct application of the
coating to edges prior to applying an overall coat
to the structure. Edges should be double coated
with each individual coat. This procedure will help
to maintain a full coating thickness in these
areas.
Deep square corners
These areas are on the interior of angles and on
the interior angle of H-beams, I-beams and very
often on built-up, complicated steel sections.
There are two problems. The first is that these
areas will accumulate dirt and dust, and even
though the surface is well prepared by abrasive
blasting, dust seems to accumulate in these
areas to a greater degree than on the plain surfaces. It is also more difficult to remove. When a
coating is applied over dust or dirt in these areas,
shrinkage and oftentimes actual cracking of the
coating occurs, creating an area for immediate
failure.
Second, even though the surface i s
thoroughly clean and free from dust, these areas
more often than not receive a heavy coat because
of the application of the coat to the flat areas with
the spray overlapping into the corner. This can
create the coating thickness on the interior corner
which is greater than recommended for the flat
surface. During curing and when shrinkage occurs, the coating may tend to pull itself away from
the interior corner, creating a very thin film or a
void underneath the coating. Although the coating
may look continuous, if it is exposed to serious
corrosive conditions or immersion, failure occurs
by moisture penetration into this area. The
ultimate cracking and breaking of the film occurs
at this point.
To overcome this design difficulty, apply thin,
multiple coats to the deep corner, allowing each
coat to dry before a second coat.
A brush coat should be applied on all sides

and edges of the discontinuous area prior to applying the overall spray coat. A brush coat is
preferable to spray for the initial application as
the physical action of brushing forces the coating
into crevices and other small openings where the
spray coat will not reach.
'
Discontinuous areas
These areas are located around rivets, boltheads,
threads and similar areas. The cause of failure is
similar to that of sharp edges and corners. Careful
appl cation can el imi nate discontinu ities in these
areas.
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

4. Welds
There are literally millions of lineal feet of welds
in many structures. Relatively smooth machine
welds create few problems. Even so, there can be
undercuts along edges that should be watched.
Hand welds, in particular, require more care
than plain surfaces. These welds are much
rougher than machine welds and may have deep
undercuts and holes along the edges, with weld
spatter on adjacent surfaces and, in some cases,
very rough, sharp protrusions. All of these are
focal points for corrosion and for coating failure.
Weld spatter, small balls of metal, are spattered away from the weld proper during the
welding process. They are always focal points for
failure. Many times they are lightly adherent and
provide not only protrusions, but undercuts as
well. Weld spatter must be removed from the surface for a proper coating job. These are not
always removed by sand blasting. Once the surface is prepared, however, it is the recommended
procedure to brush coat a weld, working the
coating into all of the rough areas before applying
the overall coat to the plain surface. This aids
materially in preventing premature failure at that
point. Where welds are treated in this manner,
oftentimes the plain surface of a coating will fail
before the area of the weld.
5. Skip welding
Overlapping plates and roof plates are often skip
welded. The reinforcing ring around the top of a
tank may be skip welded. Angles and similar
shapes are skip welded where a continuous weld
is not necessary for ultimate strength. From a
coating standpoint, wherever serious corrosive
conditions exist, skip welds are an invitation to
coating failure and very inadequate surfaces for
proper coating even in mild environments. Water
and moisture accumulate between the plain surfaces of the plates. The skip weld does not keep
out the moisture. It is almost impossible to apply
a coating to the crevice between the skipwelds
and to obtain a satisfactory corrosion resistant
coating at that point.
The only practical answer is complete
welding of all the seams to insure proper coating
life in corrosive areas and to maintain good appearance without rust stains even under milder
conditions. Caulking may even be necessary in
some cases.
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--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
TABLE 7
SUMMARY OF DESIGN-RELATED FAILURE
~
~~
~~
FAILURE APPEARANCE
CAUSE O F FAILURE
REMEDY
Edges
Corrosion linear with

the edge and coating being
undercut away from edge.
Surface tension of coating pulling

liquid coating away from edge.
Precoat edges prior to coating flat surface. Overlap

coating on flat surface
over edge. Spray directly
at an edge t o build thicknesses.
Interior Corners
A void or blister under

the coating at interior corners.
Excessive thickness, causing coating

t o shrink on curing.
Apply coating in thin,

multiple coats, thoroughly
drying or curing between
coats.
Discontinuous
Areas
Corrosion failure on edges of

threads, bolt heads, rivets.
Many small surfaces t o cover with a

high ratio of sharp edges and corners t o plain area. Surface tension
of coating pulls coating away from
points and edges.
Brush coat surfaces prior

t o full coating. Overlap
brush coat with each coat.
Multiple thin coats are
better than one thick one.
4. Welds
Coating failure along welds,

particularly hand welds; coating
undercutting starting at weld.
Welding flux in undercuts along weld.

Rough weld surface. Soap remaining
from pressure testing of welds.
Blue scale (similar t o mill scale)
remaining on weld.
Remove all blue scale or

soap solution. Grind rough
welds smooth. Blast weld
at least 2-3 o n each
side. Apply first coat by
brush, working it into all
rough weld areas.
5. Skip Welding
Discontinuous welds with skips

from 6 to several feet between
welds. Corrosion between overlapping metal undercuts coating.
Impossible t o apply coating in crevice between metal surfaces.
Continuously weld all overlaps before applying coating

in any corrosive environment.
6. Back t o Back
Angles
Corrosion between back to back

angles undercutting coating.
Impossible to apply coating in crevice between roof plates and between

angles.
Use T bar or pipe for construction. As a stopgap,

fill crevice with heavy,
resinous caulking and overcoat
with a compatible coating.
7. Storage Tank
Roofs - Interior
Umbrella type roof - center pole

and rafters. Coating failure
between roof and rafter and
between lapped roof plates.
Impossible t o apply coating in creButt weld or double weld

vice between roof plates and between roof plates. Precoat
roof plates and rafters.
rafters and underside of
roof.
8. Pipe Structures
Coating failure at welds or

longitudinal with pipe.
Rough welds between pipe sections

(see No. 4, Welds). Lack of
sufficient overlap during coating
application. Most application
linear with pipe.
COATING FAILURE
6. Back to back angles

Many steel buildings have trusses, lattice work,
and similar areas constructed from angles which
are placed back to back. In some instances, the
angls are precoated by galvanizing or with inorganic zinc. However, in any severely corrosive
environment, even this procedure is prone to
failure and extremely difficult to protect properly
by the use of coatings. The area between the

512
Not for Resale
See No. 4, Welds. Apply

coating carefully, assuring
50% overlap on all passes.
angles is difficult to clean and impossible to coat

properly. Where such designs exist and where corrosion dictates, the only practical answer is to fill
all of the void spaces between the angles with a
plastic mastic or caulking compound and then apply a compatible coating over it. This, at best, is a
stop-gap measure and is no substitute for the use
of T shapes or pipe for structures where corrosive conditions exist.
93
8627940 0003960 L9T

the difficult areas are fully coated. Much pipe
used for new construction comes with a factory
applied temporary coating. This must be removed
by abrasive blasting for proper coating adhesion
and performance. Care in the surface preparation
and care in the application of the coating are the
only answers to a satisfactory coating job.
7. Storage tanks
Many storage tanks are constructed with
cone or umbrella type roofs where there is usually
a center pole with I-beam rafters extending out to
the edge of the tank. In addition to the many corners, edges, welds, bolts and rivets, there are two
particularly difficult areas from the standpoint of
the interior coating of such tanks. The first is the
steel between the 1-beam rafter and the steel roof
plate. Here the steel plate is merely laid on the
rafter, and unless the coating is applied to the
underside of the plate and the topside of the
rafter prior to installation, this area will fail even
under mild conditions. If the coating is to be applied after construction, it is necessary to raise
the roof by wedges and prepare the surface to
coat in the best manner possible. This area is particularly vulnerable due to moisture condensation.
The second area is the crevice between the
lapped roof plates. Generally, the roof plates are
welded on the exterior with the lap on the interior.
In this reservoir for corrosive solutions failure
takes place rapidly.
A coating cannot prevent corrosion with this
type of construction. Where a coating is required
on the interior of such a tank, roof plates should
be butt welded or should be welded on each side
of the lap so that a continuous coating is possible.
VIL FAILURE BY EXTERIOR FORCES
8. Pipe structures
Much of the construction of off-shore platforms is done with pipe to minimize coating
failure and corrosion. Pipe provides a plain surface with no sharp corners or edges subject to
early failure. It would seem, therefore, that pipe
would be an ideal type of surface to coat. There
can be problems, however, primarily ones of a p
plication.
If failure occurs, other than at a joint, it is
usually longitudinal with the pipe. This is caused
by insufficient overlapping of the spray passes
during the coating process. In coating pipe, it is
essential that each spray be overlapped at least
50%. With large pipe, this means that there are
numerous passes required in order to obtain a
hol iday-free coating.
In addition to areas where pipe is used as the
principal construction member, there may be hundreds of miles of pipe used in a single industrial
plant, all of which require coating. Here, in addition to the cylindrical structure, there are pipe
flanges, valves, threaded joints, bolts, pipe
hangers and pipe racks. These areas have all of
the focal points for corrosion which have been
previously discussed, and wherever corrosion is a
factor, care must be taken to make sure that all of
In almost all coating failures exterior forces are involved, since the environment in which the coating
operates is the primary cause of failure. If there were no
exterior corrosive environment, then no coating failure
could occur, even though there were coating imperfections. In this section, however, ordinary atmospheric conditions are not considered, since it is taken for granted
that coatings must withstand most exterior conditions, including marine conditions.
1. Chemical failure
Chemicals are the most obvious exterior force
that can cause the failure of coatings, since the
chemical industry, considered in its broadest
scope, is one of the largest, if not the largest, industry where severe coating failures can occur.
There are literally thousands of different
chemicals to which a coating may be exposed
and, this being the case, it is understandable that
there are also hundreds of specialty coatings that
have been developed to resist attack by these
chemicals.
The attack may be by simple solution of the
coating, reacting with the coating to render it
useless, or chemicals may actually penetrate the
coating and cause corrosion to the steel
underneath. Attack by volatile acids, such as
hydrochloric and nitric, often cause the latter
failure. The caustic chlorine industry and the
rayon industry can cause coating failures both by
actual coating attack and by penetration and
under-film corrosion. The interior and exterior of
tank cars, specialty tankers and storage tanks in
terminals are all areas where chemical attack of
coating is common.
There is no universal solution to the problem.
Each condition must be considered on its own.
The proper coating must be selected. The best
surface preparation must be used and a defectfree application obtained. An improper coating
selection or improper application of the right
coating can be disastrous.
2. Erosion and abrasion
These are exterior forces that can cause
coating failure. One example is erosion by sand
and wave action of coatings applied to steel piling
on beaches.
Sand erosion by wind is another example.
Other examples are the abrasion on the interior of
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

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= 8627940 000396l 026 =

determined that inorganic zinc silicate coatings
have adequate friction resistance and can be
used as a coating between the contact surfaces in
riveted and bolted joints. The use of the inorganic
zinc coating as a base coating within and outside
of the joint provides an excellent corrosion resistant answer for coating bolted or riveted structures.
When there is liquid penetration at such
joints, crevice corrosion can occur due to the oxygen concentration cell effect, especially i f dissimilar metals make the steel surface cathodic to
the bolt of high-strength steel.
hopper cars, interior abrasion in pipe lines due to

particulate matter in the liquid, or abrasion on
floors by wheeled traffic. The, moving and handling of many fertilizers can cause both abrasion
failure and chemical failure of the coating. In such
cases, specialty coatings must be selected to
resist the abrasion and erosion as well as the normal corrosion which might be expected should
the coating wear through.
3. Faying surfaces
Coating failures can occur where joints in steel
structures are formed by riveting or by the use of
SUMMARY
OF
TABLE 8
FAILURE BY EXTERIOR FORCES
FA1LURE APPEARANCE
CAUSE OF FAILURE
REMEDY
1. Chemical
Solution of coating, undercutting,

underfilm corrosion.
Unsuitable coating selection. Poor

coating application.
Proper selection of coating

for the service is a prime
requisite. This must be
followed by the best surface
preparation possible and a
defect-free application.
Coating worn away, leaving substrate subject to corrosion.
Wear by wheeled vehicles, impact,

wind or liquid born abrasives.
Specialty coating must be

selected to resist specific
abrasion. Coating must
have strong adhesion in
addition to wear resistance.
(Polyurethane coatings are
most abrasion resistant.)
Coating failure and corrosion

in joint.
Crevice between contacting steel sur- Prior to joining metal$urfaces joined by rivets or high strength faces, sand blast and apply
bolts.
an inorganic zinc coating
to joint area and beyond.
When the two surfaces are
joined, a corrosion-free
joint will result.
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
COATING FA1LURE
2. Erosion and
A brasion
3. Faying surfaces
VIII. SUMMARY
high strength bolts. Such joints are common on

bridges and in many open steel work plants such
as refineries and chemical plants. If there is a
crevice at the joint, the coating applied to the surface can fail at that point, allowing access to
moisture or chemicals, with resulting corrosion.
Most coatings are unsuitable for use within the
joint itself as they do not provide the proper coefficient of friction to maintain the joint in a static
condition. Even galvanized surfaces do not have
sufficient coefficient of friction to provide a proper joint.
In the past, most joints have been made on a
steel to steel basis in order to obtain the proper
friction resistance. Recently, however, it has been

Coating failures may be caused by the coating formulation or the materials from which it is made; by the
basic characteristics of the surface coated; by improper
surface preparation; by the design of the structure coated;
or by poor coating application procedures. Coating
failures can be prevented only by using the proper material
for the job, and by care in the application to achieve complete, uninterrupted coating coverages irrespective of the
built-in problems of the design and materials of construction. On any coating job, the following procedures are
recommended to assure coating success.
1. Analyze the exposure and the structure, and
specify the material which will properly meet the
conditions. Do not compromise on price or qual-
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8627940 0003962 T62
ity. The material is the least costly item of a

coating application.
2. Use a detailed specification covering the method
of surface preparation and the application of the
coating. A general specification is not adequate.
3. Make a detailed inspection of the surface preparation and the application procedures to assure
conformity with the specification in numbers 1
and 2 above.
Irrespective of the structure or the corrosive conditions, a strong specification and good follow-up inspection
are the two most important keys to a successful and
failurefree coating job.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
chapter: AI Beitelman, Wallace P. Cathcart, Thomas A. Cross,
Theodore Dowd, J. Roger Garland, Dan Gelfer, Lewis Gleekman,
H.W. Hitzrot, Joe Mazia, Marshall McGee, I. Metil, John Montle,
William Pearson, E.A. Praschan,.Melvin Sandler, William Wallace.
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
A portrait and biographical sketch of Charles G. Munger can be

found at the end of Chapter 4.2.
REFERENCES
1. G.W. Segreu, Causes & Prevention of Paint Failure, Steel
Structures Painting Manual, Volume 1, Good Painting Practice, Chapter 18, 1954.
2. Paint and Protective Coatings, Chapter 5, U.S.Government

Publication, Department of Defense, Army - TM5-618,
NAVFAC MO-110, Air Force - AFM-85-3, 1969.
3. C.G. Munger, Causes of Coating Failure, paper presented
at NACE South East Regional Meeting, November 1975.
4. C.G. Munger, Coating Failures, Plant Engineering, 1974.
5. C.G. Munger, Protective Coating Failures; Coating Formulation & Selection (Part l), Plant Engineering, April 15, 1976;
Substrate Material & Condition (Part 2), Plant Engineering,
April 29,1976; Coating Application Procedures (Part 3), Plant
Engineering, May 13, 1976.
6. C.G. Munger Repairing Protective Coatings: Evaluating
Coating Condition (Part l),
Plant Engineering, November 11,
1976; Procedures for Metallic Substrates (Part 2), Plant
Engineering, December 23, 1976; Procedures for NonMetallic Substrates (Part 3), Plant Engineering, January 20,
1977; Effects of Coating Types (Part 4); Plant Engineering,
February 17, 1977.
7. C.G. Munger, influence of Environment on inorganic Zinc
Coatings, Materials Performance, March 1977.
8. C.G. Munger, Sulfides - Their Effect on Coatings &
Substrates, Materials Performance, March 1977.
9. C.G. Munger, Coating of Contaminated Ferrous Surfaces,
1979 Coating Symposium, Niagara Falls, NY, 1979.
10. C.G. Munger, Practical Aspects of Coating Repair,
Materials Performance, February 1980.
11. Causes and Prevention of Coating Failures, NACE Report
6D170.
12. Corrosion Control - Principles and Methods, Ameron
Publication.

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CHAPTER 24
PAINTING NAVY SHIPS

by
Stephen D. Rodgers, Richard W. Drisko, and John Tock
I. INTRODUCTION
II. BACKGROUND
The operational readiness of a modern, technologically sophisticated fleet is of paramount importance to the
defense of our nation. Marine coatings comprise a key element in the maintenance program required to achieve and
retain this readiness. The United States Navy is committed
to providing this protection in the most reliable and cost
effective manner available. This is being achieved through
an active research program to develop (1) new formula-type
coatings which can be purchased competitively and (2)
performance-type specifications for which manufacturers
can qualify products. Most of the coatings used on Navy
ships are of the high performance type that require surface
preparation and application by experienced personnel. Those
coatings used by ship forces for everyday maintenance (e.g.,
alkyds) are more tolerant of applicator skill. The effectiveness of the coatings in the Navys ship corrosion control program is reflected in the present drydocking cycles of five to
seven years.
Coated surfaces on Navy ships are subjected, as
shown in Figure 1, to a variety of destructive conditions
(e.g., a salt laden, high humidity atmosphere; total seawater immersion; and acidic exhaust gases) with temperatures ranging from those of the tropics to those of the
Arctic. They must be resistant to physical damage from
such forces as cavitation, drag (friction), impact with
waves and mooring structures, and abrasion by chains.
Each coating system must adhere tightly to the particular
substrate (ferrous and nonferrous metals, wood, plastics,
and elastometers) to which it is applied, and it must resist
deterioration from a variety of chemicals (e.g., distilled,
potable, and salt water; hydrocarbon fuels and lubricants;
and sanitary wastes). In addition, antifouling coatings
must prevent the attachment and growth of marine
organisms on immersed surfaces. These organisms
increase frictional drag, which results in loss of speed and
maneuverability and increased fuel consumption. Fouling
may also promote localized corrosion, damage to
coatings, reduced buoyancy, and inoperable equipment.
Thus, ships of the Navy require a combination of versatile
and specialized coatings to meet many different requirements to keep them operational. Many of these coatings
may also prove to be as cost effective on commercial ships
as on those of the Navy.
Coating materials and techniques utilized by the Navy

have generally changed in much the same manner as
those of the commercial sector. Prior to World War II, most
of the maintenance painting was done by sailors using
chipping hammers and other hand tools to clean steel surfaces and brushes to apply drying oil (e.g., alkyd) paints.
Since that time both cleaning and application techniques
and coating materials have improved greatly. All shipyard
and maintenance depot painting is done by civilian (civil
service or contractor) personnel who clean steel surfaces
to a near white blast (SSPC-SP 10) with automated equipment wherever possible to reduce emission of particulates,
and apply coatings with modern spray equipment. The
everyday maintenance painting is still accomplished by
less experienced ship personnel.
In the last forty years, paints used on Navy ships have
changed from the drying oil (alkyd) formulations, such as
Navy Formula I (1944),of the early forties to vinyls, such as
Navy Formula 119, of the early fifties to epoxies, such as
MIL-P-23236(1962) and MIL-P-24441(1972), currently in use
today. The drying oil paints were relatively easy to apply
since they did not require a high level of surface preparation, but they had limited resistance to marine service. The
vinyl paints were much more durable, but they required a
higher level of surface preparation and more coats to
achieve a desired thickness. The epoxies have proved to be
more cost effective in that, even though they still require a
relatively high level of surface preparation and should be
applied at temperatures above 35OF, they provide a very
durable barrier in fewer coats.
Prior to World War II, Navy ships were coated with
paints produced in Navy factories according to Navy
specifications. Today, the Navy obtains from commercial
suppliers a mixture of Navy formula (Military
Specification), Federal Specification, and qualified commercial products. Table 1 identifies the paint formulations
most commonly used on Navy ships along with their
specifications and uses. The current procurement procedures permit the maximum cost effectiveness while
taking advantage of the latest coatings technology of
private industry and research and development of coatings
with Navy-unique purposes (Le., coatings for camouflage,
submarines, and extreme durability).
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516
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93
8 b 2 7 9 4 0 0003964 835
Antennas and Superstructures
o Acidic Exhaust Fumes
-IzL
r-
---
__
~
_ _ _ ~=-=
o Extreme Temperatures
o Intense Sunlight
o Thermal Shock
Wind Driven Saltwater and Spray
.- _
Deck Areas
4
-
t-
____
~
c:,=-
o Mechanical Abrasion i Lines, Chains, etc)

o Fuel/Chemical Spills
7.
-.
-_
-9
o Humidity
o Heat/Fire
o Cooking Fumes
Soiling
o Abrasion
Ballast, and Cargo Tanks
-z2_r$So
FUEL
WATER
CARGO
CARGO
~BALLAST.
.__-\/Y
o Hydrocarbon Fuels
o Distilled, Potable, and Salt Waters
0 Corrosive and Sensitive Cargoes
o Chlorination System
Underwater Hu I I
o Marine Fouling
o Seawater Immersion
o Abrasion
o Galvanic Corrosion
o Cavitation
FIGURE 1
Environments that are destructive to chipboard coatings.

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517
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8627940 0003965 7 7 1
TABLE 1 * *
IDENTIFICATION OF COATINGS USED ON SHIPS
NAVY FORMULA
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SPECIFICATION
TYPE'
USE
TT-S-711
oil stain
wood interiors
formerly MIL-V-I 174

TT-V-119 now used
oleoresinous phenolic varnish
spar varnish
TT-P-6456
alkyd-zinc molybdate
anticorrosive primer for

steel and aluminum
111
MIL-E-15090
alkyd/powder
enamel for equipment
121
MIL-P-15931
vinyl-cuprous oxide
antifouling (red)
124
DOD-E-24607
chlorinated alkyd
nonflaming (white)
125
DOD-E-24607
chlorinated alkyd
nonflaming (green)
126
DOD-E-24607
chlorinated alkyd
nonflaming (gray)
129
formerly MIL-P-16189;
MIL-P-15931 now used
vinyllcuprous oxide
antif o uIing (black)
150-156
MIL-P-24441
epoxy polyamide
(different colors)
general use on metals
MIL-C-11796
petrolatum
corrosion-preventive
compound
MIL-R-15058
coating outboard shafting
MIL-C-16 173
corrosion preventing
compound
MIL-D-23003
epoxy polyamide
nonslip deck covering
DOD-P-23236
epoxy
fuel and ballast tanks
DOD-P-24380
chlorinated rubber
anchor chain
MIL-D-24483124667
epoxy
nonslip deck coating
DOD-P-24555
silicone-aluminum
high temperature
DOD-P-24596
84 and 84D
518
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fire protective coating

compound
S S P C C H A P T E R * 2 4 - 0 73
8627740 0003766 608
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
TABLE 1 (Continued)
IDENTIFICATION OF COATINGS USED ON SHIPS
NAVY FORMULA
SPECIFICATION
TYPE*
MIL-P-24647
MIL-(2-46081
USE
antifouling systems
intumescent insulating
coating
TT-P-28
silicone-aluminum
high temperatures
TT-V-51
asphalt varnish
anchors and chain
MIL-E-24635
silicone-alkyd
exterior
semi-gloss enamel
'MIL-P- indicates military specification (being replaced by DOD-P-)

DOD-P- indicates Department of Defense specification
TT-P- or TT-E- indicates Federal specification
'The following specifications have been removed from the table to reflect current practice:
TT-C-542, TT-E-489, TT-E-490, TT-L-26, TT-LdO, TT-P-320, TT-P-595, MIL-C-17504, MIL-E-17970,
MIL-E-17971, MIL-L-19537, MIL-P-15929, MIL-P-15930, MIL-P-19451, MIL-P-19452, MIL-P-19453,
MIL-P-22298, MIL-P-22299, MIL-P-22750, MIL-P-23377, DOD-E-699, DOD-E-1821O, DOD-P-15328,
DOD-P-17545, DOD-P-23236, Class 2-4, DOD-P-24588

519
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SSPC C H A P T E R * 2 4 * 0 93 D 8627940 00039b7 544 M

111. CURRENT PRACTICES
ing all governmental regulations are specified for painting

operations.
Painting during acquisition of ships is covered by the

general specification requirements that are included in
contracts for the building of a ship. While they reflect the
latest painting technology at the time the contract is
written, they may not reflect the latest technology at the
time of delivery of the ship seven to ten years later. Modification of contracts to reflect changing technology has
proven to be difficult and costly.
Maintenance painting of ships in service is covered in
great detail in Navy Ships Technical Manual, Chapter 631.
This document provides information on surface preparation,
thickness of paint films, coatings to be used, and application procedures. Touching-up by currently recommended
p r a ~ t i c e sis~emphasized.
~~
Strict safety precautions meet-
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Currently recommended methods of preparing different ship surfaces for coating are listed in Table 2. Steel
surfaces are much more prevalent on Navy ships than
other materials, with aluminum representing a large
portion of superstructures. A near-white blast finish is
suitable for all the coatings used on steel surfaces. Of the
many different types of coatings used on ships, inorganic
zinc primers are the least tolerant of a lower level of
cleaning: It should be noted that even in shipyards and
maintenance depots, mechanical cleaning is occasionally
used on small touch-up areas or those areas difficult to
reach with blast cleaning.
TABLE 2
RECOMMENDED METHODS OF SURFACE PREPARATION OF
VARIOUS SUBSTRATES FOR COATING
SUBSTRATE
Steel
RECOMMENDED METHOD OF SURFACE PREPARATION

Abrasive blast cleaning to near-white finish (SSPC-SP 10) for touch-up and full scale
repainting at shipyards and maintenance depots.
Hand or power (preferably) tool cleaning with wire brushes, chipping hammers,
grinders, sanders, needle guns, etc., for maintenance by ship forces.
Galvanized steel
Solvent cleaning (degreasing) new surfaces followed by application of one Coat of

Formula 150.
Aluminum
80 grit Garnet or Aluminum Oxide at 65 psi blast pressure.
Wood
Scraping to remove loose coating and sanding or planing with hand or power
equipment.
Plastic
Solvent cleaning and light sanding.
use, as shown in Tables 3 and 4. In addition, their

use in potable water tanks was approved by the
Navy Bureau of Medicine and Surgery.
B. COATING APPLICATION
The Navy is currently changing its recommended
method of coating application from an atomized spray to
airless spray techniques. It is also experimenting with
multicomponent airless spray equipment. Ship forces
generally use brush or roller techniques since they require
less skilled personnel.
C. TYPES OF COATINGS
1. Steel Surfaces
The great versatility of formulas 150-156 of MIL-
P-24441 accounts for their widespread shipboard

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Ab27940 0003968 480
Because of the high fire risk associated with

storage of flammable and explosive materials, nonflaming, highly chlorinated alkyd paints (Formulas
124,125 and 126) are used on interior overheads and
bulkheads (see Table 4). Recent tests by the Navy's
David Taylor R&D Center have shown that these
paints can be rated as noncombustible (when tested by ASTM E-162) at a dry film thickness of 20 mils,
equivalent to 1O coats. The new performance-type
specification DOD-C-24596covers fire-resistant coatings for many substrates and uses.
In the interior wet spaces (see Table 4), the
epoxy (Formula 150) system is required because of
its greater resistance to water and soiling. Thus, it
has performed much better than alkyds.
The approved inorganic zinc primers are providing excellent corrosion control on exterior surfaces above the boottopping (see Table 3). The cathodic protection provided by
these primers has not been long lasting in continuous immersion service, even when topcoated, because of topcoat
damage during service. As indicated in Table 3, Formula 150
(epoxy) can be used as a barrier coat between these primers
and the silicone alkyd finish coat (MIL-E-24635). This is required because of an incompatibility between zinc-rich coatings and drying oil paints.' A new performance-type
specification for zinc-rich primers for shipboard use, DODP-24648, was approved in 1985.
Formulas 121 (red) and 129 (black) are cuprous oxidecontaining antifouling paints which have received extensive
use. Their effectiveness, however, is usually limited to two
years, depending upon the type of service. New ablative cuprous oxide antifouling paints for 5 to 7 years service are
described by MIL-SPEC-MIL-P-24647.
TABLE 3
COATING SYSTEMS FOR EXTERIOR STEEL
SHIP AREA
Hull from keel to

start of boottopping
COATINGS IN SYSTEM AND NUMBER OF COATS
*Formula 150 (1); Formula 151 (1); Formula 154 (1) or Formula 153 (1); Formula 121 (2)
*NAVSEA* * -approved commercial epoxy; Formula 121 (2)

MIL-P-24647 (5 - 7 year system)
Hull boottopping
area
*Formula 150 (1); Formula 161 (1); Formula 154 (1); Formula 129 (2)
* NAVSEA-approvedcommercial epoxy; Formula 129 (2)
MIL-P-24647 (5 - 7 year system)
Near vertical
*Formula 150; Formula 151; MIL-E-24635
surface above
boottopping
NAVSEA-approvedcommercial inorganic zinc primer (1); Formula 150 (1);

MIL-E-24635
Horizontal surfaces
and waterways
*NAVSEA-approvedcommercial inorganic primer (1); Formula 150 (1); Formula 151 or

MIL-E-24635
Formula 150 (1); MIL-D-24483 or MIL-D-23003, Type II nonslip coating
*Preferred or most used systems

"'Naval Sea Systems Command
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52 1
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SSPC CHAPTERm24.0 73 W 8627740 00037b7 317 W
In the early 1970s, the Navy began using flamesprayed aluminum to protect the faying surfaces
between aluminum superstructures and steel
hulls. In 1978, this technique was extended to
areas that were difficult to reach or extremely
corrosive. Initially used only on components that

could be removed for metallizing ashore, it now
finds occasional use on deck and bulkhead areas
and on the special items listed in Table 5." As with
TABLE 4
COATING SYSTEMS FOR INTERIOR STEEL
SHIP AREA
Overheads and Bulkheadsa
Formula84(1); Formula 124 (1) or Formula 125 (1) or Formula

126 (2)'
Bulkheads in wet spacesb
Formula 150 (1); Formula 152
Decksa
NAVSEAd approved deck coatingse
Bilges and machinery

rooms
NAVSEA-approved commercial system under DOD-P-23236, Class 1

Formula 150 (1); Formula 151 (1); Formula 156 (1)
Saltwater tanks
NAVSEA-approved commercial system under DOD-P-23236,Class 1

Potable water tanks
NAVSEA-approved commercial epoxy system

Gasoline and jet fuel

tanks
NAVSEA-approved commercial system under DOD-P-23236,Class 1

--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Sanitary tanks
Formula 150 (1); Formula 156 (1); Formula 151 (1); Formula 152 (1)
Inaccessible voids
MIL-P-21006flotation type rust-retarding compounds
Fire stop bulkheads
M IL-C-46081intumescent coating
aOn dry, living (habitable) spaces, such as sleeping, messing, recreation, and passageway areas.
'Sculleries, washrooms, showers, etc.
'Formula 124 can be tinted with DOD-C-22325colorants to other colors.
dNaval Sea Systems Command.

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8627940 0003970 039
TABLE 5
ITEMS R ECEIVING FLAM E-SPRAYED ALU MINUM M ETALLIZING
MILITARY STANDARD 2138
AREA OF USE
SPECIFIED ITEMS METALLIZED
Topside Exterior Use
Deck hardware and machinery; tiedowns; steam riser valves and piping;
exhaust stacks and covers; fire station hardware; lighting fixtures; masts;
and booms.
Topside Interior Use
Equipment foundations; deck areas; coaming around doors and scuttles;

heads, and sculleries.
Propulsion Plant
and Machinery
Steam valves, reducers, stops, strainers, and piping; bottom blow valves
and piping; pump and machinery foundations; boiler skirts; electrical and
mechanical casings; diesel headers and exhaust system components;
hangers; brackets; and supports.
2 . Galvanized Steel
zinc-rich coatings, flame-sprayed aluminum is

topcoated with organic coatings. Flame-sprayed
aluminum is also being introduced to replace the
silicone-aluminum heat-resisting coatings (TT-P-28
and DOO-P-24555) currently specified for heated
ferrous sheet metal piping, fittings, and valves that
have a very limited service life (about one year).
Table 6 lists coatings recommended for such
services.
Galvanized steel ship surfaces except for bilges and

ballast tanks are painted with one coat of Formula 84
or 150 followed by 1 or 2 coats of the appropriate topcoat. In bilges and ballast tanks, one coat of Formula
150, one coat of Formula 151, and one coat of Formula
156 are applied.
TABLE 6
COATINGS FOR MACHINERY AND PIPING
SURFACE
Ferrous sheet metal
(exterior or interior;
heated)

Formula 84 (1); Formula 111 (1)
Formula 84 (1); Approved coating to match surroundings (2)
Ferrous sheet metal

(exterior or interior;
heated)
TT-P-28 (1)
Ferrous machinery
(exterior; heated)
TT-P-28
DOD-P-24555 (1)
DOD-P-24555 (2)
Machinery gage boards
(including gages and
clocks)
Piping, valves, and

fitti ngsa
Formula 84 (1); Approved finish coat (2)
aFinish is to match surroundings or color coded for content identification.

If insulated, insulation is coated to match surroundings.
523
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S S P C CHAPTER*24-0 93
8 6 2 7 9 4 0 0 0 0 3 9 7 3 T75
TABLE 7
COATING SYSTEMS FOR ALUMINUM SURFACES
COATING IN SYSTEM AND NUMBER OF COATS
SHIP AREAS
Boottopping and hull
NAVSEA-approved commercial system with noncopper antifouling coating
Exterior topside
Formula 150 (1); Formula 151 (1); MIL-E-24635(2)a
Habitability areas
Formula 84 or 84D (1); Formula 124 (2)
Wet spacesb
Bilges and seawater

ballast and fuel tanksc
aFor decks, MIL-E-24635gray deck or MIL-D-23003,Type II or MIL-D-24483nonslip

coatings are substituted for TT-E-490.
bSculleries, washrooms, showers, etc.
On fuel tanks, the bottom and walls up to 6 in. are coated.
before applying adesired finish or antifouling paint of

Table 3. Exterior reinforced plastic laminate is
repaired and recoated as described in MIL-R-19907.
Interior reinforcedplastic laminate receives two coats
of Formula 124.
6. Miscellaneous items
For more information on types of coatings, consult
Naval Ships Technical Manual, Chapter 631.
3. Aluminum
The coating systems used on aluminum alloy ship
surfaces are listed in Table 7. In March 1974, the
Naval Ship Engineering Center issued a pocketsize manual (Ship Hull Structure Maintenance and
Repair) to provide additional practical information
on topside coating. It includes specific recommendations related to aluminum super-structures,
such as dissimilar metal problems, surface preparation, aluminum flame spray techniques, coating
materials, sealants, and application methods. Metal
containing paints should not be used on aluminum.
D. SAFETY PRACTICES
The Navy safety procedures reflect the latest commercial practices in the protection of the health of workers
and the physical integrity of the structures being coated.
The health aspects are overseen by the Navys Bureau of
Medicine and Surgery, and the structural aspects by the
ship operational organization and the facilities command.
The controllingdocuments are all cited and discussed in Naval
ShipsTechnical Manual, Chapter 631 (Preservationof Ships
in Service).
4. Wood
Wood that is to be varnished is first filled with a
filler (paste). Exterior painted wood is treated as
shown in Table 8 . Interior wood is either covered
with one coat of approved aluminum paint and two
coats of approved finish paint to match the surroundingsor stainedwith commerciallyavailable stain
and coated with three coats of Formula 80 varnish.
IV. TRENDS
5 . Plastic
Plastic surfaces to be painted are treated with
Formula 150.Additional primer coats are not required
Changes in painting practices for Navy ships will

be directed toward more durable, longer lasting systems that will require less maintenance and permit
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SSPC CHAPTER*24-0 9 3 W 8627740 0003972 901 W
TABLE 8
COATING SYSTEMS FOR EXTERIOR WOOD
SHIP AREA
Hull from keel to start

of boottopping
COATINGS I N SYSTEM AND NUMBER OF COATS

or MIL-P-24647system
for 5-7 year life.
Boottopping area
Vertical surfaces
above boottopping
Approved aluminum painta ( l ) , MIL-E-24635(2)
Horizontal surfaces
waterways
Approved aluminum painta (2); Formula 20 (2)
Masts and spars
Approved aluminum painta (2); Formula 20 (2)
aPrepared by mixing 2 Ib. of TT-P-320, Type II,Class 2 aluminum paste into 1 gal. of
Formula 80 varnish.
longer periods between dry docking. Greatly improved

fouling -control (5 years or more) with safe materials is
sought through such systems as renewable (self-polishing)
and controlled-release antifouling paints. Antifouling
rubber, plastics and greases will also be considered for
selected surfaces. Smooth hull coatings that also perform
other necessaryrequirements may impart a microsmoothsurface texture with minimum drag.
The Navy paints of the future must meet all environmental, health, and safety requirements of federal and
local governments. Currently, the State of California is
restricting the use of volatile organic compounds (VOC) in
marine coatings, and other states will follow this action. Work
is now being done by coating suppliers and the Navy to develop
water borne and high solids marine coatings that meet these
and other anticipated restrictions.
The Navy Environmental Health Center has recommendedlo other materials or procedures be substituted for
lead or chromium pigments in metal primersfor corrosion control. While substitute pigments are available,li their long-term
effectiveness in marine primers has yet to be established.
However,current navy policy is to restrict lead and chromate
content to 0.005/o.
Environmental restrictions have already been placed
on abrasive blasting and chemical cleaning procedures of
ship surfaces for painting. New, acceptable cleaning procedures must be developed, and the primer materials
applied must be compatible with these surfaces.
V. SUMMARY
The severe environmental forces encountered by Navy
ships require tough, durable, and often specialized coatings. The presently used systems described in this chapter
have provided satisfactory protection in a cost effective
manner. Improved painting materials and procedures are
sought, however, to control spiraling maintenance costs,
permit improved operational capabilities, and conform to
governmental regulations related to health, safety and
environmental concerns. The research and development
required to meet these and future needs will be
challenging.
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TABLE 9
COATINGS FOR MISCELLANEOUS ITEMS

ITEM
COATING SYSTEM AND NUMBER OF COATS
Anchor chain, anchor and

securing chains
TT-V-51
MIL-P-24380
Antenna insulator fittings
Formula 150 (2)
Bilge keels (Internal

surfaces)
MIL-C-16173, Grade 1 rust preventive
Catapult launching
valves and exhaust
tees; lagging on
DOD-P-23236, epoxy coating
Exterior canvas and

life floats (rafts)
TT-P-595 gray canvas, preservative
Fire plugs and foam

discharge valves
Formula 150 (1); MIL-E-24635color to match; Formula 40 (1)
Furniture and joiner doors
As specified in MIL-F-90;
Helmets
MIL-E-24635(haze grey)
Inaccessible surfaces
(galvanized and
nonferrous)
Unpainted
Inaccessible surfaces
(ungalvanized steel)
1 coat inorganic zinc or

MIL-C-11796, Class 1 or A, or
2 coats Formula 150
Messenger buoys
Formula 150 (2); TT-E-490 international Orange (2) or MIL-E-24635
Propellers (composition or
corrosion-resistant)
Clean and polish bright
Rings buoys
Orange plastic compound (3)
Rudders and skegs

(internal surfaces)
MIL-C-l6173D, Grade 1 or 3 rust preventive
Shafting, inboard
Formula 150; Formula 151 (1)
Shafting, outboard
MIL-R-15058or resin-glass cloth coating and antifouling
Shaft tube (internal)
Formula 150 (1); Formula 151; Formula 152
Smoke pipes
TT-P-28 (2)
Sonar domes:
Rubber
MIL-P-24647
Plastic and HY80 steel
NAVSEA-approvedepoxy or MIL-P-24441system for hulls (see Table 2);

Formula 121 (2)
Stainless steel
Formula 150 or unpainted
Structure behind insulation
Ventilation ducts and trunks

(ungalvanized steel)
Formula 150 (1); 151 (1); 152 (1) or

inorganic zinc; Formula 150 (mist coat); 151 (1); 152 (1) or
DOD CTD 2138
Turntable pits (LSTs)
DOD-P-23236 (2 or 3 coats)
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SSPC C H A P T E R k 2 4 . 0
93 W 8627940 0003974 784
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
chapter: Leon Birnbaum, David Bloodgood, Theodore Dowd, Ben
Fultz, Dan Gelfer, Jack Hickey, Edward Hobaica, Hing Dear, AI
Hohman, Howard Milam, Neil M. Miller, Hugh E. Peck, Walt Radut,
Alfred E. Smith, William Wallace.
REFER ENCES
1. Naval Ship Systems Command. NAVSHIPS Technical Manual, Chapter 631. Preservation of Ships in Service (Paints and
Cathodic Protection). Washington, January 1970.
Washington, January 1970.
2. C.G. Munger, Practical Aspects of Coating Repair, Materials
Performance, vol. 19, no. 2, pp. 46-52, February 1980.
3. Civil Engineering Laboratory. Techdata Sheet 80-06: Repair of
Exterior Protective Coatings. Port Hueneme, CA, July 1980.
4. Civil Engineering Laboratory. Techdata Sheet 79-04: Surface
Preparation for Coatings. Port Hueneme, CA, April 1979.
5. Civil Engineering Laboratory. Techdata Sheet 77-09R: Coating
Interiors of Steel Potable Water Tanks. Port Hueneme, CA,
July 1979.
6. Naval Ship Systems Command. NAVSHIPS Notice 9190: Navy
Polyamide-Epoxy Systems for Interior and Exterior Ship Surfaces. Naval Ship Systems Command, Washington, June
1972.
7. Civil Engineering Laboratory. Techdata Sheet 77-19: Incompatibility of Paints. Port Hueneme, CA, November 1977.
8. H.H. Vanderbilt and R.A. Sulit. Thermal Spray Technology
Research, Development, Test, and Evaluation and Service
Applications in the U S . Navy, Tri-Service Conference on
Corrosion. US. Air Force Academy, Colorado, November
1980.
9. H.S. Preiser and S.D. Rodgers. "Coatings - the Promise and
Challenge for Enhanced Naval Performance," chapter in Corrosion Control by Coatings, H. Leidherser, Jr. (editor). Princeton, NJ, Science Press, 1979.
10. Navy Environmental Health Center letter 41AIJRB:crh
6260.1G serial 9-130 of May 14, 1979.
11. J.D. Keane, J.A. Bruno and R.E.F. Weaver. Performance of
Alternative Coatings in the Environment (PACE), Steel Structures Painting Journal. Pittsburgh, PA, August 20, 1979.
BIOGRAPHY
Stephen D. Rodgers has been
employed in the paint field for 35
years. Mr. Rodgers specializes
in protective finishes and the
related surface preparation technology for the marine industry.
Mr. Rodgers' experience includes 22 years in paint RDT&E
with the Navy, 7 years as the
Head of the Corrosion control
Branch of the Naval Sea Systems Command, with responsibilities for corrosion mitigation by
design, cathodic protection and
protective finishes. As a Senior engineer, Mr. Rodgers has provided consulting engineering services in private industry for 5 years.
Mr. Rodgers is a registered professional Corrosion Engineer in
the State of California and a Nuclear Safety Related Coating Engineer (National Board of Registration for Nuclear Safety Related
Coating Engineers and Specialists).
Mr. Rodgers has 8 patents and 45 publications.
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
John J. Tock has been employed by the U. S. Navy since 1971,

initially working at the Naval Ship Engineering Center. He is currently employed as the Senior Materials Engineer of the Corrosion
Control Division of the Materials Engineering Group, Naval Sea Systems Command, Washington, DC. Mr. Tock has a Bachelor's degree
in Zoology from the Pennsylvania State University (1965) and a
Bachelor's degree in Chemical Engineering from the University of
Florida (1971). He is and has been primarily responsible for the corrosion control of Navy ships through the application of protective
coatings. Mr. Tock specifies coating systems for shipboard applications based on expected performance and environmental compliance. He is responsible for writing and updating material
specifications, qualifying and approving materials, writing Naval
Technical Manuals and developing ship specifications for coating
systems. Mr. Tock has been involved in efforts to develop and evaluate water based paints, fire resistant coatings, anticorrosive primers
and intumescent fire protective coatings.
A portrait and biographical sketch of Richard W. Drisko

appear at the end of the chapter on Government Painting
Procedures.
527
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93 W 8627940 0003975 bLO
CHAPTER 25
DESIGN OF CORROSION-SAFE STRUCTURES

by
V. Roger Pludek
All materials of construction and preservation must

be appreciated and evaluated, not only individually but
also en masse, in complete units or components. Not only
the structural steel is considered, but also the necessary
weld metal, fasteners, plastics, separation materials,
sealants, coatings, etc., all together in their rational relationship.
Good design must create a unified, reliable and safe
functional complex. The main purpose of such materials
association is to fulfill its prime requirement of functional
utility and also the requirements of safety and survival
stability. It is not possible to separate the functional appreciation of materials from its corrosion engineering
counterpart.
Even high quality materials can become casualties as
a result of poor design and poor corrosion control. In
general, the prime requirement of integrated corrosion
control is to provide a parallel system of appreciation,
evaluation, and selection of materials, both for their functional suitability and for their ability to sustain this
positive function for the required length of time at an
economic cost.
Requirements for structural material include the
following:
I. INTRODUCTION
The rising cost of labor and energy and the scarcity of
raw materials make conservation a necessity today, particularly with regard to steel structures that cannot easily
be dismantled and replaced. When they suffer unchecked
corrosion, steel structures fail, and their failure has a profound influence on the economic and social welfare of all
people. As more and more corrosive effluent is being emitted, and the corrosiveness of atmosphere, soil and natural
waters increases, the negative effect on steel structures is
compounded.
The effects of poor design can seldom, if ever, be corrected by coatings. Preventive control, beginning with
design, offers the best answer to the difficult problem of
corrosion. A majority of service failures caused by corrosion would not occur i f proper precautions were taken at
the design stage. All designers, engineers and technical
workers engaged in a construction project must work together to create an integrated corrosion control system."
II. REQUIREMENT OF CORROSION

EXPERTISE
There is a great deal of knowledge about corrosion
that is not being translated duly into practice. Much better
effort to improve communication and cooperation between
individual specialists, in management, purchasing, designing, production, and installation should be made. Rather
than learning by trial and error, an exceedingly expensive
process, the designer and all other workers in design
should be aware of the best sources of advice about corrosion control. Scientists, engineers, technologists,
technical and managerial workers must be educated about
corrosion and its control to conserve materials and prevent failures due to environmental or bad design inf luences.
1. Select materials for their functional suitability

and ability to maintain their function safely for an
economical period of time at a reasonable cost.
2. Specify accurately and test on delivery for
conformance with specif cations.
3. Select more corrosion-resistant materials for
more critical structural members or where relatively high
fabrication costs are involved.
4. Compromise where necessary; trade-off
mechanical advantages for corrosion protection.
5. Do not specify more expensive materials than absolutely necessary, except for long-term economy or
preservation of the safety of personnel or product.
6. Do not mix short-life materials with long-life
materials in sub-assemblies that cannot be repaired.
7. Evaluate for suitability not only the structural
members but also their basic treatments (chromate
passivation, galvanizing, etc.).
8. Do not use flammable materials in critical places.
9. Do not use materials producing corrosive or toxic
fumes for steel structures subject to fire hazard.
10. Select metals of construction in accordance with
a comprehensive selection list that takes into account both
111. MATERIALS
Among the most fundamental design activities, the
appreciation and evaluation of materials of construction
take the lead. Only thus can unnecessary work be avoided
and serious mistakes prevented.
'A full account of Mr. Pludek's corrosion control work exists in

his book, Design and Corrosion Control, Macmillan, 1977. Another
excellent account of the subject is given in National Association
of Corrosion Engineers Standard RP-01-78.
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

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93
function and corrosion controls. Metals should be

selected on the basis of their physical properties, design
limitations, fabrication character, and economic utility. In
each of these areas function and corrosion control must
be considered.
IV. COMPATIBILITY
to allow for corrosion waste and sacrificial protection of

cathodic members.
7. Design must provide for an easy replacement of
anodic structural units.
8. Laminar composites may be used in marine environments for bimetal composite structures: noble metal
clads, sacrificial metal clads, corrosion barriers, complex
multilayers (Figure 2).
A. INTRODUCTION
Some designers dont appreciate the total structure
as one complete whole with its inherent design character,
which transcends its material and elemental boundaries.
This badly conceived inter-relation among the materials
within the structure can ruin even the best design.
All intermaterial parameters must be properly appreciated and evaluated before any final design decision is
taken. This evaluation must take into account problems
caused by direct contact between dissimilar metals or induced by changes of polarity, by transfer of electrolysis
through a medium, by transport of metallic particles in the
environment, by stray currents or by any other adverse effect arising from the proximity of incompatible materials.
Y
-I
iz
m
U
S E A WATER
FIGURE 2
9. Clad metals can be used as transition joints in

structures.
10. Edges of clad metals in corrosive environments
must be well protected (Figure 3).
B. DISSIMILAR METALS
1. Faying surfaces of dissimilar metals should be
designed for effective separation. Separation materials of
suitable shape, thickness, consistency and mode of application should be used (gaskets, butyl tape, sealant,
etc.).
2. Insulation must be sufficiently thick and cover
sufficient area of bimetallic joints to prevent conductive
medium from by-passing it and reaching the faying surfaces of the connection.
3. Crevices between structural metals and plastics
may support an increased rate of corrosion (crevice and
chemical attack). Test their compatibility.
4. Input of large cathodic areas of metal with small
anodic areas must be prevented in design of structures exposed to corrosive environments.
5. Key structural units, especially if these are
smaller than adjoining units, should be made in more noble metals (Figure 1).
6. Less noble structural members in bimetallic
structures should be made larger or in a thicker metal form
MO NEL
SEALANT OR LEADS
FIGURE 3
11. Proper structural design must conduct moisture

away from bimetallic joints.
12. Dissimilar metals connected in a couple must not
be embedded in any porous environment or material
without effective protection (insulation, concrete, soil,
etc.).
13. Structures embedded in porous environments and
in proximity of other structures having dissimilar metals
will suffer galvanic corrosion unless adequately protected.
14. The designer must specify against the use of
backfill containing rough, coarse carbon cinders and
ashes around buried structures. Burying structures in old
household and industrial dumping grounds must be
discouraged.
15. If a dielectric separation is not possible, fasteners
must be coated with anti-corrosive primer and their exposed ends encapsulated.
16. An application of moisture-proof coating or
organic sealant over a bimetallic connection should be
considered a measure of lesser effectiveness.
FIGURE 1
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

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6 b 2 7 9 4 0 0003977 493
C. COATINGS, FILMS AND TREATMENTS
structures from earth, applying insulating coatings or placing structures in conduits.

5. Protecting structures with a cathodic protection
system can be effective (see chapter on that subject).
1. The component parts of a bimetallic joint should

be cleaned, pretreated and primed prior to assembly in
she1t ered conditions.
2. Relative proportion of discontinuities in the protective coating of a bimetallic joint between its anodic and
cathodic element affects its corrosivity.
3. Painting does not provide dielectric separation
against galvanic corrosion.
4. A metallic coating used on the bimetallic connection overall must be less noble than either of the metals
used in the connection (Figure 4).
ANODIC
-
V. GEOMETRY
With appropriate geometry in the design of a structure, the designer can do much to control corrosion.
1. Structural design is an integral part of a structural
member and its function.
2. Structural design geometry should be simple,
sleek and streamlined.
3. Design forms should assist in preventing
geometry-dependent corrosion (crevice, impingement,
galvanic, electrolysis, etc.).
4. The designer should select shapes, forms or their
combinations whose fabrication, jointing and treatment
does not worsen the corrosion hazard.
5. The design geometry must support all or most of
the selective corrosion preventive measures (initially and
within lifetime).
6. Corrosion-prone areas must be accessible.
7. Size and shape of structural members must conform to the method and technique of the selected protection (e.g. for galvanizing by single, double dipping; progressive galvanizing).
8. Prevent entrapment of liquids and absorbent
solids within the structural assembly. Provide adequate
drainage (Figure 5).
CATHODIC
CORRODES
TIN
CHROMIUM
NICKEL
LEAD
COPPER METALS
STAINLESS STEEL
ZINC
ALUMINUM
CAOMIUM
SILVER
FIGURE 4
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
5. Coatings containing metals or their active compounds must not be applied on top of coatings containing
zinc or aluminum on structures to be submerged in sea
water.
6. The designer must consider the possibility of a
change of polarity of metallic coatings on bimetallic connections under any probable environmental conditions.
7. Partially cured or under-cured organic materials
and coatings can be a source of corrosion.
8. At temperatures above 150F (66C) the possibility of emission of hydrochloric acid should be considered
for certain vinyl paints.
9. Zinc- or cadmium-plated components should not
be used in heated compartments containing phenolics,
varnishes, unstable insulating materials or encapsulants.
10. Galvanized fasteners should not be used on
stainless steel structures at high temperatures.
ENTRAPMEUT
COTITS.
WELD
DRAIN
HOLE
BETTER
BEST
D. STRAY CURRENTS
1. Avoid passage of electric current between structures and environment as described in the chapter on
cathodic protection (HVDC, other DC and AC stray currents; electric traction, welding plants, power undertakings and cathodic protection stray currents).
2. Insulating couplings can be used to separate
metallic components for control of stray currents.
3. In a conductive environment however, surface
films can negate the effect of an increase in the length of
the insulating couplings, and result in external current
jump.
4. Avoid critical leakage of stray current by increasing the earth contact resistance of structures, insulating

BAD
BETTER
BEST
FIGURE 5
9. Good design of the geometry of structures should

aid in preventing condensation and accumulation of corrosive media in joints and other spaces.
10. The designer must avoid laps and crevices in
structural design, if possible. If these are unavoidable, the
laps must face downwards on exposed surfaces and all
such connections must be well sealed (Figures 6 and 7).
530
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[ SHEET
\ \ \\
RAIN
/+
BACK OF FLANGE
METAL
SPOT WELD
POOR
I
u
BAD
BETTER
FIGURE 9
FIGURE 6
2. The design layout of structures must offer easy initial preservation and repainting (Figure IO).
K
PIPES
rPIPES7
SIDE
FILLET
ACCESS
HOLE
BAD
BETTER
FIGURE 10
SEALING
COMPOUND
3. Structural steel for galvanizing must be designed

without extremes in weight and cross-section. It must be
reinforced and braced, if necessary, for prevention of warpage and distortion (Figure 11).
A
FIGURE 7
11. Steel reinforcement must be embedded in sufficient thickness of concrete to suit the severity of environment. Minimum thickness of concrete for mild conditions
is
inch (1.3 cm); for corrosive conditions, 2 inches (5 cm);
and for hydraulic structures, 2-3 inches (5-8 cm). Reinforcing steel can be bare, clean metal; coated metal where
shallower embedment is indicated; powder epoxy coated
where concrete is exposed to sea water or road salt; or
even combined metal coating and powder epoxy coating in
concrete exposed to exceptionally severe environments.
12. The designer should not use back-to-back angles
that are bolted or intermittently welded (Figure 8).
BRACING
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
BAD
BETTER
NNEL
FIGURE 11
4. Joined structural members prepared for galvanizing must be fully enclosed by sound, poreless and continuous welds (does not apply to open ends of hollow section members).
5. The geometry of structural steel for metal spray
deposition must permit efficient blast cleaning overall as
well as complete coverage of surface with the spraydeposited metal.
6. Complex structural shapes diminish the effectiveness of paint applied over them. Protruding fasteners
should be avoided. Corners should be well rounded to aid
efficiency of the painting films (Figures 12 and 13).
BEST
FIGURE 8
13. The designer must avoid designing structural

forms that contain horizontal runs of welding, especially i f
these are not accessible for cleaning, grinding or blasting.
VI. GEOMETRY FOR COATING

1. Structural surfaces to be joined must be accessible for easy cleaning, coating and maintenance (Figure 9).

531
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= 8b27940
1-1
damage, corrosion fatigue and fretting corrosion, due to

the mode of their attack on the mechanical strength of
structural metals, justify separate attention.
The insidious attack of these four types of corrosion
occurs largely inside of the structural metals or on the hidden interfaces, and therefore it cannot be detected in time
to obviate the failure by a suitable remedy. It remains thus
in the hands of the combined design team to prevent or
delay the risk of the crisis by their able preventive work.
Generally speaking, none of the metals or alloys used
in construction can be excluded from these hazards.
Among the most susceptible alloys are those normally
selected for todays highly stress-loaded and critical applications.
A cooperative and parallel appreciation of function
and corrosion is a sound policy.
PREFERRED
AVOID
0003979 2bb
--@-
A. MECHANICAL DESIGN REQUIREMENTS

Sound design is based on the comprehensive consideration of materials, stress levels, environments, service conditions variations and the reliable design life of the
structure.
1. The designer must avoid specifying materials
susceptible to stress corrosion cracking or corrosion
fatigue for highly loaded and critical structures in a
hazardous environment - present or expected, of local or
distant origin.
2. Hydrogen embrittlement must be avoided during
cleaning, welding, treatment, cathodic protection and
operat ion.
3. Irregularities of surface on structural members
(notches, grooves, screw threads, changes of section, etc.)
weaken their load bearing capacity.
4. Intermittent wetting and drying of the critical
structural members should be prevented.
5. Good structural design must provide for exact
assembly of individual structural members without undue
stressing; joining without misalignment is in the interest
of good corrosion control.
6. In structures subject to stress loading, simple
welded joints should be preferred to lap welding, spot
welding, riveting or bolting.
7. Incomplete or intermittent welds must be avoided
in stressed structures (Figure 14).
FIGURE 12
PREFERRED
AVOID
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
AVOID
PREFERRED
FIGURE 13
VIL MECHANICS
Mechanical integrity of any structural metal can be
reduced or terminated by any of the known types of corrosion. Thus, all relevant types of corrosion should be
carefully considered in the design and appropriate protective measures taken. Stress corrosion cracking, hydrogen

FIGURE 14
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86279LIO 0003980 T 8 8
B. SURFACE TREATMENT REQUIREMENTS
A. SURFACE DESIGN REQUIREMENTS
1. The designer must specify a uniform, and in

critical areas, the top grade cleaning of surfaces. Ali surface layers contaminated in storage, fabrication, and heat
treatment must be cleaned.
2. High strength steels should be cleaned preferably
by blast cleaning methods.
3. Formation of stress raisers through careless
fabrication methods (deep surface finish marks) must be
prevented.
4. To improve on the fatigue strength of structural
steel, specify shot peening to create compressive residual
stresses.
5. The designer must not specify surface finishes
that may produce tensile stresses in the structural
materials or cause hydrogen embrittiement.
6. Conversion coatings may occasionally help in
reducing the probability of the initiation of the stress corrosion cracking.
7. An increase of the coefficient of friction in structural joints can reduce the probablity of fretting corrosion.
8. Only those coatings approved by the American Institute of Steel Construction (zinc-rich, etc.) should be
used in high-strength frictional bolted joints.
9. Application of any efficient and compatible painting system should assist in reducing the chance of an initiation of stress corrosion cracking or corrosion fatigue.
10. Coating structural surfaces with organic coatings
after metallizing improves the resistance to stress corrosion cracking and the fatigue strength.
11. Coating structures with metallic and organic
coatings where a possibility of hydrogen embrittlement
arises can be recommended only under the condition that
the structures are not made in high strength steel, that
they are not under stress loading and that the coating does
not contain reactive zinc or corrosive chemicals.
12. Wide radii bends for structural steel to be
galvanized reduce the local stress concentration.
13. Welds must be stress relieved before galvanizing.
1. The surfaces should be simple, compact, smooth,

well shaped, optimally positioned and angled. The surfaces should not be rough or devised for entrapment and
retention of corrosive substances. The surfaces should
render full support to corrosion protection whether this is
intrinsic to the design proper or extraneous.
2. Rounded contours and corners provide the best
continuity of surface (Figure 15).
VIII. SURFACE CONFIGURATION

Corrosion usually originates at the surface. There are
inherent characteristics of surfaces that may significantly
change or complement the conclusions arising from the
considerations of the geometry.
Among the moot points in appreciation of the surfaces are the optimal configuration of these surfaces, their
cleanliness, preparation, texture and their electrical and
electrochemical stability in the given and expected environmental conditions.
FIGURE 15
3. Multiform or random combination of surface

planes complicates the corrosion control of structures
(Figure 16).
FIGURE 16
4. Critical surfaces of structures must be visible and

accessi ble.
5. Well-designed structures should show overall
continuity of profile flow as well as detail continuity of surfaces. The detail can be improved by reduction of crevices,
grooves, faying surfaces and by improvement of their
drainability. Further, it can be improved by complete sealing of surface discontinuities.
6. The unity of multishape surfaces of structural
members can be improved by overall sealing or tape wrapping. (Note: The metal must be coated with inhibitive paint
prior to sealing.)
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

533
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SSPC CHAPTERm2-5-0 9 3
m 8b127940 0003981 914 m
7. No part of a metal surface (painted or unpainted)

within the structural entity can be allowed to have an
adverse corrosion effect on other surfaces of the design
conglomerate. All surfaces must be electrically stable in
the given medium under all possible environmental conditions.
8. Electrical stability is to be supported by
beneficial sizing of compatible metal surfaces within the
structural assembly and by efficient surface coating of
both anodic and cathodic surfaces.
9. Excessive roughness of structural metal surfaces
should be leveled out by grinding down protrusions and
filling in hollows with fillers.
10. Haphazard application of insulation or surface
coverings can cause adverse corrosive conditions
(chemical effect, thermal or electrochemical imbalance).
11. The designer should provide for reduction of surface damage of materials in storage, fabrication or erection.
12. The relative position of individual structural
members and their shape must not be the cause of a
significant corrosion within the structure.
13. Structural welds must be technically sound, welllaid and clean. Flux, metal spatter, welding residue, burrs
and other weld defects must be removed prior to overall
surface cleaning (Figure 17).
FDI ATTSD
ened, anodized, passivated, metallized, surfaced, sealed,

prefabrication-treated or painted. The texture of the
substrate and the coating finish are relevant.
5. Surface conditions must be reconciled with surface treatments to follow and their application techniques.
6. Oil, grease, salt deposits and organic or inorganic
contaminants must be removed before the specified surface cleaning.
7. Only the anodic cleaning of high-strength, lowalloy structural steel is permitted. Cathodic cleaning supports corrosion.
8. Flame cleaning of new structural steel does not
remove mill scale.
9. The preferred method of cleaning structural
metals is abrasive blasting. The blasting profile should fit
the thickness, consistency, smoothness and adhesion of
the specified coating.
IX. PROTECTION
A. COATINGS
Protective coatings alone can not maintain a poorly
designed structure in a usable state. The true function of
protection is to retain and improve the effectiveness of
those anti-corrosion properties that have been built into
the design of the structure itself. These intrinsic corrosioncontrol attributes of the designed structures and the extrinsic corrosion protection are complementary to each
other. Their use will depend largely on their economic advantages and engineering value.
The corrosion protection should be made up to suit
the whole structural entity. Piecemeal protection of in
dividual structural members, sub-assemblies or units is
shortsighted and illogical. For the best protection, t h e
geometry of the structures, location and relative position
of the critical parts of the structures, the degree of application difficulties, and the reciprocal effectiveness of the
protective measures must be reconciled.
The new, sophisticated, protective measures must not
be incorporated into the design haphazardly. The design of
the structures must suit their use. The less the surfaces
are accessible, the better must be their protection.
The designer must not be rigid in his attitude toward
protection. He should specify only the necessary, safe and
economically feasible methods of protection. He should
give preference to methods and techniques that can be
utilized by skilled personnel under controlled conditions.
Local climatic conditions on the production site and
subsequent ports of call, including the erection site, will
have a considerable influence on the eventual selection of
the protective measures. Difficulties in obtaining skilled
labor could critically affect the reliability and safety of the
adopted protective measures. It is usually preferable,
therefore, to select materials, methods or techniques that
will give the best possible results and that can be readily
secured in the operational locality of the structures.
Basically, the corrosion protection of structures con-
ROUGH
SURFACE
BAD
BETTER
BEST
FIGURE 17
14. The surfaces of structural steel for pickling

should provide homogenous continuity (no crevices,
ledges, recesses, etc.).
15. Crevices in structural steel for galvanizing shouJd
be completely enclosed by sound and complete welding.
1. Exposed surfaces should be protected in storage,
fabrication, assembly and in use by temporary or permanent protective measures.
2. The texture of surface not only influences the
mechanical efficiency of structures, but it has also an effect on the results obtained from the corrosion control.
This applies whether the structures remain bare or a
coating is applied.
3. A smooth surface finish avoids sharp irregularities that are potential source of fatigue cracks and
corrosion.
4. The designer should evaluate which texture of
surface provides the best base for the protection and
specify this in the design. He should stipulate whether the
structural material should remain raw as is, untreated as
fabricated, or whether it should be blast cleaned, rough--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

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perties of material components of the system in relation to
procedures and schedules, suitability of application
methods for the structural geometry selected, the choice
of techniques allowing the maximum use of money-saving
practices, reduction of complexity in reducing the number
of materials and color schemes and, lastly, the expected
maintenance.
11. The designer must plan and specify coating of the
faying surfaces of structures prior to the mating.
12. The complete painting of surfaces that become
inaccessible on assembly must be specified in the drawings to be completed prior to the assembly.
13. Cutting and welding of coated structural
members must be minimized.
14. To obtain best results from protective coatings
the designer must provide optimum geometry for cleaning,
application, inspection and maintenance; optimum
knowledge of materials and methods of protection;
reputable and approved contractors and applicators; optimum and thorough inspection methods; and earliest
repair of local breakdowns.
15. The designer must appreciate, when deciding on
cathodic protection of structures, the compatibility of
cathodic and coating protection.
16. The corrosion of structures can be considerably
reduced by a suitable change of environment by one or
several of the f o l l o w i n g methods: ventilation,
dehumidification, air conditioning, cleansing, filtration,
separation, reduction of acid strength, reduction of the
peak metal temperature and the use of inhibitors in surrounding media.
17. The change of environment by ventilation must
satisfy the habitability requirements, control the corrosiveness of atmosphere, direct and distribute air flows,
prevent the access of corrosives to vital structures, reduce
condensation on vital surfaces, keep relative humidity
below 6O%, and accelerate the drying of surfaces.
18. The designer must avoid using insulation,
materials, sealants, etc. that contain soluble salts or acids
or emit corrosive vapors causing the corrosion of structural materials.
sists of the protective measures that provide the separation of surfaces from the environments, those that provide
cathodic protection or anodic polarization and those that
cater to the adjustment of the environment. The available
methods can be used singly, individually, or they can be
combined to suit the requirements. Usually, the sum of two
or more protective measures can provide a much better
degree of protection than the straight total of their individual effects.
B. PROTECTION DESIGN REQUIREMENTS

1. The separation of materials from environments is
provided by application of metallic coatings, by painting,
by coating with plastics, ceramics or glass, by lining, sealing, enveloping, insulating, wrapping with tapes and by applying temporary protectives (oils, greases, removable
plastics, etc.). Each involves a change of the surface composition and in most cases a change in dimension and
weight of the structural element.
2. The most effective separation of surface requires
an exclusion of air and moisture or other corrosive media
from the protected substrate.
3. To accomplish this, the designer may call for
various forms of protective systems.
4. Metal coating processes can be classified as
anodic and cathodic. The anodic coatings protect the
metals (steels, etc.) even i f they are porous or damaged.
The cathodic coatings protect the substrate by their
superior resistance to corrosive environment; once damaged these will accelerate the corrosion of the substrate.
The anodic metallic coatings are mostly used for protection of structures.
5. Preconstruction primers must be considered in
structural engineering as an important and integral part of
the whole preservation system. Their effectiveness must
be maintained during the whole production and erection
program.
6. The main purpose of a sealer or topcoat is to extend the utility and life of the anti-corrosive compositions
(primers, metallic coatings, etc.) in an efficient state for an
economic period of time.
7. A good seale: provides good adhesion to the anticorrosive primer (with or without a tie coat); low
permeability to the prevalent corrosive media; high film
thickness; good chemical resistance; good abrasion
resistance; and good climatic resistance.
8. Protective coatings should be used only if they
are more economical than corrosion-resistant materials.
9. Structural materials protected by coatings must
be stored, handled, and maintained with due attention to
the maintenance of the coating integrity. Prevention of
physical damage, contamination and deterioration should
be duly planned in design.
10. The designer must review, before deciding on the
coating system and its individual components, all problems and limitations of individual applicators, the climatic
and working conditions on the sites of application, the pro-
X. MAINTAINABILITY
A. INTRODUCTION
Structures may fail as a result of catastrophic failures
of individual structural components or by a progressive
degradation and deterioration of performance. Each of
these failures can be attributed to factors of mechanics
and corrosion.
The structures must be so designed that their
maintenance can be undertaken as a regular and
economically feasible activity.
B. DESIGN REQUIREMENTS FOR

MA I NTA I NA BI LITY
1. The designed structures must be open to observa-
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

535
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8627940 0003983 797
tion and inspection for reliability and safety.

2. As far as possible all corrosion-control precautions must be repeatable and reparable.
3. The designer should evaluate whether it is more
economical to replace the whole structure or its components instead of repetitive maintenance.
4. The design of structures must be based on the optimal length of corrosion prevention.
5. A planned maintenance program must not interfere with the utility of the structure.
6. The design of structures must provide for the
safety of all maintenance personnel while performing their
various tasks.
7. Critical members of the structures and those subject to accelerated corrosion must not be located in inaccessible places.
8. Structural materials and their protective systems
should be selected to provide an economic period of anticorrosion resistance.
9. Accessibility for maintenance of structures is
necessary (Figure 18).
economic terms, as well as in terms of safety, health and

pollution control. But the most advanced and
sophisticated corrosion control parameters and
technology may not be the most economical way of obtaining economy and reliability of the structure.
B. ECONOMIC DESIGN REQUIREMENTS

Clear and comprehensive specifications are imperative for an accurate economic evaluation; accurate
description of the job; instructions in exact technical
terms or references to standards; production and application methods accurately described (including tools and
auxiliary equipment); corrosion-control systems and their
conditions of applications accurately stipulated; safety requirements stated; and materials and product movements,
housekeeping, workmanship, weather limitations, production flow, assembly, decontamination and ventilation procedures, inspection procedures, etc., comprehensively
described.
The designers task is to obtain the desired degree of
corrosion control at the lowest cost. The designer must appreciate if a timely replacement of the deteriorated structural material is more beneficial than high-cost corrosion
control precautions.
The service life of structural materials is based on
wasteage limits in a given environment, critical strength of
structural materials, renewal periods of materials in particular locations, distribution of materials among structural members or groupings, material repairs of structures
and possible benefits of corrosion.
In painting jobs the cost of paint itself is a small part
of the total compared with the cost of labor (approximately
8O%), scaffolding, plant, ventilation, drying, lighting and
cleaning.
The cost of structural steel is closely associated with
its weight. The cost of fabrication, transport, erection,
maintenance and corrosion control increases with the increase of the weight of steel in the structure. Optimum corrosion control leads to a reduction in the weight and cost
of structures. This will also reduce the cost of maintenance painting.
Simplifying and standardizing structural assemblies
also reduces the cost of maintenance. Permanent structures designed for a service life exceeding five years
should be protected with the best available coating
system, possibly combined with other types of protection.
STRUCTURE
BAD
FIGURE 18
10. Obstructions to the maintenance of structures

should be avoided.
11. The designer must provide sufficient access
space behind any auxiliary structures or equipment standing in the way of the main structures or he should, if possible, incorporate such elements into the main structures.
12. Where blast cleaning of structures in situ will be
required, all precautions must be taken in design to protect other structures and equipment from damage by
abrasives or dust and from ingress of abrasive particles into vital frictional spaces.
13. The local and general geometry of the structures
must be designed for repetitive cleaning and preservation.
Where this is not possible, such areas should be fully
enclosed and airtight.
XII. PLAN OF ACTION

A. INTRODUCTION
The designer must create a plan for corrosion control.
The plan of action is the expression of functional corrosion control and investment know-how of the cooperative
team and must be written in a language understood by all
of them.
XI. ECONOMICS
A. INTRODUCTION
Corrosion causes loss of capital assets and business
profits. Corrosion control, therefore, can justify itself in

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BIOGRAPHY
V.R. Pludek, prior to his
retirement, was a corrosion
control consultant and proprietor of CORROSION DESIGN CONTROL. He worked
on diversified corrosion engineering projects in the U.K.,
Europe, the Americas, Asia,
Africa and Australia for 35
years. He has lectured at the
University of Calgary and the
Southern Alberta Institute of
Technology.
Following an undergraduate degree in Europe, he took post graduate studies in the U.K.,
Canada, and the U.S.A.
He is a Fellow of the Institution of Corrosion Science and
Technology, London, U.K., and a Corrosion Specialist in the National Association of Corrosion Engineers. He is a member of the
American Society for Metals and the Sea Horse Institute, and a
past member of the Canadian Forces Corrosion Prevention Committee, the Canadian Institute of Mining and Metallurgy, and the
Electrochemical Society.
He has been a corrosion consultant in numerous countries,
dealing with corro5,ion control for ships, shipyards, harbors,
nuclear energy facilities, food plants, and oil industries. He has
several inventions related to corrosion prevention in stacks,
aerials, and ship shafts.
His many published works include an EnglishlCzech bilingual technical dictionary (1942), and a book on Design and
Corrosion Control (1977).
B. REQUIREMENTS
A properly designed structure must serve its purpose
with an acceptable degree of efficiency. It should last only
as long as it is to the advantage of the proprietor or user,
and it should be as cheap as possible. It does not need to
last forever. Corrosion of the structures must not limit
their life to a significantly short period; it must not vitally
interrupt their inherent utility; and it must not endanger the
life and health of the users. Reasonable precautions
should be taken in the plan, but an overdesign should be
avoided.
Considering the shortages of raw materials facing the
world, the recoverable and recycleable materials of the
structures should be preserved from total destruction. The
constantly changing causes of corrosion from new techniques and new chemicals or processes has to exert a
significant influence on the concept of corrosion control
planning.
Given the shortage of materials and energy, designing
obsolescence into any structure by increasing its corrosion potential, by selecting corrosion-prone materials and
treating them with negligent protective coating systems, is
a serious error. Well-balanced design, integrated function,
corrosion control and reasonable cost are sound policies.
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
chapter. Frank LaQue, R. Martell, W. Mathay, I. Metil, C. Munger,
Melvin Sandler, Eugene Praschan, Melvin Sandler.

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CHAPTER 26.0
SAFETY AND HEALTH IN THE

PROTECTIVE COATINGS INDUSTRY
by
Daniel P. Adley,
I.
D. Brian Shuttleworth, Scott Ecoff, Sidney Levinson * and Saul Spindel*
INTRODUCTION
these firms. An effective safety program may help reduce

these costs. While the workers compensation system has
traditionally precluded a worker suing an employer for workplace injury, various exceptions have been granted by the
courts, and more can be expected to follow. For instance,
because several different entities are often involved in a
painting job, an injured worker employed by a contractor may
bring suit against a third party such as the specifier.
In 1991, 6.3 million U.S. workers became ill or were injured on the job. The total includes both minor discomfort
and serious injury. Roughly 8 people in every 100 were affected. Of course, some industries are more dangerous than
others. In the painting and paperhanging industry, (no breakdown for painting only is available), the rate was somewhat
higher than average - 9.9 per hundred, while the injury rate
for ship building and repairing was 44.1. By contrast, the rate
in the financial industry was only 2.3 per hundred.
Workers in the painting industry have to be alert to the
possibility of falling from scaffolds, being struck by material
falling from above, becoming caught or being electrocuted
by the machinery their jobs require. They also need to be
aware of occupational illnesses that may result from coating and coating removal operations. Exposure to lead pigments and silica in abrasives can cause serious and even
fatal illness. Various solvents affect the nervous system and
are known or possible carcinogens.
About 2,800 workers were killed on the job in 1991, or
4.3 per 100,000 full-time workers. According to the Bureau
of Labor Statistics, although fatalities are not available for
the painting industry alone, the incidence is not much higher
than this national average.
These figures suggest that it is in the best interest of
everyone engaged in the painting and coating trades, employers, employees, managers and suppliers, to take health
and safety issues quite seriously.
B. ROLE OF OSHA, NIOSH, AND OTHER

ORGANIZATIONS AND SAFETY
PROFESSIONALS
In 1970, Congress passed the Occupational Safety and
Health Act, which created the Occupational Safety and
Health Administration, a division of the Department of Labor.
OSHA is responsible for developing and enforcing mandatory job safety and health standards.
OSHA receives assistance from NIOSH, a complementary agency established under the Act as a branch of the
Department of Health and Human Services. NIOSH conducts
research on safety and health issues, and provides technical assistance to OSHA.
Safety and health organizations such as the American
Industrial Hygiene Association, the American Conference of
Governmental Industrial Hygienists, the American Society
of Safety Engineers and the National Safety Council provide
information to help managers with many other responsibilities, as well as the health and safety professional, stay
abreast of developments in this rapidly changing field.
Professional organizations for the painting and coating
trades, such as the Steel Structures Painting Council, the
International Brotherhood of Painters and Allied Trades, the
National Paint and Coatings Association and the Painting and
Decorating Contractors of America, can provide information
specific to the industry.
A. COST BENEFITS FROM SAFETY

Of course no company wants to see workers hurt or
killed, but there are also external incentives to safety, particularly the costs of such incidents. Lost worktime decreases
worker productivity and lowers morale.
Many facility owners and general contractors are prequalifying contractors based on their safety record, and companies cannot afford to present the image of safety being
anything but a top priority.
Workers compensation and health care costs are becoming more of a drain on all businesses, particularly small
companies, and any costs that can be avoided will benefit
C . WHY OWNERS AND SPECIFIERS NEED TO

BE AWARE OF SAFETY AND HEALTH
Owners and specifiers have a stake in ensuring that contractors they employ have the capability to comply with health
and safety regulations. Many painting specifications require
the successful bidder to comply with all applicable safety
regulations during the performance of a contract. In order
to comply, a contractor must know what materials employees
Authors of Chapter 5.3, Safety in Paint Application, from the second

edition of Volume 1, portions of which have been incorporated into the
current chapter.
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may be exposed to and what federal, state and local regulations require. The contractor must also be familiar with various approaches to compliance, including engineering, work
practice and administrative controls, air and personnel
monitoring and the proper use of personal protective
equipment.
A contractor who does not have the expertise to keep
abreast of safety regulations and to comply with them may
be subject to regulatory fines and civil and criminal liability.
The owner who hires such a contractor runs the risk of being included in legal actions against the contractor. For instance, according to OSHA guidance to inspectors, when one
employer is not meeting requirements to inform employees
of workplace chemical hazards at a multi-employerwork site,
the other employers may be cited also.
Contractors who do not make health and safety a priority often suffer reduced productivity and lower worker
morale. The owner may also be affected by unnecessary
work stoppages and slow downs, and unfavorable publicity
as a result of a serious accident or pattern of occupational
injury and illness at its work site.
Contracting firms who value their employees and practice safety on each job every day will reap many benefits not
only for themselves but for the owners that hire them. Good
safety performance reduces lost work hours, which in turn
reduces the contractors insurance costs while increasing
productivity. A contractor with lower insurance costs can do
the job at less cost to the owner. Everybody wins.
contractors before they are hired. Although other sections

of the industry are not required to do this, it is a good way
for them to protect themselves.
Examples of indicators to measure a firms safety performance include the contractors workers compensation experience modification rate (EMR), total cases and lost
workday incident rates and serious and willful OSHA
citations.
In addition to pre-qualifying contractors, owners and
specifiers should routinely outline in their specifications the
safety responsibilities of the contractor and enforce the safety
and health section of the specification just as stringently as
the quality assurance sections. Owners can also require the
low bidder to submit a site specific safety and health plan
which the owner must approve before awarding a contract.
II. HAZARDOUS OPERATIONS IN THE

PROTECTIVE COATINGS INDUSTRY
A. MATERIALS
1. Fire Hazards and Explosions
a. Causes - Most solvent-thinned paints and paint
solvents are highly flammable and extremely dangerous when they, or especially their vapors, are exposed to open flames, sparks or very high
temperatures. The results may be fire or explosion,
if in a confined area, unless proper precautions are
taken. A certified industrial hygienist or certified
safety professional should be consulted for advice
about safe working conditions, particularly in confined spaces.
D. RESPONSIBILITIES OF EMPLOYERS,
EMPLOYEES AND INSPECTORS,
CONSULTANTS AND ENGINEERS
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Conscientious painting contractors have written safety

programs based on all safety standards applicable to the industry, and make every effort to routinely train their employees to comply with the written program. Many
progressive firms have active safety committees which include management and worker representatives and continuously refine the safety program and refer suggestions for
improvement to upper management.
A truly professional contractor evaluates the hazards of
each job undertaken before any equipment is brought on site,
and develops a plan to control the hazards expected during
each phase of the job. For example, the project manager may
hold a pre-job safety meeting with workers and supervisors,
and follow up with weekly tool box meetings with workers
to ensure that expected hazards are being controlled and
unexpected hazards are recognized as they develop. Daily
routine job site safety inspections by the person responsible for safety and health are also advisable. Workers who
consistently violate safety regulations should be suspended, and in some cases terminated.
Owners and specifiers can reduce the odds of contractor safety violations by pre-qualifying contractors before they
allow them to submit a bid. OSHAs recent regulation on
process safety management (PSM) requires owners in the
chemical process industry to evaluate the safety record of

FIGURE 1
Paint vapors can be flammable if adequate ventilation is not
provided.
b. Flammability of Paints - Many solvent-thinned

paints are flammable and precautions need to be
taken when handling these types of coating systems. Two examples of solvent-thinned paints
include:
(1) Two-Component Paints - Two-component
paints should never be mixed in large quantities,
generally no more than five gallons at a time.
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faces where fire hazards are present.
(6) Extinguish all sources of flame in the area.
Turn off all gas valves and open all electrical
switches if working in confined areas or near
electrical equipment.
(7) Be sure that all equipment, motors and lights
in the area are grounded and consider using only
explosion proof lighting.
(8) Keep fire extinguishers nearby. Be sure that
they are of the proper type, as follows:
Class A - Paper, wood, rubbish, where water is
effective;
Class B - Burning liquids, where smothering action is required;
Class C - Electrical equipment, where the extinguishing agent must be non-conductive.
(9) Keep pails of sand or similar absorbent materials near dispensing pumps and spigots to absorb
any spills. Replace all leaking containers.
(10) Clean up before, during and immediately after painting operations. Wet down sweepings,
rags and waste with water and store in closed
metal containers. Dispose of daily.
(1 1) Always clean up paint or solvent spills immediately.
They usually create heat because they react

immediately upon mixing. The larger the volume
mixed, the higher the temperature. The temperature may become high enough to create a
hazard.
(2) Oil Paints and Specialty Coatings - Waste or
wiping rags soaked with paints based on linseed
oil may catch fire spontaneously if left lying
around, especially during warm weather. Spillage
of peroxide catalysts used in polyester laminates
and other similar chemicals can cause combustion.
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
c. Flammability of Solvents and Thinners - Most

paint solvents and the solvents used in solventthinned paints are volatile and will flash in the
presence of a flame or electric spark. Usually, the
faster the solvent evaporates - the lower its flash
point. Therefore, solvent-thinnedbrushing or rolling
paints, which dry relatively slowly, will contain solvents with a flash point of about 105OF or somewhat
higher. A solvent-thinnedspray paint that requires
fast evaporating solvents may contain solvents that
flash as low as 3OOF. A spray gun, which applies
a pint to many quarts of paint per minute under high
pressure, will produce a greater volume of solvent
vapor than brushes or rolled paint. Therefore, all
spray equipment must be grounded to prevent accidental ignition by static electricity. This includes
containers. Painters should bond their empty bucket
to the bulk drum while filling it and the drum should
be properly grounded.
Pure solvent vapors are heavier than air and
tend to move along the ground when in confined
areas. Thus, all flames near the area must be extinguished. Solvent vapors must be mechanically
exhausted from all enclosed areas with the ventilation designed for efficient air flow. Explosion proof
lights must be used. All electric motors should be
turned off.
d. Prevention of Fires -The following precautions
will help prevent the possibility of fires:
(1) Store solvents in Underwriters Laboratory
(UL) listed containers.
(2) Prohibit smoking anywhere solvent-thinned
paint is stored, mixed or used. Allow no other
sources of ignition such as electric coffee pots,
hot plates, or other such appliances in the area.
(3) Provide adequate ventilation in all working
areas to prevent a build-up of explosive concentrations of solvent vapor. Properly calibrated
direct reading detection instruments should be
used to monitor confined areas or closed spaces
to be sure vapor concentrations are maintained
below explosive limits.
(4) Do not use metal ladders in confined areas
or within 10 feet of exposed electric wiring.
(5) Use non-sparking tools to clean metal sur-

2 . Health Hazards
a. Causes - A variety of paint ingredients or chemicals may be harmful to the human body. For instance, some chemicals may cause irritation,
sensitization, central nervous system effects, or systemic effects. Most people can withstand chemical
exposures for short periods of time at low doses;
however, some people are immediately sensitive to
some ingredients and almost everyone will be affected to a degree if exposed for a cuff icient period
of time. Continued exposure may cause the body
to become sensitized so that subsequent contact
may result in an aggravated reaction, especially for
anyone with a chronic illness.
b. Types and Components of Paints - The term

paint is commonly used to identify a range of
products including conventional paints, varnishes,
enamels, and lacquers. Conventional paint is an inorganic pigment dispersed in a vehicle consisting
of a binder and solvent, with selected fillers and additives. Varnish is a nonpigmented product based
on oil and resin in a solvent that dries first by the
evaporation of the solvent and then by the oxidation and polymerization of the resin binder. A pigmented varnish is called an enamel. Lacquers are
coatings that are commonly based on a cellulose
ester in a solvent that dries by evaporation leaving
a film that can be redissolved in the original solvent.
(1) Alkyd Paints - employ metal soaps of organic
acids to catalyze the oxidation of the drying oil
component. Because lead soaps are commonly
used, lead is a potential hazard in any drying-
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may irritate the respiratory tract and/or cause adverse health effects to other body systems by being transferred via the blood stream. The third route
of entry of solvents into the body is by ingestion. Ingestion of solvents may affect the gastrointestinal
tract as well as other body organs. The following
precautions should be used while working with toxic solvents:
(1) Properly label, seal and store all toxic solvents
when not in use.
(2) Adequately ventilate all areas where solvents
are used or stored.
(3) Wear the proper respirator and eye protection.
(4) If a solvent gets splashed into the eye, immediately flush the eye with water for a minimum
of fifteen minutes and seek medical attention.
(5) Wear the appropriate gloves and clothing
when handling solvents.
(6) Practice good personal hygiene after handling
any solvents.
(7) Consult the Material Safety Data Sheet
(MSDS) to determine the toxicity of the material
that is in use, and the specified protective equipment needed when using the material.
(8) If permissible exposure limits are exceeded,
as determined through air monitoring conducted by an industrial hygienist, then engineering
control and respiratory protection becomes
necessary.
oil-type paint (alkyd, epoxy ester, oleoresin, and

urethane-oil). Lead used as an oxidation catalyst
may comprise 0.5 to 1.0 percent of the paint
solids by weight. (See also discussion of lead
under pigments.)
(2) Liquid Epoxy Resins and Curing Agents - are
primarily used in solvent-borne and waterborne
two-component epoxy paints. These liquid resins
are modified by the addition of reactive diluents
(glycidyl ethers). These reactive diluents are
themselves irritants to the skin, the eyes, and the
respiratory tract.
(3) Aliphatic and Aromatic Polyamines, Polyamine Adducts and Polyamides - are used as curing agents in two component epoxy coating
systems. The aliphatic amines are potent irritants
and sensitizers; the aromatic amines are somewhat less potent. The polyamide resins are relatively harmless. Acid anhydrides and
formaldehyde resins are used as cross-linking
agents in powder coatings and baking enamels.
The acid anhydrides are irritants and sensitizers.
Formaldehyde is a strong irritant and is also considered a human carcinogen.
(4) Epoxy Resins - are commonly reacted with fatty acids to produce epoxy esters. Because coatings produced with these resins contain no
unreacted epoxy groups, no hazard exists.
(5) Urethane Resins - organic isocyanates are the
principal hazard associated with urethane coatings. Isocyanates can cause severe irritation to
the conjunctiva, and respiratory distress. They
react with various protein functional groups and
should be capable of forming antigens. A typical
response to isocyanate inhalation, either as a
vapor or an aerosol, is the manifestation of an
asthma-like syndrome, characterized by a feeling of chest constriction and difficult breathing,
sometimes accompanied by a dry, irritant cough.
A small percentage of the population may become sensitized to isocyanates, whereupon the
above symptoms are produced on exposure to
even low airborne concentrations. The toxicity
can be minimized by avoiding use of smaller
molecular weight species.
d. Prevention of Health Hazards - The following

precautions should help reduce potential hazards.
They describe a common sense approach to avoiding contact:
(1) Identify and seal all toxic and dermatitic
materials when not in use.
(2) Adequately ventilate all painting areas. Provide general exhaust ventilation in the form of
blowerdfans supplying fresh outside air to the
work area where necessary and use National Institute for Occupational Safety and HealthlMine
Safety and Health Administration approved
respiratory protection equipment if the vapors
cause irritation or intoxication.
When surface preparation involves removal
of old paint films, take care to minimize dusting,
to protect workers from the dust and to properly
dispose of coating residues, in accordance with
applicable state and federal regulations.
(3) Wear goggles and the proper respirator when
spray painting or performing any operation where
an abnormal amount of vapor or dust is formed.
(4) Wear appropriate gloves and clothing when
handling dermatitic materials. Change and clean
work clothing daily.
(5) Avoid touching any part of the body when handling dermatitic materials. Wash hands, face and
arms thoroughly before eating and at the end of
c. Hazards of Solvents and Thinners - Most solvents are toxic to some degree, depending upon exposures. Solvents may enter or affect the body in
three ways. The most frequent way solvents affect
the body is by skin contact. When a solvent is allowed to contact the skin, even for a short period
of time, it will start to damage the skin or cause dermatitis. Dermatitis is reddening and swelling of the
skin. The second route of entry of solvents into the
body is by breathing, or inhalation.
Once solvents are inhaled, the vapors can pass
from the lungs directly to the blood. The solvent

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e. Hazards of Pigments and Other Additives
(1) Heavy Metal Pigments - Pigments are another
paint component that may be toxic to the human
body. The most common contain lead, chromium, and oxides of iron, titanium, and zinc.
Precautions such as ventilation, respirators,
hygiene facilities, and personal protective clothing should be implemented when applying or
removing paints containing these pigments. The
substitution of hazardous pigments with nonhazardous pigments is the best method of controlling future occupational health hazards.
The removal of paints containing heavy
metal pigments without control measures greatly increases an employees chances of developing a heavy metal poisoning. Airborne pigments
such as lead may enter the body by inhalation
and ingestion. Exposure to lead may affect each
person differently. Even before symptoms appear, lead may cause unseen injury to the body.
During early stages of lead poisoning, mild
symptoms may be overlooked as everyday medical complaints, including: loss of appetite, trouble sleeping, irritability, fatigue, headache, joint
and muscle aches, metallic taste, decreased sex
drive, lack of concentration and moodiness. Brief
intense exposure or prolonged overexposure
may result in severe damage to the bloodforming, nervous, kidney and reproductive systems. Some noticeable medical problems include: stomach pains, wrist or foot drop, high
blood pressure, nausea, anemia, constipation or
diarrhea, tremors, convulsions or seizures.
(2) Silica - Silica (both crystalline and amorphous)
and the silicates clay, diatomaceous earth, mica,
and talc are widely used as extender pigments.
With the exception of clay, all have been demonstrated to produce fibrosis of the lung. A preliminary study of the health hazards in the painting
trades suggested that mixed dust pneumoconiosis is common among painters. While extender
pigments are used in substantial quantities in
some paint formulations, these materials may be
at least partially locked up by encapsulation in
the resinous binder.
(3) Organic pigments - The chronic hazards
posed by these materials are largely unknown.
Many of the pigments are based on dyestuffs: the
dyestuff is combined with an inorganic compound
to produce an insoluble pigment. The dyestuffs
have been studied more extensively than the pigments, and several have been implicated as
cancer risks. In paint the biological availability of
these materials is probably limited by the insolubility of the pigments and their partial encapsulation in the paint resin matrix. Fat andlor water
soluble dyes are used in some wood stains, increasing the potential hazard.
FIGURE 2
Eye and respiratory protection are needed for spray painting.
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
the day. Try to shower at or near the jobsite.

Change clothing before leaving. Toxicants can
be transferred easily.
(6) Paint removers containing solvents are often
toxic. They should be used only with ventilation
controls and/or respiratory protection.
Table 1. Health Effects of Lead

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- Activators and
catalysts found in some coatings, such as mercury compounds, can be very harmful if proper
protective clothing and respiratory protection is
not used.
clothing, respiratory protection, medical monitoring, posting of warning signs, and worker
training.
The Texas Department of Health also issued
an advisory on the hazards of using silica abrasives to the oil and gas pipe coating industry.
Both documents strongly recommend observing
OSHAs PEL of 100 pg/m3 based on an 8-hour
time-weighted average.
(3) Chemical Strippers - Chemical strippers are
used to soften the existing coating for removal
by scraping andlor flushing. Chemical strippers
eliminate airborne hazards but proper protective
clothing such as coveralls, gloves and glasses
should be worn to prevent skin and eye irritation.
Caustic compounds in some chemical strippers
can cause burns if not immediately washed off
the skin and can cause eyes, nose and throat irritation upon inhalation. Solvent-based strippers
are also available. Health hazards may vary from
irritation and central nervous system depression
possible with substances such as xylene to the
possibility of human carcinogenicity, as with
methylene chloride. Chemical strippers containing solvents may require use of respiratory protective devices.
(4) Acids and Alkalis - Acids and alkalis commonly found in wash primers and chemical strippers (e.g., sodium hydroxide and phosphoric
acid) are highly corrosive, and appropriate measures should be instituted concerning storage,
handling, waste disposal, ventilation, personal
protection and first aid.
(5) Chemical Spills - Clean up spills immediately
and wash immediately if skin comes into contact
with a hazardous substance. If a solventlchemical gets splashed into the eye, immediately flush
the eye with water for a minimum of fifteen
minutes and seek medical attention. Wear the appropriate gloves and clothing when handling
spills. Practice good personal hygiene after handling any spills. Consult the Material Safety Data
Sheet (MSDS) to determine the toxicity of the
material that is in use, and the specific protective equipment needed when using the material. Store and dispose of all oily or solvent wetted
rags in metal containers with a tightly sealed lid.
Respiratory protection should be worn if the spill
creates a hazardous atmosphere, or the MSDS
indicates it is necessary.
(6) Materials Removed From Surfaces - A prejob analysis of the surface materials should be
conducted to determine whether the coating contains hazardous materials. If the coating contains
potentially hazardous constituents then respiratory and protective clothing should be worn when
working with the removed material.
(4) Activators and Catalysts
f. Hazards
of Surface Preparation Materials
(1) Dusts and Abrasive Fines - Blast cleaning can
turn paint, rust and substrate surfaces into a dust

cloud consisting of many airborne particles, some
too small for the naked eye to see. Whether or
not any of the airborne dust particles are a potential health hazard depends on the size of the dust
particles, the toxicity of the materials in the dust,
and the amount of dust breathed into the lungs.
To determine the toxicity of the dust refer to the
MSDS for the abrasive in use, and identify the
chemical makeup of the coating being removed
and the substrate or object being cleaned. To
control workers exposures to potentially toxic
dust, a well designed ventilation system should
be installed. Respirators and proper protective
equipment should also be used to ensure adequate protection.
Abrasive fines used to remove paint coatings that contain lead, cadmium, chromates, zinc
or nickel should be treated as hazardous unless
testing can prove otherwise. In addition, abrasives may contain small amounts of toxic heavy
metals such as lead, copper, arsenic, cadmium
and beryllium. Respiratory devices and protective clothing should be worn when working with
abrasive fines. Of particular concern is the
presence of silica (quartz) in sands and other
mineral abrasives. (See below.)
(2) Silica and Silicosis - Chronic or acute shortterm exposure to silica dust can cause a debilitating disease known as silicosis. Air-supplied respirators, operated in accordance with OSHA
respiratory standard 1910.1 34, can protect
blasters from this hazard. However, because of
poor maintenance of respiratory equipment and
poor hygiene, many workers have been exposed
to and injured by excessive levels of silica.
NIOSH recommended as early as 1974 that abrasive blasting be restricted to abrasive with a maximum of 1 percent silica content. In a recently
issued Hazard Alert, NIOSH described specific
health hazards from silica, and cited several case
histories where blast cleaners had died from this
condition. NIOSH also identified inadequate engineering controls, inadequate respiratory protection, and failure to conduct adequate medical
surveillance programs as contributing to the development of silicosis. NIOSH recommends a
series of measures, including substitution of alternative abrasives, air monitoring, use of containment structures, personal hygiene, protective
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hose must never be bent or kinked in less than a

four inch radius.
i.General
Paint products are used widely in industry to provide a surface coating for protection against corrosion, for appearance, as electrical insulation, and
for a number of special purposes. The hazards associated with the industrial application of these
products will be discussed in this section. Common
methods of application include airless spray, conventional spray (air atomizing) and electrostatic
spray.
e. Airless spray equipment must be grounded to prevent static sparking. If extension cords are used,
make sure that they have a ground wire and that
the ground is connected.
Do not spray solvent through the nozzle tip because this can build up static electricity and cause
explosion or fire. Take the tip off before spraying
solvent through the system.
f.
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SSPC CHAPTERs26.0
g. Secure blast hose at a point no more than 10 ft.

from the operator.
h. Conduct hydrostatic tests at least once, preferably twice a year. Check all valves, including safety
valves, daily.
FIGURE 3
Airless spray systems exert considerable force and can cause
serious injury if not handled carefully.
2. Airless Spray
Because airless spray systems operate at high pressure, give special attention to safety during operation. A tip guard and trigger lock must be on all
airless spray-guns. Fluid sprayed from the gun is
propelled with sufficient force to penetrate skin and
cause serious damage. In the event of injection, special treatment by a physician is required. The attending physician should be advised of the materials
ingredients (an MSDS would be helpful) and of the
nature of the injection (high pressure).
The entire system is pressurized so that hose
ruptures or leaks at fittings can result in dangerous
high pressure spray. Some important safety practices to help avoid these hazards include the following:
a. Never point the gun at anyone.
b. Do not make adjustments to the equipment setup, such as changing nozzles or fittings, without first
shutting off the pump and releasing the system
press ure.
4. Electrostatic Spray
In electrostatic spraying, an electrical charge is applied to the atomized coating particles, either by the
creation of an ionized zone within the spray cone
area, or by imparting a charge to the fluid stream
prior to its release from the spray gun head. The
charged, atomized paint particles are attracted to
the conductive object being finished by the electrostatic potential between the paint and the object.
The level of exposure to the paint is determined
by the overspray and rebound that occurs during
spraying. Effective ventilation controls, protective
clothing and respiratory protection should be worn
while using this painting method. All electrostatic
equipment must be properly grounded.
5. Compressor Pumps
When using a compressor never overload it. Place
the compressor in an open and level area. Place the
compressor in a remote location because it requires
a good supply of clean, fresh air in order
c. Always make sure the fluid hose is in good condition before spraying; kinks or abrasion can develop into a rupture. Store hose in a dry area.
d. Do not use standard hardware on an airless system; only high pressure fittings can be used. High
pressure hose is required for fluid flow. The
3. Air Atomization Method

The air atomization spray gun is widely used because of its versatility, its low cost, and because it
creates a high quality finish. In this method, compressed air provides the energy to atomize the finish. The atomization is produced by an air nozzle.
Two types of nozzles are used: external mix and internal mix nozzles. In the external mix nozzle, the
coating and the compressed air exit from separate
orifices and are mixed outside the nozzle. The air
jet atomizes and shapes the spray fan. Internal mix
nozzles combine the compressed air and finishing
materials in a chamber inside the nozzle. The
atomized mixture is shaped by the geometry of the
chamber opening.
Regardless of which paint method is used,
most industrial spray paint operations require exhaust ventilation, the use of air supplied respirators,
protective clothing, and adequate washing facilities.
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8 b 2 7 9 4 0 0003992 7 T T H
to properly operate. The compressor should also be

grounded before being started. It should have
reasonable time to warm up before building up pressure in the receiving tank. Never tamper with preset
safety valves.
Gauges should be kept clean and visible at all
times. Workers need to see the gauges to tell
whether all air pressure has been released before
disconnecting any couplings or opening any lids.
The gauges are also used to ensure that the compressor is operating safely.
Do not add fuel to a gasoline powered compressor when it is hot or running. The fuel can easily ignite, causing a fire or explosion. All re-fueling
of the compressor should be done in the morning
before start-up. The compressor should be kept
tuned-up and out of confined spaces. If compressors are used to supply breathing air for respirators
they must be equipped with a carbon monoxide
monitor and filter systems capable of providing
Grade D air.
Protective equipment is essential to protect the

abrasive blaster and fellow workers from the hazards of the job. At a minimum, a continuous flow
re,spirator with helmet and wide angle, clear vision
lens must be used by abrasive blasters. The helmet
must fit completely over the head and neck to the
shoulders. The helmet should be equipped with a
constant supply of clean air (Grade D or better) of
not less than six cubic feet per minute. The air-line
should be equipped with air-purifying filters, pressure regulator gauge, relief valve, air-flow control
valve and a NIOSH/MSHA approved blasting respirator. The abrasive blaster should also be equipped
with appropriate work gloves, coveralls and other
appropriate clothing.
The blaster must use a dead-man control valve
on the blasting nozzle which cuts off the air and
abrasive stream when the pressure on the control
is released. The hoses for the blasting equipment
must be equipped with a static dissipating tube or
be lined with carbon black. This prevents shock from
static electricity build-up. The shock from static electricity could cause the operator to fall if working from
elevated surfaces.
Before starting any abrasive blasting operation,
thoroughly examine the condition of hoses, hose fittings, couplings and unions. Any of the above showing wear must be replaced to prevent sudden
parting and whipping under pressure.
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2. Hand and Power Tools

Common hand tools used for hand tool cleaning are
sandpaper, non-woven abrasive pads, wire brushes, chipping hammers, scrapers, hammers and
chisels. Prolonged use of chipping hammers and
chisels may cause trauma to the hands, wrists, and
elbows. Use of shock absorbing gloves andlor wrist
supports or ergonomically designed tools might be
advisable.
Common power tools are pneumatically driven
hammers or rotary hammers, needle guns, roto
peens, rotary grinders, sanders or wire brushing
tools. It is important to have a proper equipment setup when using power tools. Follow the manufacturers instructions for the tool being used.
Power tools can be dangerous and safety
precautions must be taken when operating them.
Protective equipment must be worn. In addition to
a hard hat, eye protection, and work gloves should
be worn. Power tool cleaning may be very noisy.
Therefore it is very important to use adequate hearing protection. Respiratory protection and coveralls
are advisable whenever hand or power tools are
used to remove paint, but are required for removal
of lead based paints.
If electrically driven (rather than air-powered)
tools are used, they must be adequately grounded
or double insulated, and used in a dry atmosphere
FIGURE 4
Specialized protective equipment is required for abrasive
blasting.
C. SURFACE PREPARATION
1. Abrasive Blasting
Without proper precautions the high pressures used
in blast cleaning can cause injuries. Injection of
water beneath the skin should be treated as seriously as any other chemical injection. In addition,
abrasive material may cause harm at high or even
moderate pressures, and continuous exposure to
the dust may result in lung disease.
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emissions generated during surface cleaning.
Means for fire protection and proper ventilation
should also be provided during welding, cutting or
heating.
to avoid the possibility of shock. Ground Fault Circuit Interrupters (GFCI) should be used with all electric cords and tools.
In confined spaces and other areas where there
may be a danger of explosion, power tool cleaning
should not be conducted because of the possibility
of sparking.
The operator must be certain that the tools in
use are checked and safe. Make sure that the abrasive media is attached securely and tightened. Tools
should not be operated above maximum operating
speed. Tools should not be run unless in contact
with the work surface. Manufacturers directions
should always be strictly followed.
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5 . Pressure Pots
Sandblast pots and related blast machinery should
be built to standards set by the American Society
of Mechanical Engineers (ASME) or National Board
Code. Pots not meeting these requirements must
not be used. The ASME code means that everything
has been done to make the vessel as safe as possible. The code prohibits any field welding on blast
machines.
Blast pressures should stay within the
manufacturers blast machine ratings. High blast
pressures increase wear and tear on blast
machines, and increase operator fatigue. Unless
otherwise specified, maximum working pressure of
blast machines and related components must not
exceed national board approved 125 psis (8.5 BAR).
Pot tenders and others working near abrasive
blasting operations may need to be equipped with
respirators, gloves, hard hats and safety glasses.
Most abrasive blasting operations produce noise
levels in excess of 90 decibels so hearing protection devices (ear plugs or earmuffs) should also be
worn.
Never force the lid off the sandblast pot. If the
lid is difficult to open, stop and check the air pressure. The pot must be depressurized before opening the pot lid, or before any changes to hose
couplings, or repairs of any kind are allowed.
A blast machine should never be moved while
it contains abrasives. Abrasive blasting machines
which will be towed on a highway should be
equipped with properly operating brakes, taillights,
fenders and side reflectors.
3 . Water Jetting
Although water itself is relatively safe, the extremely
high pressure often used for water jetting can be
hazardous. Prior to starting any water jetting operation, employees should examine the condition of
the hoses, hose fittings, couplings and unions. Any
equipment showing wear should be replaced to prevent sudden parting and whipping under pressure.
Water jetting hoses should be secured to the
staging at the working level leaving only enough free
hose so the hose weight can be properly and safely handled by the blaster. Any electrical equipment
in the area of operations that presents a hazard to
the operator should be de-energized, shielded or
otherwise made safe. Operators should wear appropriate waterproof clothing, head, eye and hearing protection during all water jetting operations.
When water jetting operations are conducted
in confined spaces, the blaster should be in constant
communication with the stand-by person. Employees should take precautions to protect the water
blasting equipment from freezing in cold weather
and signs should be posted to advise others in the
area when water blasting operations are being performed. As always, injection of water beneath the
skin should be treated as seriously as any other
chemical, and a physician should be consulted.
For more information on safe practices for
water jetting, see The Water Jet Technology Associations booklet RecommendedPractices for the Use
of Manually Operated High Pressure Water Jetting
Equipment.
D. ACCESS AND RIGGING

The proper use of scaffolds is discussed in chapter 5.2.
The following precautions should be observed when using
other access methods.
1. Ladders
Use the following procedures in storing, setting
up and using ladders:
a. Use safety shoes on all ladders.
4. Welding, Cutting or Heating
All welding, cutting or heating on surfaces with

preservative coatings should be performed according to OSHA standard 29 CFR 1926.354, Welding,
Cutting and Heating in Way of Preservative Coatings. Before welding, cutting or heating, the potential toxicity and flammability of preservatives should
be evaluated. All surfaces covered with toxic coatings require the use of protective clothing and a
respirator that is capable of filtering out the

b. Store ladders off the ground in a warm, dry area
protected from the weather.

c. Protect wood ladders with a clear finish so defects
are visible.
d. Inspect ladders daily during use. Keep clean and

free of oil or grease.
e. Do not use ladders that are longer than can be
carried and erected by two men.
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f. Do not use a stepladder over 12 ft. high. It should

be fully opened with a locking device. Do not stand
on the top step. One man should hold the ladder
if the other is more than 8 ft. high.
a. Guardrails - The primary means for protecting

workers from hazards of falls from heights is the use
of a standard railing consisting of top rail, intermediate rail, and toeboard. Guardrails and toeboards
should be installed on all open sides and ends of
platforms to give maximum protection. The OSHA
standard pertaining to this protection is 29 CFR
1926.500(d), which refers specifically to work on
floors, platforms and runways. Other OSHA standards that discuss the use of guardrails are
1926.451, pertaining to scaffold arrangements, and
1926.550(g), pertaining to suspended personnel
platforms.
g. Avoid placing ladders in front of doorways, unless the door is blocked.

h. Only one worker should work on a ladder at a
time.
i Do not use a ladder as a horizontal scaffold
member.
j. if the ladder is used to reach unusually high levels, its top must be at least three feet above the point
of support and tied off
b. Safety Belts, Lines and Lanyards - Guardrails

and toeboards cannot be used in all fall hazard situations. When guardrails are neither practical nor
feasible, use a secondary means of fall protection.
One such means is a lifeline system. Lifelines can
be 2 basic types: 1) a catenary or horizontal lifeline
between two fixed anchorages, independent of the
work surface, to which a lanyard is secured, or
2) a dropline or personal lifeline system. The
dropline or personal lifeline system is a rope system, used with some type of approved safety belt
or harness. This is worn around the waist and attached to a lanyard or rope grabbing device that is
securely fastened to an anchorage point. The rope
grabbing device should be attached to a lifeline of
3/4 inch manilla rope or equivalent, which in turn
should be secured to an anchorage point capable
of supporting 5,000 pounds. When used and maintained properly, these systems can be a key factor
in preventing injury and death from falls. While federal regulations still allow use of safety belts, use
of full body harnesses is advisable.
c. Safety Nets - Sometimes safety belts, personal

lifeline systems, guardrails, or other conventional
protective equipment may be impractical or not
feasible for the work method. In these situations,
personnel safety nets can be installed under and
around the work area. Personnel safety nets are
typically used in bridge work and long-term structural projects where workers are exposed to significant fall hazards. OSHA requires the use of safety
nets when work places are more than 25 ft. (7.6 m)
above the ground or water surface and conventional
protective equipment (personal lifelines, guardrails)
is deemed impractical.
Personnel safety nets must be manufactured
and tested in accordance with all pertaining ANSI
standards and OSHA standard 29 CFR 1926.105 requirements. Personnel safety nets should bear a
label displaying the manufacturers name, date of
manufacture, and proof of load testing. Every net
should also carry a serial number so that records
can be kept of details such as repairs, inspections,
and load test results.
FIGURE 5
Failure to use proper access equipment can lead to falls, a com-.
mon source of injury in coating operations.
2. Fail Hazards
Falls from heights are a significant hazard faced by
painters and blasters in day-to-day work. Because
falls are a routine hazard, there is a tendency not
always to take the precautions necessary when
working from elevated work surfaces. But when
working from heights, safety can not be taken for
granted. The hazards of high work subject employees to possible injury and death, and an employer to possible OSHA citations and fines.
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3. Confined Spaces
ments, groups that develop voluntary industrial standards or labor representatives. Once the need for
a new standard has been identified, OSHA Advisory Committees, which include representatives of
management, labor and state agencies, develop
recommendations.
In the very early stages of the process, OSHA
may request additional information needed for the
development of a standard by publishing an Advance Notice of Proposed Rulemaking in the Federal Register, a daily record of federal business.
When a first draft of the proposed regulations has
been completed, a Notice of Proposed Rulemaking must appear in the Federal Register. Interested parties must then have at least 30 days to
comment on the way proposed regulations will impact them. Following this comment period, the final regulations are published in the Federal
Register, and incorporated into the Code of Federal Regulations, a permanent record of government
regulations organized by subject. (See Appendix for
more details on sources of information.)
Those who feel they will be adversely affected
by a standard may request a judicial review. Employers that cannot meet the standard, or believe
an exception should be made in their case because
their facilities or methods are at least as effective,
can request a temporary or permanent variance.
When new or particularly hazardous conditions
warrant, OSHA may develop emergency standards,
which take effect immediately. Once these standards have been published in the Federal Register,
they are also subject to comment and review before
they are published as permanent standards.
OSHAs Permit-RequiredConfined Space Standard

1910.146, defines a confined space as a space that
is large enough and so configured that an employee
can bodily enter and perform assigned work; and
has limited or restricted means for entry or exit (e.g.,
tanks, vessels, silos, storage bins, hoppers, vaults
and pits are spaces that may have limited means
of entry); and is not designed for continuous
occupancy.
The confined space standard states the
minimal requirements for safe entry, continuous
work in and exit from tanks and other confined
spaces. A confined space program should include
training in:
a. the duties of a standby person;
b. use of ventilating equipment;
c. isolation of systems;
d. atmospheric testing;
e. confined space entry limits; and

f. the use/purpose of an entry permit.
ill. OSHA STANDARDS

A. OVERVIEW OF OSHA
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1. Authority
In 1970, Congress passed the Occupational Safety
and Health Act, which created the Occupational
Safety and Health Administration, a division of the
Department of Labor. OSHA is responsible for developing and enforcing mandatory job safety and
health standards. The agency also conducts
research, training and record keeping related to
health and safety issues. Some states have been
approved to administer their own state OSHA
programs.
4. Enforcement and Interpretation

Every establishment covered by the Act is subject
to inspection by OSHA compliance safety and
health officers. Inspections are generally conducted without advance notice, though OSHA is required
to obtain a warrant if an employer does not consent.
OSHA gives highest priority to workplaces:
2. General Dufy Clause

Although OSHA has developed a number of industry - and substance-specific standards, the general
duty clause of the Occupational Safety and Health
Act takes a very broad view of worker health and
safety. It requires employers to furnish to their
workers employment and a place of employment
which are free from recognized hazards that are
causing or likely to cause death or serious physical
harm. OSHA can use this clause to cite an employer when conditions it believes to be unsafe do not
violate specific OSHA regulations.
a. where there is imminent danger of death or serious physical harm;

b. where fatal accidents, or those that hospitalized
more than five employees have occurred;
c. when employees complain of alleged violations

and request an inspection;
d. when specific industries, occupations, or materials are associated with high rates of illness or injury.
If OSHA discovers violations during an inspection, the employer will receive a citation, which details the violation, includes information about
penalties and a schedule for compliance. Penalties
may depend on the seriousness of the violation,
knowledge of the violation, and a show of cooperation, or good faith.
3. Regulatory Process
Some OSHA standards have been mandated by
Congress. They may also be initiated by the agency in response to petitions from other parties including the National Institute for Occupational Safety
and Health (NIOSH), state and local govern-

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Type of Violation
Criteria for Type of Violation
Possible Penalty
Other than Serious Violation
Probably would not cause death or serious

physical harm
Substantial probability of death or serious
physical harm. Employer knows or should
have known about the violation
Employer knows about the hazard or violation,
and makes no reasonable effort to correct it
Penalty is discretionary and may range from $50-$7,000

for each violation, depending on a show of good faith
Penalty is mandatory and ranges to $7,000 for each
violation
Serious Violation
Willful Violation
Willful Violation Resulting in
Death
Repeat Violation
Failure to Correct Violation
Penalties range from $5,000 to $70,000 for each violation

Fines of up to $25,000 for an individual and $500,000
for a corporation - possible six month jail term
Up to $70,000 for each violation
Upon reinspection, a substantially similar violation is found

A violation for a final citation has not
been corrected by the prescribed abatement
date
Up to $70,000 for each day past the abatement date the

violation continues
Table 2. Possible fines for OSHA violations.
recognition for those who accept the challenge. The

Star, Merit and Demonstration Programs are cooperative programs, and participants are volunteers.
These firms also receive limited exemptions from inspect ion.
Local OSHA offices can also provide publications, speakers, audiovisual materials and technical advice. OSHA provides funds to nonprofit
organizations to conduct workplace training and
education. A number of private firms and universities also offer OSHA compliance training.
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Serious penalties are also possible for repeat

violations and failure to correct previous violations.
Employers may want to schedule an informal meeting with OSHAs area director, who is authorized to
enter into settlement agreements that revise citations and penalties.
The employer may also contest both a citation
and associated penalties within 15 days. The written Notice of Contest will be evaluated by the Occupational Safety and Health Review Commission.
Unfavorable decisions can be appealed at this levei and to the U.S.Court of Appeals.
Painting contractors are considered part of the
construction industry for OSHA record keeping purposes. These businesses are most frequently cited
for failure to comply with the Hazard Communication Standard. They are also frequently cited for lack
of accident prevention and training programs, not
having or not using safety equipment such as side
rails on ladders, railings on scaffolds, and hard hats.
Contractors also commonly forget to post a required
poster informing employees of their rights and obligations under the Occupational Safety and Health
Act.
B. COMPONENTS OF AN OSHA COMPLIANCE

PROGRAM
Company Safety & Health Programs should be designed
to be used in conjunction with the current copy of the OSHA
Construction Industry Standards, 29 CFR 1926, and the
General Industry Standards, 29 CFR 1910. OSHA states in
29 CFR 1926.20 General Safety and Health Provisions,
It shall be the responsibility of the employer to initiate and
maintain such programs as may be necessary to comply with
this part (part refers to all of 29 CFR 1926).
The purpose of an OSHA Compliance Program is to establish and maintain policies, programs, and procedures that
are necessary to comply with all applicable OSHA standards,
and to establish and maintain an effective program to prevent accidents, injuries and illnesses.
The components of an OSHA Compliance Program
should include:
5 . Consultation Assistance
OSHA provides a Consultation Service that can help
employers evaluate and improve their compliance.
The service was developed with small employers in
mind. Although the program is funded by OSHA, it
is entirely voluntary. No penalties are issued, and
OSHA enforcement compliance officers do not see
the results.
State officials or university staff often operate
the Consultation Service. They may point out weaknesses in an employers health and safety program
and provide the training and technical assistance
needed to resolve any problems. Firms that participate in the program receive a limited one-year exemption from OSHA inspection.
OSHAs Voluntary Protection Programs encourage employers to take their health and safety
programs beyond the letter of the law - and provide
1. Policy statement establishing goals and commitment

of management and the means for communicating
these to all employees.
2. Delegation of responsibilities for implementing the
program.
3. Methods for identifying hazards and hazardous activities and for controlling them.
4. Commitment to ongoing training and education of
all supervisors and employees on all aspects of job

safety and health.
5. Proper reporting and record keeping, and investi-
gation of all accidents, injuries and illnesses.

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tain many standards that apply to industrial protective coating operations. Some of the common standards that apply
to the construction industry include:
6. Methods and procedures for complying with specific

OSHA standards.
7. Periodic review of the program with revisions made
as necessary.
1. Hand Tools and Power and Pneumatic Tools
All hand, power and pneumatic tools should be

equipped, inspected, guarded, used and maintained
according to the manufacturers specifications and
limitations and OSHA standards 29 CFR
1926.300-305, Tools - Hand and Power.
2. Compressed Air - There is no existing OSHA standard for compressed air. However, there are standards set by the American Society of Mechanical
Engineers (ASME).
3. Electrical - All electrical systems and equipment
should be designed and installed according to
OSHA standards 29 CFR 1926.402-408, Installation
Safety Requirements, and the most current edition
of NFPA 70, National Electric Code. All employees
performing work on electrical equipment or systems
should comply with the work practices in OSHA
standards 29 CFR 1926.416-417, Safety-Related
Work Practices.
4. ye and Face - Eye and face protection should be
provided when machines or operations present
potential eye or face injury from physical and chemical hazards as required by OSHA Standard 29 CFR
1926.102, Eye and Face Protection. Eye and face
protection equipment required by OSHA should
meet the requirements specified in American National Standards Institute 287.1, Practice for Occupational and Educational Eye and Face Protection.
C. ORGANIZATION AND HIERARCHY OF

OSHA STANDARDS
The OSHA General Industry Standards 29 CFR 1910
contains several standards applicable to the protective coatings industry. When a construction industry standard 29 CFR
1926 is not applicable or is non-existent, the General Industry Standard (29 CFR 1910) Protective Coatings may be
enforced.
Some common aspects of the protective coatings industry and their related General Industry standards include:
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1. Abrasive Blasting - No specific standard applies

to blasting in the field but many aspects of blasting
operations fall under other applicable standards.
FIGURE 6
Workers may be required to wear hearing protection under
OSHAs Occupational Noise Exposure Standard.
5. Fire Protection/Flammable, Combustible Liquids

- Fire protection should be developed for all company activities according to OSHA standard 29 CFR
1926.150, Fire Protection. This should include
providing, maintaining, inspecting, and testing fire
suppression systems and portable fire extinguishers, as required by this OSHA standard. The fire
prevention requirements, specified in OSHA standard 29 CFR 1926.151, Fire Prevention, should be
implemented for all jobs.
2 . Noise/Hearing Conservation - Noise protection

should be provided and a Hearing Conservation Program should be in place and be in compliance with
OSHA standard 29 CFR 1910.95, Occupational
Noise Exposure.
- The selection, issue,

use, inspection, cleaning, storage and repair of
respirators should comply with the OSHA Respiratory Protection Standard, 29 CFR 1926.103 and
1910.134. See section IIIF for more information on
choosing respirators.
3 . Respiratory Protection
4. Confined Spaces - Practices and procedures

used to protect employees from the hazards of entry into permit required confined spaces should comply with
OSHA
Standard,
1910.146,
Permit-Required Confined Spaces.
D. CONSTRUCTION INDUSTRY STANDARD

RELATING TO INDUSTRIAL PROTECTIVE
COATING OPERATIONS
The Construction Industry Standards, 29 CFR 1926 con-

FIGURE 7
In order to test the level of air contaminants, a vacuum pump
on the workers belt is used to pull air through a specialized
filter placed in the workers breathing zone.
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The storage, handling, use and fire protection

requirements for flammable and combustible liquids
and their containers should be in compliance with
OSHA standard 29 CFR 1926.152, Flammable and
Combustible Liquids.
The design, construction, load-bearing capabilities, platform guarding, and use of all scaffolding must comply with OSHA standard, 29 CFR
1926.451, Scaffolding.
9. Personal Protective Equipment
6. Exposure to Gases, Vapors, Dusts, Mists and

Fumes - Exposure of employees to inhalation, ingestion, skin absorption, or contact with any material
or substance at a concentration above the permissible exposure limit (PEL) specified in OSHA standard 29 CFR 1926.55, Gases, Vapors, Fumes,
Dusts and Mists is prohibited.
Generally, OSHA requires employers to
minimize employee exposure to air contaminants as
far as possible through the use of engineering controls such as enclosure or confinement of an operation, ventilation, or substitution of less toxic
a. Head Protection - Hard hats must be used where

there is a possible danger of head injury from impact, or from falling objects, or from electrical shock
and burns as required by OSHA standard 29 CFR
1926.100, Head Protection.
Helmets and hardhats for the protection of employees against impact and penetration of falling
and flying objects should meet the specifications
contained in American National Standards Institute,
289.1, Safety Requirements for Industrial Head
Protection.
Helmets for the head protection of employees
Task-Related Triggers and Required Protective Measures

Workers engaged in the tasks listed must be protected as specified before air monitoring results are back and throughout the task unless monitoring
results show that lower levels of protection are sufficient (29 C f R 7926.62fd)).
Presumed Exposures for Specific Tasks
Specific Tasks
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Protective Measures
(A complefe list of options for respiratory
protection appears in the Interim Final
Rule's Table on Respiratory Protection,
1926.62(f).)
>2,500 pg/m3
*manual demolition
*manual scraping
*manual sanding
*heat gun applications
*general clean-up
-power tool cleaning with
dust collection systems
-spray painting
*any other task where employer
has reason to believe task could
exceed PEL
'power tool cleaning without dust

collection systems
*clean-up of dry expendable
abrasives
*movement and removal of abrasive
blasting enclosures
*use of lead-containing mortar
*lead burning
'rivet busting
*abrasive blasting
*welding, cutting, and
torch burning
/protective clothing & equipment

/change areas
/hand washing facilities
/training
/initial medical surveillance:
blood sampling and analysis
/respirators with protection factor
of 10, such as a half mask airpurifying respirator with highefficiency filters or operated in
demand (negative pressure) mode

/change areas
i/ training
vinitial medical surveillance:
/respirators with protection factor
from 25-50, such as a powered airpurifying respirator with loose fitting
helmet or hood and high efficiency
filters, or full facepiece air-purifying
respirator with high efficiency filters

/change areas
/training
/initial medical surveillance:
/respirators with a protection factor
of above 50, such as a full
facepiece supplied-air respirator
operated in positive pressure mode
(assigned a protection factor of
2,000 in new rule)
Table 3. Task-Related Triggers Under the Construction Industry Lead Standard.

Table Courtesy of the Journal of Protective Coatings and Linings.
exposed to high voltage electrical shock and burns

should meet the specifications contained in American National Standards Institute 289.
materials. Only when acceptable levels of exposure

cannot be achieved through these approaches (as
is often the case in coating operations) may employers use respiratory protective devices to comply with
these standards.
7. Housekeeping - During the work day, work areas,
passageways and stairs in and around buildings or
other structures must be kept clear of debris according to OSHA Standard 1926.25, Housekeeping.
b. Foot Protection - Where the potential for serious foot injury exists, safety-toe footwear for employees should be required and meet the
requirements specified in American National Standard for Personnel Protection - Protective Footwear,
241.
8. Ladders and Scaffolding - Stairways and ladders

must be designed, constructed and used according to the manufacturers' specifications and limitations and OSHA standards CFR 1926.450 through
29 CFR 1926.460. Job-made ladders must conform
to the design and construction specifications of
these OSHA standards.
c. Body Protection - Employees working with

chemicals or materials that can cause damage to
the skin or that can be absorbed should be provided appropriate protective clothing.
d. Respiratory Protection - The selection, issue,
use, inspection, cleaning, storage and repair of
respirators must comply with the OSHA Respirato-

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Air-purifying respirators remove particulates from

the air in the workers breathing zone by filtering it
prior to the worker inhaling it. Supplied-air respirators supply breathing air from outside the work environment.
a. Air-Purifying Respirators - Air-purifying equipment
has the advantage of being lighter and less restrictive, as well as more economical than supplied air
respirators.
b. Supplied Air Respirators - Supplied air respirators
may have several advantages for coating work.
They protect workers from simultaneous exposure
to multiple contaminants, which is not uncommon
in coating operations. High dust levels associated
with many surface preparation techniques may
quickly overload the filtering systems on which airpurifying respirators are based. And air-purifying
equipment may not be adequate to protect workers
from high lead levels associated with containment
systems.
ry Protection Standard, 29 CFR 1926.103 and

191O. 134. See section III F for more information on
choosing respirators.
E. STANDARDS FOR LEAD AND LEAD REMOVAL

The Construction Industry Lead Standard, 1926.62, provides the practices and procedures for protecting employees
exposed to lead on the job. All construction work excluded
from coverage in the General Industry Standard for Lead by
29 CFR 1910.1025(a)(2) is covered by this standard. Construction work is defined as work for construction, alteration
and/or repair, including painting and decorating. Lead paint
removal and maintenance activities would be covered by the
CFR 1926.62 Lead Standard. All other non-construction work
is covered by the General Industry Standard 1910.1025.Protective measures required under the Construction Industry
Lead Standard are shown in Table 3.
F. CHOOSING RESPIRATORY PROTECTION

DEVICES
3 . Protection Factors
Various groups have established protection factors
for respirators, including NIOSH, OSHA, ANSI, and
others. In fact, there is quite a controversy over the
level of protection afforded by different categories
of respirators.
1. Need for Respirators in Coating and Surface

Preparation
It is likely that workers will be required to wear some
type of respiratory protection during most
coating and surface preparation operations, particularly when removing lead paint using techniques
such as powered hand tools and vacuum blasting,
due to the very low levels of exposure required to
trigger mandatory use ( 5 0 , g/mJ).
~
In a containment
structure in which abrasive blasting is occurring,
workers will always be required to wear respiratory
protective equipment, even if a well designed ventilation system is being used. It is also likely that
most support personnel may be required to wear
respirators in order to meet the permissible exposure limit.
FIGURE 9
Supplied air respirators deliver breathing air from outside the
work environment.
FIGURE 8
Air purifying respirators filter contaminants from the air workers
breathe.
2 . Types of Respirators
In general there are two basic types of respirators.
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In general, protection factor describes a degree

of protection a given respirator will provide, versus
some airborne concentration of contaminant outside
the respirator. For instance, for the half-mask respirator equipped with HEPA filtration cartridge, a protection factor of 10 is assigned for lead. This means
that the respirator can be worn in an atmosphere
up to 10 times the PEL, and still protect the worker
so that the concentration of lead inside the mask
is below the PEL. Assuming a PEL of 50p gm3, this
respirator can then be safely worn when airborne
~
Similarly, a proconcentrations are up to 5 0 0 g/mJ.
8627990 0009000 474
tection factor of 50 is assigned for full-face respirators.

Powered air-purifying respirators (PAPR) highlight a variation on assigned protection factors. For
lead, NIOSH has taken a very conservative posture
and established a protection factor of only 50 for
PAPRs, while OSHA and others have established
protection factors of up to 1000. Similar problems
occur when looking at the standard respirator for
blasting, the abrasive blasting hood. NIOSHs current position is to assign a protection factor of only
25, when OSHA may allow up to 1000 if proper airflows to each hood are maintained.
One example of the discrepancy and variation
that exists in evaluating protection factors is the fact
that OSHA has proposed, in a draft chapter from
their technical manual, higher protection factors for
powered air-purifying respirator (PAPRs) that maintain higher flow rates to the facepiece. If the PAPR
device delivers more than 6 ftYmin to the facepiece,
the higher protection factor of 500 may be used.
OSHA has proposed a similar approach for the blast
hood. A protection factor of 1000 may be assumed
for a respirator which provides a minimum flow
through a tight-fitting hood designed to maintain a
positive pressure under sustained heavy work.
However NIOSH, which has the responsibility of establishing protection factors, hac not recognizedthis
position and it is currently not clearwhich numbers
OSHA might enforce in the Construction Industry.
The first step in establishing a worker safety and health

program should be to determine the programs purpose. The
programs purpose is to establish and maintain policies, programs, and procedures that are necessary to comply with
all applicable OSHA standards, and to implement and maintain an effective program to prevent accidents, injuries, and
illnesses.
The second step in establishing a worker safety and
health program is to identify the program components. These
components were discussed earlier in the Development of
an OSHA Program section.
The third step is to dedicate the time to sit down with
all company managers and supervisors to review the program and set specified goals for implementing its requirements. Have managers and supervisors do the same for all
the employees. Encourage participation. Be honest and sincere. Continually ask for feedback and ways for improving
the program. Let everyone know they will be consistently held
accountable for fulfilling their responsibilities under the
program.
Enforce the program by holding everyone accountable
for their responsib es. Let good pertormers know that they
are doing a good job. At the same time, do not let poor or
mediocre performance go unnoticed.
Monitor and maintain records relating to accidents, injuries, illnesses, medical examinations, training, fit testing,
and exposure monitoring for the life of the company. Analyze the firms total workers compensation costs over the
years. Compare accident rates and evaluate changes in employees attitudes and work quality. Seek assistance from
employees to get feedback on the success of the program.
5 . Breathing Air Requirements

With any of the supplied-air respirators, including
abrasive blast hoods, it is essential that Grade D
breathing air reach the respirator. ANSI Standards
Z 86.1ICompressed Gas Association commodity
specificationG-7.1 for Grade D air, requiresnormal
oxygen levels, no more than 5 mg/m3 condensed
hydrocarbon contamination, no more than 20 ppm
carbon
no pronounced odor, and a maximum of 1000 ppm carbon dioxide. controls must
be installed on compressors to achieve and verify
with these requirements,
or specially
built, dedicated breathing air compressors must be
used. he control/filter systems of existing
lubricated compressors must be equipped with a
constant monitor
for carbon
or a
alarm with frequent measurement of in-line carbon
monoxide, addition, periodic samples from the air
stream should be drawn, bottled, and sent to a
laboratory to verify that each parameter of Grade
D breathing air has been met.
IV. IMPLEMENTATION OF SAFETY AND

HEALTH PROBLEMS
A. ESTABLISHING WORKER SAFETY AND
HEALTH PROGRAMS
B. OWNER EVALUATION AND MONITORING

OFCONTRACTOR PROGRAMS
A representative of each facility owner should evaluate
and monitor all contractor health and safety and OSHA complianCe programs. These programs should be submitted and
approvedlmonitored by a qualified individual, such as a Certified safety professional (CSP) or certified industrial hygienist
(CIH). The program evaluations should be completed before
any work begins. Monitoring of the programs should be conducted through job site visits and review of daily work logs.
The OSHA Standard 1910.119 Process Safety Management of Highly Hazardous Chemicals contains the specific
requirements, and responsibilities for owners and contractors safety and health programs. This standard states that
the owner is responsible for obtaining and evaluating information regarding the contract employers safety performance
and programs.
A good example of a safety program that each contractor in the coatings industry should have is the OSHA
1910.146 Permit - Required Confined Spaces standard. Under this standard, the contractor must develop a written permit space entry program that complies with the requirements
of the standard. This program must be reviewed by the owner
to verify that the contractors safety procedures and practices developed under the standard are adequate and are
being followed.
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SSPC C H A P T E R U 2 b - 0 93
SSPC CHAPTER*26.0
9 3 M 8 6 2 7 9 4 0 0004003 300
The Water Jet Technology Association
P.O. Box 1365
,Golden, CO 80402
Maintaining a site injury and illness log, OSHA Injury

and Illness Records Form 200, is another method employers must use to track work activities involving contract employees working on or adjacent to covered processes. Injury
and illness logs of both the employers employees and contract employees allow an employer to have full knowledge
of process injury and illness experience. This log will also
contain information which will be of use to those auditing
process safety management compliance and those involved
in incident investigations.
It is very important for owners to write OSHA compliance requirements into their contracts and specifications.
This will help ensure that the contractors are complying with
the applicable OSHA standards.
B. SELECTED HEALTH AND SAFETY

REGULATIONS
Existing Occupational Safety and Health Administration
(OSHA) regulations which apply to coatings operations can
be found in three volumes of the Code of Federal Regulations (CFR):
29 CFR Part 1900-1910 (1901.1 to 1910.999)

1903
Inspections, Citations and Proposed
Penalties
1904
Recording and Reporting Occupational
Injuries and Illnesses
1905
Rules of Practice for Variances, Limitations, Tolerances and Exemptions
1910.132-140 Personal Protective Equipment
1910.1 55-165 Fire Protection
V. SOURCES OF INFORMATION ON HEALTH

AND SAFETY
A. ORGANIZATIONS
American Industrial Hygiene Association (AIHA)
2700 Prosperity Avenue
Suite 250
Fairfax, VA 22031-4319
(703) 849-8888
American Society of Safety Engineers
1800 East Oakton
Des Plaines, IL 60018-2187
(708) 692-4121
International Brotherhood of Painters and Allied Trades
1750 New York Avenue, N.W., 8th Floor
(202) 637-0700
National Safety Council
1121 Spring Lake Drive
Itasca, IL 60143-3201
(708) 284-1121
1500 Rhode Island Avenue, N.W.
(202) 462-6272
NIOSH
Publications Dissemination
National Institute for Occupational
Safety and Health
Robert A. Taft Laboratories
4676 Columbia Parkway
Cincinnati, OH 45226
(513) 533-8287
Painting and Decorating Contractors of America (PDCA)
3913 Old Lee Highway
Suite 33-8
Fairfax, VA 22030
(703) 359-0826
29 CFR Part 1910.1000 to End

1910.1000
Air Contaminants
191O. 1025
Lead
1910.1200
Hazard Communication
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
29 CFR Part 1926 (Construction Regulations)

1926.57
Ventilation
1926.62
Construction Industry Lead Standard
1926.102
Eye and Face Protection
1926.152
Flammable and Combustible Liquids
1926.354
Welding, Cutting and Heating in Way of
Preservative Coatings
1926.803
Compressed Air
Steel Structures Painting Council (SSPC)

4516 Henry Street
Suite 301
(41
. 2), 687-1113
~
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The authors and editors gratefully acknowledge the active participation of the following in the review process for this chapter: Rex
Bison and Daniel O. Chute.
Richard Grunberg provided a number of pictures for this
chapter.
BIOGRAPHY
D. Brian Shuttleworth received a B.S. in Occupational Health

and Safety Management from Slippery Rock University of Pennsylvania. He works as an Industrial Hygiene Associate with SE Technologies, Inc. and KTA Environmental. Mr. Shuttleworth is also
experienced in research and planning for stringent quality assurancelquality control programs.
Scott D. Ecoff received a B.S. in Industrial Safety Management

from Indiana University of Pennsylvania and an M.S. in Inductrial
Hygiene from Central Missouri State University. Mr. Ecoff is the
Principal Industrial Hygienist and Technical Director of Safety &
Industrial Hygiene Services for SE Technologies, Inc., and a Senior
Consultant to KTA Environmental. His responsibilities include providing consultation to clients in the recognition, evaluation and control of occupational health hazards. Mr. Ecoff is a Certified Industrial
Hygienist, and is also an active member of the American Industrial
Hygiene Association and the Steel Structures Painting Council.
554
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SSPC C H A P T E R * 2 6 . 0
93
8627940 0004002 247
Daniel P. Adley received a B.A. in Chemistry from St. Vincent

College in 1977 and an M.S. in Industrial Hygiene from the University of Pittsburgh in 1984. Mr. Adley has 16 years of experience in
providing broad based safety and health consulting to a diversified
cross-section of American industry. He has worked for SE Technologies, Inc. as the Manager of the Safety, Occupational & Environmental Health Department for the past four years. He is also very
involved in lead-based paint management, working as a Principal
Consultant to KTA Environmental. Mr Adley is a Certified Safety
Professional and a Certified Industrial Hygienist. He is Chairman
of the SSPC Group C.5 Committee on Environmental, Safety and
Health Compliance.
21. Philip J. Landrigan. Exposure to Lead from the Mystic River

Bridge: The Dilemma of Deleading. New England Journal of
Medicine, March 1982, Vol. 306, p. 676.
22. Richard J. Lewis, Sr., ed. Saxs Dangerous Properties of Industrial Materials, eighth edition. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold, 1992.
23. John M. Lunardini. Lead Paint Removal: Specification Through
Job Completion. Maintaining Structures with Coatings, SSPC,
1991, pp. 140-155.
24. Robert Manware. Lead in Construction. Industrial Lead Paint
Removal: Compliance and Worker Safety, SSPC, 1992, pp.
57-58.
25. H. Everett Myer. Safe Use of HDI Polyisocyanate-Containing
Polyu rethane Coatings. Maintaining Structures with Coatings,
SSPC, 1991, pp. 68-74.
26. H. Everett Myer. Some Plain Talk About Polyurethane Coatings: Definitions, Safe Application, and the Future Direction of
Industry Safety Needs. Journal of Protective Coatings and Linings, January 1991, pp. 52-56.
27. National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health. Construction Bibliography, 1990.
28. National Safety Council. Accident Prevention Manual for Industrial Operations, 1978 edition, pp. 27-28.
29. Occupational Safety and Health Administration. All About OSHA.
OSHA 2056.
30. Occupational Safety and Health Administration. Consultation
Services for the Employer. OSHA 3047.
31. Occupational Safety and Health Administration. OSHA Handbook for Small Businesses. OSHA 2209.
32. Occupational Safety and Health Administration. OSHA Publications and Audiovisual Programs. OSHA 2019.
33. Occupational Safety and Health Administration. Personal Protective Equipment. OSHA 3077.
34. P. Orbaek. Effects of Long-Term Exposure to Solvents in the
Paint Industry. Scandinavian Journal of Work and Environmental Health, 1985, #11, Supplement 2. pp. 1-28.
35. Frank J. Pokrywka. Controlling Hazards in Confined Space
Work. Journal of Protective Coatings and Linings, August 1993,
pp. 81-84.
36. Frank J. Pokrywka. Personal Hygiene and Skin Protection for
Coating Applicators. Journal of Protective Coatings and i i n ings, December 1992, pp. 63-65.
37. Jeffrey D. Propst. Working Safely with Electrical Equipment.
Journal of Protective Coatings and Linings, February 1993, pp.
91-94.
38. John F. Rekus. Employees Have a Right to Know. Journal
of Protective Coatings and Linings, April 1989, pp. 42-47.
39. John F. Rekus. The Occupational Lead Hazard. Lead Paint
Removal, SSPC, 1988, pp. 1-13.
40. John F. Rekus. Eliminating Confined Space Accidents in the
Coating and Lining Industry. Journal of Protective Coatings and
Linings, April 1990. pp. 46-53.
41. Steven P. Roetter. Responsibility for Worker Safety on Lead
Paint Removal Projects. Industrial Lead Paint Removal: Compliance and Worker Safety, SSPC, 1992, pp. 14-18.
42. Gwen Russell. Personal Monitoring to Evaluate and Control
Employee Exposure to Lead on Abrasive Blasting Projects.
Industrial Lead Paint Removal: Compliance and Worker Safety,
SSPC, 1992, pp. 53-56.
43. Randy L. Sadler and Frank J. Pokrywka. Safe Storage and
Use of Flammable and Combustible Liquids. Journal of Protective Coatings and Linings, March 1993, pp. 71-76.
44. The Steel Structures Painting Council. SSPC Qualification
Procedure No. 2(1), SSPC QP-2 (I), Standard Procedure for
Evaluating the Qualificationsof Painting Contractors to Remove
Hazardous Paint 1992.
45. The Water Jet Technology Association. Recommended Practices for The Use of Manually Operated High Pressure Water Jetting Equipment. 1985.
46. Sheri L. Woodruff. Providing Safe Respiratory Protection in
the Protective Coatings Industry, Journal of protective Coatings and Linings, August 1988, pp. 54-59.
Portraits and biographical sketches of Sidney Levinson and

Saul Spindel can be found at the end of Chapter 4.1
SUGGESTED READING MATERIAL

1. Dan Adley, Scott Ecoff, and Larry Balint. Personal Protective
Equipment For Maintenance Painting Operations. Journal of
Protective Coatings and Linings, April 1992, pp. 46-54.
2. American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists.
Industrial Ventilation: A Manual of Recommended Practice.
3. H.R. Bleile and S.D. Rodgers. Specification Criteria for Abrasive Blasting Media. Surface Preparation: The State of the Art,
SSPC, 1985, pp. 89 -123.
4. Jerry Burbank. Industrial Hygiene in Lead Abatement: A Contractors Perspective. Lead Paint Removal: Meeting the
Challenge, SSPC, 1991, pp. 168-172.
5. Daniel O. Chute. Protecting Workers from Lead: A Review of
Regulations and Practices. Lead Paint Removal: Meeting the
Challenge, SSPC, 1991, pp. 186-195.
6. Daniel O. Chute. Update on OSHA Lead in Construction Standard. Maintaining Structures with Coatings, SSPC, 1991, pp.
133-136.
7. F.E. Clayton and G.D. Clayton. Pattys Industrial Hygiene and
Toxicology, third edition, Vol. 2A-2C. New York: Wiley & Sons,
1981.
8. Mark R. Cullen, K.F. Maurer, and Irene Kurylo Smith. Controlling Lead Poisoning on Bridge Sites. Industrial Lead Paint
Abatement: Approaches, Alternatives, and Advances, SSPC,
1993, P P . 63-65.
9. R. DeReamer. Modern Safety and Health Technology. New York:
John Wiley & Sons, 1980.
1O. Barbara DeWoody. Solvent Hazards and Controls. Journal
of Protective Coatings and Linings, April 1993, pp. 75-78.
11. Scott Ecoff. Air-Borne Health Hazards Associated With Abrasive Blasting. Journal of Protective Coatings and Linings, May
1993, pp. 85-87.
12. Scott Ecoff. Basic Principles of Fall Protection From Elevations. Journal of Protective Coatings and Linings, November
1992, Pp. 77-80.
13. Scott Ecoff. Setting Up an Air-Line Respirator System for Abrasive Blasting Operations. Journal of Protective Coatings and
Linings, January 1993, pp. 69-72.
14. Epidemiology Division, Texas Department of Health. Silicosis In Oil and Gas Pipe Coating. January 1992.
15. Federal Register. OSHAs Lead Exposure in Construction, Interim Final Rule. Volume 58, 2590, (May 4, 1993).
16. Kent Foster. Monitoring of Lead Levels Outside Contained
Areas During Blasting Operation. Achieving Quality in Coating Work, SSPC, 1992, pp. 202-203.
17. Harold E. Hower. The Dilemma of Removing Lead-Based
Paint. Journalof Protective Coatings and Linings, January 1988,
pp. 30-37.
18. Journal of Protective Coatings and Linings. NIOSH Requests
Assistance in Preventing Silicosis and Deaths from Sandblasting. April 1993, pp. 21-37.
19. Mark A. Katchen. Solvent Syndrome. Maintaining Structures
with Coatings, SSPC, 1991, pp. 63-67.
20. Karen A. Kapsanis. OSHAs New Rule on Lead: Changing the
Practice and Price of Lead Paint Removal. Journal of Protective Coatings and Linings, July 1993, pp. 46-51.
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CHAPTER 27.0
ENVIRONMENTAL REGULATIONS AFFECTING

PROTECTIVE COATINGS
by
Bernard R. Appleman
INTRODUCTION (Chapter 27.0)
IV. MISCELLANEOUS REGULATIONS
A.
B.
C.
D.
A. Regulating Coatings For Food & Beverage Facilities

B. Soil Quality Regulations
C . Regulating Antifouling Coatings
Operations that Affect the Environment

How the Environment is Affected
Regulatory Agencies
Overview of Federal Acts and Regulations
APPENDICES
AIR QUALITY REGULATIONS (Chapter 27.1)

A.
B.
C.
D.
E.
Appendix A: Hotlines and Other Phone Numbers

Appendix B: Professional & Trade Organizations
Appendix C: Selected Environmental Regulations
General/Overview of Activities and Regulations

Ozone & VOC
Air Quality for Lead
Air Quality for Particulates
State & Local Regulation of Air Quality
INTRODUCTION
A. OPERATIONS THAT AFFECT

THE ENVIRONMENT
A. Definitions
B. Classifying Wastes
C . Responsibilities for Hazardous Waste
D. Sampling & Testing
E. Treatment & Disposal of Hazardous Waste
F. State Regulation of Hazardous and Non-Hazardous
Waste
Coating and lining activities have a significant effect on

the environment. Some examples of these activities and their
specific effects on the environment are as follows:
1. Abrasive Blast Cleaning
In this process, hard, small abrasive particles strike
the steel or other substrate at high velocities, fragmenting the abrasive particle and eroding the substrate. Significant quantities of dust from the
abrasive and the surface debris are thus made airborne and can contribute to air pollution. This dust
itself is recognized as a fugitive emission that is
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
WASTE HANDLING AND DISPOSAL (Chapter

27.2)
OTHER REGULATIONS AFFECTING PROTECTIVE

COATINGS (Chapter 27.3)
I. WATER QUALITY
A. Federal Clean Water Act
B. Reportable Quantities for Hazardous Substances
C. Water Quality Standards
D. National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System
E. Potable Water in Storage Tanks
II. HAZARDOUS MATERIALS

A. Toxic Substances Control Act
B. CERCLA & Superfund
C. Right To Know - SARA Title III
III. REGULATING STORAGE VESSELS

A. Secondary Containment
B. Underground Storage Tanks

FIGURE 1
Dust from abrasive blasting operation.
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often regulated. In addition, specific species may be

released, such as lead dust, other heavy metals, silica, or asbestos, which are separately controlled by
environmental agencies.
agencies have not established sufficient policies or procedures for coordinating the various divisions within the agency. Consequently, the protective coatings and related
industries affected by these regulations must deal with these
regulations individually, responding to and complying with
each specific requirement. If there are inconsistent or conflicting requirements between one or more environmental
regulations (even from the same agency), the industry may
need to bring this to the attention of appropriate officials.
This is not to say, however, that government agencies,
be they federal, state, or local, cannot collaborate on enforcement as well as regulatory development. In one of the more
dramatic instances of inter-agency cooperation, the Texas
Air Control Board (TACB) developed a stringent regulation
for containing lead-based paint debris during removal operations on water storage tanks.
The TAC6 was responding in part to an incident in which
citizens of Cedar Park, TX complained to the Texas Health
Department about air-borne dust from an open blasting operation on a water tank. In the process of investigating the complaint, public health officials found lead-based paint chips
contaminating the soil of the entire neighborhood, and the
chips were traced to the open blasting operations. Not only
did two agencies work together on this complaint, but the
air quality regulation subsequently developed by the TACB
had the effect of protecting the ground as well as the air.
2 . Paint Application
In the process of spraying (and other means of application), a substantial portion of the liquid coating
does not reach the substrate but is lost due to overspray. In addition, most coatings have appreciable
quantities of volatile organic compounds (solvents)
that can contribute to smog formation.
3. Waste Production
Both coating removal and coating application generate waste products, which must be properly disposed of. In many instances, the waste may be
classified as hazardous by EPA or state environmental agencies because of the heavy metal (e.g., lead)
content of the residue, or the solvents of unused
paint or thinner.
4. Product Storage
The storage of certain products (e.g., hazardous

waste, petroleum compounds) is regulated by EPA
because of the potential ecological damage that
could result from a spill or leak from storage vessels.
5. Leaching of Coatings
Under certain circumstances, toxic or otherwise undesirable components of applied coating films may
leach into the environment. Examples include coatings used for lining of potable water storage tanks,
coatings used in food and beverage plants, and antifouling coatings. Leaching occurs because many of
these ingredients are water-soluble or flake or erode
into the environment.
C. REGULATORY AGENCIES
The Environmental Protection Agency is the federal
agency responsible for developing and enforcing environmental regulations. Congress intended that protection be a
joint Federal-state responsibility. Most of the statutes provide for states to implement and enforce the regulations. In
some instances states must meet certain requirements to be
delegated authority (e.g., hazardous waste regulation under
RCRA).
Individual states may have their own environmental
agencies, variously known as the Department of Environmental Protection, Department of Environmental Resources,
Department of Natural Resources or state EPA. Other state
or local agencies that may be involved are health agencies
and fish and game commissions. State environmental regulations must be at least as stringent as federal regulations,
but they may be more stringent. In some cases, county or
municipality requirements may be stricter than state or federal regulations. The following discussion focuses primarily
on federal requirements. State and local authorities should
also be consulted.
B. HOW THE ENVIRONMENT IS AFFECTED

The above activities collectively can affect almost all the
major environmental receptors (.e., air, soil, groundwater,
surface water, potable water). The environmental regulatory structure (as exemplified by the US EPA) is specifically
organized according to the aspects of the environment affected, not by the industry activity producing the environmental impact.
The EPAs authority to issue and enforce environmental regulations is based on the environmental statutes or laws
passed by the US Congress. Major environmental regulations
are listed in the References section. Almost all of these statutes and the resulting regulations have some applications
to the protective coating industry. The ones which have had
the greatest impact are the Clean Air Act, the Resource Conservation and Recovery Act, and the Toxic Substance Control Act.
Also as a result of the historical development of the regulations, there often exists within the environmental agencies
(both at Federal and State levels) separation of activities according to the specific aspect of the environment (e.g., air
or soil). The legislators and the heads of the environmental

D. OVERVIEW OF FEDERAL ACTS

AND REGULATIONS
Congress responds to concerns about environmental
problems by passing laws which outline a general response
to a problem and direct the Environmental Protection Agency to develop regulations. The citations at the end of this
chapter are for the authorizing legislation (Actsof Congress).
The Federal regulations developed by EPA in response to
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these Acts are published in the Code of Federal Regulations

(CFR). They are described in Chapters 27.1, 27.2, 27.3 and
listed in Appendix C.
The amendments accelerated EPAs regulation of

toxic contaminants, banned future use of lead pipe
and solder in public water systems, mandated better protection of groundwater resources, and limited underground injection of waste.
Drinking water regulations require that drinking water contain no more than the Maximum Contaminant Levels (MCL) for any particular substance.
Drinking water standards are sometimes used to establish criteria for acceptable levels of hazardous
material at waste sites.
Regulations on Water Pollution Control and
Safe Drinking Water Act are found in 40 CFR
100-149. Other Clean Water Act regulations are
found in 40 CFR 400-699.
1. Air Pollution Control Regulations

a. Clean Air Act - The original Clean Air Act (CAA),
passed in 1970, focused on several specific pollutants: sulfur dioxide, carbon monoxide, nitrogen dioxide, particulates, ozone and lead.2 Air quality
goals known as National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS) were developed for these pollutants.
Despite considerable progress, many regions of the
country did not meet the standards within the
prescribed deadlines. The original act also required
that the EPA develop standards for toxic substances
in the air, known as National Emission Standards
for Hazardous Air Pollutants (NESHAPS), but because the NESHAPS system required the agency
to prove the risk of the materials, only a few standards were developed.
b. Clean Air Act Amendments - The Clean Air Act
Amendments of 1990 (CAAA) require areas that are
not in compliance with existing requirements for
ozone, carbon monoxide and particulates to come
into compliance, and provide a schedule for compliance.3 The Amendments also require control of
air toxics, approximately 190 specific substances
emitted by specific kinds of facilities. Many of the
solvents that make up paint will be affected by both
of these sections of the Clean Air Act Amendments.
The new regulations will also affect much smaller
sources than previous regulations.
Air pollution control regulations can be found
in 40 CFR 50-99.*
3. Hazardous Waste Regulations

a. Resource Conservation and Recovery Act - The
Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA),
passed in 1976, was intended to provide cradle to
grave management of hazardous wastes. Generators were required to evaluate all wastes generated; to identify those that were hazardous; and to
properly store, transport and dispose of those that
were determined to be hazardous waste. There
were also stringent requirements to document
proper handling of these wastes.
RCRA regulations initially applied only to businesses that generated fairly large quantities of
hazardous waste, more than 1000 kg (2,200 pounds
or about five and a half full barrels) a month. The
Hazardous and Solid Waste Amendments of 1984
extended similar requirements to businesses generating smaller quantities of waste, more than 100 kg
(220 pounds or about half a barrel) a month.8
However, generators of small quantities of waste,
less than 100 kg (about 220 Ibs) per month, do not
have to meet all the requirements that larger generators do.
Regulations on treatment, storage and disposal
of hazardous waste are found in 40 CFR 260-280.
b. Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation and Liability Act - The Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation and Liability
Act (CERCLA), passed in 1980, authorized the EPA
to respond to hazardous spills and clean up abandoned waste sites.9 The businesses that had generated the wastes were to pay the costs of cleanup,
and the Act outlined procedures for recovering costs
from these businesses. It also created a fund to pay
for clean-up of abandoned hazardous waste sites,
known as Superfund The waste sites became
known as Superfund sites.
c. The Superfund Amendments and Reauthorization
Act - The Superfund Amendments and Reauthorization Act (SARA), passed in 1986, reauthorized,
refunded and refocused hazardous waste site clean
up.10 It also created a new set of requirements
2. Water Quality Regulations

a. Clean Water Act - The Federal Water Pollution
Control Act of 1972 was the first legislation to take
a national approach to meeting the goal of fishable, swimmable waterways.4 Secondary treatment
of biodegradable materials such as domestic sewage was an important goal of early Clean Water
legislation. Limits were also set for a relatively small
number of common industrial pollutants. In 1977,
the Clean Water Act (CWA) was passed. It extended deadlines for some of the requirements of the
1972 Act. Amendments passed in 1987 expanded
the number of regulated pollutants to include 129
specific toxic pollutants.S
Requirements are enforced through a permit
system. Facilities must have a permit to discharge
materials to waterways. There are some exceptions
for facilities discharging to public wastewater treatment facilities.
b. Safe Drinking Water Act - The Safe Drinking
Water Act (SDWA) was passed in 1974.6 It authorized the EPA to limit the amounts of various substances in drinking water. It was amended in 1986.
NOTE: Citations include sections reserved for future regulations
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included as SARA Title III, the Emergency Planning

and Community Right-to-Know Act (EPCRA). Title
III required state- and community-level emergency
planning. It also required industries to report quantities of hazardous substances released into air or
water or stored on site to these local agencies and
to the federal government.
SARA and CERCLA regulations are found in
40 CFR 300-399.
d. Underground Storage Tanks - Regulations for underground storage tanks (USTs) were required by
the Hazardous and Solid Waste Amendments of
1984.8 Many industrial storage tanks are covered
by regulations requiring registration, improved design, leak detection, proper installation and closure.
Regulations for tanks containing hazardous waste
are more stringent.
UST regulations are found in 40 CFR 280-299.
4. Hazardous Substances Regulations
a. The Toxic Substances Control Act - The Toxic
Substances Control Act (TSCA), passed in 1976,
gives EPA the authority to approve newly developed
or newly imported chemicals.ll In addition, the EPA
has the authority to limit or ban use of specific chemicals which the agency determines pose an unacceptable risk to human health or the environment.
These provisions have been used by the EPA to
regulate asbestos and polychlorinated biphenyls.
They are likely to be used to limit use of lead in industrial paints in the future.
Toxic Substances Control Act (TSCA) regulations are found in 40 CFR 700-799.
b. The Federal Insecticide, Fungicide and Rodenficide Act - Regulation of pesticides dates from the
beginning of this century, but originally focused on
effectiveness of pesticides. Amendments to existing laws in 1972 focused on health and environmental effects and came to be known as the Federal
Insecticide, Fungicide and Rodenticide Act
(FIFRA).l* The regulations apply to a broad range
of substances used to control unwanted organisms
including insects, rodents, plants and microorganisms such as mildew. Additives to control microorganisms are common in paint.
Pesticide regulations require that manufacturers register pesticides with the EPA. Labels that
outline safe uses and practices are required and
must be submitted as part of the registration
process. EPA must weigh any health or environmental effects of a product against its benefits. It may
ban or restrict the use of a product for which the
risks outweigh the benefits.
Federal Insecticide, Fungicide and Rodenticide
Act regulations are found in 40 CFR 150-189.
guidelines on lead-based paint removal, entitled

Hazard Identification and Abatement in Public and
Indian Housing.13 The work was a joint effort of
several federal agencies responsible for health
and safety and the health effects of hazardous
substances in the environment. Unfortunately,
the guidelines were written with residential and
domestic paint removal in mind. It is often difficult to apply them directly to industrial paint
removal.
The guidelines include information on identifying the level of lead in paint; when that level constitutes a hazard; acceptable methods of abatement;
reducing dust levels; housekeeping; inspection;
equipment used to protect workers from exposure
to lead; and containment.
6. Soil
There are no federal regulations regarding permissible levels for contaminants or hazardous material
in soil relevant to protective coatings. The potential
impact of soil contamination is discussed in Chapter 27.3.
REFERENCES
1. Water Tower Project Shut Down for Lead Contamination: Citation and Lawsuits Follow, Journal of Protective Coatings and
Linings (JPCL),October, 1990, pp. 97-99. Texas Reviews Comments on Blasting Rule for Water Tanks, JPCi, July, 1991,
p. 31.
2. Clean Air Act, Public Law 91-604, December 31, 1970.
3. Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990, Public Law 101-549,
November 15, 1990; and Public Law 102-187, September 4,
1991.
4. Federal Water Pollution Control Act, Public Law 92-500, October 18,1971, and Clean Water Act of 1977, Public Law 95-217,
December 28, 1977.
5. Clean Water Act of 1987, Public Law 100-202, December 22,
1987.
6. Safe Drinking Water Act (Title XIV of the Public Health Service
Act, Public Law 93-523, December 16, 1974).
7. Resource Conservation Act, Public Law 94-580, October 21,
1976.
8. Hazardous and Solid Waste Amendments, Public Law 98-616,
November 9, 1984.
9. Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and
Liability Act, Public Law 96-510, 1980.
1O. Superfund Amendments and Reauthorization Act of 1986. Public Law 99-499, October 17, 1986.
11. Toxic Substances Control Act, Public Law 94-469. October 11,
1976.
12. Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and Rodenticide Act, Public Law
92-516, October 21, 1982.
13. Lead-Based Paint: Interim Guidelines for Hazard Identification
and Abatement in Public and Indian Housing, September 1990,
rev. May 1991. Washington, DC: Office of Public and Indian
Housing, May 1991.
5. HUD Guidelines
The Department of Housing and Urban Development has developed the only available
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CHAPTER 27.1
AIR QUALITY REGULATIONS

by
Bernard R. Appleman
and Karen A. Kapsanis
using maximum available control technology

(MACT). MACT is defined in part as the maximum
degree of reduction in emissions of the hazardous
air pollutants ...i4 A new source (.e., a new emitting facility) must achieve reductions equivalent to
the best-performing similar source. Existing sources
(the majority of facilities) are required under MACT
to achieve the average reduction attained by the
best 12 percent of similar sources (based on there
being a minimum of 30 such sources). These standards are thus based on technology rather than on
health, as was earlier the case.
The facilities initially required to abide by MACT
are stationary sources emitting more than ten tons
19 megagrams (Mg)] per year of any single HAP or
25 tons (23 Mg) per year total. Thus, a facility applying coatings containing 2 Ibs/gal (240g/L) of xylene would be limited to 20,000gallons (76,000 L)
per year.
According to a National Paint and Coatings Association analysis, EPA plans to set MACT regulations in 1994 for marine coatings, wood furniture,
and aerospace.14 The major sources generally must
comply within 3 years after the effective date. Overall, MACT must be in place by the year 2000 for all
source categories.
The CAAA also addresses the need to control
HAPS from area sources. These are sources that
are too small to be regulated as major sources (.e.,
less than 10 tons [9Mg] per year of a single HAP
or 25 tons [23Mg] per year total HAPS) but which
collectively emit a substantial volume of HAPS.
A second phase of HAPS implementation entails potential imposition of health-based standards.
Within 8 years after MACT standards are issued,
EPA must issue additional residual risk standards
if the perormance-basedstandards are determined
to be inadequate.14
It is important for the industry to coordinate the
control of HAPS under MACT with the control of
VOCs under other provisions of the CAAA, e.g.,
Control Technique Guidelines or National Rules.
Recent activities to establish a combined HAPNOC
control strategy for the shipbuilding industry (marine
coatings) are summarized in Section B.6.
A. GENERAL OVERVIEW OF ACTIVITIES

AND REGULATIONS
1. NAAQS
The US Congress passed the Clean Air Act in 1970
to protect and enhance the quality of the nations
air resources.* As a result of this act, EPA established the National Ambient Air Quality
Standards (NAAQS), intended to promote the public health and welfare. Six primary pollutants were
identified, for which EPA was to develop criteria, allowing for an adequate margin of safety to protect
the public health. These six pollutants are as follows:
Lead
Ozone
Particulate matter (10 microns or less)
Sulfur dioxide
Nitrogen dioxide
Carbon monoxide
Of most interest to the protective coatings industry are those for ozone, lead, and particulates.
NAAQS apply only to measured ambient levels (.e.,
dust or vapors that remain suspended). Air emissions that deposit particles on the ground or adjacent properties are covered by CERCLA regulations
discussed in Chapter 27.3.9
In 1990, Congress amended the Clean Air
Act.3 The Clean Air Act Amendments (CAAA) are
summarized in part B of this section.
2. HAPS
As part of the CAAA, Congress specifically added
approximately 190 additional Hazardous Air Pollutants (abbreviated as HAPS) to the list of substances that required control. This list included
many of the common solvents used in paints, such
as xylene, toluene, and methyl ethyl ketone (see Table l). Previously, under the National Emission
Standards for Hazardous Air Pollutants program,
EPA had been charged with regulating HAPS. However, there was no significant progress because of
the requirement to apply health-based standards
and because of the lack of specific targets.
The CAAA selected specific HAPS (with provisions for adding and deleting substances) and established a new approach for controlling HAPS. The
190 substances listed will be subject to controls
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the precursors of ozone and are much more
readily manageable, EPA and other regulatory
agencies have elected to control the amount of
VOCs in paint.
Table 1
HAZARDOUS AIRPOLLUTANTS USED
IN PROTECTIVE COATINGS APPLICATIONS
B. OZONE AND VOC

1. Regulating Ozone
Ozone, a reactive form of molecular oxygen, is a

major component of smog. The detrimental effects
of ozone occur when it is found in the lower atmosphere (troposphere), where humans and plant
life exist. Here it affects human respiratory function
at high ambient levels and can also damage plant
life. In the upper atmosphere (stratosphere),
however, ozone has a beneficial effect on human
health, helping to absorb solar radiation that could
otherwise reach the earth and increase the risk of
skin cancer and other diseases.
The coatings industry is involved in both
aspects of the ozone problem. First, ground level
ozone is produced by the reaction of volatile organic
compounds (VOCs) and nitrogen oxide. Almost all
the organic solvents in coatings are classified as
VOCs, and hence are subject to regulation by EPA
in the effort to control ground-level ozone.
Second, in an effort to protect the stratospheric
ozone from depletion, EPA and other agencies have
restricted use of certain halogenated compounds
that interact with and deplete the ozone. These compounds include degreasing solvents and some solvents used for dissolving resins and coatings.
In the early 1970s, EPA established 0.12 ppm
as the maximum concentration of ozone consistent
with human health. To be in compliance, a district or
region must not exceed this level for more than one
hour per year over a three year period. Districts that
meet this criterion are designated as attainment
areas; those that do not are non-attainment.
Ozone is not a direct by-product of a painting
operation, but, as indicated above, it is produced
when VOCs react with nitrogen oxide under the
influence of ultraviolet radiation. Therefore, regulating coating operations by requiring that the immediate vicinity of a coating application meet
the 0.12 ppm ozone standard would not achieve
air quality objectives. Rather, because they are

2. PA Regulation of VOCs
EPA defines VOCs as a group of chemicals that
react in the atmosphere with nitrogen oxides in the
presence of heat and sunlight to form ozone. Not
included are methane and other compounds determined by EPA to have negligible photochemical
reactivity. Many solvents used in paints contain
VOCs.
VOCs can be controlled in several manners.
One approach (which has been used by EPA for certain industries) is to limit the total quantity of VOCs
that can be emitted from a given facility for a unit
of time (e.g., one ton of VOC per year). The second
approach is to limit the amount or proportion of VOC
permitted in a coating formulation. This method has
also been widely employed by EPA and state agencies. This is the most common method, and will be
discussed in greater detail below. A third approach
is to control the transfer efficiency of the coating application. This approach reduces the amount of
coating material that evaporates, rather than landing on the substrate. This is probably the least used
of the three approaches described.
EPA has classified VOC sources into two broad
categories: mobile sources and stationary sources.
Mobile sources include cars, trucks, and other vehicles. The VOCs produced by mobile sources are
not relevant for the protective coatings industry.
Fabricating shops that coat steel are included
among the stationary sources listed by EPA. There
are numerous other stationary sources which use
other types of coatings being regulated for VOC
such as furniture, aerospace, and automotive.
These are outside the scope of this chapter.
Until the passage of the 1990 Clean Air Act
Amendments, EPA was not mandated to regulate
VOCs from coating operations. Rather, it was
charged with preparing guidance documents, called
Control Technique Guidelines (CTG) which states
and localities could use as a basis for regulating
VOC emissions from various shop coating operations. The CTG for industrial shop coating operations is discussed under item 4, VOC from
Shop-Applied Coatings, below.
3. Clean Air Act Amendments of 7990

The CAAA set forth an ambitious program for reducing air pollution throughout the U.S.3 They were developed in part, according to one author, because
despite the success of the 1977 CAA in reducing
emissions from individual sources, ambient air pollution was still a major health and environmental
problem in urban areas. While individual source
emissions were down, the number of polluting
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Chromium Compounds
Epichlorohydrin (Chloro-2,3-epoxypropane)
Ethylene Glycol
Formaldehyde
Glycol Ethers
Hydrochloric Acid
Isophorone
Lead Compounds
Methyl Chloroform (1,1,1 ,-Trichloroethane)
Methyl Ethyl Ketone (2-Butanone)
Methyl Isobutyl Ketone (Hexone)
Methylene Chloride (Dichloromethane)
Styrene
Toluene
Triethylamine
Xylenes (m,o,p or mixed)
Typically, these rules are based on a Control

Technique Guideline (CTG) issued in 1978 by the
EPA as a guidance document for ozone nonattainment areas (.e., that have been designated
as exceeding the national ambient air quality standard for ozone).17 In the existing EPA CTG for surface coating of miscellaneous metal parts and
products, coatings are classified as follows, with
their recommended VOC limitations, based on Ibs
of VOC per gal. (911) of coating less water, and the
definitions generally used to describe the coatings.
a. Air-dried coatings: 3.5 Ibslgal. (420 g/I) - dried
by the use of air or forced warm air at temperatures
up to 194OF (90OC);
b. Clear coatings: 4.3 Ibslgal. (520 g/I) - unpigmented or transparent coating, lacking color and
opacity;
c. Extreme performance coatings: 3.5 Ibslgal. (420
gll) - designed for harsh exposure or extreme environmental conditions;
d. All other coatings: 3.0 Ibslgal. (360 911) - any
other type of coating.
Many states have established limits for the total amount of VOC that can be emitted from a facility in a non-attainment area in a year, a month, a
day, or an hour. The most common limits are for total emissions per year. There is a great spread
among states with levels ranging from 2.5 tons (2.3
Mg) to 100 tons (91 Mg) per year. Often a state will
impose a lower limit (e.g., 10 tons, or 9.1 Mg) per
year in urban areas with a relatively high ozone level, and less stringent levels (e.g., 100 tons, or 91
Mg) per year in other areas. This principle has been
followed by the EPA under the Clean Air Act Amendments. The Agency has established major sources
(.e., facilities subject to special requirements) for
emission controls and reduction based on the classifications of ozone non-attainment areas shown
below.
sources such as automobiles had increased dramatically since 1977.15

The EPA has identified four primary goals in
implementing the 1990 CAAA:16
to bring all cities into health standards attainment;
to cut air toxic emissions by 75%;
to reduce sulfur dioxide emissions by 10 million tons; and
to phase out all chlorofluorocarbons by 1995.
The 11 titles that make up the CAAA create a
framework for achieving these goals. As the summary given below of the 11 titles indicates, hazardous airborne emissions from coatings are but one
target of the CAAA.
4. VOC from Shop-Applied Coatings
The oldest type of VOC rule is the miscellaneous
metal parts and products rule, which applies to coating operations in fabricating and painting shops and
other stationary facilities. Rules of this type can be
found in force statewide or locally in approximately
33 states.
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FIGURE 2
Applying coating in the fabricating shop,
Table 2
CLASSIFICATION OF OZONE NON-ATTAINMENT AREAS
Definition of
Major Source
Designation
Ozone (ppm)
Marginal
0.121 to 0.138
100 Tons (90 Mg)/year
Moderate
0.138 to 0.160
100 Tons (90 Mg)/year
Serious
0.160 to 0.180
50 Tons (45 Mg)lyear
Severe
0.180 to 0.280
25 Tons (22.5 Mg)/year
Extreme
>0.280
10 Tons (9.1 Mg)/year

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Title I - Provisions for Attainment and Maintenance of

National Ambient Air Quality Standards reaffirms
EPAs original commitment to reduce levels of six types
of air pollutants: ozone, carbon monoxide, particulate
matter (PM-101, lead, nitrogen dioxide, and sulfur dioxide. Title I sets specific timetables for states to reduce
emissions of these pollutants. In addition, going beyond
the classification scheme of the earlier Clean Air Act,
the 1990 CAAA further classifies areas originally
described as non-attainment for ozone into the
categories of marginal, moderate, serious, severe, or
extreme. (Table 2)
Of the titles that affect coatings, Titte I is the most
relevant, because as noted earlier, most of the organic
solvents used in coatings are volatile organic compounds (VOCs) and, as such, contribute to the formation of ozone. (See section B of this Chapter, Ozone
and VOC).
Title I affects coatings in two ways. It calls for a federal national rule to restrict VOC emissions from coatings applied to stationary structures such as bridges,
industrial facilities, and storage tanks. It also calls for
a review of existing federal guidance documents and
issuance of several new guidance documents for the
states to use to develop rules for controlling VOC emissions from coatings operations at fixed coating facilities.
These include fabricating shops, auto body shops, and
other sites where coating application is a dailyor at least
regular operation.
Title II - Mobile Sources. Title II authorizes EPA to
set and revise emission standards for cars, light trucks,
urban buses, and non-road vehicles such as locomotives. It also sets requirements for the use of clean fuels,
reformulatedgasoline, and oxyfuels; bans leaded gasoline in motor vehicles after 1995; and authorizes EPA
to regulate refueling operations.
Title III - Hazardous Air Pollutants (HAPS). Title Ill
takes a broad approach to regulating toxic air pollutants.
These pollutants are air-borne substances that may be
hazardous to human health or the environment but that
are not specifically regulated elsewhere in the CAAA.
Listed in Title 111 are approximately 190 substances,
many of which are solvents and other VOCs commonly
used in coatings or coating operations. HAPS are regulated by restricting emissions from fixed site sources.
Controls required are based on the amount of real
or potential emissions from the source. Painting shops,
dry cleaners, and chemical processing plants are among
the fixed sources affected by Title III. As pointed out in
a 1993 article on the CAAA, a VOC in a coating can be
regulated under Title I and Title III if the VOC is also a
HAP.S In a shop painting operation, for instance, the
VOC emission will be regulated by the state while the
HAP emission will be regulated by a federal rule.

Title IV - Acid Deposition Control. Title IV is devoted to restricting sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxide emissions from coal-burning electric utility plants to prevent
what is known as acid rain. Acid rain occurs when sulfur dioxide and nitrogen emissions are transformed in
the atmosphere and fall to the earth in rain, fog, and
snow.16 Acid rain can harm the natural environment
as well as buildings. It IS also suspected to be hazardous
to human health.
Title V - Permits. Title V calls for states to develop
operating permits for major sources covered under Title l and for sources covered in other titles, including
Title 111. The permitting program provides a way of tracking sources and their emissions. Shop painting
ties are among the sources typically required to
for operating permits,
Title VI - Stratospheric Ozone Protection. Title
provides measures for preventing the depletion of t
stratospheric ozone layer, which is actually beneficial
or good ozone. As described in section B of this chapter, Ozone and VOC, stratospheric ozone absorbs
cosmic radiation before it reaches the earth. The radiation IS linked to the risk of skin cancer. Some solvents
used in degreasing operations or in coatings can contribute to stratospheric ozone depletion. Hence, such
materials are also under the domain of Title VI. (See discussion under 8.8 Compliance with VOC Rules.)
Title Vfl - Enforcement. Title VI1 significantly
strengthens the EPAs authority to enforce the C A M .
The Title authorizes EPA to impose criminal as well as
civil sanctions against violators.
Title Vlfl - Miscellaneous Provisions. Title VIII
addresses the control of air pollution on the Outer Continental Shelf (sources within 25 miles of shore); on the
US-Mexico border; and in international border areas (areas in the US that are subject to emissions originating outside the US).
Title IX - Clean Air Research. Title IX calls for
research on topics such as monitoring and modeling
methods, health effects associated with air pollutants,
the effects of air pollution on the ecosystem, modeis for
predicting accidental releases, pollution prevention, acid
precipitation, and clean alternative fueling.
iitle X - Disadvantaged Business Concerns. Title
X requires EPA to make at least 10 percent of federal
funds for CAAA research available to disadvantaged
business concerns, which are defined as those that are
at least 51 percent owned and controlled by black americans, Hispanic Americans, Native Americans, Asian
Americans, women, or disabled Americans.
Title XI - Clean Air Employment Transition Assistance. Title XI amends the Job Training Partnership
Act to include assistance to workers adversely affected
by compliance with the CAAA.
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Congress to develop a Control Technique Guideline (CTG) to reduce emission of VOCs and PM-10
from shipbuilding and ship repair operations. EPAs
aim was to develop limits for VOCs concurrently with
those for HAPS. This was based on the assumption
that many shipyards were major sources, for which
HAPS regulations were required by November 15,
2000.
In 1992, EPA surveyed shipbuilders and coating manufacturers to determine the current status
of regulations and technology.20 Regulations affecting marine coating operations were in effect in
California (several districts), Connecticut, Maine,
Louisiana, Virginia, Washington, and Wisconsin.
The most comprehensive regulations were those
from California and Louisiana, which had specific
rules for shipbuilding operations. From the survey,
EPA, working with shipyard representatives, classified marine coatings into 12 specialty and 2 general categories. Four coating types (epoxy, alkyd,
inorganic zinc and anti-fouling coatings) comprise
90% of the total coatings used for shipbuilding activities. Epoxy alone represented 60% of the volume
for the shipyards surveyed. The survey also identified xylene, toluene, and MEK as the three most
commonly used HAPS. Others were MIBK, hexane,
ethyl benzene, and glycol ethers.
In trying to develop a rule to encompass both
HAPS and VOCs, EPA must combine the requirements for these two distinct rules. As discussed in
Section A, HAPS require control using Maximum
Available Control Technology (MACT). Regulation
of VOC under the CTG as prescribed in the CAAA
requires conformance with Best Available Control
Measures (BACM). A detailed description of these
terms is beyond the scope of this chapter.
Some examples of approaches to meeting
these requirements are suggested below, based on
proposals by EPA. An example of Best Available
Control Measure (BACM) would be to adapt the
most stringent current VOC control regulations for
marine coatings (Le., those in effect in California).
For the HAPS, MACT is the average of the best 12%
of the control technology. This 12% could be based
on individual coatings or on individual shipyards. For
example, EPA has characterized epoxy coatings
based on their use and VOC levels. The MACT
would be the average of the 12% of epoxy coatings
having the lowest VOC requirements. This level is
about 135 g/L (1.1 Iblgal), compared to the overall
average for epoxies of 350 g/L (2.9 Ibs/gal). Alternately, the MACT could be computed based on the
average VOC level for the 12% of the shipyards having the lowest average VOC emissions. The regulation was still under development as of Fall 1993.20
EPAs basic concern is that reducing the VOCs
does not increase the level of HAPS content in the
Typical levels for daily emissions are 15 Ibs (6.8

kg) with a range of 5-100 among the various states.
Also, many states have adopted a maximum level
of 3 Ibs (1.4 kg) per hour. An application shop would
have to install add-on controls to capture emissions
in excess of these levels.
5. VOCs from Architectural and Industrial Maintenance (AIM) Coatings Rule

Architectural coatings are generally defined as coatings applied to stationary structures and their appurtenances, to mobile homes, or to curbs. Several
states have architectural coating rules that include
specific VOC restrictions on coatings sold for use
in field painting of bridges and industrial structures
such as water tanks and plant facilities. As of January 1991, such rules were found in parts of Arizona, California, New Jersey, New York, and Texas.18
The CAAA will have a major impact on industrial maintenance-typecoatings operations throughout the US. The Amendments call for an
architectural coatings rule (including industrial maintenance) to be promulgated by EPA. According to
EPA, such a rule is expected to be in place as early
as 1996. Unlike EPA CTGs, which are intended for
guidance on regulation development in ozone nonattainment areas, EPA rules, including the anticipated architectural coatings rule, are expected to
be promulgated nationwide in ozone attainment
areas as well as non-attainment areas. States and
regions may establish and promulgate rules more
stringent than the rule EPA eventually proposes, but
no less stringent regulations will be allowed. Development of the national rule began in 1992
through a process called Regulatory Negotiation or
Reg-Neg.lg Representatives of EPA, the paint industry, environmental groups, labor, other regulators and other affected parties met to discuss, draft,
debate, and decide on how and at what levels VOCs
will be regulated in AIM Coatings. In late summer
1993, the Reg-Neg committee had reached tentative agreement on a two-phase approach to
achieve a 45 percent VOC reduction by 2003. In the
first phase, a Table of Standards would be established. This table would set maximum VOC content
for 30-40 categories of AIM coatings, which would
need to be met by 1996. For industrial maintenance
coatings, the expected maximum VOC level is between 340 and 380 gA(2.8 and 3.2 Ibslgal). The second phase would require coating manufacturers to
achieve overall VOC reductions of 35 percent and
45 percent by 2000 and 2003, respectively, compared to 1990 emission levels. EPA planned to publish the proposed rule in the federal Register in
early 1994.
6. Control of VOCs From Marine Coating Operations
Under the CAAA, EPA was specifically directed by
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coating. Most coatings contain a combination of

HAPS solvents and non-HAPS solvents. The concern of the shipbuilders, the coating manufacturers,
and others in the marine coating industry is that the
resulting regulation not result in a significant loss
in performance or increase in cost.
adjust to new equipment, methods and restrictions

for applying high solids, high viscosity coatings and
water-borne materials.
Performance properties of coatings have also
been at issue because of the need to formulate
materials with lower VOC levels. With products being introduced quickly for long-term service, there
is a very limited performance history for many
products and thus little field data for lower VOC
materials relative to the amount of data for older,
solvent-borne coatings. Hence, specifiers have had
to select products without strong evidence for or
against a product. Instead, they have had to rely on
accelerated test data and on abbreviated field trials or manufacturers claims. Users have found in
some instances that the lower VOC products do not
offer the chemical or weathering resistance or gloss
retention of their solvent-borne counterparts. In
other instances, however, the lower VOC products
have performed as well as or better than their
solvent-borne counterparts. A larger body of historical field data is needed to minimize problems with
selection of low VOC products for regulatory compliance. A new SSPC Guide has been drafted which
provides recommended procedures for qualifying
and selecting VOC-compliant coating systems and
for preparing specifications.21
b. Alternate Approaches for Compliance
A second approach for compliance with VOC
regulations is use of pollution abatement equipment
that captures emissions. This approach is suited
almost exclusively to shop painting operations, because abatement equipment typically is not portable. Even for fixed-site facilities such as steel
fabrication and rail car paint application shops, the
capital costs for this equipment are often extremely high.
A third means of reducing VOC emissions is
improving the efficiency of the application process.
Using conventional air spray systems, much of the
coating may not reach the intended surface, but instead be lost to the atmosphere because of wind,
irregular surfaces, or poor applicator skill. Equipment such as electrostatic spray or high volume lowpressure spray can significantly increase the transfer efficiency. In addition, better training of applicators could also reduce the amount of paint and VOC
lost during application.
A fourth approach is the use of nonphotochemically reactive solvents, which are exempt from the VOC regulation. Exempt solvents that
have been used are l,l,l, - trichloroethane and
methylene chloride which are good solvents for
certain alkyd and other resins. There are several disadvantages to using these solvents. One is the possibility of adverse health effects, as both are listed
as HAPS according to the 1990 CAAA. The second
7 . State Approaches to Regulating VOCs

As of 1993,not all states took the same approach
to regulating VOC emissions from paints. For instance, states such as Oregon, North Carolina, and
Maryland regulate emissions from shop painting
operations in ozone non-attainment areas only.
Others, such as Pennsylvania and Ohio, regulate
VOC emissions from shop painting operations
throughout the state, imposing stricter requirements
on operations in ozone non-attainment areas.
By the same token, only a few states or air quality districts regulate VOC emissions from coatings
applied in the field, and of those that do, VOC limits
vary. Hence, New York restricts VOC emissions
from industrial maintenance coatings to 3.8 Ibslgal
(450 g/I) whereas Californias South Coast Air Quality Management District (SCAQMD) caps them at
3.5 Ibs/gal (420 911).
Until there is a national rule, states can also
continue to differ in their principles of regulation. Air
quality districts in California and states like New
York and New Jersey regulate AIM Coatings primarily by function, such as concrete curing compounds, industrial maintenance primers, and traffic
coatings. Texas, in contrast, regulates many AIM
coatings by generic type, such as alkyd varnishes,
epoxies, exterior alkyds, nitrocellulose lacquers, and
urethanes.
8. Compliance with VOC Rules
a. Reducing VOC in Coatings
VOC regulations affect painting operations from formulation through application, performance, and
service life. The principal approach for decreasing
VOC emissions is by using coatings with reduced
levels of VOC. This is accomplished by higher solids
coatings, solvent-free (.e., 100 percent solids) coatings, or waterborne coatings. Some of these new
formulations may require special application equipment or specially trained applicators.
The coatings industry has committed tens of
millions of dollars of resources to develop, evaluate, and produce VOC-compliant coatings. Many
technical articles, seminars, and product announcements address this issue, which has come to
dominate the technology.
Coatings chemists have thus been forced to
find substitutes for solvent-borne coatings with high
VOC levels, and these substitutes have in some
cases affected application properties - viscosity,
for instance. Consequently, applicators have had to

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is that both solvents must be disposed of as

hazardous waste. In addition, there is a strong international effort to ban the use of chlorofluorocarbons in coatings because they contribute to
destruction of the ozone in the upper atmosphere
(stratosphere). The solvent 1,l ,l-trichloroethane is
listed as a Class I substance, .e., as among the
most ozone-depleting substances. Starting in May
1993, any coating containing this material must carry a warning label stating that the product contains
a substance which harms public health and the environment by destroying stratospheric ozone. In addition, production must be phased down by the year
2000 to 20% of its 1990 levels.14
9.
where
VOC = VOC content in g/L of coating less water and
exempt solvent
),
Wo = Weight percent of organic volatiles (V, - W
= Weight percent of water
W
,
V,
= Volume percent of water (Ww)(Dc/Dw)
D,
= Density of coating glL at 25C
= Density of water, g/L at 25OC (0.997 x 103)
D
,
Methods of Measuring VOC
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
VOCs are defined as the mass of volatile per volume

of liquid (less water and exempt solvents). The most
widely.used method for measuring VOC content is
EPA Method 24, which is described in 40 CFR 60,
Appendix A.Z2 The procedure for determining VOC
content is also described in ASTM D 3960-91.23
There are some subtle differences between the EPA
method and the ASTM method which are discussed
below. The procedure consists of the following
steps:
Determinethe percent volatiles by weight in the
coating.
Determine the density of the coating.
Determine the water content (percent by
weight) of the coating, and
Compute the VOC. The standard equations are
given below.
Equation 1 is for a solvent-borne coating that
does not contain water or exempt solvent, and
Equation 2 for a coating containing both solvents
and water (but no exempt solvents).
There have been several concerns or problems
with using the EPA and ASTM test methods. These
are summarized below.
a. Baking of Multi-ComponentAir-Dried Coatings.

Originally, the EPA and ASTM methods determined
the volatiles using ASTM D 2369, which requires
heating a sample at 110C for one hour.24 One problem that arose was that the multi-component coatings were not fully cured before being baked. As a
consequence, some of the unreacted low molecular weight species were volatilized and measured
as VOCs although under air-drying conditions they
would become part of the film (Le., non-volatile).
There was also concern that at 110C, some film
additives, such as plasticizers, might also become
volatilized, which would give artificially high readings of the VOC content. In 1992, EPA and ASTM
agreed to allow the test specimens to stand at room
temperatures for up to 24 hours to allow the coatings to cure prior to baking.25
b. Low-Solids, Water-Borne Coatings. Several coating manufacturers have pointed out that EPA
Method 24 is not well suited to measuring the VOC
content of low-solidswaterborne coatings. This can
be understood by examining Equation 2 for a lowsolids water-borne coating. Both the numerator and
the denominator become very small, as the ratio of
D,/D,
approaches 1 and the W
, (weight percent
of water) approaches 100. There are inherent inaccuracies in dividing one very small number by
another very small number. EPA has agreed to
Table 3
ANALYSIS OF VOC EMISSIONS
Component
Density
Volume
(W
Weight
(%o)
Water
1.o
240 cc
(24)
240 g
(27.3)
Solvent
0.75
300 cc
(30)
225 g
(25.6)
Resin
0.9
460 cc
(46)
414 g
(47.1)
Coating
0.88
100.00
(100)
879
(100.0)

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review a proposed revision of the method for this

type of coating.
c. Non-Linearity of VOC Levels. Because of the way
VOC is defined (.e., as mass of volatiles divided by
volume of coating less water), the VOC content does
not provide a linear measure of the difference in
VOC emitted from different coatings. As noted in
ASTM D 3960, thus, a coating with VOC content
of 3 Ibs of VOC per gallon ...would release about
85% less VOC than a coating with 6 Ibs of VOC per
gallon of coating.23
d. Inability to Compute Actual VOC Emitted. Because the volume of the water is subtracted from
the volume of the paint, it is often difficult to compute the actual amount of VOC emitted for a gallon
of paint.
Consider the following hypothetical example of
a coating with 240 cc of water, 300 cc of organic
solvent, and 460 cc of resin to constitute 1 liter of
coating (1000 cc). Using assumed densities of 1.0
for water, 0.75 for the solvent and 0.9 for the resin
we can compute a VOC content of 296 g/L according to Equation 2. (Table 3)
However, from an emissions inventory viewpoint, each liter of coating that is applied (e.g., at
an application shop) emits 225 grams (300 cc). This
situation can be confusing and can require several
calculations to accurately compute total VOC
emissions.
e. Alternate Definitions of VOC. At least one state
(Texas) has established a definition of VOC which
is based on mass of volatiles emitted per volume
of solid (.e., grams of VOC per liter of solids).26 This
definition has the advantage of providing a linear
relationship between the VOC content and the VOC
emitted. A significant problem with this, however,
is that the numbers required in Texas would be
different from the numbers required in the other
states because of the difference in definition.
Another problem is that there is no established
means of measuring fhe volume solids directly. Instead, the Texas Air Control Board has established
a procedure to calculate its version of VOC from the
EPA version. This calculation requires assumptions
of densities for the solvents and has added to the
confusion.
8627940 0004014 Th9
Houston-Galveston-Brazoria, TX
Milwaukee-Racine, WI
New York-N New Jersey-Long Is, NY-NJ-CT
Southeast Desert Modified AQMA, CA
Severe
Attainment Date 1 1 /1512005
Baltimore, MD
Philadelphia-Wilm-Trent, PA-NJ-DE-MD
San Diego, CA
Ventura County, CA
Serious
Attainment Date 1 1 /I 5/2000
Atlanta, GA
Baton Rouge, LA
Beaumont-Port Arthur, TX
Boston-Lawrence-Worcester (E.MA), MA-NH
EI Paso, TX
Greater Connecticut
Muskegon, MI
Portsmouth-Dover-Rochester, NH
Providence (All RI), RI
Sacramento Metro, CA
San Joaquin Valley, CA
Sheboygan, WI
Springfield (Western MA), MA
Washington, DC-MD-VA
Moderate
Attainment Date 11/15/96
Atlantic City, NJ
Charleston, WV
Charlotte-Gastonia, NC
Cincinnati-Hamilton, OH-KY
Cleveland-Akron-Lorain, OH
Dallas-Fort Worth, TX
Dayton-Springfield, OH
Detroit-Ann Arbor, MI
Grand Rapids, MI
Greensboro-Winston Salem-High Point, NC
Huntington-Ashland, WV-KY
Kewaunee County, WI
Knox & Lincoln Counties, ME
Lewiston-Auburn, ME
Louisville, KY-IN
Manitowoc County, WI
Miami-Fort Lauderdale-W. Palm Beach, FL
Monterey Bay, CA
Nashville, TN
Parkersburg, WV
Phoenix, AZ
Pittsburgh-Beaver Valley, PA
Portland, ME
Raleigh-Durham, NC
Reading, PA
Richmond-Petersburg, VA
Table 4
OZONE NONATTAINMENT AREAS IN 1990
Extreme
Attainment Date 1 1 /15/201O
Los Angeles - South Coast Air Basin, CA
Severe
Attainment Date 11/15/2007
Chicago-Gary-Lake County , I L-lN
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90-day average meets the criterion.

This regulation affects the coatings industry
because of the lead dust generated during removal
of lead-containing coatings from bridges, water
towers, and other industrial structures. The blast
cleaning or power tool cleaning of lead paint can
produce extremely high levels of lead dust in the
workplace.Z* The EPA standard, however, is intended to protect the public health, not that of the employees, who are covered by the Occupational
Safety and Health Administration. Thus, the air is
typically monitored at the property limits (Le., immediately outside the location of the structure or facility from which the coating is being removed.)
TABLE 4 (continued)
Salt Lake City, UT
San Francisco-Bay Area, CA
Santa Barbara-Santa Maria-Lompoc, CA
St. Louis, MO-IL
Toledo, OH
Marginal
Attainment Date 11 Il 5I1992
Albany-Schenectady-Troy, NY
Allentown-Bethlehem-Easton, PA-NJ
Altoona, PA
Birmingham, AL
Buffalo-Niagara Falls, NY
Canton, OH
Cherokee County, SC
Columbus, OH
Door County, WI
Edmonson County, KY
Erie, PA
Essex County (Whiteface Mtn), NY
Evansville, IN
Greenbrier County, WV
Hancock & Waldo Counties, ME
Harrisburg-Lebanon-Carlisle, PA
Indianapolis, IN
Jefferson County, NY
Jersey County, IL Sussex County, DE
Johnstown, PA
Kent and Queen Annes Counties, MD
Knoxville, TN
Lake Charles, LA
Lancaster, PA
Lexington-Fayette, KY
Reno, NV
Scranton-Wilkes-Barre, PA
Seattle-Tacoma, WA
Smyth County, VA (White Top, Mtn)
South Bend-Elkhart, IN
Tampa-St. Petersburg-Clearwater, FL
Walworth County, WI
York, PA
Youngstown-Warren-Sharon, OH-PA
C. AIR
2. Air Monitoring for Lead

Ambient air monitoring for lead is performed relatively infrequently on most industrial projects. One
reason is that on many projects, the abrasive blasting or removal operation is of short duration, or occurs sporadically, rather than constantly. Also, the
vast majority of regulatory agencies have not enforced these regulations or notified the facility owners or contractors that paint removal operations
were considered in the jurisdiction of these regulations. A few agencies, such as Allegheny County
(Pennsylvania), have established specific limits for
the level of lead dust, based on a 24-hour average
rather than the 90-day limits established by EPA.29
Currently, under Title X of the 1992 Housing and
Community Development Act, the US EPA is considering developing national guidelines on the need
and procedures for monitoring ambient lead.30
3. Monitoring Procedures
When removing lead or other hazardous materials,
measurements for airborne lead and other
hazardous elements can be made by instrument
monitoring in accordance with EPA criteria. Levels
of lead in air are regulated by both the EPA and
OSHA. (For more information on health and safety
issues associated with lead, see chapter 26.) Monitors are placed at appropriate locations based on
wind direction and proximity to homes, playgrounds,
businesses, bodies of water, etc.
The following descriptions of methods for
measuring ambient lead are derived from SSPC
Guide 61, Guide for Containing Debris Generated
During Paint Removal Operations, (March 1992).3l
a. Method 07: PA Criteria for Lead - High volume
air samplers equipped for the collection of total suspended particulate (TSP) are used. The CFR does
not give specific procedures for number or placement of air monitors because of the irregular configuration of water towers, bridges, and other
structures. Thus, the placement of monitors must
be determined on a site-specific basis, taking into
account wind direction, and proximity to homes,
playgrounds, businesses, bodies of water, etc.
QUALITY FOR LEAD
1. General
Lead has been known to be toxic to humans for
thousands of years. One of the major routes of exposure to humans is through inhalation of lead dust
particles. In the 1970s EPA established the NAAQS
level of 1.5 micrograms (pg) of leadlm3 averaged
over 90 days.27 This regulation was intended for
continuous operations that produced lead dust, such
as battery or pigment manufacturing or lead
smelters. The 90-day provision allows for some variations in the daily emission levels as long as the
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= 8b27940
not be confused with the more specific criteria for

PM-1O particulates, given below.) Other terms often
used are air contaminant, fugitive emission, dust,
and opacity.
Air contaminant means any substance (e.g.,
particulate, gas, fumes, smoke) other than water
vapor that is released or emitted into the atmosphere. A fugitive emission is particulate matter
that is not collected by a catcher system (e.g., stack)
and is released into the atmosphere at the point of
generation. Dust is defined as fine-grained particles
light enough to be suspended in the air.
From the previous discussion, it is evident that
there are numerous sources of air contaminants (fugitive emissions) arising from coating operations.
These include dust and particulates from abrasive
blasting, solvent fumes from paint applications,
paint or grease removal, or any activity that disturbs
solid debris. All of these would be classed as fugitive emissions because they are not discharged intentionally into the atmosphere by a stack, but rather
escape from the area of operation. Fugitive emissions are generally considered undesirable and
potentially harmful to humans and the environment.
b. Modification for Under 90 Days - Because paint

removal operations are not normally conducted continuously over a 90 day period, it may be appropriate to establish a daily criterion for monitoring. Note
that the suggested modification of the procedure
shown below may not be acceptable to state or local
environmental officials. The appropriate officials
should be contacted prior to its implementation.
For example, if a project lasted only 30 days,
the Daily Allowance would be 4.5 pglm3 based on
the formula shown in Equation 3 below.
The calculation provides an allowance criterion
for a 24-hour period. In order to convert this value
to an allowance corresponding to the hours worked,
use Equation 4 shown below.
DA =
x 1.5 pglm3
PD
(3)
where
= Daily Allowance (pg/m3)
PD
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
DA
Number of preparation days anticipated in a 90 day

period
ADA = DA x
24
H
2 . PM-70 Emission Standards
Under the National Ambient Air Quality Standard

(NAAQS), in addition to the species identified earlier
(ozone, carbon monoxide, sulfur dioxide, nitrogen
dioxide, lead, and HAPS), EPA regulates any particulates having a mean diameter of 10 microns or
less. These are referred to as PM-10 and are too
small to be seen with the naked eye. The smallest
particle that one can see is about 50 microns in diameter (e.g., dust particles in a ray of sunshine).
These very small particles (regulated under PM-10)
are able to penetrate the bodys filtering mechanism and enter into and damage the lungs.
Under 40 CFR 50.6, EPA has established the
following criteria for PM-10 emissions:36
a. Level not to exceed 150 pglm3 averaged over a
24-hour period. (NOTE: This level may not be
exceeded more than once per year).
b. Level not to exceed 50 pg/m3 (annual arithmetic
mean).
As with the regulations for lead, these were not
designed with coating application or removal
projects in mind. The ambient air quality standards
for particulates were based on controlling the overall air quality for relatively large air quality districts,
not for small point source emissions.
There is relatively little information regarding
the extent to which these criteria are exceeded in
paint removal jobs. However, it is considered unlikely that the daily average (150 pglm3) will be
exceeded outside of the work area except for
extremely dusty operations.
Numerous states and localities have estab-
(4)
where
ADA = Adjusted Daily Allowance (pg/m3)
H
= Hours worked in 24 hours

In the above example, if lead dust were
produced for 8 hours (H = 8), the adjusted daily
allowance would be 13.5 pglm3 (4.5 pg/m3 x 3)
c. Method 03: OSHA Criteria for Lead - In this approach, air quality measurements for lead are determined in accordance with NIOSH Method 7082
using personal monitors outside of the containment
areas.32 PEL lead limits are 50 pglm3 per OSHA
General Industry Standard 29 CFR 1910.1025 and
Construction Industry Standard 29 CFR 1926.62
(see chapter 26).3334
Additional details on monitoring air quality for
lead are given in the industrial Lead Paint Removal
Handbook.35
D. AIR QUALITY FOR PARTICULATES

1. General
Particulate matter is defined as any finely divided
solid or liquid material. For airborne materials, this
definition includes particles with a diameter of 100
microns or less. (The criteria for particulates should

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8b27940 00040L7 778 D

(e.g., property line). Possible frequencies include:
(1) Level O Emissions - No visible emission. Note:
This level may not be achievable during abrasive
blasting.
(2) Level 1 Emissions - Random emissions of a cumulative duration of no more than 1% of the work
day (e.g., five minutes in an eight-hour work day).
day (e.g., 24 minutes in an eight hour work day).
day (e.g., 48 minutes in an eight hour work day).
(5) Level 4 Emissions - Emissions are unrestricted
and may occur at any time.
6. Method A-2 - Opacity is the degree of obscuring
of light. It is often measured on a scale of 0-100,
based on the percent of light that fails to penetrate
a plume (e.g., of smoke). Zero percent represents
zero obscuring, and 100% represents complete obscuring of the light. Opacity measurements are
made by trained, certified observers. A scale from
0% to 100%, in 5% increments, is used. Measurements are typically made at 15 second intervals for
given periods of time (e.g., 30 minutes). The acceptance criteria must be established by the specifier.
For example, a criterion might restrict the opacity
to no more than 20% for any three-minute period
in 60 minutes. Local regulations may provide
guidance as to the level of opacity that should be
required. Monitoring should be conducted prior to
beginning the work, as appropriate, in order to establish background levels.
c. Method B: Ambient Air Monitoring for PM-10 High volume air samplers equipped with PM-10
heads are used to assess the total amount of particulate matter ten microns (0.39 mils) or less in size
that escape the contained work area. The number
of monitors to be used is based on wind direction
and proximity to homes, playgrounds, businesses,
bodies of water, etc.
If acceptable to local and state air quality
authorities, the EPA level of 150 pg/m3 over a 24
hour period may be modified to 450 pglm3 over an
eight hour period, provided no emissions occur from
the worksite during the remaining 16 hours. Again,
monitoring should be conducted for a few days prior to beginning the work (for eight hours to 24 hours
per day, as appropriate) in order to establish background levels.
lished their own regulations, criteria, and in some

cases permitting requirements for particulates and
fugitive emissions.
FIGURE 3
Ambient air monitor for PM-10 particulates.
3. Methods for Assessing Particulate Emissions

Methods for quantifying the amount of dust and
debris escaping the work area are derived from
SSPC Guide 6i.(37) Method A (visual assessment)
provides immediate feedback on the emissions
created, while Method B (ambient air monitoring using high volume samplers) requires two to three
days to receive results. Users must contact the appropriate state and local authorities to ascertain
which of the methods are accepted for monitoring
emissions and to establish the appropriate acceptance criteria.
a. Method A-1: Visible Emission Duration - Observations of visible emissions from the work area provide immediate feedback on the performance of the
containment system. Visible emissions are permitted at given frequencies or durations provided they
do not extend beyond an established boundary line
4. Determining the Need for Air Monitoring on Paint

Removal Projects
As noted earlier, existing ambient air quality standards are not being imposed routinely on paint
removal projects. As noted, the thrust of such standards is for the continuous monitoring of large areas
(e.g., entire cities) as compared with individual short-
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

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term projects. However, monitoring is being specified on some paint removal projects.
Monitoring might be initiated when there is a
belief that emissions from a short term paint removal
project (particularly lead) could have an effect on
the overall air quality in a region. Monitoring may
also be imposed when the lead paint removal site
is in a residential area, or next to schools, hospitals, playgrounds, and other areas of public access
to better assure public health and welfare. For work
already underway, complaints over visible emissions
or questions as to the seriousness of emissions
could be investigated using monitors. Prior litigation
over emissions may also trigger monitoring on future projects. For example, monitoring has been required in Allegheny County, Pennsylvania, since
1987 for most abrasive blast cleaning projects greater than 10,000 square feet (900m2) in area as a
result of earlier litigation over silica contamination.29
From the above, it is obvious that the decision
regarding whether to monitor a given project is not
clear cut. However, if there is a potential for public
exposure to the dust, such monitoring will provide
a high degree of assurance that emissions are within acceptable limits. Without the monitoring, such
judgments are strictly subjective. However, for work
within the confines of a plant, where it can be established that dust and debris will not carry across
the property line into a community, such monitoring will provide little benefit.
If ambient air monitoring is specified, the costs
of the project will increase. The cost will extend beyond the price of the monitoring and analysis as
monitoring will usually necessitate tighter and more
stringent controls over the containment.
= 8627940
E. STATE AND LOCAL REGULATION

OF AIR QUALITY
A number of state and local air quality agencies have
enacted regulations to control air contamination by paint
removal activities. These were summarized in a special JPCL
report on Coating Regulations.18 In addition to the imposition of NAAQS, control of emissions has been regulated
by requiring permits (e.g., for abrasive blast cleaning), by
general language restricting excessive or objectionable visible emissions, or by limiting the opacity of a dust plume.
Agencies that require permits for blast cleaning include
Allegheny County (Pittsburgh) Pennsylvania, the City of St.
Louis, and the City of Cleveland, Ohio. Among the agencies
that have instituted some control of opacity are Allegheny
County, Pennsylvania, (20%), Washington County, Nevada
(40%), Maricopa County (Phoenix) Arizona (20%), Wayne
County (Detroit) Michigan (20%); State of Virginia (20% for
short periods and 60% for any period); and the State of
California (400/0).~The State of California, the U.S. Navy,
several DOTS and various private facility owners also restrict the type of abrasive. California requires that abrasives
be certified in a biennial program in which abrasives are
evaluated for their dusting and breakdown characteristics8.
The U.S. Navy specification for abrasives for shipyards includes limitations on heavy metal content and fine
(dust-producing) particles.3*
Some agencies have also regulated the airborne level
of silica abrasive. These include several cities in
Massachusetts; Wayne County, Michigan; and Allegheny
County, Pennsylvania.18
Silica hazards to workers are discussed in Chapter 26
on Safety and Health.
5 . Duration of Testing and Placemenf of Monitors

40 CFR 58.13, Operating Schedule, identifies the
frequency of monitoring required (e.g., daily, every
other day, etc.). This section is intended for longterm continuous (permanent) monitoring at sites
across the nation in order to establish air quality
data. As a result, it provides no guidance on the duration of monitoring for short-term projects such as
lead paint removal. Approaches in the industry
include:
Continual monitoring throughout the entire
project;
Monitoring during the initial week or two of the
project; and
Monitoring only when complaints are received.
Regardless of the approach selected, background levels for the jobsite must be established.
The approach used for monitor placement in Allegheny County, Pennsylvania has been reported
by Sadar and Pate1.37 A great deal of judgment is
required for the selection of placement sites. Additional detail on air particulate monitoring is given
in the Industrial Lead Paint Removal Handbook.35
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REFERENCES
References 1-13 are listed at the end of Chapter 27.0.
14. The Clean Air Act and The Paint and Coatinas Industrv. Issue Analysis by National Paint & Coatings Association,
Washington, DC, 1992.
15. Stanley Santire, 1990 Federal Clean Air Act Amendments: An
Overview, JPCL, September 1993, pp. 46-50.
16. a. Implementation Strategy for the Clean Air Act Amendments
of 1990, Update 1992. Publication 400-A-92-004. Washington,
DC: U S . EPA, July 1992.
b. The Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990: A Guide for Small
Business, U.S. EPA, Office of Air and Radiation Publication
450-K-92-001. Washington, DC: U S . EPA, September 1992.
17. U.S. EPA. Control of Volatile Organic Emissions from Existing
Stationary Sources, Volume VI: Surface Coating of Miscellaneous Metal Patts and Products. June 1978 EPA-450-12-78-015,
NTIS PB-286-157.
18. Update: Regulations on Coating Operations for Heavy-Duty
Industrial Maintenance Painting, JPCL, February 1991, pp.
55-116.
19. Negotiating Committee Agrees on VOC Limits: EPA to Draft
Proposal, JPCL, October 1993.
20. Summary of BACMIMACT Options, Shipbuilding and Ship
Repair NESHAPICTG, U.S. EPA, Office of Air Quality Planning and Standards, May 25, 1993.
21. SSPC Guide lox, Guide to Specifying and Testing Coatings
Based on Volatile Organic Content, Draft #4, July 1993.
22. Determination of Volatile Matter Content, Water Content, Density, Volume Solids and Waste Solids of Surface Coatings,
40 CFR Part 60, Appendix A, Method 24.
23. ASTM D 3690 - Standard Practice for Determining Volatile Organic Compound (VOC) Content of Paints and Related Coatings.,
American Society for Testing and Materials. Philadelphia: 1991.
24. ASTM D 2369 - Standard Test Method for Volatile Content of
Coatings. American Society for Testing and Materials. Philadelphia: 1990.
25. EPA Revises VOC Test Method, JPCL, September 1992,
pp. 78-79.
26. VOCs: Texas Extends AIM Rules; Revises Shop Rules, JPCL,
August 1992, pp. 41-43.
27. 40 CFR 50.12, National Primary and Secondary Ambient Air
Quality Standards for Lead.
28. Preventing Lead Poisoning In Construction, DHHS Publication 91-116, National Institute of Occupational Safety & Health
(1991), JPCL, January 1992, pp. 40-54.
29. K.A. Trimber, G. Manown, and L. Lambert, Air and Soil
Monitoring During Elast Cleaning Operations, Lead Paint
Removal from Industrial Structures, SSPC 89-02. Pittsburgh,
SSPC, 1989. pp. 20-25.
30. Housing and Community Development Act of 1992, Title X,
Residential Lead-Eased Paint Hazard Reduction Act of 1992,
102nd U.S. Congress, October 5, 1992.
31. Guide for Containing Debris Generated During Paint Removal
Operations, SSPC Guide 61 (CON), SSPC 92-07. Pittsburgh:
SSPC, March 1992.
32. NIOSH Method 7082, Lead, National Institute of Occupational
Safety ? Health.
33. 29 CFR 1910.1025, Lead, (3, Permissible Exposure Limits
(PEL) .
3, Permissible Exposure Limits
34. 29 CFR 1926.62, Lead,
(PEL).
35. K. A. Trimber, Industrial Lead Paint RemovalHandbook, second
edition. SSPC 93-02. Pittsburgh: SSPC, 1993.
36. 40 CFR 50.6, National Primary and Secondary Ambient Air
Quality Standards for Particulate Matter.
37. A. J. Sadar and H. L. Patel, Air Monitoring Guidance for Abrasive Blasting Operations, JPCL, December 1987, pp. 31-32,
68, 70.
38. Abrasive Blasting Media, Ship Hull Blast Cleaning, MIL-A-2262A
(SH), February 6, 1987. Washington: Naval Sea Systems Command. 1987.
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93
CHAPTER 27.2
WASTE HANDLING AND DISPOSAL

by
Bernard R. Appleman
A. DEFINITIONS
RCRA regulations are published in the Code of Federal Regulations, Title 40, Parts 261-281. Sections of the
hazardous waste regulations of most relevance to the protective coatings industry are as follows:
Part 261
Identification and Listing of Hazardous
Waste
Part 262
Standards Applicable to Generators of
Hazardous Waste
Part 268
Land Disposal Restrictions
Waste is generally defined as any material which is discarded and not intended for some other productive use. EPA
defines solid waste as any garbage, refuse, sludge, or semisolid. The definition also includes liquid wastes which are
not otherwise regulated under the Federal Water Pollution
Control Act.
A waste is considered hazardous if it poses a substantial present or potential hazard to human health or the environment. A more formal definition of a hazardous waste is
given below.
Hazardous waste is a subset of hazardous substances.
Materials may be defined as hazardous based on characteristics such as toxicity, corrosivity, ignitability (.e., flash
point) and reactivity (e.g., explosion hazard). Also included
as hazardous wastes are materials contributing to water pollution, hazardous air pollutants, or other substances defined
as such by federal agencies.
Thus, in identifying requirements for handling and treating wastes and other materials, it is necessary to know the
agency or agencies having jurisdiction over the particular
substances. The Federal EPA has jurisdiction over handling
and disposing of hazardous and solid waste. In 1976 Congress enacted the Resource Conservation & Recovery Act
(RCRA)7 which was amended in 1984 by the Hazardous and
Solid Waste Amendments (HSWA).8 RCRA and HSWA are
designed to track and regulate hazardous waste from
manufacture to final disposal. Another federal regulation,
the Comprehensive Environmental ResponseCompensation
and Liability Act (CERCLA)g, also known as the Superfund,
was enacted in 1980. CERCLA is intended to control cleanup
and designate liability for abandoned, undercontrolled, or inactive waste sites, and to deal with hazardouswaste releases
in an emergency. CERCLA is discussed in Chapter 27.3.
Congress main goal under RCRA is to reduce or
eliminate the generation of hazardous waste and ensure that
wastes generated are treated, stored, and disposed of so as
to minimize present and future threats to human health and
the environment. RCRA regulations include subtitles A
through J. Subtitle C deals with handling, disposal, and treatment of hazardous wastes. (Subtitle D addresses state or
regional solid waste.) Another subtitle of interest is Subtitle
I, which covers regulations of underground storage tanks.
The remaining subtitles deal with general administrative provisions of the Act.

Other portions which are of some interest include:

Part 263
Standards Applicable to Transporters

of Hazardous Waste
Parts 264-265 Standards for Owners and Operators of
Hazardous Waste Treatment, Storage,
and Disposal Facilities
See Appendix C (Chapter 27.3) for an outline of other

relevant sections of 40 CFR.
B. CLASSIFYING WASTE
1. Listed Wastes
EPA has identified over 400 substances that are
considered hazardous. These include spent paint
solvents, such as xylene, acetone, ethyl acetate,
and methyl isobutyl ketone, spent halogenated solvents (e.g., methylene chloride, l , I ,l-trichloroethane and carbon tetrachloride), cyanide and
compounds, toxic organics, and sludges from various manufacturing and treatment processes. Each
of these has been assigned a specific EPA
hazardous waste number (e.g., F003 for xylene).
2 . Characteristic Wastes
These are substances which are defined as
hazardous based on one or more of the following
four characteristics:
ignitability
corrosivity
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The provisions of Subtitle C apply to materials defined

as hazardouswaste. There are two means by which a waste
can be classified as hazardous: it may be specifically included on any one of four lists of hazardous wastes, or it may
have one of the characteristics which define hazardous
wastes. Therefore, there are two types of hazardous waste:
listed waste and characteristic waste.
m 8627940 0004021 1T9 m

3. Other Considerations for Waste Classification
a. Acutely Hazardous Waste - EPA has established
special requirements for small quantities of waste
considered extremely hazardous. These include
certain pesticides and dioxin-containing wastes.
These are not commonly generated in the protective coating industry, but do require special treatment and reporting.
b. Recycledor ReusedHazardous Waste - A waste
that is classified as hazardous according to the
above criteria, but which is to be reused or recycled
in some beneficial fashion, is not subject to the requirements of Subtitle C (See 40 CFR Part 260, Appendix I, Figure 3 for special provisions for certain
hazardous wastes which are intended to be legitimately and beneficially used, re-used, recycled, or
reclaimed.)
c. Residues of Hazardous Waste in an Empty Container (40 C f R 267.7) - Definitions of an empty
container are as follows:
(1) All wastes have been removed using commonly employed procedures for emptying the
container.
(2) No more than 1 inch (25 mm) of residue remains on the bottom of the container.
(3) No more than 3% by weight of the capacity of the container remains in containers of a
capacity of 110 gal. (418 L) or less.
(4) No more than 0.3% of the weight of the total capacity remains in containers of a capacity of greater than 110 gal. (418 L).
An empty container as defined above would
not be subject to RCRA rules. If the container contained more than this amount of solvent-thinned
paint, there is a strong likelihood that the waste
would require treatment as hazardous waste. Some
disposal facilities may have more stringent criteria
for a container to be considered empty.
d. Disposal of Scrap Metal - Scrap metal, even if
coated with lead paint, is considered a recyclable
material and not subject to the requirementsof Subtitle C. For this exemption to apply, the scrap metal
must be reused by a steel mill or ferrous foundry
as part of the raw materials for the process. If the
scrap metal is simply to be discarded, then it would
need to be handled and treated as a potentially
hazardous waste and be tested by TCLP.
reactivity
toxicity
a. lgnitability - An ignitable waste is a liquid having

a flash point of less than 60% (140) using a designated ASTM method. This includes waste from
solvent-bornepaint and degreasing compounds and
other solvents not covered as listed wastes. See 3(c)
in this section for the definition of the minimum
quantity of paint in a container designated as a
hazardous waste.
6. Corrosivify - This category includes materials that
have low or high pH (less than 2 or greater than
12.5) or are excessively corrosive to steel. These
include rust removers, and acid or alkaline cleaning fluids (e.g., certain chemical strippers).
c. Reactivity - This characteristic applies to materials that are unstable or undergo rapid or violent
chemical reactions with water or other materials. Examples are cyanide, plating waste, waste bleaches,
and other oxidizers.
d. Toxicity - These are wastes which, when subjected to an extraction procedure using an acid, are
found to contain high concentrations of heavy metals or pesticides that could be released into ground
water. This is the characteristic by which lead paint
residues may be classified as hazardous waste, and
the RCRA provision having the greatest impact on
the protective coatings industry. Other metals that
may cause the waste to be classified as toxic include
chromium, barium, cadmium and mercury.
The test method for determining if a waste is
hazardous is the Toxicity Characteristic Leaching
Procedure (TCLP) (EPA Method 131l).39The abrasive, paint, or other waste is broken up into small
pieces and agitated in an acid for 24 hours. If the
amount of lead or other metal which leaches (dissolves) into the acid is greater than or equal to the
threshold value, the debris is considered hazardous.
A waste from which 5 mg/l of lead or more leaches
is considered a hazardous waste.40Such a waste
is described as a characteristic waste, and more
specifically, a toxic waste. Table 5 below gives the
threshold limits for the other metals. Each metal is
assigned a specific waste code. The D series is
designated for characteristic wastes (e.g., lead is
D008).
Table 5
CHARACTERISTIC LEVELS FOR TOXIC METALS40
Code
DO04
DO05
DO06
DO07
DO08
DOO9
DO1 O
DO1 1
Metal
Arsenic
Barium
Cadmium
Chromium
Lead
Mercury
Selenium
Silver
C. RESPONSIBILITIES FOR HAZARDOUS
Threshold Concentration
5.0 milligrams per liter (ppm)
1.O milligrams per liter (ppm)
1.O milligrams per liter (ppm)
WASTE
1. Major Parties
Under RCRA, EPA was directed to establish a program designed to control the management of
hazardous waste from its generation to its ultimate
disposal (.e., from cradle to grave). EPA has
assigned responsibility for three key groups:
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the generator of the waste; shipper (transporter) of

the waste; and the treatment, storage and disposal
(TSD) facility. The protective coatings industry is
generally not primarily involved in transporting, treating, or disposing of hazardous waste, although
these activities may be an incidental part of the work
done by a painting contractor or a facility owner. The
major role of owners and contractors is that of
generator.
generation site. (NOTE: Only licensed transporters

may be involved in shipping hazardous waste). Under some circumstances the waste generator may
deliberately or inadvertently treat the hazardous
waste. It is important to understand what types of
treatments or processes are regulated and what the
permitting or reporting requirements are.
The responsibilities and regulations affecting
generators, transporters, and TSD facilities are
described below.
2. Responsibility of Generators
Generators are classified based on the amounts of
hazardous waste generated. These are as follows:
+
Large quantity generator - Generates greater
than or equal to 1,000 kg (2,200 Ib) per month,
or accumulates more than 6,000 kg (13,200 Ibs)
at the site at any one time.
+
Small quantity generator - Generates between
100 kg and 1,000 kg (220-2,200 Ibs) per month
and accumulates less than 6,000 kg.
+
Conditionally exempt small quantity generator
- Generates less than 100 kg (220 Ib) per
month.
A large quantity generator must comply with all
the requirements listed below. There are some
minor differences in the requirements for a small
quantity generator.35 A conditionally exempt small
quantity generator does not need to follow the
reporting requirements, but still must assure that the
waste is properly tested and disposed of. The following activities are the responsibility of the
generator:
a. Identification of Waste (40 C f R 262.11). - This
regulation requires that the generator determine if
the waste is hazardous. This is accomplished by applying knowledge of the hazardous characteristics
of the material in light of the process used, or
through laboratory testing. If a project is consistently
producing material with a similar composition and
consistency, the generator can utilize documented
process and test data as evidence of the material
characteristics. For paint removal projects, the variability is such that the authoritative sampling is not
appropriate, and representative samples must be
taken for different waste streams and tested in a
laboratory.
Laboratory testing is intended to simulate the
type of long-term leaching that could occur in sanitary landfills. In the case of lead paint debris, if the
leaching meets or exceeds the allowable levels
described above, the debris is considered to be
hazardous due to toxicity.
b. EPA Identification Number (40 CFR 262.12) - The
generator must obtain a number to treat or store
hazardous waste, or dispose of, transport, or offer
it for transportation. This number is obtained from
the state or local EPA office. Different types of EPA
FIGURE 4
Clean-up of polluted waste site.
A generator is defined by EPA as any person whose act or process produces hazardous
waste. A facility owner is the primary generator of
the hazardous waste produced by removing coatings from structures. This is true even though a contractor may be the party that actually physically
removes the paint (e.g., by abrasive blast cleaning).
In some states, the contractor has been designated as Co-generator, indicating a shared responsibility. However, this designation does not relieve
the facility owner from full responsibility for ensuring that all operations (.e., generation [by removal],
transportation and disposal) and the other activities
described below are performed in accordance with
RCRA rules.
The disposal of waste paints or thinners determined to be hazardous may sometimes be the
responsibility of the contractor who purchased them.
If the coatings have been used in shop application
(e.g., rail car or steel fabricating shop) the shop facility is the waste generator.
A transporter is defined as the person engaged
in the offsite transportation of hazardous waste. Accordingly, transporting the waste within a site (.e.,
relocating to a special storage area from the generation area) does not fall within 40 CFR Part 263, and
may be performed by the generator without any additional permit.
Treatment and disposal of hazardous waste are
most commonly performed by specially licensed facilities located off the premises of the waste

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8627940 0004023 T7L
262.30 through 262.33)- The waste must be pack-
identification numbers are available. The owner

should determine the type needed. The different
types are:
(1) Regular - Permanent ID numbers are intended for facilities that will generate a
hazardous waste on a long term, constant basis. Owners may desire to obtain a permit for
all of their facilities where lead-containing
debris will be generated under one ID number.
(2) Site Specific ID numbers are intended for
facilities that will generate a hazardous waste
once. Owners may desire to identify each site,
such as individual water towers, bridges, tank
farms, etc., and have a unique ID number for
each one.
(3) Provisional ID numbers are intended for unforeseen circumstances where a large amount
(greater than 1,000 kg [2,200 Ibs]) of hazardous
waste is generated. An example would be
clean-up of soil from an accidental spill of diesel
fuel.
The owner may delegate obtaining Site Specific and Provisional EPA ID numbers to the contractor.
c. Notificationand Certification (40CFR 268.7 and
40 CFR 268.9)- Notification and certification must
be provided by the generator for each shipment of
debris. The specific wording is found in the regulations, and it varies according to whether the restricted waste tests hazardous, non-hazardous, or has
been treated to render it non-hazardous. Information required can range from an identificationof the
treatment standards that should be used for the
debris, to certificationsof personal knowledge of the
waste, treatment process, and test results. False
certification can result in a fine and/or imprisonment.
d. Manifesting the Waste (40 CFR Part 262.20
through 262.23)- The generator must complete a
hazardous waste manifest that accompanies each
shipment. The manifest includes a description of the
waste, the name of the facility permitted to handle
the waste, and an alternate facility. The generator
signs the manifest as does each transporter and the
final disposal facility. The completed manifest must
be returned to the generator within a designated
number of days (45 days for large quantity generators and 60 days for small quantity generators). If
the manifest is not received, the manifest and debris
must be tracked and located. The manifest assures
that the waste is properly handled from the collection of the debris to its final disposal. The manifest
must be obtained from the state where the waste
is being disposed of, if that state requires its use.
If the disposal state does not supply the manifest,
the form from the state where the waste is generated should be used. If neither state requires a specific manifest, a standard form can be used.
e. Packaging and Labeling Requirements (40 CFR
aged in accordance with the requirements of the 40

CFR 262 sections identified above, as well as
Department of Transportation Regulations presented in 49 CFR 173, 178, and 179, with labeling accomplished in accordance with 49 CFR 172.(401)
Essentially, these parts require that the packaging
be capable of preventing leakage of the waste during normal transportation conditions as well as upset conditions (e.g. the container falls out of a truck).
The rules also require the use of labels, marking,
or placards to identify the characteristicsor dangers
associated with transporting the waste.
f. Container Enclosure Requirements (40CFR 265)
- The requirements vary for the large and small
quantity generator, but both essentially require the
use of leak-proof drums or bins with secure lids or
covers for containing the material, with the storage
site locked and located on well-drained ground. The
containers must be inspected for corrosion and
leaking.
g. Contingency Plan and Training (40CFR 265 and
40 CFR 262.34) These sections require that the
personnel involved with the handling of hazardous
waste be trained to respond effectively to emergencies. Paint removal crews must be trained. Basic
safety information must be available, including hazard labels on containers, the date that the accumulation begins, the name and telephone number of
a site employee who is the emergency coordinator,
telephone number of fire department, location of fire
extinguisher, and other similar contingency items.
h. Waste Analysis Plans for On-Site Treatment (40
CFR 268.7)- If the generator decides to treat the
waste on-site to render it non-hazardous, a written
waste analysis plan must be filed with the EPA
regional administrator a minimum of 30 days prior
to the treatment activity.
i. Waste Accumulation Time (40 CFR 262.34) There are restrictions on the length of time that the
waste may accumulate on-site. The large quantity
generator may accumulate hazardous waste on-site
for 90 days or less without a permit from the EPA.
An extension of up to 30 days may be granted due
to unforseen, temporary, or uncontrollable circumstances. The small quantity generator may accumulate waste on-site for 180 days with a possible
exemption permitting up to 270 days. If these time
limits are exceeded, the generator may be considered an operator of a storage facility, and subject
to very extensive requirements.
i. Recordkeeping and Reporting (40 CFR 262.40
through 262.44) - The signed manifests and associated documentation must be maintained for at
least three years. For generators who treat the waste
on-site, the recordkeeping requirements can be
more elaborate.
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pers can be readily accomplished in the field using standard
pH paper. The manufacturers material safety data sheets
(MSDS) will identify the characteristics of the material, including the pH and any toxic components. Unless the material has been diluted, mixed, or otherwise altered, one should
assume that the most hazardous properties of the material
are also true of the waste.
For solid paint waste or abrasive residue suspected of
containing lead or other heavy metals, a laboratory test is
normally required to determine the leachate concentration
of the metals. The collection and sampling of the waste to
be tested must be performed according to EPA procedures.
For example, the sampling must be taken from a homogeneous mix, using random sampling techniques. Typically, a
minimum of four samples is required to demonstrate that a
sample is non-hazardous (e.g., less than 5 mg/l for lead.) If
the generator is willing to handle and dispose of the material as a hazardous waste, it is not necessary to test for the
presence of lead or other heavy metals. However, at least
one sample is recommended for historical records and to
guide the disposal facility in the appropriate treatment
procedures.
Samples required for the TCLP test normally must be
about 100 g (1/4 Ib), placed in labeled containers. Testing
should be done by a qualified lab experienced in TCLP testing. The test itself normally takes about 24 hours. Additional information on sampling procedures is contained in
references 42-44.
3. Responsibilities of Transportersand TSDF (Treatment, Storage and Disposai Facilities)

a. Transportation - Waste containers can be transported on-site to temporary holding areas by the
generator without special hauling permits. However,
for off-site transportation, the requirements of 40
CFR 263, Standards Applicable to Transporters of
Hazardous Waste, apply.41
b. Treatment, Storage and Disposal - Treatment,
storage, and disposal are defined as follows under
40 CFR 260.10, Definitions.
(1) Treatment - Any method, technique, or
process, including neutralization, designed to
change the physical, chemical, or biological
character or composition of any hazardous
waste so as to neutralize such waste, or so as
to recover energy or material resources from
the waste, or so as to render such waste nonhazardous, or less hazardous; safer to transport, store, or dispose of; or amenable for
recovery, amenable for storage, or reduced in
volume.
(2) Storage - The holding of hazardous waste
for a temporary period, at the end of which the
hazardous waste is treated, disposed of, or
stored elsewhere.
(3) Disposal- The discharge, deposit, injection,
dumping, spilling, leaking, or placing of any
solid waste or hazardous waste into or on any
land or water so that such solid waste or
hazardous waste or any constituent thereof
may enter the environment or be emitted into
the air, or discharged into any waters, including ground waters.
The TSDF is the last phase in the cradle-tograve concept of handling hazardous waste. The facility must return the signed manifest to the generator and comply with requirements for the ultimate
disposition of the waste. The extensive requirements for these facilities are described in 40 CFR
Parts 264 and 265.4* Details of generators, transporters and TSDFs responsibilities and specific application to hazardous lead paint are given in the
Industrial Lead Paint Removal Handbook.35
E. TREATMENT AND DISPOSAL OF

HAZARDOUS WASTE
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If a waste that has been collected and tested is determined to be hazardous, the generator must arrange for some
type of treatment to render the waste non-hazardous. This
requirement is based on the 1990 Land Disposal Restrictions
(Land Ban) (40 CFR 268). This regulation prohibits the land
disposal of any hazardous waste. Typical treatments for lead
containing wastes are summarized below. Treatment is not
required if the material is to be recycled or reused for beneficial purposes. As noted above, such materials are not classified as hazardous waste and are not subject to these RCRA
requirements.
For hazardous waste, treatment can be performed onor off-site. On-site treatment is permitted by EPA under very
special circumstances as described below. Off-site treatment
services are offered by a number of firms that specialize in
this type of technology.
D. SAMPLING AND TESTING

As noted above, it is the generators responsibilityto determine if the waste is hazardous. For listed wastes, such
as xylene and other solvents, there is no need for testing.
The waste is hazardous by definition. For waste paints, the
determining factor for ignitability is the flash point. This
may be obtained from the manufacturer; alternatively, an outside testing laboratory or an in-house testing facility could
easily determine it using the ASTM method prescribed. For
solvent-borne paints, it may be prudent to assume that the
waste is hazardous and handle and treat it accordingly. Determining the pH of acid or alkali cleaners or chemical strip-

1. Off-Site Treatment of Hazardous Wastes

a. Treatment Methods - One particularly common
treatment method is the use of lime or portland cement. Lime stabilizes lead-containing debris by
pH control. Addition of lime is effective at a level of
about 10-15 percent by weight. Lead compounds
are amphoteric, meaning they are soluble in acidic
and alkaline solutions. Adding too much lime will
raise the pH and may result in a leachable lead concentration above 5 mgll. Laboratory testing is need-
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= 8b27940
licensed hazardous waste haulers can be obtained

from the appropriate state agency.
ed to determine the proper amount of lime to add.

EPA Method 132045is designed to simulate the
long-term effect of leaching of landfills by ground
water. It consists of successive leaching tests similar to TCLP on a waste sample. There are no known
available results of this test being run on the limestabilized, lead-bearing waste.de
Stabilizing lead with portland cement can be
performed either as a dry addition or with water to
make concrete. Adding portland cement at a level
of 10 percent by weight or higher typically results
in very low leachable lead concentrations, usually
0.05 to 0.1 mgil. Concretes can be made using a
watercement ratio of 0.5. A representative mixture
design to form blocks is 300 pounds (136 kg) of
debris, 94 pounds (43 kg or one sack) of cement,
and 7.5 gallons (28 I)of water. Wastes stabilized in
this manner have been evaluated for long term stability by EPA Method 1320 and show no increase
in leachable lead concentration for ten (10) cycles.47
Fine-grained wastes such as dust from dust
collectors or the fines from steel recycling units have
been successfully stabilized with portland cement.
However, more water must be added to the mixture
for these wastes. The above mixture design is not
appropriate for fines. Laboratory tests must be performed to determine an adequate amount of water.
Fines from dust collectors may be classified as a
hazardous waste unless in-process treatment was
performed.
Once treated and found to be below the regulatory limit, EPA regulations permit the material to be
disposed of in a Subtitle C (hazardous) or Subtitle
D (nonhazardous) landfill. However, states may
have additional requirements for testing and
manifesting the waste.
Waste thinners and paints are typically incinerated, because once the solvent is burned, the explosion or fire hazard has been eliminated. Acids
and bases can be readily treated by neutralizingwith
other bases or acids respectively.
b. Disposal Procedure - The generator normally
does not treat the waste. It is necessary to select
a treatment and disposal facility. There are numerous hazardous waste treatment facilities available
in the United States. The state or regional EPA office
can provide assistance in identifying these. The
generator must inform the treatment facility of the
quantity and hazardous nature of the waste, so the
facility can treat it prior to disposal. It is the generators responsibility to assure that the disposal facility is permitted and reputable.
It is also necessary to select a hazardous waste
hauler. Hauling of the waste from the temporary
storage site to the treatment, storage, or disposal
(TSD) facility must be performed by a transporter
having an EPA identification number. A list of

0004025 B Y Y
2. On-Site Treatment of Hazardous Waste

Generators can treat the waste on-site in 90-day
holding containers or tanks, if approved by the state
or regional EPA office. A waste analysis plan must
be submitted prior to treatment. The waste must be
treated within the 90-day holding period allowed for
waste accumulation. Once the waste has been treated and is determined to be non-hazardous (e.g.,
leachable lead level below 5 mgl as measured by
TCLP), it can be disposed of at a Subtitle C or Subtitle D landfill.
3. Pretreatment of Blast Abrasives
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SSPC C H A P T E R * 2 7 . 2
There are several kinds of materials that, when added to abrasives prior to blasting lead containing
paint, will result in a non-hazardous waste being
generated. Examples are steel grit and a proprietary
cementitious-type material. These additives chemically react with the lead during the TCLP digestion
procedure and will reduce the solubility below the
threshold limit of 5 mg/l.
a. Steel Grit - A Federal Highway Administration
(FHWA) studyde has shown that adding 3-6% by
weight of G-80 steel grit to conventional expendable abrasives has reduced the leachable level of
lead from over 50 mgl to less than 1-2 mg/l. The
same study, and other field histories, have indicated that the stabilization of lead may not be permanent, because over time the lead solubility could
increase as the steel grit oxidizes. Thus, this treatment, while satisfying the letter of the RCRA law,
could lead to leaching of lead into the environment,
after the waste has been landfilled. Leaching, in
turn, could cause significant problems for the generator. A potential solution to this problem is to further treat the grit-stabilized lead waste with one of
the cementitious materials described above. In this
case, however, the recordkeeping would be simplified because the waste is not hazardous and the requirements for holding containers and the waste
analysis plan are not in effect.
b. Proprietary Additives - Proprietary additives are
typically incorporated at 15-18% of the weight of the
conventional abrasive (e.g., coal slag, copper slag,
silica sand). One such addition has been found to
effectively reduce the leachable lead content to approximately 0.1 mgll, well below the threshold level.47 This stabilization method, as identified by the
manufacturer, involves pH control and encapsulation. Unlike waste containing steel grit additives,
waste containing this proprietary material shows
no increase in leachable content after running multiple leaching procedures. Because this material is
blasted onto the surface along with the abrasive, it
should be manufactured or treated to reduce dusting and to avoid leaving a soluble deposit on the
578
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8b27940 000402b 7 8 0 W
steel to be subsequently painted. NOTE: The above

discussion is derived from a proposed revision of
SSPC Guide 7.48
the landfill operators are reluctant to accept wastes that

although non-hazardous by the TCLP, may still present a risk
because they contain lead or other hazardous constituents.
F. STATE REGULATION OF HAZARDOUS AND

NON-HAZARDOUS WASTE
RCRA also provides for state regulation of the
hazardous waste operations. States meeting certain EPA
regulations may assume responsibility for hazardous waste
control. States also have the authority to establish more stringent requirements. However, if state laws are less stringent
than federal, states will not be given this authority. In 1989,
approximately 45 states had received such authority from
EPA. Authority is not absolute and requires participation by
regional EPA offices.
Almost every state has enacted regulations regarding
production, storage, transport, treatment, or disposal of
hazardous substances or waste. RCRA encourages states
to assume some of the federal responsibilities for operating
their own waste programs. In general, state laws and standards are required to be equivalent to or more stringent than
federal requirements. There are some variations from state
to state, and certain states have enacted more stringent
hazardous waste requirements.
For example, California has established limits for leachable content of heavy metals (Soluble Threshold Limit Concentration [STLC]), and for total heavy metal concentration
(Total Threshold Limit Concentration [TTLC]).49 California,
under Title 22, has also added several metals that are not
on the EPA hazardous waste list, most notably zinc and zinc
compounds. Thus, if zinc exceeds 250 mg/l in the STLC
leach test or 5,000 mglkg under TTLC (total concentration),
it is classified as a hazardous waste, so that disposal of spent
zinc-rich paint may require testing to determine if waste is
hazardous in California. Michigan also includes zinc as a metal that may be classified as hazardous.50
States are also responsible for the disposal of nonhazardous waste, which is not included under RCRA. Nonhazardous wastes are often classified as municipal and special, industrial, or residual wastes. Municipal wastes can be
disposed of in a municipal landfill, along with household garbage. Non-municipal wastes often require special handling
and paperwork. For example, Illinois EPA requires that any
waste from abrasive blasting or other lead removal
projects be tested and manifested, even if it is below the 5
mg/l threshold level for hazardous waste.51 For this industrial waste, licensed haulers must be utilized. Pennsylvania also has special regulations for residual wastes, which
again require special handling and recordkeeping.52 In these
instances, the cost of disposing of non-hazardouswaste may
approach that of hazardous waste, because ultimately the
same standards are being applied. In states where there are
no special requirements for non-hazardous wastes, costs for
disposal are significantly lower than for disposal of hazardous
waste (e.g., on the order of $100 per ton rather than $400
per ton). In the future, more states are expected to establish
special regulations for non-hazardous waste. In many cases,

REFERENCES
References 1-13 are listed at the end of Chapter 27.0. References
14-38 are listed at the end of Chapter 27.1.
39 40 CFR 261, Appendix II, Method 1311, Toxicity Characteristic Leaching Procedure.
40. 40 CFR 261.24, Table 1, Maximum Concentration of Contaminants for the Toxicity Characteristic.
41. 49 CFR 172-179, U.S. Dept. of Transportation Regulationc on
Transporting Waste.
42. G. Tinklenberg and L. M. Smith, The Criticiality of Sampling
and Quality Control for Hazardous Waste Testing, JPCL, April
1990, pp. 36-44.
43. Guide for the Disposal of Lead-Contaminated Surface Preparation Debris, SSPC Guide 71 (DIS), SSPC 92-07. Pittsburgh:
SSPC, March, 1992.
44. Sampling for Lead Analysis, G. Tinklenberg, SSPC Lead Paint
Bulletin, Summer 1993.
45. EPA Method 1320, published in EPA SW-846, Testing Method
for Evaluating Solid Wastes: PhysicallChemicalMethods, third
ed. Washington, DC, Government Printing Office, November
i986.
46. FHWA Contract DTFH61-89-C-00102 with S. G. Pinney & Associates, 1989. Removal, Containment & Disposal of Lead
Paint From Highway Bridges. Preliminary results submitted
for publication in SSPC Tutorial on Industrial Lead Paint
Removal, by Principal Investigator L. M. Smith.
47. L. M. Smith, Pre-and Post-Blast Additives for Stabilizing Lead
Waste, unpublished presentation, SSPC 6th Annual Conference on Lead Paint Removal & Abatement, March 15-17,1993.
48. Appendix D, Proposed Revision to SSPC Guide 7, Guide for
the Disposal of Lead-Contaminated Surface Preparation
Debris, August 1993.
49 California Administrative Code, Title 22, Section 66261.24.
50 The Effect of Zinc-Rich Coatings on the Environment, prepared by the SSPC Zinc-Rich Task Force, JPCL, July 1992, p.
45-53.
51 Illinois Issues Fact Sheet on Disposal of Lead-Based Waste,
JPCL, March 1992, p. 45.
52. Guidelines for Disposal of Residual and Household Waste,
Pennsylvania Dept. of Environmental Resources, 1992.
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SSPC C H A P T E R a 2 7 . 2
8 6 2 7 9 4 0 0004027 617
CHAPTER 27.3
OTHER REGULATIONS AFFECTING

PROTECTIVE COATINGS
by
Bernard R. Appleman and Monica Madaus
I. WATER QUALITY
B. REPORTABLE QUANTITIES FOR

HAZARDOUS SUBSTANCES
A. FEDERAL CLEAN WATER ACT
Approximately 300 chemicals have been designated by

EPA as potential hazards when dissolved in water. Any discharge exceeding the reportable quantity is in violation of
the Clean Water Act and must be reported. The list includes
only a few materials commonly used in protective coating
activities, such as toluene, xylene, and sodium nitrite (a wet
blast inhibitor). Certain lead compounds are on the list, but
not the type that have been used in painting of industrial
structures.
However, when the material being discharged is a waste
product, the activity would be subject not only to FWCPA,
but also to CERCLA (discussed under Part IIB of this chapter).
Reportable quantities for lead or lead compounds and other
toxic metals such as chromate are covered in that section.
The 1972 Federal Water Pollution Control Act (FWPCA)4

and subsequent amendments in 1977 and 19875established
the current framework for water quality controls. The goal
of this legislation is to minimize pollutant discharge into
navigable waters (lakes, streams, oceans) and achieve water
that is suitable for human recreation and aquatic organisms.
The two basic approaches utilized are:
Controlling the concentrations of toxics in the water;
Controlling discharge of toxics into the water at the
point of discharge.
Both of these approaches are incorporated into the
FWPCA, commonly referred to as the "Clean Water Act."
As with other environmental statutes, the Clean Water
Act is a far-reaching, comprehensive, multi-faceted federal/state program. Several of the provisions of the Clean Water
Act potentially impact protective coatings activities, including the following:
Reportable quantitiesforhazardoussubstances (40
CFR 117).
Discharge permits under the National Pollutant Discharge EliminationSystem (NPDES) (40 CFR 122).
Water Quality Standards (40 CFR 131).
National Drinking Water Standards (40 CFR 141).
C. WATER QUALITY STANDARDS

EPA has established National Ambient Water Quality
Standards for a variety of materials including lead, chromium, copper and cadmium, These place limits on the maximum concentration of material at a given site for a one-hour
period (acute) or over a four-day period (chronic). Standards
are set for human consumption (ground or drinking water)
and for aquatic life.
1. Water Standards for Aquatic Life

The ambient water quality standards for toxic metals address fresh water and salt water conditions.
Table 6
FEDERAL AMBIENT WATER
QUALITY CRITERIA FOR SELECTED METALS53

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Saltwater Aquatic Life (pgll)

Freshwater Aquatic Life (pgll)
1 hr.'
4 day
1 hr."
4 day
Cadmium
3.9'
1.1**
4.3
9.3
Chromium (Vi)
16
11
1100
50
Copper
18**
12
2.9
Lead
83* *
3.2* *
140
5.6
Mercury
2.4
0.012
2.1
0.025
Aluminum
750
87
Zinc
120"
110**
95
86
'These levels may be exceeded only once every three years.
**This level is based on a water hardness of 100 g Caco3. Allowable level is increased as hardness increases.
93 W 8b27940 0004028 553
In fresh water for several metals the acute and

chronic levels are based on hardness. Some examples are given in Table 6.
ganisms to suspended or dissolved substances

resulting from new paint materials and paint and
abrasive debris. In two studies (described below),
there was evidence of toxic effect from some surface cleaning compounds used to pre-wash a bridge
and from lead and other paint ingredients. The level of concentrations used in these studies exceeded levels measured in field analyses.
A California Dept. of Transportation study investigated the effects of bridge painting operations
on fathead minnows, rainbow trout, and other spec i e ~ The
. ~ ~
results indicate that lead pigmented
paints and zinc-rich paints may cause toxicity. Biocides from waterborne paints and cleaning detergents tested were highly toxic. A set of guidelines
was developed to assist highway officials in determining and mitigating the impact of bridge painting
projects on the aquatic environment. Blasting abrasives range in toxicity from somewhat toxic to innocuous.
The Dept. of Fisheries and Oceans of Vancouver, British Columbia, has also issued guidelines for
the protection of fish and fish habitats during bridge
maintenance.57 These are based on a series of tests
on the effects of abrasives, paints, and surface
cleaning agents on rainbow trout and other species.
The degree of toxicity depended on the specific
paint formulation, with some chemical species found
to have lethal effects and long-term damage. The
guidelines provide procedures and strategies, including regular meetings among the affected parties, scheduling to avoid spawning seasons,
pre-testing of cleaning agents, greater control of
degreasing, use of pressurized water jetting without
abrasives, and containment.
Even if federal water quality standards are not
exceeded, it is prudent to avoid contaminating any
bodies of water with paint or abrasive materials or
waste. A number of states have more stringent regulations than EPA. For example, North Carolina Division of Environmental Management has an action
level of 50 pg/l for zinc in fresh water.58
In addition, visible evidence of inadequate containment of debris from a structure (e.g., paint chips
and residues floating on surface) can result in local
complaints. At the least such actions will generate
bad publicity for the facility owner and the contractor. Citations for violating local nuisance ordinances,
fines, and delays or shutdowns are also likely to
occur.
2 . Drinking Water Standards

EPA has also established standards for maximum
content of metals and other constituents in drinking water. Some of the criteria are listed below.
Table 7
FEDERAL DRINKING WATER STANDARDS
FOR SELECTED METALS4
Cadmium
Chromium (Vi)
Copper
Lead
Zinc
10 pgll
50 pgll
10 pgll
15 pgll
5000 pgll
There is a direct relationship between the level for drinking water and the level for certain heavy
metals under the Toxicity Characteristic Leaching
Procedure (TCLP). EPA assumes that water leached
from a landfill will be diluted by a factor of 100 before it can penetrate into drinking water sources. For
example, chromium-containing waste cannot be
land-disposed unless the leachable chromium content is less than 5000 pg/l(5 mg/l) which is 100 times
the drinking water standard of 50 g/I. The drinking
water standard for lead has recently been reduced
from 50 pg/l to 15 pg/l. The TCLP level for lead
however, is still at 5 mgll. It is anticipated that within the next few years, the criteria for lead as a
hazardous waste will also be reduced from 5 mg/l
to 1.5 mgll.
FIGURE 5
Contamination of water from blasting debris.
3 . Impact of Paint Removal on Aquatic Life

Smith55 has reviewed a number of studies on the
effect of lead paint removal and other painting activities on aquatic life. These studies present no evidence that such activities have resulted in any
long-term or immediate violation of the Clean Water
Act.
A few researchers have conducted bioassays
of fish to determine the sensitivity of various or-
D. NATIONAL POLLUTANT DISCHARGE

ELIMINATION SYSTEM
1. Point Source Discharge and Permits
Because of the potential for damage to human and

aquatic life, EPA seeks to regulate discharge of
581

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industrial and other wastes into streams, lakes, and

oceans. The Clean Water Act requires that states
and the Federal Government establish a permit system to limit the discharge of effluent. This is the National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System
(NPDES)permit system. NPDES permits are required for all point sources of discharge of effluent.
A point source is normally an industrial or municipal
discharge which is designed to emit effluent into a
water body. Thus it covers operations at manufacturing plants, fabrication shops, mills, and shipyards. An example of a non-point source would be
municipal or agricultural runoff. These are not
covered under the NPDES permit system. Discharges from painting of bridges or other structures
over or near water are not point sources, because
there is normally not an intent to discharge into the
body of water. However, these discharges may be
treated as described below.
into water bodies. Some states may issue ordinances

regarding floating objects or debris, scum, oil or other
materials, frequently described as nuisance ordinances. A report by the National Cooperative
Highway Research Program60 has identified several states with nuisance and discharge regulations,
including examples of permitting and reporting requirements.
E. POTABLE WATER IN STORAGE TANKS
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
The Safe Drinking Water Act (SDWA) of 19746 charged

EPA with the responsibility for issuing guidance to states on
additives to drinking water. The EPA program, which included a list of approved coatings for potable water tank interiors, expired in April 1990. In its place, NSF International
(Formerly National Sanitation Foundation) established voluntary standards in conjunction with the American Water Works
Association, the Conference of State, Health, and Environmental Managers (COSHEM), and the Association of State
Drinking Water Administrators (ASDWA)61. The goal was to
develop third-party standards for evaluating the health effects
of additives to drinking water. The principal standard of interest is ANSIINSF Standard 61, Drinking Water System
Components Health Effects which deals with indirect additives that may contaminate drinking water. It was approved
by NSF and ANSI in 1989. Section 5 (Protective Barrier Materials) of ANSIINSF 61 includes requirements for submittal and
testing of coatings intended for use in potable water systems.
The testing is designed to measure the quantity of heavy
metals and organics leached from cured film applied to a glass
substrate. The maximum allowable levels (MALs) of these contaminants is set at 10% of the maximum contaminant level
(MCL) from EPAs Primary Drinking Water Standards, or by
an alternate procedure outlined in Standard 61. The standard
also evaluates the ability of coatings to support microbial
growth.
As part of the submittal, coating manufacturers must furnish composition data and product data sheets, including use
and application instructions. An important variable, which affects the solubility of a leachate, is the ratio of the surface
to volume of the vessel. This ratio increases as tank size
decreases. Thus, the standard includes a normalization factor for MALs to account for this variation.
Coatings meeting the criteria of this health-based standard will be certified by NSF. A large majority of the states
contacted in a 1990 survey indicated their intention to adopt
the NSF standards.62 The NSF has also established a program to evaluate coatings against this standard. Other thirdparty organizations may also serve as certifying bodies.
The coatings submitted for testing are classified based
on the temperature of the intended service and the size of
the tank. Examples of coatings that have met the requirements of ANSIINSF 61 are shown below.63
Water tanks greater than 500 gallons (1,900 L)
(cold) - epoxy:
Water tanks greater than 1,000 gallons (3,800 L)
(cold) - epoxy, vinyl, polyurethane;
FIGURE 6
Another case of water contamination.
2. Storm Water Discharge

In 1990, EPA started requiring industrial facilities
and municipalitiesto acquire permits for storm water
discharge and municipal storm water systems.59 An
exception is that permits are not required for publicly owned treatment works facilities. Industries affected include waste treatment facilities, metal scrap
reclaimers, and construction activities affecting five
or more acres. Also affected would be paper mills,
chemical plants, primary metals industries, and
fabricators of structural metal.
Paint and surface debris from a painting or
paint removal activity which is not properly contained and collected could be considered an unpermitted discharge. Such discharge may be limited by
state or federal regulation of water quality standards
or other state or local ordinances.
3. State and Local Ordinances
EPA has given states much of the responsibility to

enforce the Clean Water Act and eliminate discharge
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8b27940 0004030 L O I

(tested at 18OOF (82OC)) - phenolic epoxy;
(cold) - epoxy;
Four-inch (100 mm) pipe and greater (cold) - asphaltic coating;
Six-inch (150 mm) pipe and greater (cold) - polyurethane; and
Repair materials - epoxy filter.
Information on specific test requirements and a list of
approved systems can be obtained from NSF International.
As noted, ANSIINSF61 is a health-based standard and
does not address performance aspects such as durability,
resistance to undercutting, and application tolerance. These
properties must be ascertained by the specifier or owner, as
is done for other immersion-type linings. In addition, this standard does not evaluate taste or odor.
coatings developers. A chemical may be considered

new if it does not appear on the TSCA Inventory,
a list of chemicals published by EPA. Formulators
must file a Premanufacture Notice (PMN) for such
a chemical unless they qualify for exemptions such
as the one available for chemicals used only for
research and development. Reviews may also be
expedited for chemicals made or imported in quantities of less than 2200 pounds (1,000 kilograms) per
year.
The PMN should contain information on the
chemical identity, how it is going to be used, the
volume to be produced, by-products, the number of
people likely to be exposed through manufacturing,
and the intended means of disposing of it. The EPA
normally has 90 days to review the information and
to evaluate the risks of the chemical usually using
existing chemical literature and comparison to similar chemicals. A notice of the review must appear
in the Federal Register.
In some cases, the EPA may extend the review
and request additional information. The agency has
authority to temporarily or permanently ban materials under review, but generally prefers to develop
consent agreements under which the manufacturer
agrees to restrictions on the use of the chemical.
Restrictions may involve the amount of a material
used, the way it is used, or personal protective
equipment required for those exposed to it. By issuing a significant new use rule (SNUR), the EPA
can extend the restrictions in such an agreement
to other companies interested in manufacturing, using or importing the substance.
The EPA can also use TSCA to require
manufacturers to test chemical substances that are
already in use, if insufficient information is available and the substances pose an unreasonable risk
or are used in sufficiently large quantities to make
exposure or release particularly significant.
There are also several requirements for recordkeeping and reporting. For instance, chemical
manufacturers, processors and distributors are required to keep records of health or environmental
effects such as those reported by employees or consumers. They are also required to report any study
or event which suggests that a particular chemical
poses a substantial risk to the EPA within 15 working days. A description of the steps required by a
manufacturer in producing a new material is provided in Reference 64.
II. HAZARDOUS MATERIALS
A. TOXIC SUBSTANCES CONTROL ACT

The Toxic Substances Control Act (TSCA), passed in
1976, was intended to cover uses and exposures to toxic
chemicals not covered specifically under other environmental or health and safety regulations. Substances which are
covered by other regulations, such as pesticides, are not covered by TSCA.
TSCA is often thought of as a set of regulations that
primarily affect paint formulators, and several sections are
important to this segment of the industry. However, other sections of the act can soon be expected to affect the kinds of
paint end users can use.
1. Provisions Which Will Affect End-users
EPA intends to use TSCA to respond to broad concerns about exposure to lead, as it has in the past
to regulate asbestos and PCBs. It is in the process
of conducting a comprehensive review of lead under the act and is considering a variety of steps up
to and including a ban or severe restrictions on the
use of lead pigments in industrial paint. A variety
of possible approaches were outlined in an Advance
Notice of Proposed Rulemaking published in the
Federal Register on May 13, 1991. Other options
would include economic incentives for reductions in
the use of lead.
2. Provisions Primarily Affecting Formulators
The act authorized EPA to obtain and evaluate information on the health and environmental effects
of chemicals. If EPA concludes that particular substances pose an unreasonable risk, it also has the
authority to restrict, or even ban, use and manufacturing of the material.
A manufacturer is required to notify the EPA
before manufacturing, using or importing a new
chemical. This section of TSCA primarily affects
B. CERCLAANDSUPERFUND
The Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act (CERCLA), issued in 1980, is intended to prevent and correct spills and releases of
hazardous substances and wastes.9 It is also known as Superfund, because the act establishes a fund to clean up
583
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73
8 6 2 7 7 4 0 0 0 0 4 0 3 1 O48
c. Threat of Release - Even if a release does not occur, a party can be held liable for remedial costs
based on a substantial threat of release. Examples include lead lying on the ground, badly corroded chemical storage tanks, or abandoned drums.
d. Environment - The environment is defined broadly to include surface water, ground water, drinking
water supplies, land surfaces, subsurface strata,
and ambient air.
hazardous waste sites. The act was extended in 1986 under the Superfund Amendment and Reauthorization Act
(SARA), which clarified provisions of CERCLA and increased
the funds for clean-up.10
CERCLA authorizes EPA to force responsible parties
to remove and remediate any release of hazardous substances into the environment. The definitions of these terms,
given below, provide EPA with very broad power.
1. Definitions
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
a. Hazardous Substance - Hazardous substances

are defined by reference to substances listed or
designated under other statutes. These include listed or hazardous wastes under RCRA (40 CFR 261),
hazardous substances (Section 311) and toxic pollutants (Section 307) under the Clean Water Act,
hazardous air pollutants (Section 112) of the Clean
Air Act, hazardous chemicals (Section 7) of TSCA,
in addition to substances listed under Section 102
of CERCLA.
b. Release - A release is defined as a discharge or
spill of any amount of the hazardous substances
identified above. Thus there is no minimum quantity below which a facility owner is exempt. Under
CERCLA, EPA also requires that any release at or
above a designated quantity (the reportable quantity) be reported to the National Response Center.
For example, for lead compounds, the reportable
quantity is 10 Ibs (4.5 kg) of hazardous lead waste
released within a 24 hour period. Amounts less than
the reportable quantity need not be reported but are
still sufficient to establish liability.
2. Violations Triggering CERCLA Actions

Examples of leaks and spills that have triggered
CERCLA actions are as follows:68
a. Depositing of hazardous lead waste onto ground
adjacent to paint removal operations on bridges and
tanks.
b. Leaks from tanks containing solvents and other
chemicals. (NOTE: Petroleum products are specifically exempt from CERCLA.)
c. Leaching of metal (e.g., lead) from a hazardous
waste landfill. (NOTE: If the material has passed the
TCLP and been properly buried, there is no longer
any liability under RCRA. CERCLA liability,
however, extends indefinitely.)
CERCLA violations can be brought to EPAs attention by reports submitted to EPA from the National Response Center, by investigations or
inspections conducted by state and local officials,
or by citizen complaint.
Table 8
SELECTED LIST OF HAZARDOUS SUBSTANCES
AND REPORTABLE QUANTITIES
(40 CFR 302.4, Appendix A)
Hazardous
Substance
Reportable
Quantity
Comments
Lead (as hazardous waste)
10 Ibs (4.5 kg)
Report if 2 5 mg/l per TCLP
Hydrochloric Acid
5,000 Ibc (2,270 kg)
Used for etching concrete
Methyl Ethyl Ketone
5,000 Ibs (2,270 kg)
Paint solvent
Methylene Chloride
1,000 Ibs (454 kg)
Paint stripper
Sodium Hydroxide
1,000 Ibs (454 kg)
Paint stripper, neutralizing agent
Sodium Nitrite
10 Ibs (4.5 kg)
Wet blast inhibitor
Toluene
1,000 Ibs (454 kg)
Paint solvent
1,1,1,-Trichloroethane
1,000 Ibs (454 kg)
VOC-exempt paint solvent
Trichloroethylene
100 Ibs (45 kg)
Degreasing solvent
Xylene
1,000 Ibs (454 kg)
Paint solvent
Zinc Metal
1,000 Ibs (454 kg)
Zinc-rich paints, galvanizing
*The spill must be reported if this amount of waste is spilled in a 24-hour period.
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participate in local emergency planning.

Comparing quantities of pure substances to the
TPQ is relatively straightforward, but requires accurate recordkeeping. However, a mixture is assumed to present the same health hazards as any
of the components that comprise one percent (by
weight or volume) or greater of the mixture. Therefore, the quantity of a material on site must be multiplied by the percent of any extremely hazardous
substance present in the material, and the resulting figure must be compared to the TPQ. This
means that components that make up a small quantity of a material may exceed the TPQ if a facility
uses a large enough quantity of the mixture, or the
component is considered particularly hazardous.69
As noted, the major purpose of the regulation

is to provide the organizational structure and procedures for preparing for and responding to discharges of oil and releases of hazardous
substances, pollutants, and contaminants.
3 . Other Requirements of CERCLA Regulations
The regulations provide details on the following
procedures:
Setting priorities for cleanup;
Identifying remedial actions;
Identifying responsible parties;
Determining liability for cleanup costs;
Enforcement and inspection of cleanup: and
Recordkee ping.
4. Superfund
2 . Emergency Notification
To comply with section 304 of SARA Title III, companies must determine whether they produce, use
or store a hazardous substance that is included on
1) the list of extremely hazardous substances (40
CFR 355) or 2) the list of substances subject to
emergency notification requirements, found under
CERCLA (40 CFR 302.4)70. A company that does
produce, use or store such a substance is covered
by section 304. It must notify the National Response
Center, and the state and local emergency planning
committees if it spills or otherwise accidentally
releases more than the reportable quantity of any
such substance that may result in exposure outside
the company site. This does not include releases
such as permitted discharges to water or emissions
to air. The notification should include:
a. the chemical name;
b. an indication of whether the substance is
extremely hazardous;
c. an estimate of the quantity released into the
environment;
d. the time and duration of the release;
e. known or anticipated acute or chronic health
effects;
f. proper precautions; and
g. name and phone number of a contact
person.
A written emergency notice should include any
more recent information including response actions
and any need for medical attention for those
exposed.
Portions of the clean-up are to be paid for from a

national fund, Superfund, created by taxes on
petroleum and the chemical industry, environmental taxes on corporations and general revenues.
Overall, the Superfund program as administered by
EPA has made little progress in achieving the intended cleanups. Over 50% of the several billion
dollars that make up the fund have gone to administrative and legal fees.
Examples of some hazardous substances and
reportable quantities are given in Table 8.
C. SARA Title III (Right-To-Know)

The use of industrial chemicals is also affected by reporting regulations developed under the Emergency Planning
and Community Right to Know Act (EPCRA). EPCRA was
included in the legislation that reauthorized the Superfund
program in 1986, known as the Superfund Amendments and
Reauthorization Act (SARA), also known as SARA Title 111.0
The legislation established requirements for federal,
state and local governments and industry regarding emergency planning and community right-to-know reporting on
hazardous and toxic chemicals.
1. Planning and Response
Sections 301-303 of SARA Title III require state and
local governments to develop or designate emergency planning and response commissions.
Another provision requires companies to determine
whether any chemical found on a list of over 300
extremely hazardous substances (40 CFR 355) was
present at their facility at any one time in an amount
exceeding the Threshold Planning Quantity (TPQ),
a quantity that triggers regulation. The threshold
planning quantity is 10,000 pounds (4540 kgs) for
many extremely hazardous substances that do not
have their own TPQ. However, it may be 500 pounds
(227 kgs) for some, particularly powdered solids,
and as low as 10 pounds (4.5 kgs) for the most
hazardous. Companies that determine that they
have had more than the TPQ on-site must notify
authorities and appoint a facility coordinator who will
3 . Material Safety Data Sheet

Sections 31 1-312 of SARA Title III may apply to any
company that must prepare or maintain a material
safety data sheet (MSDS) for any of the materials
it uses, stores or manufactures. An MSDS is required for any material that is a physical or health
hazard, including materials that can catch fire; are
suspected of causing cancer: can cause central nervous system effects; or can irritate skin, eyes or
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term manufacturing also applies to a toxic

chemical that is produced coincidentally during the
manufacture, processing, use or disposal of another
chemical or mixture of chemicals, including a toxic
chemical that is a by-product or an impurity.
The term processing applies to the preparation of a toxic chemical, after its manufacture, for
distribution in commerce, whether in the same form
or physical state, or a different form or physical
state, than that in which it was received by the person preparing such a substance. Process also applies to the processing of a toxic chemical contained
in a mixture or trade name product. In addition, the
term processing applies to toxic chemicals a facility adds to an article.
The term otherwise use includes any use of
a toxic chemical that is not covered by the terms
manufacture or process. This includes use of
a toxic chemical contained in a mixture or trade
name product. Relabeling or redistributing a container of a toxic chemical where no repackaging of
the toxic chemical occurs does not constitute use
or processing of the toxic chemical.
Generally, the manufacturing and processing
categories will apply to formulators and the otherwise used category will apply to applicators.
However, if a company coats a product that it sells
(shop-applied coatings), coating application would
then be considered processing.
In determining whether they manufacture,
process or store more than the TPQ of any chemical, employers must again consider the components
of mixtures. Similar to sections 31 1-312, components that make up 1 percent of a mixture, or components that are carcinogens and make up 0.1
percent of a mixture must be considered.
Under the regulations, suppliers are required
to inform their customers of the identities and concentrations of the materials that make up their
products.
To meet the requirements of 313, companies
that exceed the TPQ must annually report routine
emissions of each such chemical, including releases
into water, air or soil during the preceding year. Filing these reports can be a complicated process that
may require the help of an engineer or other person with appropriate training.
A company that has determined that the provisions of 313 apply to one or more of its materials
should draw a process flow diagram to determine
each point at which the material leaves the system.
For many coating operations, the primary release
is the evaporation of solvents and other materials
in a coating as it is applied. However, material collected by vapor control systems, discharged to
wastewater facilities or otherwise disposed of must
also be considered.
the respiratory system. The regulations therefore

apply to a very broad range of chemicals including
solvents, paints and most other materials commonly
used in the coatings industry. This section may apply to many firms that produce or apply coatings.
Once again, regulations apply only to materials that exceed the TPQ. The TPQ is 10,000 pounds
(4540 kgs) for any material that does not have its
own substance-specific TPQ and 500 pounds (227
kgs) for extremely hazardous substances that do not
have their own TPQ. Hazardous components of mixtures must again be taken into account in calculating TPQs and the amount of a chemical on-site.
Carcinogenic compounds that make up 0.1 percent
of a mixture or greater must also be included for this
sect ion.
Those to whom section 31 1 and 312 apply must
annually develop a list of all chemicals present in
quantities exceeding the TPQ. The information must
be provided by March 1 to the State Emergency
Response Commission, the local Emergency Planning Committee and the local fire department. A
form known as the Tier I form is used. Alternatively, the company may submit the MSDS for each of
these materials. The company must also notify
these groups of the average daily amount on site,
the maximum amount on site on any day during the
year, and the locations of these chemicals. Additional information contained on a Tier II form may be
requested.
4. Toxic Chemical Release Forms
Companies with more than 10 employees must determine if section 313 applies to them. They must
first determine whether they manufacture, process
or otherwise use any material on the list of chemicals found in that section. Many materials commonly
used in coating operations are found on the list, including solvents such as methanol, n-butyl alcohol,
methyl ethyl ketone, 2-nitropropane, toluene and xylene, and pigments such as lead chromate, red lead,
zinc dust, zinc chromate, titanium dioxide, and nickel titanate. Some paint additives and resin components are also found on the list, including melamine,
dibutyl phthalate, diethanolamine, ethyl acrylate, formaldehyde, vinyl chloride, methyl methacrylate and
toluene-2,3-diisocyanate.
Companies must next determine if their use of
these materials exceeds the TPQ. The TPQ for
materials that a company manufactures or
processes is 25,000 pounds (1 1,360 Kg). The TPQ
for a material that is otherwise used is 10,000
pounds (4,540 Kg).
Obviously, the distinction between manufacturing or processing and otherwise using is important.
According to the regulatory definition, a firm is considered to be manufacturing a material if it
produces, prepares, imports or compounds it. The
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taining hazardous waste must be equipped with

secondary containment structures. An exemption is
provided for hazardous waste that contains no free
liquids and is stored inside a building with an impermeable floor.
In order to prevent migration, a secondary containment system must be capable of containing
spills and leaks, and must be equipped with a leak
detection system to alert owners and operators to
such an event. A containment system must also be
made of or lined with materials compatible with the
waste stored in the system. The system must include an appropriate foundation or base and be
sloped or designed in such a way as to permit draining and removal of liquids.6566
The Oil Pollution Act of 199067 required EPA
to study the need for similar regulations applicable
to above ground tanks used to store petroleum
products.
b. Acceptable Containment Structures - Containment may be provided by an external liner, vault,
a double walled tank, or an equivalent device. External liners and vaults must be capable of containing 100 percent of the capacity of the largest tank
within their boundary. They must also prevent rain
from entering the secondary containment system
unless the containment system has the capacity to
hold the extra liquid.
(1) External liner systems must surround the
tank completely and cover any surrounding soil
likely to come in contact with leaked or spilled
waste.
(2) Vault systems must include water stops
which are capable of resisting the waste in all
joints, and must be coated with a wastecompatible lining that will prevent the waste
from permeating the concrete. They must also
be able to prevent the formation of and ignition
of vapors within the vault.
(3) Double walled tanks must be designed so
that the outer tank completely surrounds the
inner tank, preventing any releases and protecting the exterior of the inner tank from corrosion.
Materials that could cause the tank or ancillary equipment or the containment system to
rupture, leak or fail may not be placed in the
tank. Owners and operators must use appropriate measures to prevent spills and overflows
and must visually inspect visible portions of the
tank and review data from monitoring and leak
detection equipment at least once each operating day.
After identifying all sources of chemical

releases, the quantity released must be determined
for each chemical that exceeds the TPQ. A number of approaches and formulas can be used to do
this, including direct measurement, mass balance
formulas and engineering calculations. Overspray
releases are often the most important factor in estimating releases from coating operations, and published estimates are available for some types of
spraying methods and surfaces. However, sitespecific calculations may be required.
Current SARA 313 thresholds require only larger coating operations to report. These businesses
often have greater resources and specialized personnel, and are better able to comply with 313 requirements. Proposals to lower TPQs would result
in smaller operations, perhaps those using as little
as 500 gallons (1,900 L) of paint, also being required
to report under 313. EPA estimates, which are often
low, show that reporting would mean 34 hours of
additional work for small businesses. Using in-house
personnel is estimated by EPA to cost $40 an hour;
however, small businesses may not have the expertise to estimate releases and may need to hire consultants at considerably higher rates.
111. REGULATING STORAGE VESSELS
A. SECONDARY CONTAINMENT
1. Affect on Coating Suppliers and Contractors
Federal regulations require that some tanks be supplied with secondary containment, structures capable of preventing material stored in a tank from
migrating to soil, groundwater or surface water.
Other considerations such as CERCLA and civil liability associated with a spill prompt companies to
invest in such systems.9 The need for secondary
containment systems provides a business opportunity for coatings suppliers and contractors. Concrete
is the material most often used for secondary containment structures. Coatings are an integral part
of such designs because they increase the impermeability and chemical resistance of concrete
and prevent cracking.
2 . Regulatory Requirements
a. Applicable Regulations - Tanks used to store and
treat hazardous wastes are subject to 40 CFR Part
264 of Subpart J of the Standards for Owners and
Operators of Hazardous Waste Treatment, Storage
and Disposal Facilities (part of RCRA).
The title of this section is somewhat misleading. The requirements apply both to treatment,
storage and disposal facilities and to large quantity
generators (those who generate more than 1,000 kg
(2,200 Ib) of hazardous waste a month and store the
material for more than 90 days on site). Tanks conCopyright The Society for Protective Coatings
3. Coating Choices for Secondary Containment
Systems
A secondary containment system must be able to
survive contact with the substance in the tank until
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c. Reinforced Thick-film Systems - Reinforced thickfilm systems can be used to create films of more
than 80 mils (2 mm). Glass cloth or synthetic fibers
are chosen on the basis of their resistance to a particular chemical. These systems can be effective in
preventing some cracks, and should be designed
to withstand exposure to the most aggressive chemicals, for up to 72 hours. A resinous topcoat improves their chemical resistance. Coats of
reinforced paint with one layer of reinforcement may
be less expensive but also less chemical resistant
than those with multiple layers.
a leak or spill can be removed. Since leaks and spills

should be infrequent and a detection system is often
required, secondary containment components are
usually only exposed to the material for a short period of time. When a tank is used to store an extremely toxic or dangerous material, the secondary
containment system should be more durable, and
more expensive than it would be for a less
hazardous material. Choice is complicated by the
fact that a coating may need to be capable of resisting several different materials. Types of coatings
commonly used to protect secondary containment
systems include the following:
a. Thin Films - Thin films (10 mils [0.25 mm]) of unreinforced spray-applied coatings are adequate for
containment of less hazardous materials, and are
less expensive than other approaches. However,
some may not withstand long periods of chemical
exposure. Epoxies, vinyls, chlorinated rubber, and
urethanes are commonly used in this way.
b. Flake and Fiber-filled Coatings - Flake and fiberfilled coatings typically result in films of 40 to 80 mils
(1 to 2 rnm). They cost more than thin film coatings.
Some may provide a longer period of containment.
B. UNDERGROUND STORAGE TANKS

1.
Introduction
Certain underground storage tanks are regulated
because they may leak and pose a threat to the environment and human health. Coatings and lining
systems are among the accepted means of preventing leaks in underground storage tanks (USTs) and
complying with federal and state regulations.
There are several million underground storage
tanks in the USA, containing petroleum or
hazardous chemicals. The tank system consists of
the tank itself and associated piping. A tank system
is considered underground if at least 10% of the
volume is below grade level. The vast majority of
underground storage tanks (in particular those installed before 1980) were constructed of bare carbon steel. As a result of differential aeration of soils,
aggressive soil conditions, pH variation, and the
presence of water and other corrosive materials inside the tank, there is the possibility of severe corrosion of both the interior and exterior of tanks and
piping.
As a result of corrosion as well as piping and
mechanical failures and installation mistakes, many
thousands of USTs are leaking. Leaks may also
result from spills and overfills during filling, emptying, or operation of the tanking system. Leaking underground storage tanks can contaminate
groundwater, which is a major source of drinking
water for US populations. EPA estimates that as
many as a quarter of all the tank systems in the US
are leaking.71
2 . 7984 Federal Regulations

In 1984, Congress included requirements for technical standards and corrective action requirements
for owners and operators of underground storage
tanks, when passing the legislation that led to the
RCRA regulations discussed under chapter 27.2.
The underground storage tank regulations (40 CFR
Part 280) are intended to achieve the following
goals:
a. Prevent leaks and spills;
b. Identify and correct problems; and
FIGURE 7
Installing an underground storage tank.
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c. Use both an internal lining and cathodic protection.

d. Use a thick liner bonded to the exterior of the tank.
This requires excavations around the tank and is not
often feasible for existing tanks.
Metal piping must be upgraded using a cathodic protection system. Upgrading of corrosion protection systems for all tanks and piping must be
completed by December 1998. All new and existing tanks must also have leak detection installed by
December 1993.
The regulations also provide instructions on
how to correct problems caused by leaking, how to
permanently or temporarily close (take out of service) a tank system, and how to meet the extensive
record keeping and reporting requirements.
c. Ensure that owners and operators are able to pay

for spill prevention and correction.
The regulations apply only to USTs storing
petroleum or hazardous chemicals. Some tanks are
specifically excluded from the regulations including
certain residential motor fuel and heating oil tanks
and pits. Responsibility for complying with the regulations falls on the owners and operators of the
tanks.
The specific requirements depend on the date
of installation of the tank.
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
3. New Petroleum USTs

New USTs, those installed after December 1988,
must meet the following requirements:
a. Be properly installed - by qualified installers following industrial codes such as those established
by Steel Tank Institute, American Petroleum Institute, National Leak Prevention Association, Petroleum Equipment Institute, National Association of
Corrosion Engineers, and other organizations.
b. Be equipped and used to prevent spills and overflow - through proper filling procedures, catchment
basins, and alarms.
c. Detect leaks.
d. Protect the tank from corrosion - Among the
methods to ensure proper corrosion protection for
new tanks are the following:
1) Use of a corrosion resistant coating together
with cathodic protection;
2) Construction of non-corrosive material (e.g.,
FRP);
3) Installation of bonded, secure system liner
(note: the liner is not acceptable for piping);
Special instructions are given for tanks depending on the size and age and for piping (depending
on whether it is pressure or suction type). These
cover topics such as monitoring of vapors from soil,
monitoring liquid in groundwater, automatic tank
gauging and automatic shutoff and tightness tests.
5 . Underground Chemical Tanks

Underground storage tanks containing hazardous
chemicals are also regulated under 40 CFR Title I
(part 280). Hazardous chemicals are those that are
listed in CERCLA (40 CFR 302.4, Table 1). CERCLA is discussed in Section II of this chapter.
Hazardous wastes are excluded from this section
of the regulation because they are covered under
other provisions of RCRA.
a. Corrosion Protection - These underground chemical storage tanks are subject to many of the same
regulations as petroleum tanks. All chemical USTs
installed prior to December 1988 must be upgraded by December 1998. As with petroleum tanks, the
corrosion protection can consist of installation of a
liner, a cathodic protection system, or a combination. The tank must also be provided with devices
that prevent spills, overfills, and detect leaks. New
tanks (those installed after December 1988) must
meet the same requirements as the new petroleum
USTs (.e., properly installed, spill and overfill protection, protection from corrosion, and equipped
with leak detection).
b. Secondary Containment - In addition, new tanks
containing hazardous materials must be provided
with secondary containment. The primary containment is the tank or pipe wall itself. Secondary containment systems are designed to prevent
hazardous materials from entering the environment
if there is a leak or break in the primary system. (See
discussion under Part A of this section.)
There are three types of secondary containment used for underground tanks and piping:
(1) Double-walled systems in which one tank
is placed inside another, or one pipe inside
another;
(2) Concrete vaults which surround tank and
piping systems and isolate this from the
ground;
4. Existing Petroleum USTs

For tanks built before December 1988, EPA has set
deadlines for establishing corrosion protection, incorporating filling devices to prevent spills and overfill as well as leak detection systems.
For corrosion protection, the following options
are available for upgrading tanks:
a. Install an interior lining. The lining must be inspected within 10 years after installation and every
5 years thereafter. (40 CFR 280.3 gives requirements for the inspection).
b. Install cathodic protection systems. The tank
must be internally inspected to ensure that it is free
of corrosion holes by various methods described in
40 CFR 280.21. NACE RP02-85, may be used to
verify proper inspection and operation of a cathodic protection

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epoxy, glass-flake-filled polyester and fiberreinforced polyesters.

c. Cathodic Protection - This consists of applying
an external electric current to force the steel to behave as a cathode. An electrical circuit resulting in
corrosion and loss of metal occurs only at the anode,
where the metal gives up electrons. Two types of
cathodic protection have been developed: sacrificial anodes and impressed current. Sacrificial
anodes are metals such as zinc or magnesium,
which are consumed (sacrificed) while the steel remains intact. Impressed current cathodic protection
sends a continuous stream of DC electrical current
through the steel. The current ensures that the steel
cannot discharge current (.e., form ferrous ions) into
the environment. Cathodic protection is also an integral part of the STI-P3 system described
d. External Coating Plus SacrificialAnodes - For new
tanks, a combination of a dielectric coating and
sacrificial anodes has proven to be extremely effective over the last 30 years. The Steel Tank Institute
has developed an industry standard known as STIP3, which combines dielectric coating, sacrificial
anodes, and electrical
The dielectric
coating (e.g., typically coal tar epoxy, polyurethane,
or FRP) serves as the first line of defense, with a
complete covering of the external surface of the
tank. The galvanic anodes provide protection from
nicks and scratches in the coating, which are often
produced during transportation and installation or
settling. Anodes are constructed of zinc or magnesium. The third component of the system is to prevent stray currents from entering the tank via the
piping system or at other potential areas of metalto-metal contact. STI also has established a quality
assurance system for the testing of the coatings, the
fabrication of the tanks, and installation, to help assure long-term protection.
e, Fiberglass Reinforced Plastic Construction - FRP
is a composite consisting of a chemically reacted
resin impregnated with glass fibers. The resin system when reacted and cured, forms a strong, relatively impermeable barrier to moisture, while the
fibers impart tensile strength. This results in a high
strength-to-weight ratio for these light materials, and
provides an optimum combination of corrosion
resistance and strength. FRP, like other construction and corrosion protection materials, must be
carefully selected, tested, designed, and installed
to ensure proper performance and compliance with
design criteria.
More detailed discussions of corrosion protection alternatives and materials are given in various
publications available from STI, NACE, and SSPC.
(See Appendix for addresses.)
(3) Chemical resistant liners placed around the

underground storage tank to isolate it from the
ground.
In addition to the above, the chemical USTs
must have a leak detection system that can detect
a leak in the interstitial space between primary
and secondary containment.
These requirements for secondary containment
of underground chemical storage tanks are essentially the same as the requirements for secondary
containment of storage tanks containing hazardous
waste. Additional discussion on the design of secondary containment and the performance and chemical
resistance properties of liners and concrete structures are discussed in section HIA of this chapter.
6. Corrosion Protection of Underground Storage
Tanks
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
The basic means of preventing corrosion are as

follows:
An external coating system applied to the exterior of the tank;
A lining system applied to interior of tank;
Cathodic protection applied to the exterior of
the tank; and
FRP construction.
a. External coating system - A coating system is
designed to isolate the steel of the tank from corrosive soil conditions, thereby preventing the corrosion cell from being completed. A significant amount
of testing, research, and evaluation has been conducted on underground coatings. Among the most
important properties are adhesion, impact
resistance, and impermeability. Among the most
widely used coating systems are asphalt cutbacks,
coal tar epoxy, polyurethane coating systems, and
FRP coatings. Several of these systems have been
approved by the Steel Tank Institute under their
STI-P3 ~ystern.~3
Application of a coating to a new steel tank can
be accomplished under factory shop conditions,
which allows much greater control of the quality of
the surface preparation, application, and environmental conditions. Applying an external coating to
upgrade an existing tank requires excavating
around the tank and back filling after application of
the coating.
b. Internal Lining System - To upgrade an existing
tank, the lining can also be applied to the interior
of the tank. The API has issued recommended practice RP1631, Interior Lining of Underground
Storage Tanks, which describes the various steps
in preparing the tank and applying the lining, including qualification of applicators and testing of linings.74 A number of coating systems have been
used for lining of petroleum tanks, including epoxy
polyamide, epoxy phenolic, epoxy amine, coal tar

7 . State Regulation of Underground Storage Tanks

The underground storage tank program, like many
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federal laws, is delegated to the states. Many states

have adopted existing federal regulations for upgrading USTs or installing new USTs. Several states
have adopted or proposed to adopt their own regulations, which may be more stringent than the federal regulations. For example, some states, such as
Connecticut, limit the number of times that a tank
lining can be used to extend the life expectancy of
a tank. Other states (e.g., Massachusetts and
Maine) require double walls in all new tanks. Several
states require that all new tanks (including petroleum as well as chemical storage tanks) be provided
with secondary containment. Certain states also require that installers be certified (e.9. Florida, Arkansas, and California.)
Two standards, the Uniform Fire Code (UFC)
79 and National Fire Protection Association (NFPA)
30, are frequently cited in state UST regulations.
The standards outline safety parameters for tank lining procedures. UFC 79 does not permit repairs to
USTs; NFPA 30 allows USTs to be repaired and
lined. Refer to the February 1991 Journalof Protective Coatings and Linings for a recent update on
state UST requirements.*
perature and sterilization conditions required. The

FDA does not approve coatings, but sets the guidelines as described above. It is the manufacturers
responsibility to ensure that the raw materials and
test results comply with the federal regulations. An
appropriate statement by a manufacturer would be
that the coating will meet the requirements of CFR
175.300 (FDA) for use in contact with specific foodstuffs. The phrase approved by FDA is not valid.
2. USDA
The U.S. Dept. of Agriculture, through its Food Safety & Inspection Service Division (FSIS), is responsible for inspecting and approving coatings used in
incidental contact areas at food and poultry
plants.7677 These areas include warehouses, nonprocess areas, and upper walls and ceilings of
process areas where direct contact with food is not
normally expected. However, these areas may require resistance to spills of food and to various
sanitizing operations.
The USDA determines the suitability of coatings based on a review of the formulation, MSDS,
and results of product testing supplied by the
manufacturer. In addition, manufacturers may also
be asked to supply a sample of the cured coating
to verify that it will form a hard, intact film.
If the Departments criteria are met, USDA will
issue a letter to the manufacturer indicating that the
coating that has been submitted is approved for use
on incidental surfaces of meat and poultry plants.
These letters are furnished to the owners and operators of plants, who are ultimately responsible for
complying with the USDA as well as FDA regulations.
IV. MISCELLANEOUS REGULATIONS
A. REGULATING COATINGS FOR FOOD &

BEVERAGE FACILITIES
The Federal Government regulates coatings intended
for surfaces at food and beverage plants, to assure that sanitary conditions are maintained. The food and beverage industry consists of production, processing, and distribution
facilities for fruits and vegetables, grain, meat and poultry,
soft drinks, beer and other alcoholic beverages, and pharmaceuticals (because the end products are consumed). Federal agencies having jurisdiction are the Food and Drug
Administration (FDA) and the US Department of Agriculture
(USDA).
B. SOIL QUALITY REGULATIONS

Soil can become contaminated with dust, paint, and
abrasive debris. One of the primary concerns is lead contamination of soils, because of the potential health effect on
children in nearby communities. As of 1993, EPA had not
issued a regulation on lead in soil. It is anticipated, however,
that as part of the EPAs mandate under Title X of the 1992
Housing and Community Development Act, EPA will issue
guidelines or regulations on acceptable levels of lead in soi1.30
These regulations may also require remediation or other
treatment for soil exceeding a defined level of lead.
Because of extensive use of leaded gasoline and leadcontaining traffic marking and bridge coatings, much of the
soil in the US contains measurable amounts of lead. The geometric mean in the US is 16 mglkg (ppm), but in urban or
industrial areas or along roadways, concentrations often exceed 100 mglkg.78 In 1989, EPA adopted an interim guideline for cleanup of soil at Superfund sites of 500-1000 mglkg,
with the lower end of the range being considered more appropriate for residential areas and the upper end for use in
industrial settings.79
1. FDA
The FDA regulates coatings that come into direct

contact with food and beverages under 21 CFR 175,
Parts 300-390. These include coatings applied to
floors, walls and counters, as well as containers and
vessels. The FDA limits ingredients to those that are
listed in the CFRs or that are generally recognized
as safe for food. In addition, the cured film must
meet limits for the maximum amount of extractable
material. According to Boyer76, there are no limitations on solvents, and a wide range of organic
binders is permitted. There are, however, limitations
on the color of pigment allowed.
The extraction tests are based on the food
types (e.g., acid, non-acid, dairy products, beverages, bakery products, and dry solids) and the tem--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

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REFERENCES
A review of guidelines and soil clean-up levels for lead

in several states indicates a range from approximately
100-1000 mg/kg, with most values in the range between 250
and 500 mgikg.78
1. Use
Antifouling paints are used to discourage colonies

of sessile marine organisms such as barnacles, mollusks, sponges and algae from building up on the
bottoms of ships. Fouling increases the weight of
ships, reducing speed and increasing fuel consumption. It also interferes with the operation of moving
parts. Antifouling coatings are also being used to
prevent zebra mussels from fouling fresh water intakes on power stations. Power stations have reported condenser tube blockage in unheated intakes.81
Protective coatings have been evaluated as alternatives to chlorination or water filtration and other
chemical and physical treatment.
2. Organotin Antifouling Paint Act
Until 1988, copper and organotins (such as tributyl
tin) were the compounds most commonly used to
prevent fouling of underwater hulls of ocean-going
ships. Both types kill target organisms by releasing
small quantities of materials toxic to them. Concern
about effects of organotin compounds on non-target
organisms such as oysters and crabs led to passage
of the Organotin Antifouling Paint Control Act in
1988.80The act limited releases of tin from such
coatings to 4 pg/cmn/day. The legislation also required each state to set up a plan to certify applicators of these coatings. Organotin coatings are now
seldom used except on aluminum boats, where copper (for which there is no release rate) cannot be
used. Some states, for instance New York, also
regulate such materials under their water quality
regulations.
3. FIFRA
Biocides like copper and organotin compounds are
considered pesticides and must also be registered
under the Federal Insecticide, Fungicide and
Rodenticide Act.12 According to some paint
manufacturers, meeting all the requirements for
registering a new biocide is so prohibitively expensive ($2-5million) as to effectively preclude any uses
of new materials.
4. Foulant Release Coatings
Some ship and power plant operators have begun
to use silicone, siloxanes and fluorinated resins because these materials do not need to be registered
under FIFRA. They are not considered pesticides
because they do not kill sessile organisms, but make
it difficult for them to attach to the painted surface.81

53. FederalRegister. Volume 50, 30784 (July 29, 1985). Water Quality Criteria; Availability of Documents. 52 FR 62143 (Zinc), Appendix A - Summary of Water Quality Criteria for Zinc.
54. Criteria and Standards Division, Office of Drinking Water, Environmental Protection Agency, Washington DC 20460.
55. Water Quality, Progress Report prepared by L. M. Smith for
FHWA Contract DTFH61-89-C-00102. 1989.
56. H. Hunt and J. Gidley, The Toxicities of Selected Bridge Painting
Materials and Guidelines for Bridge Painting Projects, Report
FHWA/CA/TL/90/08, California Dept. of Transportation, September
1990.
57. Canadian Fisheries Dept. issues Guidelines on Protecting Aquatic
Life During Bridge Painting. JPCL, January 1992, pp. 32-34.
58. G . Thorpe, Water Quality Impact: Environmental Viewpoint, Lead
Paint Removal from Steel Structures, SSPC 86-01, 1988, pp. 50-54.
59. Car Department Officers Association Protective Coatings Committee. PA Update Paper: Overview of the Stormwater Permit Program.
September 21, 1992.
60. M. K. Snyder and D. Benderski. National Cooperative Highway
Research Program, Report 265. Removal of Lead-Based Bridge
Paints. Washington DC: Transportation Research Board, December. 1983.
61. M. Bauer, Changing Regulations on Coatings for Contact with
Potable Water, JfCL, December 1988, pp. 27-33 and 89-90.
62. Majority of States Plan to Adopt NSF Standards for Potable Water
Contact, JPCL, October 1990, pp. 39-40 and 97-99.
63. Environmental Health & Safety Regulations, Unit 7 from SSPC
5-Day course on Specifying and Managing Protective Coating
Projects. SSPC, May 1993.
64. G. Rauscher, Compliance with TSCA for Product Development, J f C L , May 1990, pp. 68-72.
65. P. R. Nau and B. S. Fultz. Coatings and Linings for Secondary
Chemical Containment in Power Plants, JPCL, October 1990, pp.
42-49.
66. K. A. Kapsanis, Coating Concrete: A Review of Regulations, Technical Activities, and Resources, JPCL, August 1991, pp. 58-65.
67. Oil Pollution Act: Public Law 101-380, August 18, 1990.
68. EnvironmentalLaw Handbook, 12th Edition. Rockville, MD, Government Institutes, Inc., 1993.
69. U.S. EPA. Title 111 Fact Sheet: Emergency Planning and Community
Right-To-Know. April 1988.
70. Guide to Pollution Prevention: The Fabricated Metal Products lndustry, Report EPA/65/7/90/006. Washington, DC, U S . EPA, 1990.
71. U.S. EPA, Office of Underground Storage Tanks, Musts for Usts.
July 1990, EPA/530/ UST-88/008.
72. Control of General Corrosion on Metallic Buried, Partially Buried,
or Submerged Liquid Storage Systems, NACE RP02-85. Houston,
NACE International, 1985.
73. R. C. Cronau, Protecting Underground Storage Tanks, JPCL, August 1988, pp. 48-49.
74. Interior Lining of Underground Storage Tanks, API RP 1631, 2nd
ed. Washington DC, American Petroleum Institute, December, 1987.
75. Sti-P3 Single Wall Steel Underground Tanks: The Iron-Clad
Storage Solution, Publication 3500M20. Northbrook, IL: Steel Tank
Institute, 1987.
76. C. Boyer, Protective Coatings for Food and Beverage Plants:
Regulatory and Formulating Issues. JPCL, July 1990, pp. 36-39.
77. D. Finch, Coating Selection for Food and Beverage Facilities:
Regulatory Compliance and Corrosion Protection, JPCL, September 1992, pp. 62-72.
78. P. K. LaGoy and W. Wilder, Evaluation of the Potential for
Environmental Exposure to Lead Released from Paint Containing Zinc Dust, JPCL, March 1993, pp. 24-36.
79. Interim Guidance on Establishing Soil Lead Cleanup Levels at Superfund Sites, Directorate 9355.4-02, EPA Office of Solid Waste
& Environmental Response, September 7, 1989.
80. Organotin Antifouling Paint Control Act, Public Law 100-333, June
16, 1988.
81. E.G. Leitch and F.Z. Puzzuoli, Evaluation of Coatings to Control
Zebra Mussel Colonization: Preliminary Results, 1990-1991, JPCL,
July 1992, pp. 28-38.
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C. REGULATION OF ANTIFOULING COATINGS
References 1-13 are listed at the end of Chapter 27.0. References

14-38 are listed at the end of Chapter 27.1. References 39-52 are
listed at the end of Chapter 27.2.
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National Fire Protection Association

1 Batterymarch Park
P.O. Box 9109
Quincy, MA 02269
(617) 770-3000
APPENDIX A
HOTLINES AND OTHER PHONE NUMBERS
Clean Air Act Computer Bulletin Board
Emergency Planning and Community Right
to Know (EPCRA) Information Hotline
(919) 541-5742
National Lead Abatement Council

105 Campus Drive
University Square
Princeton, NJ 08543-7006
(604) 520-1414
(703) 412-9877
(800) 535-0202
Emission Measurement Technical Information

Center (CAAA)
(919) 541-1060
Environmental Test Methods (SW 846 Manual) (703) 821-4789
EPA Control Technology Center (CAAA)
(919) 541-0800
FIFRA/General Pesticide Information
(800) 858-7378
National Air Toxics Information Clearinghouse
(919) 541-0850
National Lead Information Center
(800) LEADFYI (532-3394)
National Response Center
(800) 424-8802
RCRAKERCLA Hotline
(703) 305-5938
(800) 424-9346
Safe Drinking Water
(800) 426-4791
Small Business Ombudsman
Clearing houselHotline
(800) 368-5888
(703) 305-5938
(800) 677-9424
Solid Waste Assistance Program
Spill Prevention Control and Countermeasures
(e.g., aboveground storage tanks)
(202) 260-2342
Toxic Substances Control Act (TSCA)
Information Source
(202) 554-1404
National Leak Prevention Association

P.O. Box 1643
Boise, ID 83701
(208) 389-2074
(208) 389-2074
National Paint & Coatings Association
1500 Rhode Island Ave, NW
(202) 462-6272
NSF International
150140 Plymouth Road
P.O. Box 1468
Ann Arbor, MI 48113
(313) 769-801O
Painting & Decorating Contractors of America
3913 Old Lee Highway, Suite 338
Fairfax, VA 22030
(703) 359-0826
PUBLICATIONS
U S . EPA Public Information Center (PIC)
U.S. EPA National Center for Environmental
Publications and Information (NCEPI)
U S . EPA Center for Environmental Research
Infor matio n (CERI)
National Technical Information Service (NTIS)
(202) 260-7751
Petroleum Equipment Institute

Box 2380
Tulsa, OK 74101
(918) 494-9696
(513) 569-7980
(513) 569-7562
(703) 487-4650
Society of Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry

1010 North 12th Ave.
Pensacola, FL 32501-33,07
(904) 469-1500
EPA - FEDERAL ADMINISTRATIVE OFFICES

Chemical Emergency Preparedness and
Prevention Office
Office of Emergency and Remedial Response
(OERR) (Superfund)
Office of Ground Water and Drinking Water
Office of Solid Waste
and Emergency Response (OSWER)
Office of Underground Storage Tanks (OUST)
Office of Waste Programs Enforcement (OWPE)
(202) 260-8600
Steel Structures Painting Council

4516 Henry Street, Suite 301
(412) 687-1113
(202) 260-2180
(202) 260-5543
(202) 260-4267
(703) 308-8850
(202) 260-4814
Steel Tank Institute

570 Oakwood Road
Lake Zurich, IL 60047
(708) 438-TANK (8265)
Water Environment Federation
601 Wythe St.
Alexandria, VA 22314
(703) 684-2400
APPENDIX B
PROFESSIONAL AND TRADE ORGANIZATIONS
Air and Waste Management Association
P.O. Box 2861
Pittsburgh, PA 15230
(412) 232-3444
APPENDIX C
SELECTED ENVIRONMENTAL
REGULATIONS FROM TITLE 40 OF THE CODE OF
FEDERAL REGULATIONS.
PROTECTION OF THE ENVIRONMENT*
American Petroleum Institute

1220 L Street, N.W.
(202) 682-8000
40 CFR 50-99 Air Pollution Control Regulations

50 National Primary and Secondary Ambient Air
Quality Standards
51 Requirements for Preparation, Adoption and
Submission of Implementation Plans
53 Ambient Air Monitoring Reference and Equivalent
Methods
60 Standards of Performance for New Stationary
Sources
61 National Emission Standards for Hazardous Air
Pollutants
66 Assessment and Collection of Noncompliance
Penalties by EPA
American Water Works Association

6666 W. Quincy Ave.
Denver, CO 80235
(303) 794-7711
NACE International
P.O. Box 218340
Houston, TX 77218-8340
(713) 492-0535
National Association of Environmental Professionals
5165 MacArthur Blvd., NW
Washington DC 20016-3315
(202) 966-1500
593
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40 CFR 100-149
112
116
117
122-125
136
141-149
40 CFR 150-189
152
155
156
40 CFR 240-299
260
26 1
262
263
265
266
267
268
280
40 CFR 300-399
300
302
370 Hazardous Chemical Reporting

372 Toxic Chemical Release Inventory Reporting,
Community Right-to-Know
40 CFR 400-699 Clean Water Act (CWA) Regulations
40 CFR 700-799 Toxic Substances Control Act (TSCA) Regulations
71O Inventory Reporting Requirements
720 Premanufacture Notice
72 1 Significant New Use of Chemical Substances
723 Premanufacture Notice Exemptions
Designation of Areas for Air Quality Planning

Purposes
Clean Water ActlSafe Drinking Water Act Regulations
Oil Pollution Prevention
Hazardous Substances Under Federal Water Pollution Control Act
Determination of Reportable Quantities for
Hazardous Substances
National Pollution Discharge Elimination System
Permits
Test Procedures for the Analysis of Pollutants
Drinking Water
Federal Insecticide, Fungicide and Rodenticide
Act (FIFRA) Regulations
Pesticide Registration and Classification
Procedures
Registration Standards
Labeling Requirements for Pesticides and
Devices
Solid and Hazardous Waste Programs
General Guidelines for Hazardous Waste
Management
Identifying Hazardous Waste
Hazardous Waste Generators
Hazardous Waste Transporters
Owners and Operators of Hazardous Waste Facilities
Standards for Management of Specific
Hazardous Wastes and Facilities
Interim Standards for Owners and Operators of
New Hazardous Waste Land Disposal Facilities
Land Disposal Restrictions
Underground Storage Tank (UST) Regulations
Superfund, Emergency Planning, and Community
Right-to-Know Programs
National Oil and Hazardous Substances Pollution
Contingency Plan
Designation, Reportable Quantities, and Notification
Emergency Planning and Notification
'Citations include some sections reserved for future regulations.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The authors and editors gratefully acknowledge the active participation of the following in the review of this chapter: Kenneth Trimber,
Mike Bauer, and John Montle.
BIOGRAPHY
A portrait and biographical sketch of Bernard R. Appleman

appears at the end of the Foreword.
BIOGRAPHY
Karen Ann Kapsanis is the editor of the Journal of Protective Coatings and Linings (JPCL). Since joining the staff of JPCL in 1988, she
has written extensively on environmental regulations that affect industrial maintenance painting operations.
BIOGRAPHY
Monica Madaus has worked as a technical writerleditor for a number of environmental and health and safetyfirms. She worked as a technical editor and regulatory assistant for the Center for Hazardous
Materials Research where she assisted with a newsletter and a technical and regulatory hotline.
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Appendix
DOC - Department of Commerce
DOD - Department of Defense
DODIS - Department of Defense Index of Specifications
DOE - Department of Energy
DOL - Department of Labor
DOT
Department of Transportation
EP - Extraction Procedure
EPA - Environmental Protection Agency
EPCRA
Emergency Planning and Community Right-toKnow Act
F - Degrees Fahrenheit
FAR - Federal Acquisition Regulation
FDA
Food and Drug Administration
FGD - Fuel Gas Desulfurization Systems
FHWA
Federal Highway Administration
FIFRA - Fedral Insecticide, Fungicide and Rodenticide Act
FSCT
Federation of Societies for Coatings Technology
FTC - Federal Trade Commission
GFCI - Ground Fault Circuit Interrupter
GSA - General Services Administration
HEW
Department of Health, Education, and Welfare
HRB - Highway Research Board
IS0
International Organization for Standardization
JAN - Joint Army-Navy
LAER - Lowest Achievable Emission Rate
LEL - Lower Explosive Limit
LC - Lethal Concentration
LD - Lethal Dose
LOCA - Loss of Coolant Accident
LOSOLVE - Evaluation of Low-Solvent Maintenance Coatings for Highway Structural Steel
LQG - Large Quantity Generator
MAC - Maximum Allowable Concentration
MARAD - Maritime Administration
MEK - Methyl Ethyl Ketone
MFFT - Minimum Film Forming Temperature
MPIP - Meat and Poultry Inspection Program
mil - 0.001 inches
MSDS - Material Safety Data Sheet
MSHA - Mine Safety and Health Administration
MVT - Moisture-Vapor Transmission Rate
NAAQS - National Ambient Air Quality Standards
NACE - National Association of Corrosion Engineers
NAD
Non-Aqueous Dispersion
NAS - National Academy of Sciences
NCHRP National Cooperative Highway Research Program
APPENDIX A: ABBREVIATIONS
The abbreviations and acronyms listed below include
those used in this manual along with a few others that may
help to clarify paint technology and regulatory language.
AAQS - Ambient Air Quality Standards
AASHTO - American Association of State Highway and
Transportation Officials
ACGIH - American Conference of Governmental Industrial Higienists
AIHC
American Industrial Health Council
AIM - Architectural and Industrial Maintenance (Coating)
ANSI
American National Standards Institute (formerly
ASA)
APCA - Air Pollution Control Association (now AWMA)
APCD - Air Pollution Control Districts
AQCR - Air Quality Control Regions
AQMD - Air Quality Management District
ARBBA - American Railway Bridge and Building Association
AREA - American Railway Engineering Association
ASA
American Standards Association (now ANSI)
ASTM - American Society for Testing and Materials
AWS
American Welding Society
AWMA - Air and Waste Management Association (formerly APCA)
AWWA - American Water Works Association
BACT - Best Available Control Technology
BAT - Best Available Technology
BATRA - Best Available Technology Reasonably Available
BCT - Best Conventional Technology
C
Degrees Centigrade
CAA - Clean Air Act
CAAA - Clean Air Act Amendments (1990)
CERCLA - Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation and Liability Act
CFM - Cubic Feet Per Minute
CFR - Code of Federal Regulations
CMA - Chemical Manufacturers Association
COE - Corps of Engineers (US. Army)
COH - Coefficient of Haze
CPSC - Consumer Product Safety Commission
CPVC - Critical Pigment Volume Concentration
CTG - Control Technique Guidelines
DBA - Design Basis Accident
DEP - Department of Environmental Protection (States)
DER
Department of Environmental Resources (States)
DFT - Dry Film Thickness

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NESHAP - National Emission Standards for Hazardous Air
Pollutants
NFPA - National Fire Protection Association
NIOSH - National Institute for Occupational Safety and
Health
NPCA - National Paint and Coatings Association
NRC - Nuclear Regulatory Commission
NSPS - New Source Performance Standards
NVM - Non-Volatile Matter
OSHA - Occupational Safety and Health Administration
PACE - Performance of Alternative Coatings in the Environment
PCB
Polychlorinated Biphenyls
PDCA - Painting and Decorating Contractors of America
PEL - Permissible Exposure Level
PMN - Premanufacture Notice
PRA - Paint Research Association
PSD - Prevention of Significant Deterioration
psi - Pounds Per Square Inch
PVC - Pigment Volume Concentration
QPL - Qualified Products List
RACT - Reasonably Available Control Technology
RCRA - Resources Conservation and Recovery Act
CAE - Society of Automotive Engineers
SEM - Scanning Electron Microscope
SFSA - Steel Founders Society of America
SIP - State Implementation Plan
SNAME - Society of Naval Architects and Marine Engineers
SNUR - Significant New Use Rule
SQG - Small Quantity Generator
SSPC - Steel Structures Painting Council
TACB - Texas Air Control Board
TCLP - Toxicity Characteristic Leaching Procedure
Tg - Glass Transition Temperature
TLV - Threshold Limit Value
TRB - Transportation Research Board
TSCA - Toxic Substances Control Act
TPQ - Threshold Planing Quantity
TWA - Time Weighted Average
UEL
Upper Explosive Limit
UK - United Kingdom
USDA - United States Department of Agriculture
UST - Underground Storage Tank
VLCC - Very Large Crude Carrier
VOC - Volatile Organic Compounds
VSMF
Visual Search Microfilm
WFT - Wet Film Thickness
APPENDIX B: DEFINITIONS
These definitions deal with some of the more specialized terms used in this manual. SSPC reports and manuals,
the various regulations, ASTM methods and standards, and
the open literature are sources for many of these definitions.
Other sources include the PaintKoating Dictionary published
by the Federation of Societies for Coatings Technology
(FSCT) and Chapter 40 of the Code of Federal Regulations.
Some definitions have been modified, when appropriate, to more fully reflect their common usage in coatings technology or regulation terminology (air pollution, toxic
substances and health and safety) relating to the corrosion
protection of structural steel.
ABATEMENT -The reduction in degree or intensity of pollution.
ABOVEGROUND STORAGE TANK - A device meeting the
definition of tank that is situated in such a way that the entire surface area of the tank is completely above the plane
of the adjacent surrounding surface and the entire surface
area of the tank (including the tank bottom) is able to be
visually inspected.
ABRASION RESISTANCE - The ability of a coating to resist
being worn away and to maintain its original appearance and
structure when subjected to rubbing, scraping, or wear.
ABRASIVE - A fine graded (sized) granular or spherical
material which is used in a blast cleaning process for structural steel.
ABRASIVE BREAKDOWN - A measure of particle breakdown after impact.
ACCELERATED AGING -Any set of conditions used in an
attempt to produce in a short time the results obtained under normal conditions of aging. In accelerated aging tests,
the usual factors considered are heat, light, or oxygen, either
separately or combined.
ACCELERATED TESTING - A set of conditions intended
to simulate those encountered in practice, but which have
been accentuated artificially in an attempt to provide useful
performance results in shorter periods of time. Coatings do
not necessarily behave under such tests exactly as they will
under actual conditions, but many coatings which give good
performance under these tests have possibilities which are
worthy of further considerations and experiments.
ACCELERATED WEATHERING - Tests designed to simulate, but at the same time to intensify and accelerate, the
destructive action of natural outdoor weathering on coating
films. The tests involve exposure to artificially produced components of natural weather, e.g., light, heat, cold, water
vapor, rain, ionic solutions, etc., which are arranged and
repeated in a specific cycle. There is no universally accepted test, and different investigators have found widely different cycles to be useful.
ACCEPTANCE TESTING - The purchasers testing of
received products to determine that the quality of manufactured products meets specified requirements.
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ACRYLIC LATEX - Aqueous dispersion, thermoplastic or

thermosetting, of polymers or copolymers of acrylic acid,
methacrylic acid, esters of these acids, or acrylonitrile.
ACRYLIC RESIN - A synthetic resin made from derivatives
of acrylic acid.
ACTINIC LIGHT - Light that effects chemical changes in
a coating.
ACTIVE INGREDIENT - Ingredient that has the capability
by itself, when used as directed at proper dilution, to function as a pesticide, or an ingredient that has the ability to
elicit or enhance a pesticide effect in a second compound
whose pesticidal activity is substantially increased due to the
introduction of the first. Compounds which merely enhance
or prolong the activity of an active ingredient are not considered active ingredients themselves.
ACUTELY HAZARDOUS WASTE - Wastes considered extremely hazardous, including certain pesticides and dioxincontaining wastes. These are not commonly generated in the
protective coating industry, but do require special treatment
and reporting.
ACUTE TOXICITY - Any poisonous effect produced within
a short period of time following exposure, usually up to 24
to 96 hours, resulting in severe biological harm and often
death.
ADDITIVE - Any substance added in small quantities to
another substance, usually to improve properties.
ADHESION - State in which two surfaces are held together
by interfacial forces which may consist of valence forces or
interlocking action, or both.
ADSORPTION - Concentration of a substance at surface
or interface of another substance.
ADVANCE NOTICE OF PROPOSED RULEMAKING - Used
by a regulatory agency to solicit information that can be used
to develop a first draft of a new regulation. Published in the
Federal Register.
creased human death rates, to increased serious irreversible illnesses, or to increased incapacitating reversible
illnesses.
AIR POLLUTION
The presence in the outdoor atmosphere of any dust, fumes, mist, smoke, other particulate
matter, vapor, gas, odorous substances, or a combination
thereof, in sufficient quantities and of such characteristics
and duration as to be, or likely to be, injurious to health or
welfare, animal or plant life, or property, or as to interfere
with the enjoyment of life or property.
AIR POLLUTION REGULATIONS - Legal constraints on
pollutant emissions, production processes, or control
systems.
AIR-PURIFYING RESPIRATOR - Protects the wearer by
preventing the entrance of airborne particulates such as dust,
mist, metal fumes and smoke. Cannot protect the wearer
from materials such as poisonous gases, because these
materials can pass through the filter.
AIR QUALITY CONTROL REGIONS (AQCR) - Geographical units of the country, sometimes involving several states,
as required by U.S. law, reflecting common air pollution
problems, for purposes of reaching national standards. The
state implementation plans must provide for achievement of
NAAQS in every AQCR.
AIR QUALITY CRITERIA - The level of pollution and
lengths of exposure above which may occur adverse effects
on health and welfare.
AIR QUALITY STANDARDS - The level of pollutants
prescribed by law or regulation that cannot be exceeded during a specified time in a defined area.
ALIPHATIC SOLVENTS - Hydrocarbon solvents compounded primarily of paraffinic and cycloparaffinic (naphthenic) hydrocarbon compounds. Aromatic hydrocarbon content
may range from less than 1% to about 35%.
ALKYD RESINS - Synthetic resins formed by the condensation of polyhydric alcohols with polybasic acids. They may
be regarded as complex esters. The most common polyhydric alcohol used is glycerol, and the most common polybasic acid is phthalic anhydride. Modified alkyds are those
in which the polybasic acid is substituted in part by a monobasic acid, of which the vegetable oil fatty acids are typical.
ALLERGIC RESPONSE - The first exposure causes no evident effect, but sensitizes the subject. After about two weeks,
an identical exposure of the subject can result in a severe
asthmatic response or skin eruption.
ALLIGATORING - A type of crazing or surface cracking of
a definite pattern, as indicated by name. The effect is often
the result of weather aging of a coating.
ALTERNATE IMMERSION (WATER) - An exposure in
which a surface is in frequent, perhaps fairly long, immersion in either fresh or salt water alternated with exposure to
the atmosphere above the water.
ALUMINUM PAINT - Coating consisting of a mixture of
metallic aluminum pigment in powder or paste form dispersed in a suitable vehicle.
AERIAL SUPPORTS - Rigging supported from above or

attached to the steel.
AGING - Storage of paints, varnishes, etc. (under defined
conditions of temperature, relative humidity, etc.) in suitable
containers, or as dry films of these materials, for the purpose
of subsequent tests.
AIR CONTAMINANT -Any substance of either man-made
or natural origin in the ambient air, such as particulates (dust,
fly ash, smoke, etc.), mists (other than water), fumes (gases),
etc.
AIR EMISSIONS - The release or discharge of pollutants
into the ambient air.
AIRLESS SPRAYING - Process of atomization of paint by
forcing it through an orifice at high pressure. This effect is
often aided by the flashing (vaporization) of the solvents, especially if the paint has been previously heated.
AIR POLLUTANT - Dust, fumes, mist, smoke, and other
particulate matter, vapor, gas, or odorous substances.
AIR POLLUTANT, HAZARDOUS - Materials discharged
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ALUMINUM PASTE - Metallic aluminum flake pigment in

paste form, consisting of aluminum, solvent, and various additives. The metallic aluminum pigment can be in the form
of very small, coated leaves or amorphous powder, known
under the respective designations of leafing and nonleafing.
AMBIENT AIR QUALITY - Average atmospheric purity, as
distinguished from discharge measurements taken at the
source of pollution. The general amount of pollution present
in a broad area.
AMBIENT AIR QUALITY STANDARD (AAQS) - A federally promulgated maximum level of an air pollutant that can
exist in the ambient air without producing adverse effects to
humans or to the public welfare.
AMERICAN CONFERENCE OF GOVERNMENTALINDUSTRIAL HYGIENISTS (ACGIH) - An organization of health
and safety professionals employed by governmental agencies or educational institutions. Known particularly for developing threshold limit values.
AMPHOTERIC - Exhibiting both basic and acidic characteristics.
ANCHOR PATTERN
See PROFILE.
ANTI-CORROSION PAINT OR COMPOSITION Coating
used for preventing the corrosion of metals and, more particularly, specially formulated to prevent the rusting of iron
and steel.
ANTI-FOULING PAINT - Paint used to prevent the growth
of barnacles and other organisms on ships bottom usually
containing substances poisonous to organisms.
ANTI-LIVERING AGENT - Additive used to prevent the
livering of a coating.
ANTI-SAG AGENT - Additive used to control sagging of
a coating.
ANTI-SETTLING AGENT - Substance incorporated into a
pigmented paint to retard settling and to maintain uniform
consistency during storage or painting operations. These additives normally function by altering the rheological properties of the paint.
ANTI-SKINNING AGENT - Any material added to a coating to prevent or retard the processes of oxidation or polymerization which results in the formation of an insoluble skin
on the surface of the coating in a container.
ANTI-WRINKLING AGENT - Material added to surface
coating compositions to prevent the formation of wrinkles in
films during drying.
APPLICATION - Process by which surface coating compositions are transferred to a variety of surfaces, such as:
brushing; spraying (cold or hot); dipping (simple immersion);
roller coating; flushing; and spreading.
ARCHITECTURAL AND INDUSTRIAL MAINTENANCE
(AIM) COATINGS - Architectural coatings are coatings applied to stationary structures and their appurtenances, to mobile homes, or to curbs. The Clean Air Act Amendments call
for an architectural coatings rule (including industrial maintenance) to be promulgated by EPA which will have a

major impact on industrial maintenance-type coating operations throughout the US. The rule will be promulgated nationwide in ozone attainment areas as well as non-attainment
areas.
ARCHITECTURAL COATING - Coating intended for on-site
application to interior or exterior surfaces of residential, commercial, institutional, or industrial buildings - as opposed
to factory applied (industrial) coatings. They are protective
and decorative finishes applied at ambient temperatures.
AROMATIC SOLVENTS Hydrocarbon solvents comprised
wholly or primarily of aromatic hydrocarbon compounds. Aromatic solvents containing less than 80% aromatic compounds are frequently designated as partial aromatic
solvents.
ARTIFICIAL WEATHERING - See ACCELERATED
W EATHER1NG.
ASPHALT MASTIC - A dense mixture of sand, crushed
limestone and fiber bound with a select air-blown asphalt.
ATMOSPHERE - The air surrounding the earth. Also called
troposphere.
ATTAINMENT AREA - An area which meets National Ambient Air Quality Standards for a particular pollutant such as
ozone, lead and four other common pollutants. See NONATTA1NMENT AREA.
BACKGROUND LEVEL - With respect to air pollution, the
amounts of pollutants present in the ambient air due to natural sources.
BACTERIAL CLEANING - Removal of scale and rust by
spraying or dipping the steel into a solution containing a bacterium, an inorganic salt and glucose.
BAKING FINISH - A paint or varnish that requires baking
at temperatures above 150OF for the development of desired
properties.
BARIUM METABORATE - White crystalline pigment prepared by precipitation from aqueous solution. Used in paint
as an anti-corrosion pigment.
BARRIER COAT - Coating used to isolate a paint system
from the surface to which it is applied in order to prevent
chemical or physical interaction between them, e.g., to prevent the paint solvent attacking the underlying surface or to
prevent bleeding into the new paint system.
BASIC LEAD SILICO CHROMATE - Calcined basic lead
chromate - basic lead silicate complex on a silica core, used
as a corrosion-inhibitive pigment.
BASIC ZINC CHROMATE - Yellow pigment used primarily for its corrosion-inhibiting properties.
BEST AVAILABLE CONTROL TECHNOLOGY - An emission limitation based upon the maximum degree of reduction for each pollutant subject to regulation which would be
emitted from any major stationary source or major modification thereof. In no event is the application of best available
control technology to result in emissions of any pollutant
which would exceed the emissions allowed by any applicable standard.
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BINDER - Nonvolatile portion of the liquid vehicle of a coating. It binds or cements the pigment particles together and
the paint film as a whole to the material to which it is applied.
The amount of binder needed to completely wet a pigment
is determined primarily by the particle size, shape, chemical composition, and density of the pigment; and the particle size, degree of polymerization and wetting properties of
the binder. See also VEHICLE.
BIOSPHERE - The portion of Earth and its atmosphere that
can support life.
BITUMINOUS COATING - Asphalt or tar compound used
to provide a protective finish.
BLAST CLEANING -Cleaning and roughening of a surface
(particularly steel) by the use of metallic or nonmetallic grit
or metal shot (usually steel), which is projected against a surface by compressed air, centrifugal force, or water.
BLASTING CAGE - A movable enclosure around the
blaster that contains dust and paint.
BLEEDING The diffusion of colorants through a coating
from a previously painted substrate.
BLISTERING - Formation of dome-shaped projections in
paints or varnish films resulting from local loss of adhesion
and lifting of the film from an underlying paint film (intercoat
blistering) or the base substrate.
BLUSHING A film defect that appears as a milky opalescence as the film dries.
BODY -Apparent consistency or viscosity of a paint as assessed subjectively. A practical term widely used to give a
qualitative picture of consistency. For Newtonian liquids,
body is the same as viscosity.
BOSUNS CHAIR - A rigging system for a single individual
that allows access to heights.
BOTTOM-DRYING - Drying of a film from the bottom
towards the top of the film.
BOXING - Pouring paint from one container to another
several times to ensure proper mixing.
BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTION - A national organization which establishes and publishes standard specifications and codes of practice.
BRUSHING - Application of a coating by means of a brush.
BRUSH-OFF BLAST - Lowest blast cleaning standard. This
standard is defined in Steel Structures Painting Council Surface Preparation Specification No. 7, Brush-off Blast Cleaning (SSPC-SP 7).
BUBBLE BUSTER - Compound used to reduce the formation of bubbles in a coating.
manufacturers can control pollution from individual sources

within their plants as they see fit, provided the air escaping
from the top of the imaginary bubble meets the standards.
See also OFFSETS.
BUBBLING - Film defect, temporary or permanent, in which
bubbles of air or solvent vapor, or both, are present in the
applied film.
BUILD Real or apparent thickness, fullness, or depth of
a dried film.
CALCAREOUS DEPOSITS Deposits containing calcium
or calcium compounds.
CATALYTIC CURING - Mechanism by which a coating is
cross-linked by the action of a catalyst as opposed to oxidation, etc. Examples of such systems are two-part epoxies and
polyurethanes.
CATHODIC PROTECTION -A technique to reduce the corrosion rate of a metal surface by making it a cathode of an
electrochemical cell.
CAVITATION The formation and rapid collapse within a
liquid of cavities or bubbles that contain vapor or gas or both.
CAVITATION EROSION - Progressive loss of original
material from solid surface due to continuing exposure to
cavitation.
CEMENT PAINT - Paint supplied in dry powder form, based
essentially on Portland cement, to which pigments are sometimes added for decorative purposes. This dry powder paint
is mixed with water immediately before use.
CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM EFFECTS - Symptoms involving the brain and spinal chord, affecting sensory impulses, thought and motor control.
CENTRIFUGAL BLAST CLEANING Use of motor-driven,
bladed wheels to hurl abrasive at a surface by centrifugal
force.
CHALKING - Formation of a friable powder on the surface
of a paint film caused by the disintegration of the binding
medium due to disruptive factors during weathering. The
chalking of a paint film can be considerably affected by the
choice and concentration of the pigment. It can also be affected by the choice of binding medium.
CHARACTERISTIC
WASTES - A waste that does not appear on the four lists of wastes specifically designated as
hazardous in 40 CFR 260, but which is considered hazardous
because it has one or more of the following characteristics:
CORROSIVITY, IGNITABILITY, REACTIVITY, TOXICITY.
CHECKING That phenomenon manifested in paint films
by slight breaks in the film that do not penetrate to the underlying surface. The break should be called a crack if the
underlying surface is visible. Where precision is necessary
in evaluating a paint film, checking may be described as
eye) or as microscopic (as obble (as seen by the
served under a magnification of 10 diameters), (See also
CRACKING).
BUBBLE ONCEPT - Method Of implementing air pollution regulations where a giant bubble is imagined to be
placed over a manufacturing plant. At the top of this bubble
is a single Opening through which all the plants pollutants
escape. Under this approach, the only pollution measurement would be taken at the top of this bubble. Therefore

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CHEMICAL CONVERSION COATING - A treatment, either

chemical or electrochemical, of the metal surface to convert
it to another chemical form which provides an insulating barrier of exceedingly low solubility between the metal and its
environment, but which is an integral pari of the metallic substrate. It provides greater corrosion resistance to the metal
and increased adhesion of coatings applied to the metal.
Examples are phosphate coatings on steel.
CHEMICAL ENVIRONMENT - An exposure in which strong
concentrations of highly corrosive gases, fumes or chemicals, either in solution or as solids or liquids, contact the surface. The severity may vary tremendously from mild concentrations in yard areas to direct immersion in the chemical.
CHIPPING RESISTANCE - The ability of a coating or layers of coatings to resist total or partial removal, usually in
small pieces, resulting from impact by hard objects or from
wear during service.
CHLORINATED HYDROCARBONS - Powerful solvents
that include such members as chloroform, carbon tetrachloride, ethylene dichloride, methylene chloride, tetrachlorethane, trichlorethylene, etc. Generally, they are toxic
and their use is now restricted in some countries. Their main
applications include nonflammable paint removers, cleaning
solutions, and special finishes where presence of residual
solvent in the film is a disadvantage.
CHLORINATED RUBBER - Resin formed by the reaction
of rubber with chlorine. Unlike rubber, the resulting product
is readily soluble and yields solutions of low viscosity. It is
sold as white powder, fibers, or as blocks. Commercial
products generally contain about 65% chlorine. It has good
chemical resistance properties. It tends to cobweb when
sprayed. Mostly chlorinated polymers are now used, .e.,
i-butene, polyethylene, etc.
CHRONIC - Long-lasting or frequently recurring.
CHRONIC TOXICITY - The property of a substance or mixture of substances to cause adverse effects in an organism
upon repeated or continuous exposure over a period of at
least one-half the lifetime of that organism.
CITATION - A written notice to a firm that OSHA believes
health and safety standards have been violated on their
premises. Will include a deadline for abatement. May include
a proposed penalty.
CLEAN AIR ACT (CAA) - The first legislation, passed in
1970, to set federal standards for air quality, including the
NATIONAL AMBIENT AIR QUALITY STANDARDS.
CLEAN AIR ACT AMENDMENTS (CAAA) - Legislation
passed in 1990, which will affect much smaller sources than
previous air pollution control regulations. Paints and coatings operations will be affected by the Amendments because
the solvents that make up many paints and coatings are one
focus of several important sections.
CLEAN AIR STANDARDS - The set of enforceable rules,
regulations, standards, limitations, orders, controls, prohibitions, etc., which are contained in, issued under, or adopted pursuant to the Clean Air Act and amendments.
CLEAN WATER ACT - Federal law intended to regulate

discharges to water in order to meet water quality goals.
CLEVELAND CONDENSING HUMIDITY CABINET - An accelerated weathering apparatus which operates on a condensation type of water exposure at elevated temperature.
CLIMATE CABINET
Any enclosure used to simulate
selected climatic conditions.
COALESCENCE - The formation of a film of resinous or
polymeric material when water evaporates from an emulsion
or latex system, permitting contact and fusion of adjacent
latex particles. Action of the joining of particles into a film
as the volatile evaporates.
COALESCENT (or COALESCING AGENT) - Solvent with
a high boiling point which, when added to a coating, aids in
film formation via temporary plasticization (softening) of the
vehicle.
COAL TAR EPOXY COATING
Coating in which binder
or vehicle is a combination of coal tar with epoxy resin.
COAL TAR URETHANE COATING - Coating in which
binder or vehicle is a combination of coal tar with a polyurethane resin.
COAT - Paint, varnish or lacquer applied to a surface in
a single application (one layer) to form an evenly distributed
film when dry.
COATING - Generic term for paints, lacquer, enamels, etc.
A liquid, liquifiable or mastic composition that has been converted to a solid protective, decorative, or functional adherent film after application as a thin layer.
COATING SYSTEM -A number of coats separately applied
in a predetermined order at suitable intervals to allow for drying or curing.
COBWEBBING - Production of fine filaments instead of the
normal atomized particles when some coatings are sprayed.
CODE OF FEDERAL REGULATIONS- Yearly summary of
Federal Regulations. Organized by subject.
COEFFICIENT OF HAZE (COH) - A measurement of visibility interference in the atmosphere.
CO-GENERATOR - One of two or more parties who meet
the definition, and incur the responsibilities, of a hazardous
waste generator.
COLD-ROLLED STEEL - Low-carbon, cold-reduced sheet
steel.
COLD WALL EFFECT In tank linings, a driving, permeating force assisting ionic passage through a coating to a metal
in the direction from a hot liquid to a cold wall.
COLLOIDAL STATE
Particular state in which any substance may exist under the proper conditions, determined
by fineness of particle subdivision. The colloidal state is defined by a more or less well-marked ultra-microscopic zone
in the scale of subdivision, the lower extreme of the zone
approaching molecular dimensions, and the upper end
gradually passing over into molecular aggregates (suspensions) visible under the ordinary microscope.
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COMBUSTIBLELIQUID - Any liquid having a flashpoint of

10OOF (37.8OC) or higher, but below 200F (93.3OC).
COMMERCIAL BLAST - Moderate grade of blast cleaning.
This standard is defined in Steel Structures Painting Council Surface Preparation Specification No. 6, Commercial
Blast Cleaning (SSPC-SP 6).
COMPLIANCE - Compliance with the clean air or water
standards. Also, compliance with a schedule or plan ordered
or approved by a court, the Environmental Protection Agency, or an air or water pollution control agency.
COMPLIANCE DATE - The date upon which a source is
required to meet applicable pollution control requirements.
COMPREHENSIVE ENVIRONMENTALRESPONSE, COMPENSATION AND LIABILITY ACT (CERCLA) - Legislation passed in 1980 which authorized EPA to respond to
hazardous spills and clean up abandoned waste sites. It also
created a fund to pay for clean up of abandoned hazardous
waste sites, known as SUPERFUND.
CONDENSATION EXPOSURE - An exposure where the
surface is almost continuously exposed to saturated air, accompanied by very frequent or continuous condensation.
CONFINED SPACE -An area which may be hazardous because a limited number of openings could make escape
difficult in an emergency, and because ventilation may be
inadequate to support life. The space may also present
unknown hazards such as toxic or caustic chemicals.
CONSENSUS STANDARD - A standard developed according to a consensus agreement or general opinion among
representatives of various interested or affected organizations and individuals.
CONTINGENCY PLAN - A document setting out an organized, planned, and coordinated course of action to be followed in case of a fire, explosion, or release of hazardous
waste or hazardous waste constituents which could threaten human health or the environment.
CONTINUOUS PHASE - The medium or continuum in
which the dispersed phase is contained.
CONTROLLED CAVITATION WATER JETTING - A technique of cleaning based upon the principle of cavitation.
CONTROL STRATEGY - A combination of measures
designed to achieve the aggregate reduction of emissions
necessary for attainment and maintenance of a national standard. This is a necessary part of approvable state implementation plans.
CONVERSION COATINGS - A treatment, either chemical
or electrochemical, of a metal surface to convert it to another
chemical form to provide improved adhesion and corrosion
resistance.
CORROSION - The deterioration of metal by chemical or
electrochemical reaction resulting from exposure to weathering, moisture, chemicals, or other agents in the environment
in which it is placed.
CORROSION-INHIBITIVE PIGMENT - A pigment that when

made into a paint has the property of minimizing corrosion
of the substrate to which it is applied.
CORROSIVITY - A characteristic exhibited by a solid waste
which is aqueous and is shown to have a pH of less than
or equal to 2 or greater than or equal to 12.5 using standard
tests. Also, a liquid which corrodes steel at a rate greater
than 6.35 mm (0.250 inches) per year under standard test
conditions.
COUPLING AGENT - Solvent that will cause two immiscible liquids to mix. Also called COSOLVENT.
COVERAGE - Ambiguous term that is used in some instances to refer to hiding power and in others to mean
spreading rate. The more precise terms are preferred. See
also SPREADING RATE and HIDING POWER.
CRACKING - Generally, the splitting of a dry paint film,
usually as a result of aging. The following terms are used
to denote the nature and extent of this defect: HAIR CRACKING = Fine cracks that do not penetrate the top coat; they
occur erratically and at random. CHECKING = Fine cracks
that do not penetrate the topcoat and are distributed over
the surface, giving the semblance of a small pattern. CRACKING = Specifically, a breakdown in which the cracks penetrate at least one coat and which may be expected to result
ultimately in complete failure. CRAZING = Resembling
checking, but the cracks are deeper and broader.
CROCODILING or ALLIGATORING = A drastic type of crazing, producing a pattern resembling the hide of a crocodile.
The use of a minimum magnification of i 0 diameters is
recommended in cases where it is difficult to differentiate between cracking and checking.
CRATERING - The formation of small bowl-shaped depressions in a paint film.
CRAWLING - Defect in which a wet paint film recedes from
small areas of the surface, leaving them uncoated.
CRAZING - A network of checks or cracks appearing on
a coated surface. (See also CRACKING.)
CREVICE CORROSION - Corrosion that occurs within or
adjacent to a crevice formed by contact with another piece
of the same or another metal or with a nonmetallic material.
When this occurs, the intensity of attack is usually more severe than on surrounding areas of the same surface.
CRITERIA - As used in the Clean Air Act, information on
adverse effects of air pollutants on human health or the environment at various concentrations.
CRITICAL PIGMENT VOLUME CONCENTRATION(CPVC)
- That level of pigmentation, pigment volume concentration
(PVC) value in the dry paint, where just sufficient binder is
present to fill the voids between the pigment particles. Below this level, a sharp break occurs in film properties such
as corrosion resistance, etc. Different requirements for each
product would dictate different PVC and CPVC ratios.
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CROCODILING - See CRACKING

CRYOGENICCOATING REMOVAL -A new technique using liquid nitrogen at 196OC to remove organic coatings. A
stream of liquid nitrogen embrittles the coating, which can
then be removed with recyclable plastic pellets.
CURE - To change the properties of a polymer system into
a final, more stable, usable condition by the use of heat, radiation, or reaction with chemical additives.
CURING AGENT - Additive that promotes the curing of a
coating film.
CURTAIN COATING - A coating that is applied and allowed
to drain off. The excess is collected in a sump and recirculated.
DEFLOCCULANT An additive that prevents pigments in
suspension from coalescing to form flocs.
DEFOAMERS - Additives used to reduce or eliminate foam
formed in a coating or coating constituent.
DELAMINATION - Failure of a coating to adhere to the
previous coating.
DEMONSTRATION - The initial exhibition of a new technological process or practice or a significantly new combination or use of technologies, processes or practices,
subsequent to the development stage, for the purpose of
proving technological feasibility and cost effectiveness.
DEPARTMENT OF ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION
(DEP) DEPARTMENT OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESOURCES
(DER) - Common names for state agencies charged with
protection of the environment.
DEPOSIT CORROSION - Localized corrosion under or
around a deposit or collection of material on a metal surface.
See also CREVICE CORROSION.
DESCALING
Removal of mill scale or caked rust from
steel by chemical or mechanical means.
DEW POINT - The temperature at which moisture will
condense.
DILUENT - A volatile liquid which, while not a solvent for
the nonvolatile constituents of a coating, may yet be used
in conjunction with the true solvent, without causing precipitation. See also REACTIVE DILUENT.
DIP COATING - The process in which a substrate is immersed in a solution (or dispersion) containing the coating
material and withdrawn.
DIRECT COSTS - Such costs as labor, taxes, insurance,
materials, scaffolding, equipment and inspection.
DIRECT READING GAS DETECTOR - An instrument which
directly records information about its surroundings, as opposed to one which does so inferentially.
DISBONDING - Failure of a coating to adhere to a substrate
to which it has been applied.
DISCHARGE PERMIT - Authorization, license, or equivalent control document issued by the EPA or approved state
to implement the requirements of water quality regulations.
DISCOLORATION - Change in the color of a coating after

application, normally caused by exposure to sunlight.
DISPERSANT - Additive that increases the stability of a suspension of powders (pigments) in a liquid medium.
DISPERSED PHASE That phase in an emulsion or suspension that is broken down into droplets or discrete particles and dispersed throughout the other continuous phase.
Also called DISCONTINUOUS PHASE.
DISPERSION - Process of dispersing a dry powder (or pigments) in a liquid medium in such a way that the individual
particles of the powder become separated from one another
and are reasonably evenly distributed throughout the entire
liquid medium.
DISPOSAL - The discharge, deposit, injection, dumping,
spilling, leaking, or placing of any hazardous waste into or
on any land or water so that such hazardous waste or any
constituent thereof may enter the environment or be emitted into the air or discharged into any waters, including
ground waters.
DISPOSAL FACILITY - A facility or part of a facility at which
hazardous waste is intentionally placed into or on any land
or water, and at which the waste will remain after closure.
DOUBLE-DIP GALVANIZING - Immersion of one-half of a
structure at a time in a molten zinc bath when the structure
is too large to be immersed in one dipping.
DRIER - A composition that accelerates the drying of oil,
paint or varnish. Driers are usually metallic compositions and
are available in both solid and liquid forms.
DROSSING - Removal of refuse and impurities from a galvanizing bath.
DRYING - Process by which coatings change from the liquid
to the solid state, due to evaporation of the solvent, physicochemical reactions of the binding medium, or a combination
of these causes.
DRYING TIME - Time required for an applied film of coating to reach the desired stage of cure, hardness, or nontackiness.
DRY INTERIOR ENVIRONMENT Dry, relatively noncorrosive interiors of either buildings, plants, or void spaces.
DRY SPRAY - Overspray or bounceback. Also sand-like
finish due to spray particles being dried before reaching the
surface.
DRY-THROUGH Film is considered dry-through when no
loosening, detachment, wrinkling, or other distortion of the
film occurs when the thumb is borne downward while simultaneously turning the thumb through an angle of 90 in the
plane of the film. The arm of the operator is kept in a straight
line from the wrist to the shoulder and maximum pressure
is exerted by the arm.
DRY-TO-HANDLE TIME - Time interval between application and ability to handle without damage.
DRY-TO-RECOAT TIME - Time interval between the application of the coating and its ability to receive the next coat
satisfactorily.

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DRY-TO-TOUCH TIME - Interval between application and

tack-free condition.
DURABILITY
Degree to which paints and paint materials withstand the destructive effect of the conditions to which
they are subjected.
DUST - Fine grain particles light enough to be suspended
in air.
EFFLUENT GUIDELINES - Any limit established as part
of a permit issued by a state or the EPA, or any pretreatment
required before discharging wastewater to a public
wastewater treatment facility.
ELECTRIC ARC GUN - A type of thermal spraying equipment, in which two wires are continuously in the presence
of an air jet. While less maneuverable than the oxy-fuel gas
gun, the deposit rate is two to three times higher.
ELECTRODEPOSITION - Method of paint application in
which an electrically conductive article to be coated is made
one of the electrodes in a tank of water-thinned paint. The
other electrode is generally a metal. The two electrodes are
connected to a source of electrical power, the polarity of the
article to be coated being of the opposite sign to that of the
particles in the liquid paint in the tank. The charged particles move towards the articles under the influence of the electric field, and when they give up their charge at the electrode
(article), they are deposited and ultimately form a continuous film of paint.
ELECTROGALVANIZING- Steel wire or strip fed continuously through a series of washes and rinses and a plating
bath. Electrogalvanized steel has good working properties;
zinc applied in this manner has excellent adhesion.
ELECTROSTATIC DETEARING Removal of tear drops
that form on dipped objects.
ELECTROSTATIC SPRAY COATING - A solvent-borne,
water-borne, or powder coating that uses the attractive force
between materials of opposite electrical charge to form a uniform film coverage on the coated surface.
ELECTROSTATIC SPRAYING - Methods of application
spraying in which an electrostatic potential is created between the article to be coated and the atomized paint particles. The charged particles of paint are attracted to the article
being painted and are there deposited and discharged. The
electrostatic potential is used in some processes to aid the
atomization of the paint.
EMERGENCY PLANNING AND COMMUNITY RIGHT-TOKNOW ACT (EPCRA) - Legislation passed as part of the
Superfund Amendments and Reauthorization Act of 1986.
Also referred to as SARA Title III. Regulations developed under EPCRA establish a list of extremely hazardous substances and threshold planning quantities that trigger
reporting and emergency planning requirements. They are
intended to facilitate the development and implementation
of state and local emergency response plans.
EMERGENCY TEMPORARY STANDARDS - In cases of

grave danger to workers, OSHA is authorized to publish
emergency standards that take effect immediately and remain in effect until replaced by a permanent standard.
EMISSION - Discharges into the air by a pollution source,
as distinguished from effluents, which are discharged into
water.
EMISSION LIMITATIONS - Requirements established by
EPA or state or local government which limit the quantity,
rate or concentration of emissions of air pollutants on a continuous basis, including any requirements which limit the level of opacity, prescribe equipment, set fuel specifications or
prescribe operation or maintenance procedures for a source
to assume continuous emission reduction.
EMISSION STANDARD - The maximum amount of a pollutant that is permitted to be discharged from a single polluting source.
EMULSIFICATION- The process of dispersing one liquid
in another (the liquids being mutually insoluble or sparingly
soluble in each other). When water is one of the liquids, two
types of emulsions are possible: oil-in-water (water is the continuous state), and water-in-oil. The term oil describes any
organic liquid sparingly soluble in water.
EMULSIFIER - Substance that intimately mixes, modifies
the surface tension of colloidal droplets, and disperses dissimilar materials ordinarily immiscible, such as oil and water,
to produce a stable emulsion. The emulsifier has the double
task of promoting the emulsification and of stabilizing the
finished product.
EMULSION - Two-phase liquid system in which small
droplets of one liquid (the internal phase) are immiscible in
and dispersed uniformly throughout a second continuous
liquid phase (the external phase).
EMULSION PAINT - A paint, the vehicle of which is an
emulsion of binder in water. The binder may be oil,
oleoresinous varnish, resin or other emulsifiable binder. Not
to be confused with a latex paint, in which the vehicle is a
latex.
END-USER - This term normally refers to the applicator of
the coating. For example the structure owner and his crew,
painting contractor, etc. See also USER.
ENGINEERING CONTROL METHODS - Methods of
preventing worker exposure to air contaminants without the
use of personal protective equipment, including enclosure,
confinement, general and local ventilation, and substitution
of less toxic materials.
ENVIRONMENT -Water, air, land, and all plants, animals,
and man living therein, and the interrelationships which exist among them.
ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY (EPA) - An independent agency of the federal government formed in 1970
and responsible for pollution abatement and control programs, including programs in air and water pollution control,
water supply and radiation protection, solid and toxic waste
management, pesticides control, and noise abatement.
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FAST SOLVENT - Solvent that evaporates rapidly under

atmospheric conditions.
FAYING SURFACE - Contacting surfaces where joints in
steel structures are formed by riveting or by the use of high
strength bolts.
FEATHER EDGING Reducing the thickness of the edge
of a dry paint film, e.g., the edge of a damaged area, prior
to repainting.
FEATHERING Operation of tapering off the edges of a
coat of paint by laying off with a comparatively dry brush.
EPOXY - Group having the Oxirane structure.

EPOXY ESTERS An epoxy resin partially esterified with
fatty acids, rosin, etc.; single package epoxy.
EPOXY RESIN - Cross-linking resins based on the reactivity of the epoxide group. One common type is the resin
made from epichlorhydrin and bisphenol A. Aliphatic polyols such as glycerol may be used instead of the aromatic
bisphenol A or bisphenol F.
EQUIVALENT METHOD - Any method of sampling and
analyzing for an air pollutant which has been demonstrated
to the EPA to have a consistent and quantitatively known relationship to the reference method.
EROSION - Phenomenon manifested in paint films by the
wearing away of the finish to expose the substrate or undercoat. The degree of failure is dependent on the amount of
substrate or undercoat visible. Erosion occurs as the result
of chalking or by the abrasive action of wind-borne particles
of grit.
EXEMPT SOLVENT - Any solvent that has not been
declared photochemically reactive by any of several regulatory agencies, most notably, the Los Angeles Air Pollution
Control District.
EXPLOSIVE LIMIT - The upper and lower ends of the explosive range, the proportions of combustible vapor and air
necessary to produce an explosion. See UPPER EXPLOSIVE
LIMIT and LOWER EXPLOSIVE LIMIT.
EXPOSURE RACK - Term given to a frame on which test
panels are exposed for durability tests.
EXPOSURE TESTS - Tests conducted to evaluate the durability of a coating or film. They include exposure to ultraviolet light, moisture, cold, heat, salt water, mildew, etc. They
can be generated either naturally or artificially.
EXTENDERS- A specific group of achromatic pigments of
low refractive index (between 1.45 and 1.70) incorporated
into a vehicle system whose refractive index is in a range
of 1.5 to 1.6. They are used to reduce cost, achieve durability, alter appearance, control rheology, and influence other
properties.
EXTREMELY HAZARDOUS SUBSTANCE - Any substance
listed in the appendices to 40 CFR 355, regulations developed under the requirements of Emergency Planning and
Community Right-to-Know regulations.
FADEOMETER - An apparatus for determining the
resistance of resins and other materials to fading. It accelerates the fading by subjecting the article to high-intensity
ultraviolet wavelengths similar to those found in sunlight.
FADING - Subjective term used to describe the lightening
of the color of a pigmented paint following exposure to the
effects of light, heat, time, temperature, chemicals, etc. The
observed fading may result from deterioration of the pigment,
from deterioration of the vehicle, or from a decrease in gloss.
A separation of the vehicle from the pigment particle in the
interior of the film, with the subsequent introduction of microvoids that scatter light, may also be interpreted visually as
fad ing.
FEDERAL INSECTICIDE, FUNGICIDE AND RODENTICIDE

ACT (FIFRA) - Federal act regulating the use of pesticides.
Requires that manufacturers register pesticides with the EPA.
Labels which outline safe uses and practices are required
and must be submitted as part of the registration process.
EPA must weigh any health or environmental effects of a
product against its benefits. It may ban or restrict use of those
for which the risks outweigh the benefits.
FEDERAL REGISTER - Daily chronological record of new
federal regulations and other federal business.
FIELD COAT - The coat or coats applied at the site of erection or fabrication.
FIELD PAINTING - Surface preparation and painting operation of structural steel or other materials conducted at the
project site.
FILIFORM CORROSION - A type of corrosion that occurs
under coatings on metal substrates characterized by a
definite thread-like structure and directional growth.
FILM INTEGRITY - Continuity of a coating free of defects.
FILM THICKNESS - Thickness of any applied film, wet or
dry.
FILM THICKNESS GAGE - Device for measuring film thickness; instruments for measuring either wet or dry films are
available.
FINGER PRINT TECHNIQUE Using analytic techniques
to determine the composition of a coating.
FINGERNAIL TEST - Gouging a dried film with fingernail
to make a subjective, qualitative estimate of the relative hardness and toughness.
FINISH COAT - Final coat in a painting system.
FIRST COAT First coating applied in any painting schedule; in some cases, it could be the sealing coat; in others,
the priming coat.
FISH EYES - Paint defect that manifests itself by the crawling of wet paint into a recognized pattern resembling small
dimples or fish eyes.
FLAKING - The detachment of pieces of the paint film itself either from its substrate or from paint previously applied.
Flaking (scaling) is generally preceded by cracking, checking or blistering and is the result of loss of adhesion usually
due to stress-strain factors.
FLAME CLEANING - Impingement of an intensely hot flame
to the surface of structural steel resulting in the removal of
mill scale and the dehydration of any remaining rust, leaving the surface in a condition suitable for wire brushing
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followed by the immediate application of paint. This method

has now fallen into disuse. The procedure is defined in Steel
Structures Painting Council Surface Preparation Specification No. 4, Flame Cleaning of New Steel (SSPC-SP 4),
which has now been discontinued.
FLAME SPRAY - Any process whereby a material is
brought to its melting point and sprayed onto a surface to
produce a coating. The process includes metallizing, thermospray, and plasma flame.
FLASH POINT - The lowest temperature of a liquid at which

it gives off sufficient vapor to form an ignitable mixture with
the air near the surface of the liquid or within the vessel used.
FLASH RUSTING - Rusting that occurs on metal within
minutes after exposure to moisture.
FLATTING AGENTS - Material added to a coating to
reduce the gloss of the dried film.
FLEXIBILITY - Degree to which a coating after drying is
able to conform to movement or deformation of its supporting surface, without cracking or flaking.
FLOCCULATION - The formation of clusters of pigment
particles in a fluid medium which may occur after dispersion
has been effected. The condition is usually reversible and
the particle clusters can be broken up by the application of
relatively weak mechanical forces or by a change in the physical forces at the interface between the liquid and the solid
dispersed particles. Flocculation is often visible as a Jack
Frost pattern in a flowout of a dispersion; microscopically,
it appears as a lacework or reticulum of loosely clustered particles. It results in more rapid settling although it is usually
soft, shows loss of color strength and poor dispersion.
Surface-active agents are often useful in reducing the extent of flocculation and hence the yield value.
FLOW COATING - Process of applying paint in which the
paint is poured or is allowed to flow over the object to be
painted, the excess, if any, being allowed to drain off.
FLUIDIZED BED COATING - Method of applying a coating in which a heated or electrostatically charged article is
immersed or passed over a fluidized bed of powdered coating (the coating material adhering to the hot metal), then heated in an oven to provide a smooth continuous film. The bed
of powdered resin may be fluidized by vibration or compressed air.
FREE LIQUID - Material which readily separates from the
solid portion of a waste at ambient temperature and pressure.
FREE SILICA - Silica generally present in small amounts
in natural deposits of clay-like minerals and diatomaceous
earth and usually considered to be a contaminant.
FUGITIVE EMISSION - Particulate matter that is not collected by a capture system and is released to the atmosphere
at the point of generation.
FULL COAT - Application of a coating at a specified film
thickness designed to achieve a desired effect.
FUNGICIDE - Paint additive that discourages the growth
of fungi.

FUSION COATINGS - A powder coating that melts, fuses,

and reacts chemically as it contacts a heated surface.
GALVANIC CELL Cell consisting of dissimilar metals or
alloys in contact with the same body of an electrolytic solution such as seawater. Upon electrically connecting the dissimilar metals, a current flows as the result of accelerated
corrosion of the more active of the dissimilar metals or alloys.
GALVANIC PROTECTION - Reduction or elimination of
corrosion of a metal achieved by making current flow to it
from a solution by connecting it to the negative pole of some
source of current. The source of the protective current for
steel would be a sacrificial metal, such as zinc, magnesium,
or aluminum.
GALVANIZING - Application of a coating of zinc to steel

by a variety of methods.
GELLING -Any process whereby paint or varnish thickens
to jelly-like consistency. Also see LIVERING.
GENERAL DUTY CLAUSE A clause in the Occupational
Safety and Health Act which requires employers to furnish
to their workers employment and a place of employment
which are free from recognized hazards that are causing or
likely to cause death or serious physical harm. OSHA can
use this clause to cite an employer when conditions it believes to be unsafe do not violate specific OSHA regulations.
GENERATOR - (Hazardous waste regulations) Any person,
by site, whose act or process produces hazardous waste
identified or listed in Part 261 of the hazardous waste regulations, or whose act causes a hazardous waste to become
subject to regulation.
GLASS TRANSITION TEMPERATURE (Tg) -The temperature range (relatively small for most polymers) within which
an amorphous polymer changes from a rubbery or viscous
state to a glass-like or brittle state.
GREASE PAINT - Nondrying and nonoxidizing coating for
void spaces in ships.
GRIT BLASTING -Abrasive cleaning of a surface by blasting with angular chilled iron grit, aluminum oxide, or any
crushed or irregular abrasive. The grit is projected onto the
surface either mechanically or by means of compressed air.
GROUND - A conducting connection, whether intentional
or accidental, between an electrical circuit or equipment and
the earth, or some conducting body, such as a water pipe
or ground rod that serves as the earth.
GROUND BED (anode bed) - Cathodic protection system
ground connection.
GROUND FAULT CIRCUIT INTERRUPTERS (GFCI)
A
device whose function is to interrupt the electric circuit to the
load when a fault current to ground exceeds some predetermined value that is less than that required to operate the overcurrent protective device of the supply current.
GROUND SUPPORTS - Supports or scaffolding that rest
on the ground or roadway.
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GUIDE COAT - Coat similar to the finish or color coat but

of a different color to assure good coverage.
HACKLES Thin, needle-likeor sliver-like protrusions (ranging from 3 to 6 mils) found on steel plates that have been
blasted with steel or grit.
HALOGENATED SOLVENTS - Solvents containing halogens (usually chlorine) having improved solvency and
reduced flammability compared with the hydrocarbons from
which they are derived. Some of these are highly toxic, and
precautions must be taken to avoid inhalationof their vapors.
HAND CLEANING - Surface preparation using hand tools
such as wire brushes, scrapers, and chipping hammers.
HARDENER Additive (cross-linking agent, resin or other
modifier) used to promote or control the hardening or curing
reaction of a coating or resin system.
HARDNESS Ability of a coating film, as distinct from its
substrate, to resist cutting, indentation or penetration by a
hard object.
HAZARD -The likelihood that injury will result when a substance or object is used in a particular quantity or manner.
Note that, properly speaking, there are no hazardous substances or objects, only hazardous ways of using them.
HAZARD COMMUNICATION STANDARD - OSHA regulation (CFR 1910.1200) that requires employers to take
specific steps to inform workers of the hazards of materials
used in the workplace. Among others, requires employers
to obtain Material Safety Data Sheets.
HAZARDOUS AIR POLLUTANTS(HAPS) - Approximately
190 substances specifically listed in the Clean Air Act Amendments that may be hazardousto human health or the environment, but that are not specifically regulated elsewhere in the
CAAA.
HAZARDOUS AND SOLID WASTE AMENDMENTS
(HSWA) - Amendments to RCRA which directed EPA to
establish new requirements, bringing small quantity generators into the hazardous waste regulatory system.
HAZARDOUS SUBSTANCE - A substance which, by reason of being explosive, flammable, poisonous, corrosive, oxidizing, or otherwise harmful, is likely to cause death or injury
when misused.
A solid waste subject to RCRA
HAZARDOUS WASTE
regulations because it is specifically listed as one of the
wastes to which such regulations apply, or because it exhibits the characteristics which define a hazardous waste.
See CHARACTERISTIC WASTE, LISTED WASTE, and
SOLID WASTE.
HAZARDOUS WASTE NUMBER A number assigned by
EPA to each listed and characteristic hazardous waste.
These numbers must be included on paperwork such as a
hazardous waste manifest.
HEAD PROTECTION - Helmets meeting ANSI Z89.1 protect workers heads from impact and penetration from falling and flying objects.
HEARING CONSERVATION PROGRAM - An employee

hearing conservation program requires monitoring, employee
notification, audiometric testing, protective equipment, training and recordkeeping.
HEAVY INDUSTRIAL ENVIRONMENT - See CHEMICAL
ENVIRONMENT.
The ability of a paint or paint material
HIDING POWER
to hide or obscure a surface to which it has been uniformly
applied.
HIGH-BUILD COATING Coatings that are applied in thicknesses (minimum 5 mils) greater than those normally associated with paint films and thinner than those normally
applied with a trowel.
HIGH-SOLIDS COATINGS - Generally, a coating that contains at least 70% solids by volume. The term higher solids
is more appropriate for coatings which have a higher percentage of solids than previous (conventional) formulations
but still contain less than 70% solids by volume.
HOLIDAY DETECTORS - Instruments utilizing electric current (low voltage, high voltage or ac electrostatic) to detect
nicks, scrapes or pinholes in a coating film.
HOLIDAYS - Application defect whereby small areas are
left uncoated.
HOT SPRAYING Spraying of hot lacquers or paints, the
viscosities of which have been reduced to spraying consistency by means of heat instead of by the addition of volatile solvents. By such a process it is possible to apply materials with
higher solid contents.
HOT SPECS - New and modified federal specifications issued every 15 days on microfilm.
HOT-ROLLED STEEL - Steel that is hot reduced (formed
and shaped while hot).
HOTMELT COATINGS - Solventless coatings that liquify
readily on heating, are applied to the surface in molten conditions, and are allowed to cool on the substrate.
HYDROBLASTING - Cleaning with high-pressure water jet.
HYDROSTATIC TESTS - Used to measure the strength
and leak-resistance of any hollow piece of equipment by internal pressure exerted by a test liquid.
HYGROSCOPICITY - The capacity of a compound or substance to absorb water.
IDENTIFICATIONNUMBER - Number assigned by the EPA
to each generator, transporter and treatment, storage and
disposal facility. These facilities are required to submit an
application for such a number.
IGNITABILITY - A characteristic exhibited by a solid waste
(excluding some alcohol solutions) that is a liquid which has
a flash point less than 6OoC(14OOF) when standard tests are
used, or one which is not a liquid but is a fire hazard when
exposed to friction, moisture, or through spontaneous chemical changes. Also a compressed gas considered ignitable
under Department of Transportation regulations, as determined by standard tests.
IMMERSION SERVICE - Use in water or other liquid.
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IMPACT RESISTANCE - Ability of a coating to resist a sudden blow; ability to resist deformation from impact.
INDIRECT COSTS - Such costs as engineering fees, overhead, cost of capital, and depreciation.
INDUSTRIAL ENVIRONMENT - Atmospheric exposures
that include urban communities, manufacturing centers, and
industrial plants (but would not include heavy industrial environments such as coke plants, which fall under chemical
environments). The atmosphere contains a considerable
amount of gas containing sulfur and industrial fumes that increase the rate of corrosion and adversely affect the paint life.
INDUSTRIAL FINISHES OR COATINGS - Coatings applied
to factory-made articles (before or after fabrication), usually
with the help of special techniques for applying and drying
as opposed to trade sales paints.
INDUSTRIAL MAINTENANCE PAINTS - High performance
coatings formulated for resistance to heavy abrasion, water
immersion, chemicals, corrosion, temperature, electrical current or solvents.
INERT PIGMENT - A pigment that remains relatively inactive or chemically unchanged in paints under stated conditions. The term has little significance unless the conditions
are stated. This term is also used to describe extender
pigments.
INHIBITIVE PIGMENT - Pigment that assists in the prevention of corrosion or some other undesirable effect.
INHIBITOR - General term for compounds or materials that
slow down or stop an undesired chemical change such as
corrosion, oxidation or polymerization, drying, skinning, mildew growth, etc.
INORGANIC COATINGS - Coatings based on silicates or
phosphates and usually used pigmented with metallic zinc.
Also see CEMENT PAINT and ZINC-RICH PRIMER.
INSPECTOR - An individual or group of individuals whose
job it is to witness and document the coating work in a formal fashion.
INTERNAL PHASE - In an emulsion, the discontinuous
phase. For example, in an oil-in-water emulsion, the oil is the
internal phase.
JEEP TEST - High voltage holiday detection test.
JOB STANDARD - The minimum acceptable standard of
quality for a coatings project established prior to beginning
the work.
KORT NOZZLES - Tube-like enclosures around a propeller.
LACQUER - Coating composition that is based on synthetic
thermoplastic film-forming material dissolved in organic solvent and that dries primarily by solvent evaporation. Typical
lacquers include coatings based on vinyl resins, acrylic
resins, chlorinated rubber resins, etc.
LAITANCE - A milky white deposit on new concrete.
LAND DISPOSAL - Placement in or on the land, including
but not limited to, placement in a landfill, surface impoundment, waste pile, injection well, land treatment facility, salt
dome formation, salt bed formation, underground mine or
cave, or placement in a concrete vault or bunker intended

for disposal purposes.
LAND DISPOSAL RESTRICTIONS Section of hazardous
waste regulations which identifies hazardous wastes that are
restricted from land disposal and defines those limited circumstances under which an otherwise prohibited waste may
continue to be land disposed.
LANYARD - A rope, suitable for supporting one person.
One end is fastened to a safety belt or harness and the other
end is secured to a substantial object or a safety line.
LARGE QUANTITY GENERATOR (LQG) - A business
which generates more than 1,000 kg (2,200 pounds or about
300 gallons) of hazardous waste or more than 1 kg of acutely hazardous waste in any calendar month. Must comply with
all applicable hazardous waste management rules.
LATEX - Stable dispersion of a polymeric substance in an
essentially aqueous medium. After polymerization a latex is
a solid dispersed in water and therefore, technically speaking, it is not an emulsion. However, latex and emulsion are
often used synonymously in the paint industry. The particle
sizes range from 0.1 to 0.7 microns and form a mixture which
is milky in appearance.
LATEX PAINT - A paint containing a stable aqueous dispersion of synthetic resin, produced by emulsion polymerization, as the principal constituent of the binder. Modifying
resins may also be present.
LEAD - A heavy metal that may be hazardous to health if
breathed or swallowed and for which national ambient air
quality standards have been promulgated.
LEAD POISONING - A disease resulting from exposure to
relatively low levels of lead over a long period of time or very
high levels over a short period of time. Can result in a wide
variety of symptoms, particularly nervous system effects.
LEAFING - Action involving the floating and slight overlapping of certain metallic and other pigment particles in the form
of laminar flakes on the surface of a coating. Leafing occurs
when such pigments are mixed with a suitable vehicle and
applied as a coating.
LEAK DETECTION SYSTEM - System capable of detecting the failure of either the primary or secondary containment
structure, or the presence of the product or hazardous waste
the structure contains, or other accumulated liquid, in the
secondary containment structure
LETHAL DOSE 50% (LD50) - A method for expressing
quantitatively acute toxicity. An LD50 value is the dosage that
is likely to kill 50% of a group of animals identical with those
tested. Small differences between the LD50s of two chemicals do not indicate important differences in hazard. Note
that large LD50 values represent low toxicities while small
LD50 values represent great toxicities.
LEVELING - The measure of the ability of a coating to flow
out after application so as to obliterate any surface irregularities such as brush marks, orange peel, peaks, or craters
which have been produced by the mechanical process of application.
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LIFELINE - A rope, suitable for supporting one person, to

which a lanyard or safety belt (or harness) is attached.
LIFTING - Softening and raising or wrinkling of a previous
coat by the application of an additional coating, often caused
by the solvents.
LIMESTONE DROP TEST - A method for estimating the
effect of falling stone on a coated surface on pipelines.
LINSEED OIL - Drying oil from seeds of the flax plant. This
best known and most widely used oil in the paint industry
is characterized by its relatively short drying time.
LISTED WASTES - Any of the more than 400 specific
wastes that appear on any one of the four lists of hazardous
wastes contained in RCRA regulations.
LIVERING - The progressive, irreversible increase in consistency of a pigment-vehicle combination. Livering in the
majority of cases arises from a chemical reaction of the vehicle with the solid dispersed materials, but it may also result
from polymerization of the vehicle. The irreversible character of the changes in the livered material distinguishes it from
thixotropic build-up, which is reversible.
LOCAL CORROSION CELL - An electrochemicalcell created on a metal surface because of a difference in potential
between adjacent areas on that surface.
LONG OIL ALKYD - An alkyd resin containing more than
60% of oil as a modifying agent.
LONG OIL VARNISH -An oleoresinous varnish, other than
alkyd, containing more than 25 gal of oil per 100 Ib of resin.
A long oil varnish is usually slower drying, tougher and more
elastic than a short oil varnish.
LOW-SOLVENT COATINGS - Generally coatings which
contain a reduced amount of volatile organic compounds
(VOC) in the paint as applied.
LOWER EXPLOSIVE LIMIT (LEL) - Low limit of flammability or explosibility of a gas or vapor at ordinary ambient
temperatures expressed in percent of the gas vapor in air
by volume.
MAINTENANCE PAINTS - Coatings used to maintain
manufacturing plants, offices, stores and other commercial
structures, hospitals and nursing homes, schools and universities, government and public buildings, and both building
and nonbuilding requirements in such areas as public utilities, railroads, roads, and highways; and including industrial paint, other than the original coating, the primary function
of which is protection. Residential maintenance is excluded.
MAJOR STATIONARY SOURCE - One which emits or
could emit 1O0 tons per year or more of a pollutant subject
to regulations.
MANIFEST - The shipping document originated and signed
by the generator in accordance with hazardous waste regulations.
MANMADE AIR POLLUTION - Air pollution that results
directly or indirectly from human activities.
MANUFACTURE - (Emergency Planning and Community
Right-to-Know regulations) To produce, prepare, import or
compound a toxic chemical. The term manufacture also applies to a toxic chemical that is produced coincidentally during the manufacture, processing, use or disposal of another
chemical or mixture of chemicals, including a toxic chemical that is separated from that other chemical or mixture of
chemicals as a byproduct, and a toxic chemical that remains
in that other chemical or mixture of chemicals as an impurity.
MARINE COATINGS - Paints and varnishes specifically formulated to withstand water immersion or exposure to marine atmosphere.
MARINE ENVIRONMENT - An atmospheric exposure that
is frequently wetted by salt mist, but which is not in direct
contact with salt spray or splashing waves. This environment
contains a high concentration of chlorides.
MASTICS - Adhesive composition.
MATERIAL SAFETY DATA SHEET - Printed information
concerning a hazardous chemical which must be provided
by manufacturers and made available to all employees. It
must include such information as the identity and chemical
composition of the material, physical and chemical characteristics and hazards, health hazards, route of entry and permissible exposure limits.
MAXIMUM ALLOWABLE LEVELS - Voluntary standards
for levels of contaminants in drinking water established by
NSF International in conjunction with the American Water
Works Association, the Conference of State, Health, and Environmental Managers (COSHEM), and the Association of
State Drinking Water Administrators (ASDWA). Generally
equivalent to 10% of the maximum contaminant level (MCL)
from EPAs Primary Drinking Water Standards issued under
the Safe Drinking Water Act. Intended as third-party standards for evaluating the health effects of additives to drinking water.
MAXIMUM CONTAMINANT LEVELS (MCLs) - The maximum permissible level of a contaminant in water which is
delivered to the free flowing outlet of the ultimate user of a
public water system, except in the case of turbidity where
the maximum permissible level is measured at the point of
entry to the distribution system. Contaminants added to the
water under circumstances controlled by the user, except
those resulting from corrosion of piping and plumbing caused
by water quality, are excluded from this definition.
MEDIUM OIL VARNISH - Varnish of medium oil content,
usually containing from 18 to 25 gal of oil per 100 Ib of resin.
METAL SPRAYING - Application of a spray coat of metal
(usually zinc or aluminum) onto a prepared surface (usually
shot blasted mild steel). The metal to be sprayed is rendered
molten by passing it, in wire or powder form, through a flame
pistol that projects the semimolten metal onto the surface
by means of a jet of compressed air.
METALLIZING - Applying a thin coating of metal to a metallic or non-metallic surface. See FLAME SPRAY.
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NEW SOURCE PERFORMANCE STANDARDS - Requirements pertaining to any stationary source, the construction
or modification of which is commenced after the publication
in the Federal Register of proposed national emission ctandards for hazardous air pollutants which will be applicable
to such source.
NONAQUEOUS DISPERSION(NAD) - The solvent analog
of a latex; the polymer is dispersed in a volatile organic liquid
which is not a solvent for the polymer. Nonaqueous dispersions have a much higher solids content than conventional
high molecular weight solvent coatings. Like lattices, the viscosity is independent of the molecular weight.
NON-ATTAINMENT AREA - An area which does not meet
National Ambient Air Quality Standards for a particular pollutant such ozone, lead and four other common pollutants,
as shown by monitored data or calculated by air quality
modeling (or other methods determined to be reliable). Nonattainment areas must make progress toward compliance under a schedule developed as part of the Clean Air Act
Amendments.
NONDEGRADATION CLAUSE - A legal provision stipulating that the present air quality of an area must not be lowered.
The provision is meant to protect those areas whose air quality is already better than federal standards require.
NON-METALLIC ABRASIVES
Naturally occurring, byproduct, and manufactured abrasives used for blast cleaning.
NON-POINT SOURCE - A source of water pollutants which
is not an industrial or municipal discharge from a discernible, confined and discrete conveyance, such as a pipe, ditch,
or channel which is designed to emit effluent into a water
body. See POINT SOURCE. An example of a non-point
source would be municipal or agricultural runoff. Discharges
from painting of bridges or other structures over or near water
are non-point sources, because there is normally not an intent to discharge into the body of water.
NONVOLATILE MATTER - Ingredients of a coating composition that, after drying, are left behind on the material to
which they have been applied, and that constitute the dry
film. The term also applies to coatings components such as
varnishes, resins, solvents, thinners and diluents, driers and
additives, etc. Also called SOLIDS and TOTAL SOLIDS.
NONVOLATILE VEHICLE - The liquid portion of a paint excepting its volatile thinner and water.
NOTICE OF PROPOSED RULEMAKING Anouncement
of a federal agencys plans to propose, amend or revoke a
regulation, published in the FederalRegister. The public must
have an opportunity to comment before a final rule is pubIished.
OCCUPATIONAL SAFETY AND HEALTH ADMINISTRATION (OSHA) - Federal agency responsible for administration and enforcement of the Occupational Health and
Safety Act.
MICELLE Colloidal particle composed of many aggregated

small molecules having a layered structure.
MICROEMULSIONS Transparent solutions of water and
oil, that are thermodynamically stable and which spontaneously form when the components are brought in contact.
MILDEW RESISTANCE - The ability of a coating to resist
fungus growth that can cause discoloration and ultimate
decomposition of a coatings binding medium.
MILL SCALE - The heavy oxide layer formed during hot
fabrication or heat treatment of metals.
MINIMUM FILM-FORMINGTEMPERATURE (MFFT) - The
temperature below which the effective coalescence of emulsion particles cannot occur.
MIST COAT - Very thin sprayed coat.
MIXTURE - (Emergency Planning and Community Right to
Know regulations) Any combination of two or more chemicals, if the combination is not, in whole or in part, the result
of a chemical reaction.
MOISTURE VAPOR TRANSMISSION RATE - Rate of
movement of moisture vapor through a membrane.
MUDCRACKING - Paint film defect characterized by a
broken network of cracks in the film.
NATIONAL AMBIENT AIR QUALITY STANDARDS
(NAAQS) Standards for national air quality developed by
the EPA under the Clean Air Act for six primary pollutants
including lead, ozone, particulate matter, sulfur dioxide, nitrogen dioxide and carbon monoxide. Intended to promote the
public health and welfare.
NATIONAL DRINKING WATER STANDARD - Sets a maximum content of metals and other constituents in drinking
water.
NATIONAL EMISSION STANDARD FOR HAZARDOUS AIR
POLLUTANTS (NESHAP) - Standards for toxic substances
in the air the EPA was required to develop under the Clean
Air Act prior to the 1990 amendments. Because they required
the agency to prove the risk of the materials, relatively few
were developed.
NATIONAL INSTITUTE FOR OCCUPATIONAL SAFETY
AND HEALTH (NIOSH) - A federal agency that assists the
Occupational Safety and Health Administration, primarily
through research. NIOSH develops industrial exposure limits
for substances and tests and certifies respiratory devices and
air sampling equipment.
NATIONAL POLLUTANT DISCHARGE ELIMINATIONSYSTEM (NPDES) - The national program for issuing, modifying, and enforcing permits and other water discharge
requirements.
NEAR-WHITEBLAST Blast cleaning to a degree of cleanliness slightly less than white metal. This standard is defined
in the Steel Structures Painting Council Surface Preparation
Specification No. 10, Near-White Blast Cleaning (SSPCSP 10).
NEOPRENE - A synthetic rubber polymer derived from
2-chloro-l , 3-butdiene.
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OTHERWISE USE or USE - (Emergency Planning and

Community Right-to-Know regulations) Any use of a toxic
chemical that is not covered by the terms MANUFACTURE
or PROCESS. Includes use of a toxic chemical contained
in a mixture or trade name product. Relabeling or redistributing a container of a toxic chemical where no repackaging
of the toxic chemical occurs does not constitute use or
processing of the toxic chemical.
OVERSPRAY - In spray painting, the spray material that
does not adhere to the object being sprayed.
OXIDANT - A substance containing oxygen that reacts with
chemicals in air to produce a new substance; primary source
of photochemical smog.
OXY-FUEL GAS GUN - Introduces a powder into a gas
stream (usually air). Used for thermal spraying of organic
materials such as powdered thiokol or polyethylene.
OZONE - A pungent, colorless, toxic gas that contributes
to photochemical smog. The national air quality standard for
photochemical oxidants has been changed to an ozone
standard.
PACKAGE STABILITY - The ability of a liquid, such as
paint or varnish, to retain its original quality after prolonged
storage.
PAINT - Any pigmented liquid, liquefiable, or mastic composition designed for application to a substrate in a thin layer that is converted to an opaque solid film after application.
Used for protection, decoration or identification, or to serve
some functional purpose.
PAINTING SYSTEM - See COATING SYSTEM.
PARTICULATES - Fine liquid or solid particles such as
dust, smoke, mist, fumes, or smog, found in the air or
emissions.
PASSIVATION - Act of making inert or unreactive.
PEELING - Spontaneous removal, in ribbons or sheets, of
a paint, varnish or lacquer film from a surface due to loss
of adhesion.
PEENING - Use of metallic shot to impart residual compressive stresses to improve fatigue properties of metal products,
and to minimize intergranular and stress corrosion cracking
of alloyed metal products.
PERFORMANCE STANDARD - The EPA limit on emissions
from an individual source within a specific source category.
A source category is designated when the EPA determines
that sources within the category contribute significantly to
air pollution.
PERMISSIBLE EXPOSURE LIMITS - An employees exposure to an air contaminant regulated under 29 CFR
I91O. 1O0 and 1926.55 may not exceed this value. Often expressed as a time weighted average.
PESTICIDE Any substance, or mixture of substances intended for preventing, destroying, repelling or mitigating any
pest, or intended for use as a plant regulator, defoliant, or
desiccant. Some articles treated with preservatives, for instance treated wood, are exempted. Also does not apply to
products that are intended to exclude pests only by
OFFSETS An air pollution control policy that treats an entire region as if it is in a gigantic bubble. The EPA insists only
that the over-all clean air standards be achieved within the
bubble without specifying the precise means. See BUBBLE
CONCEPT.
OIL LENGTH - Ratio of oil to resin in a medium. For an
oleoresinous varnish, the oil length may be expressed in
terms of parts by weight of oil to one part by weight of resin
or, in American practice, in terms of U.S.A. gallons of oil per
100 Ib. of resin. Thus, a 25 gallon varnish would mean, in
American usage, a varnish composed of 25 U S A gallons
of oil to 100 Ib of resin. For an alkyd resin, the oil length is
expressed as the percentage of oil by weight in the resin.
A paint that contains drying oil, oil varnish,
OIL PAINT
or oil-modified resin as the basic vehicle ingredient. The common (but technically incorrect) definition is any paint soluble in organic solvents.
OLEORESINOUS VEHICLE -A vehicle prepared by the addition of a resin to a drying oil. These two components may
or may not be further processed to obtain specified properties. Alkyd resins are sometimes, but not generally, included in this category.
OLIGOMER - A polymer composed of molecules containing only two, three or a few units, or mers.
ONE-COMPARTMENTCOATING - Cross-linking systems
which can be stored in a single compartment, as opposed
to a two-cornpartment coating.
OPACITY - The degree of obscuration of light. Often expressed as the fraction (percent) of a beam of light that fails
to penetrate the smoke or dust plume.
OPERATING PERMIT - (AIR) Authorization to discharge air
pollutants. The permitting program provides a way of tracking sources and their emissions. Shop painting facilities are
among the sources typically required to apply for operating
permits. Under the Clean Air Act Amendments, states must
develop operating permit programs which can be expected
to include facilities which have not needed a permit in the
past.
ORANGE REEL
Surface condition of a coating, resembling the texture of an orange skin.
ORGANIC SOLVENTS - Organic materials, including
diluents and thinners, that are liquids at standard conditions
and that are used as dissolvers, viscosity reducers, or cleaning agents.
ORGANOSOL - Combination of dispersion resins and
plasticizer, dispersed in a mixture of volatile organic solvents,
that contain both polar and nonpolar solvents.
OSHA INJURY AND ILLNESS RECORD - A log and summary of all recordable occupational injuries and illnesses that
each employer must keep. Summaries must be posted annualIy.
OSHA LOG 200 - See OSHA INJURY AND ILLNESS
RECORD.
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providing a physical barrier against pest access and which

contain no toxicants.
PESTICIDE REGISTRATION Approval gained by submitting an application to the EPA in order to legally distribute
or sell a new pesticide product. A pesticide is considered new
if it is not contained as an active ingredient in any other pesticide product registered under FIFRA at the time the application for registration is filed.
PETROLATUM - Purified unctuous mixture of semi-solid
hydrocarbons derived from petroleum.
PHENOLIC RESIN - Resin made by the condensation of
phenols and aldehydes.
PHENOXY RESIN - A high molecular weight, thermoplastic polyether resin based on bisphenol A and epichorohydrin
having bisphenol A terminal groups.
PHOSPHATING - Pretreatment of steel and certain other
metal surfaces by chemical solutions containing metal phosphates and phosphoric acid as the main ingredients, to form
a thin, inert, adherent, corrosion-inhibiting phosphate layer
which serves as a good base for subsequent paint coats.
PHOTOCHEMICALLY REACTIVEORGANIC MATERIAL
Any organic material that will react with oxygen, excited oxygen, ozone or other free radicals generated by the action of
sunlight on components in the atmosphere, giving rise to
secondary contaminants and reaction intermediates in the
atmosphere which can have detrimental effects.
PHOTOCHEMICALOXIDANTS - Air pollutants formed by
the action of sunlight on oxides of nitrogen and hydrocarbons.
PHOTOCHEMICALSMOG Air pollution caused by not one
pollutant but by chemical reactions of various pollutants emitted from different sources.
PHOTOCHEMICALLY REACTIVE SOLVENT - Any solvent
with an aggregate of more than 20% of its total volume composed of the chemical compounds classified below or that
exceeds any of the following individual percentage composition limitations, referred to the total volume of solvent:
(a) A combination of hydrocarbons, alcohols, - aldehydes,
esters, ether or ketones having an olefinic or cycloolefinic
type of unsaturation: 5%. (b) A combination of aromatic compounds with eight or more carbon atoms to the molecule except ethylbenzene: 8%. (c) A combination of ethylbenzene,
ketones having branched hydrocarbon structures, trichloroethylene or toluene: 20%. (As defined by Rule 66, q.v.)
PICKLING - Treatment for the removal of rust and mill scale
from steel by immersion in an acid solution containing an
inhibitor. Pickling should be followed by thorough washing
and drying before painting. This process is further defined
in Steel Structures Painting Council Surface Preparation
Specification No. 8, Pickling (SSPC-SP 8).
PIGMENT - Finely ground, natural or synthetic, inorganic
or organic, insoluble dispersed particles (powder) that, when
dispersed in a liquid vehicle to make paint, may provide in
addition to color many of the essential properties of a paint:
opacity, hardness, durability, and corrosion resistance. The
term is used to include extenders as well as white or colored
pigments. The distinction between powders which are pig-
ments and those which are dyes is generally made on the

basis of solubility, pigments being insoluble and dispersed
in the material and dyes being soluble or in solution as used.
PIGMENT VOLUME CONCENTRATION (PVC)
Ratio of
the volume of pigment to the volume of total nonvolatile
material (.e., pigment and binder) present in a coating. The
figure is usually expressed as a percentage.
PINHOLE
Film defect characterized by small pore-like
flaws in a coating which extend entirely through the applied
film and have the general appearance of pin pricks when
viewed by reflecting light. The term is rather generally applied to holes caused by solvent bubbling, moisture, other
volatile products, or the presence of extraneous particles in
the applied film.
PITTING - Formation of holes or pits in the surface of a metal by corrosion.
PLASMA GUN - Introduces metal into the plasma arc cavity
in powder form in a gas stream and projects onto the steel
surface by a plasma jet.
PLASTICIZER - A substance added to paint, varnish, or
lacquer to impart flexibility.
PM-10 Particulates having a mean diameter of 10 microns
or less, as measured by a designated reference method, or
by an equivalent method.
POINT SOURCE - Any discernible, confined and discrete
conveyance, including but not limited to any pipe, ditch, channel, tunnel, conduit, well, discrete fissure, container, rolling
stock, concentrated animal feeding operation, or vessel or
other floating craft, from which pollutants are or may be discharged.
POISON - A laymans word for a material of great toxicity.
In most states, a statutory poison is a material that will
endanger the life of an adult when swallowed in the amount
of 60 grains (3600 milligrams).
POLARIZATION Occurs when bubbles of hydrogen collect on the cathodic areas of steel when immersed in water.
The hydrogen acts as a barrier to reduce corrosion, but oxygen in the air acts as a depolarizer, thus allowing corrosion
to proceed.
POLLUTANT, PRIMARY - A pollutant emitted directly from
a polluting source.
POLLUTANT, SECONDARY -A pollutant formed in the atmosphere by chemical changes taking place between
primary pollutants and sometimes other substances present
in the air.
POLYAMIDE RESINS - Condensation resins of an amine
and an acid, the repeated structural unit in the chain being
of the amide type.
POLYMER - Molecules which consist of one or more structural units repeated any number of times.
POPPING - Eruptions in a film of paint or varnish after it
has become partially set so that craters remain in the film.
POST-CURE Heat or radiation treatment, or both, to which
a cured coating is subjected to enhance the level of one or
more properties.
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POT LIFE - The length of time a paint material is useful

after its original package is opened, or after catalysts or other
ingredients are added.
POT TENDER - Person who assists abrasive blasting operators to adjust and refill abrasive blasting pots.
POWDER COATING - A 100/o solids coating applied as
a dry powder and subsequently formed into a film with heat.
POWER TOOL CLEANING Use of pneumatic and electric portable power tools to prepare a substrate for coating.
POWER WASHERS - Low pressure water blast cleaning
equipment.
PREFABRICATION PRIMER - Quick-drying material applied as a thin film to a metal surface after cleaning, e.g.,
by a blast cleaning process, to give protection for the period
before and during fabrication. Prefabrication primers should
not interfere seriously with conventional welding or cutting
operations or give off toxic fumes during such operations.
PREMANUFACTURE NOTICE - A notice to the EPA required under the Toxic Substances Control Act. Companies
must notify the EPA that they intend to begin manufacturing, using or importing a chemical not already listed on a toxic
substances inventory that the agency maintains.
PRETREATMENT Usually restricted to mean the chemical treatment of unpainted metal surfaces before painting.
Sometimes a wash primer is called a pretreatment.
PREVENTION OF SIGNIFICANT DETERIORATION (PSD)
- The policy incorporated into the Clean Air Act that limits
increases in clean air areas even though ambient air quality
standards are being met. The policy is based on the premise
that air of better quality than the ambient air quality standards
is a valuable resource that should be protected.
PRIMER - First complete coat of paint of a painting system
applied to a surface. Such paints are designed to provide
adequate adhesion to new surfaces and are formulated to
meet the special requirements of the surfaces. The type of
primer varies with the surface, its condition, and the total
painting system to be used. Primers for steel work contain
special anti-corrosive pigments such as red lead, zinc chromate, zinc powder, etc.
PROCESS (Emergency Planning and Community Rightto-Know regulations) The preparation of a toxic chemical, after its manufacture, for distribution in commerce : 1) In the
same form or physical state as, or in a different form or physical state from, that in which it was received by the person
so preparing such a substance, or 2) as part of an article containing the toxic chemical. Process also applies to the
processing of a toxic chemical contained in a mixture or trade
name product.
PROFILE - Surface contour of a blast cleaned or substrate
surface, viewed from the edge. (Cross-sectionof the surface).
PROFILE COMPARATOR - An instrument used to determine surface profile by comparing the surface with reference
discs of various profile depths.
PROFILE DEPTH - Average distance between top of peaks
and bottom of valleys on the surface of a coating.

PROTECTION FACTOR -A measure of the degree of protection provided to the wearer by a respirator.
PSYCHROMETER A test instrument that is used to determine humidity and dew point.
QUALIFIED PRODUCTS LIST
A list of coating systems
that have been approved by the user for the protection of
structural steel. These coatings have passed such tests as
the qualifying agency believes necessary to demonstrate
satisfactory performance.
QUALITY CONTROL - The system whereby a manufacturer ensures that materials, methods, workmanship, and the
final product meet the requirements of a given standard.
REACTIVE DILUENT - A viscosity reducer for coatings that
has low volatility and will become a permanent part of the
coating through chemical reaction, usually under ambient
conditions. It is used in high solids coatings to reduce the
loss of organic solvents into the atmosphere.
REACTIVE PIGMENTS Those pigments that react with
the vehicle, as in the formation of zinc and lead soaps with
drying oils, and pigments such as red lead which react with
acids formed at metal surface to prevent rust.
REACTIVITY - A characteristic exhibited by a solid waste
which can be shown by standard tests to do any of the following: readily undergo violent change without detonating,
react violently with water, form potentially explosive mixtures
with water, generate dangerous quantities of toxic materials when mixed with water or other materials, or one that is
capable of detonation or is a forbidden explosive under
Department of Transportation regulations.
REASONABLY AVAILABLE CONTROL TECHNOLOGY
(RACT) - The lowest emission limit that a particular source
is capable of meeting by the application of control technology that is reasonably available considering technological and
economic feasibility.
RECORDABLE OCCUPATIONAL INJURIES OR ILLNESSES - Those which result in: I ) fatalities, regardless
of the time between the injury and death, or the length of
the illness; or, 2) lost workday cases, or other than fatalities,
that result in lost workdays; or 3) Nonfatal cases without lost
workdays which result in transfer to another job or termination of employment, or require medical treatment (other than
first aid) or involve: loss of consciousness or restriction of
work or motion. This category also includes any diagnosed
occupational illnesses which are reported to the employer
but are not classified as fatalities or lost workday cases.
RED LEAD - Bright red to orange-red tetroxide; excellent
opacity with good properties as a primary constituent of anticorrosive primer for iron and steel.
REDUCERS - Solvents or thinners added to a coating, varnish, resin, latex or emulsion for the purpose of lowering its
viscosity andlor nonvolatile content.
REFERENCE METHOD - Any method of sampling and
analyzing for an air pollutant as specified by the regulations.
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REGULATORY NEGOTIATION (Reg-Neg) - A variant on

the regulatory development process in which representatives
of EPA, industry, trade associations, environmental groups,
labor, other regulators and other affected parties have input
into environmental regulations that are being developed. EPA
is engaging in regulatory negotiation in developing regulations on VOCs in ARCHITECTURAL AND INDUSTRIAL
MAINTENANCE (AIM) coatings.
RELEASE - Any spilling, leaking, pumping, pouring, emitting, emptying, discharging, injecting, escaping, leaching,
dumping, or disposing into the environment (including the
abandonment or discarding of barrels, containers, and other
closed receptacles) of any hazardous chemical.
REPLICA TAPE - A specially constructed tape used to
measure surface profile. The tape is pressed against the surface, after which the impression created by the profile is
measured with a micrometer.
REPORTABLEQUANTITY For any CERCLA hazardous
substance, which appears in Table 302.4 of 40 CFR Part 302,
the reportable quantity that appears in the table. For any
other substance, the reportable quantity is one pound.
RESIN General term applied to a wide variety of more or
less transparent and fusible products, which may be natural
or synthetic. They may vary widely in color. Higher molecular weight synthetic resins are presently more generally
referred to as polymers. In a broad sense, the term is used
to designate any polymer that is a basic material for coatings and plastics.
RESIN EMULSION PAINT A water paint consisting of a
water emulsion of an oil-modified alkyd or other resin that
when dry leaves a tough film of resin.
RESIN, NATURAL - A solid organic substance, originating in the secretion of certain plants or insects, that is thermoplastic, flammable, and nonconductive of electricity,
breaks with a conchoidal fracture (when hard), and dissolves
in certain specific organic solvents, but not water.
RESIN, SYNTHETIC Originally, a member of a group of
synthetic substances that resemble and share some of the
properties of natural resins, but now used for materials which
bear little resemblance to natural resins. The term is generally understood to mean a member of the heterogeneous
group of compounds produced from simpler compounds by
condensation and/or polymerization. Chemically modified
natural polymers are not considered to be synthetic resins.
RESOURCE CONSERVATION AND RECOVERY ACT
(RCRA) - Federal legislation that directed the EPA to develop and implement a system of regulation for the treatment,
storage, transportation and disposal of hazardous waste.
RESPIRATORY PROTECTION - Devices worn when engineering controls are inadequate to prevent overexposure
by inhalation to airborne contaminants.
REUSED - See USED.
RULE 66 - Los Angeles Air Pollution Control District rule
that restricts the amount of photochemically reactive smogcausing solvent vapors which can be evaporated into the atmosphere. Photochemically reactive hydrocarbons and ox-
idants react with nitric oxide in the presence of ultraviolet

radiation to form smog, causing eye irritation and other
deleterious effects.
RURAL ENVIRONMENT - An atmospheric exposure that
Is virtually unpolluted by smoke and sulphur gases, and
which is sufficiently inland to be unaffected by salt contamination or the high humidity of coastal areas.
RUST - The reddish, brittle coating formed on iron or ferrous metals resulting from exposure to humid atmosphere
or chemical attack.
RUST GRADE SCALE - In evaluating the resistance to rusting, the linear, numerical rust grade scale is an exponential
function of the area of rust so that slight amounts of first rusting have the greatest effect on lowering the rust grade.
(SSPC-Vis 2; ASTM-D 610).
SACRIFICIAL PROTECTION - The use of a metallic coating, such as zinc-rich paint, to protect steel. In the presence
of an electrolyte, such as salt water, a galvanic cell is set
up and the metallic coating corrodes instead of the steel.
SAFE DRINKING WATER ACT - Legislation passed in
1974 which gave the EPA responsibility for issuing guidance
to states on additives to drinking water.
SAFETY - A reasonable certainty that injury will not result
when a substance or object is used in a particular quantity
and manner. Note that properly speaking, there are no safe
materials or objects, only safe ways of using them. Note also
that safety is not absolute, it is only relative, analogous to
the beyond a reasonable doubt of the legal profession.
SAFETY BELT
A device worn around the waist which,
by reason of its attachment to a lanyard and lifeline or a structure, will prevent a worker from falling.
SAGGING - Downward movement of a paint film between
the times of application and setting, resulting in an uneven
coating having a thick lower edge. The resulting sag is usually
restricted to a local area of a vertical surface and may have
the characteristic appearance of a draped curtain.
SALT SPRAY TEST - Test applied to metal finishes to determine their anti-corrosive properties, involving the spraying of common salt (sodium chloride) solution on the surface
of a coated steel panel.
SAND BLAST - Use of sand, flint or similar non-metallic
abrasive propelled by an air blast, on metal, masonry, concrete, etc., to remove dirt, rust, or paint.
SAPONIFICATION - Alkaline hydrolysis of fats whereby a
soap is formed.
SARA TITLE Ili - See EMERGENCY PLANNING AND
COMMUNITY R IG HT-TO-KNOW ACT.
SCALING - A condition whereby pieces of a coating detach
themselves from the surface of the substrate.
SCARIFYING - A method of preparing concrete surfaces
for coating. Scarifiers are sharp rotating knives in a selfcontained unit resembling a plant sweeper.
SECONDARY CONTAINMENT - Structures capable of
preventing product or waste stored in a tank from migrating
to soil, groundwater or surface water. Such structures are

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required for some tanks containing hazardous waste, but

there are a variety of other incentives to use them. Containment may be provided by an external liner, vault, a double
walled tank, or an equivalent device. A leak detection system is required for secondary containment systems for some
tanks containing hazardous waste.
SELF-CURING - Undergoing cure (cross-linking) without the
application of heat.
SELF-PRIMING - Use of same coating for primer and for
subsequent coats. It may be thinned differently for the various coats.
SENSITIZATION - A condition in which a chemical causes
an allergic reaction after repeated exposure in a significant
number of people.
SERVICE LIFE - See USEFUL LIFE
SETTING UP - Conversion of a liquid paint during storage
to a gel-like or pseudosolid condition. The process is usually reversible by agitation and thinning but may be permanent
when chemically reactive pigments or highly polymerized media are involved. The thickening which occurs when paint
stands in an open can. The increasing viscosity of a paint
film.
SETTLING - The sinking of pigments, extenders or other
solid matter in a paint standing in a container, with a consequent accumulation on the bottom of the can.
SET-TO-TOUCH TIME -The time required for the coating
to reach a point where the adhesion to an external object
is less than the internal cohesion of the film.
SHOP COAT - One or more coats applied in a shop or plant
prior to shipment to the site of erection or fabrication, where
the field or finishing coat is applied.
SHORT OIL ALKYD - An alkyd resin containing less than
40% oil in solids.
SHORT OIL VARNISH - A varnish containing little oil in
comparison with the amount of resin present, less than 15
gal oil per 100 Ib (1.25 liters per kg) resin.
SHOT BLASTING - Blasting with round iron shot, round
steel shot, or any material that retains its spherical shape
for cleaning purposes.
SIGNIFICANT DETERIORATION
Pollution from a new
source in a previously clean area, that is an increase in air
pollution in an area meeting a national ambient air quality
standard beyond the allowable increments established by the
Congress or EPA.
SILICA An extremely common mineral that is found in a
number of forms. Sand is predominantly silica and chronic
or acute exposure to the silica dust generated by sand blasting can cause a debilitating disease known as silicosis. Silicates are also the predominant component of clay,
diatomaceous earth, mica, and talc, which are widely used
as extender pigments. With the exception of clay, all have
been demonstrated to produce fibrosis of the lung.
SILICATE PAINTS -Water paints based on sodium, potassium, or lithium silicate. Used in zinc-rich paints. They are
characterized by their nonflammability. Care must be exer-
cised in the selection of pigments used with the silicate because of its alkalinity.
SILICONE One of a class of compounds comprising polymerizable, high-temperature-resistant resins, lubricant
greases, and oils, organic solvent-soluble water repellants,
surface tension modifiers for organic solvents, etc.
SILICOSIS - A pulmonary disease caused by prolonged inhalation of silica dust.
SKIN - Film formed over a vehicle or liquid coating during
storage.
SLOW SOLVENT
Solvent with a slow evaporation rate.
SMALL QUANTITY GENERATOR (SQG) - A generator
who generates between 100 and 1000 kilograms (between
220 and 2,200 pounds or about 300 gallons) of hazardous
waste and no more than 1 kg of acutely hazardous waste
in a calendar month. Most hazardous waste regulations apply to these generators.
SMOG - The irritating haze resulting from the suns effect
on certain pollutants in the air, notably those from automobile exhaust and petrochemical processes. Also a mixture
of fog and smoke.
SOIL CORROSION - An electrochemical process that can
be prevented by isolating a steel structure from the soil and
by cathodic protection.
SOLIDS Nonvolatile matter in a coating composition, .e.,
the ingredients of a coating composition that, after drying,
are left behind and constitute the dry film. Also called
NONVOLATILE MATTER.
SOLIDS BY VOLUME -The volume of the nonvolatile portion of a composition divided by the total volume, expressed
as a percent.
SOLID WASTE - Any material not exempted under
hazardous waste regulations (including solids, liquids and
contained gas) which is discarded.
SOLVENT - Liquid, usually volatile, that is used in the
manufacture of paint to dissolve or disperse the film-forming
constituents, and that evaporates during drying and therefore does not become a part of the dried film. Solvents are
used to control the consistency and character of the finish
and to regulate application properties.
SOLVENTLESS COATING - A 1000/0solids coating.
SPARK TEST - Method of detecting holidays on metallic
substrates by means of a spark test tool.
SPATTER COATING - An incomplete or not continuously
wet coating caused by a faulty spray painting application.
SPRAYING - Method of application in which the coating
material is broken up into fine mist that is directed onto the
surface to be coated. This atomization process is usually,
but not necessarily, effected by a compressed air jet.
SPREADING RATE - The area covered by a unit volume
of coating material. Frequently expressed as square feet per
gallon.
STANDARD - A reference point or a practice established
by general agreement.
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STANDARD, PRIMARY - A national ambient air quality

standard promulgated under the Clean Air Act. The primary
standard establishes ambient concentrations of pollutants
that could have an adverse impact on human health.
STANDARD, SECONDARY - A national ambient air quality standard promulgated under the Clean Air Act. The secondary standard establishes ambient concentrations of
pollutants that could have an adverse effect on the public
welfare (other than human health).
STATE IMPLEMENTATION PLAN (SIP) -The plan, including the most recent revision thereof, which has been approved or promulgated by the EPA as required under the
Clean Air Act. Intended to identify methods of controlling
designated air pollutants which meet the requirements of the
act.
STATIONARY SOURCE - Any building, structure, facility,
or installation which emits or may emit any air pollutant subject to regulation under the Clean Air Act or amendments.
STORAGE - Holding of hazardous waste for a temporary
period, at the end of which the hazardous waste is treated,
disposed of, or stored elsewhere.
STORAGE STABILITY - General composite property of a
materials resistance to any change, generally when kept in
a closed container, over a period of time. Color and liquid
separation, formation of lumps, hard pigment settling, substantial changes in viscosity or pH, development of odor, etc.,
are examples of undesirable changes.
STORM WATER - Surface water run-off resulting from
precipitation. In 1990, EPA started requiring industrial facilities and municipalities to acquire permits for storm water discharge and municipal storm water systems. Paint and
surface debris from a painting or paint removal activity which
is not properly contained and collected, could be considered
an unpermitted discharge. Such discharge may be limited
by state or federal regulations, water quality standards or
other state or local ordinances.
STRAY CURRENT - Direct current flowing in the earth and
capable of causing corrosion damage.
STRONTIUM CHROMATE - A bright yellow pigment of a
type similar to lead chromate except that it is not blackened
by hydrogen sulfide. It is used in corrosion-resistant primers.
SUBACUTE TOXICITY - The property of a substance or
mixture of substances to cause adverse effects in an organism upon repeated or continuous exposure within less than
the lifetime of that organism.
SUBSTRATE - Any surface to which a coating is applied.
SUPERFUND - See COMPREHENSIVE ENVIRONMENTAL RESPONSE, COMPENSATION AND LIABILITY ACT
SUPPLIED-AIR RESPIRATORS - A respiratory protection
device that incorporates a supply or a means of generating
respirable air or oxygen.
SURFACE DRYING - The premature drying of the surface
of a liquid coating film, so that the under portion is retarded
in drying.

SURFACE PREPARATION - Any method of treating a surface in preparation for coating. Swedish standards (identical to SSPC-Vis 1) include photographic depictions of the
surface appearance of hand and power tool cleaning and various grades of blast cleaning over four initial mill scale and
rust conditions of steel.
SURFACTANTS - Contracted from surface-active
agents, these are additives which reduce surface tension
and may form micelles and thereby improve wetting (wetting
agents); help disperse pigments (See DISPERSANTS); inhibit foam (See DEFOAMERS); or emulsify (See EMULSIFIER). Conventionally, they are classified as to their charge:
anionic (negative), cationic (positive), nonionic (no charge),
or amphoteric (both positive or negative).
SUSPENDING AGENT - A material used in a paint to improve its resistance to the settling of pigments.
TACK-FREE - Freedom from tack of a coating after suitable drying time. In some cases, coatings are tack-free after
application; tack may not develop until a little later.
TANK - Stationary device designed to contain an accumulation of product, hazardous waste or other material which is
constructed primarily of non-earthen materials such as wood,
concrete, steel or plastic which provides structural support.
TEST FENCE - An apparatus consisting of a fence strategically located in a part of the country for specific weather
conditions (temperature, humidity, corrosivity, etc.) and facing a specific direction and angle. It contains a series of exposure racks on which test panels are exposed.
TEST METHOD A definitive, standardized set of instructions for the identification, measurement, or evaluation of one
or more qualities, characteristics, or properties of a material.
THERMAL SPRAYING - A process whereby a material is
brought to its melting point and sprayed onto a surface to
produce a coating.
THERMOPLASTIC - Capable of being repeatedly softened
by heat and hardened by cooling.
THERMOSET A material that will undergo or has undergone a chemical reaction by the action of heat, catalysts,
ultraviolet light, etc., leading to a relatively infusible state.
THINNER -The portion of a paint, varnish, lacquer, or related product that volatilizes during the drying process. Any
volatile liquid used for reducing the viscosity of coating compositions or components; may consist of a simple solvent,
a diluent, or a mixture of solvents and diluents.
THIXOTROPIC PAINT
Paint that, while free-flowing and
easy to manipulate under a brush, sets to a gel within a short
time when it is allowed to remain at rest. Because of these
qualities a thixotropic paint is less likely to drip from a brush
than other types and can be applied in rather thicker films
without running or sagging.
THRESHOLD LIMIT VALUES - A figure developed by the
American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists
which is intended to represent the level of airborne contaminants that will cause no adverse effects, even after
prolonged exposure. A concentration of air-borne material
that experts agree can be inhaled for a working lifetime by
615
Not for Resale
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
S S P C C H A P T E R * 2 7 - 3 93
SSPC C H A P T E R * 2 7 . 3
93
Bb2794O 00040b3 658
almost all workers without any injury. The few workers who
will be affected will develop their symptoms so slowly that
periodic medical examination can be expected to detect them
while the effects are still reversible. While Permissible Exposure Limits are legally binding limits, required by OSHA,
TLVs are recommended limits.
THRESHOLD PLANNING QUANTITY (TPQ) Quantities
of substances used in industry which trigger emergency planning and reporting requirements. A lower TPQ reflects a substance that is considered more hazardous. Applicable
TPQs for specific substances are found in several sections
of the regulations developed under the Emergency Planning
and Community Right to Know Act. TPQs are also given for
substances which are covered by the act, but for which there
is no substance-specific TPQ.
THROUGH-DRYING Uniform drying throughout the film
as opposed to bottom-drying or top-drying.
TIE COAT - Intermediate coat used to bond different types
of paint coats. Coating used to improve the adhesion of succeeding coatings.
TIME WEIGHTED AVERAGE - The average level of airborne contaminants to which an employee is exposed.
Generally, the average is calculated for an 8-hour work shift.
TOEBOARD - A barrier secured along the sides and ends
of a platform, to prevent material or a person from falling from
it.
TOOTH
Anchoring profile of a substrate that enhances
adhesion of a coating created mechanically or by the use
of solvents.
TOP COAT - The coating intended to be the last coat applied in a coating system; usually applied over a primer, undercoaters, or surfacers.
TOP-DRYING - Drying of a film on the top only.
TOUCH-UP PAINTING Application of paint on small areas
of painted surfaces to repair mars, scratches, and small areas
where the coating has deteriorated, in order to restore the
coating to an unbroken condition.
TOXICITY - Characteristic of a solid waste which is shown
to contain specified contaminants, including lead and chromium, at a concentration equal to or greater than the regulatory level, using a standard test method known as the Toxicity
Characteristic Leaching Procedure.
TOXICITY CHARACTERISTIC LEACHING PROCEDURE
(TCLP) A standard test used to determine if a solid waste
is considered a hazardous waste by virtue of its toxicity. It
is intended to simulate the leaching of toxic constituents that
would take place in a landfill.
TOXICITY (HUMAN) - The capacity of a substance to injure by chemical means. All substances are toxic. They differ
in degree of toxicity and in the nature of injury they may
cause. Toxicity is called ACUTE when the adverse effect is
the result of swallowing a substance once, having it on the
skin for a few hours, or breathing it for up to a work shift.
Toxicity is called CHRONIC when the adverse effect is the
result of swallowing, contact or breathing almost daily for a
year or longer. The word SUBACUTE is used for effects of
exposure periods between acute and chronic. Toxic effects

may be reversible or irreversible. With a Reversible effect,
soon after exposure ceases, the affected human returns completely to his former state. There is no residue of effect whatsoever. An Irreversible effect is a permanent change in an
affected human. His next exposure is more likely to have a
serious effect, because his response starts at a higher base
line.
TOXICOLOGY (HUMAN) - The body of knowledge of the
adverse effects upon humans of excessive exposure to
chemicals.
TOXIC POLLUTANTS
Those pollutants that, after discharge and upon contact with any organism, either directly
from the environment or indirectly by ingestion through food
chains, will cause death, disease, behavioral abnormalities,
cancer, genetic mutations, physiological malfunctions or
physical deformities in such organisms or their offspring.
TOXIC SUBSTANCES CONTROL ACT (TSCA) - Federal
legislation that led to the development of regulations that control the manufacture, handling and use of toxic materials.
TRADE SALES PAINTS - Coatings applied on-site at ambient conditions by the consumer using application methods
such as brushing or roller coating.
TRANSITION PRIMER - Coating compatible with primer
and also with finish coat that is not compatible with the
primer. See TIE COAT.
TRANSPORTATION - Movement of hazardous waste by
air, rail, highway or water.
TRANSPORTER - Person engaged in the off-site transportation of hazardous waste by air, rail or highway.
TREATMENT - Any method, technique, or process, including neutralization, designed to change the physical, chemical or biological character or composition of any hazardous
waste so as to neutralize such waste, or so as to recover
energy or material resources from the waste, or so as to
render such waste non-hazardous, or less hazardous; safer
to transport, store or dispose of; or amenable for recovery,
amenable for storage, or reduced in volume.
TWO-COMPARTMENTCOATING - Cross-linking systems
that must be stored in separate containers before use. Otherwise they would react and form a useless gel.
TWO-COMPONENT GUN - Spray gun having two separate
fluid sources leading to the spray head.
UNDERCURE - A condition or degree of cure that is less
than optimum, .e., when insufficient time or temperature has
been allowed for adequate cure; may be evidenced by tackiness or inferior physical properties.
UNDERCUTTING-The gradual penetration and spread of
corrosion beneath a coating from a break or pinhole in the
film or from unprotected edges.
UNDERGROUND EXPOSURE - Buried surfaces in direct
contact with the soil.
UPPER EXPLOSIVE LIMIT (UEL) - Upper limit of flammability or explosiveness of a gas or vapor at ordinary ambient
temperatures expressed in percent of the gas vapor in air
by volume.
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

616
Not for Resale
8627940 00040b4 594 W

WASTE ANALYSIS PLAN - Required for on-site treatment
of hazardous waste. A written waste analysis plan must be
filed with the EPA regional administrator a minimum of 30
days prior to the treatment activity.
WATER BLASTING - Blast cleaning of metal using highvelocity water.
WATER-BORNE COATINGS - Latex paints and paints containing water soluble binders. Paint, the vehicle of which is
a water emulsion, water dispersion, or ingredients that react
chemically with water. Also called water-based coatings and
WATE R-REDUC IBLE COATINGS.
WATER-DISPERSIBLE COATING - Those organic coatings which normally are solvent-based, but by adjusting the
chemistry can be dispersed in water.
WATER IMMERSION - An exposure in which the surface
is in direct contact with fresh or salt water.
WATER PAINT
A paint, the vehicle of which is a water
emulsion, water dispersion, or ingredients that react chemically with water.
WATER QUALITY STANDARDS - Provisions of state or
federal law which consist of a designated use or uses for the
waters of the United States and water quality criteria for such
waters based upon such uses. Water quality standards are
to protect the public health or welfare, enhance the quality
of water and serve the purposes of the Act.
WATER-REDUCIBLE COATINGS - Water soluble types of
lattices or emulsions. Coatings which can be diluted
(reduced) with water, water-cosolvent mixtures and sometimes with alkali (alkali-soluble resins).
WATER-SOLUBLE RESINS - In most cases, amines andlor
cosolvents are required to solubilize these carboxylcontaining resins. The preferred term is alkali-soluble
resin. These systems are generally dispersions of micelles
rather than true solutions. The particles are in the size range
of 0.01 to 0.1 microns which produce a clear mixture in the
absence of added pigment.
WATER-THINNED COATINGS - Those coatings which are
water-based and use water for thinning.
WEATHERING - Behavior of paint films when exposed to
natural weather or accelerated weathering equipment,
characterized by changes in color, texture, strength, chemical composition, or other properties. Natural outdoor weathering tests are normally carried out at selected exposure sites,
on painted panels, generally exposed either vertically or at
45 degrees facing south in the northern hemisphere.
WEATHER-OMETER
An apparatus in which specimen
materials can be subjected to artificial and accelerated
weathering tests which simulate natural weathering, by the
use of controlled cycles of ultraviolet radiation, light, water,
and heat. Electric arcs, water spray and heating elements
are used to simulate the natural conditions of sun, rain, and
temperature changes.
WET FILM THICKNESS - Thickness of the liquid coating
film immediately after application.
URETHANE COATINGS - Coating vehicles containing a

polyisocyanate monomer reacted in such a manner as to
yield polymers containing any ratio, proportion or combination of urethane linkages, active isocyanate groups or polyisocyanate monomer. The reaction products may contain
excess isocyanate groups available for further reaction at the
time of application or may contain essentially no free
isocyanate as supplied.
USEFUL LIFE - The length of time a coating is expected
to remain in service. Also called SERVICE LIFE.
USER - In the coatings industry, the user is normally the
person who either applies the coating or who owns the structure to which the coating is applied. See END-USER.
UNDERGROUND STORAGE TANKS (UST) - Any one or
combination of tanks (including underground pipes connected thereto) that is used to contain an accumulation of regulated substances, and the volume of which is 10 percent or
more beneath the surface of the ground. Any tank not specifically exempted under 40 CFR 280.
VARIANCE - Permission granted by the federal Occupational Safety and Health Administration or state occupational safety and health agency to remain outside compliance
with written requirements of health and safety standards. Employers may request a variance if they cannot fully comply
with a standard or it they can prove their facilities or methods
of operation provide employee protection at least as effective as that required by OSHA.
VARNISH - A liquid composition that is converted to a transparent solid film after application as a thin layer.
VEHICLE - The liquid portion of paint, in which the pigment
is dispersed; it is composed of binder and thinner.
VERMICULITE - Lightweight, porous, fire-retardant
material.
VINYL COATING - One in which the major portion of binder
is of the vinyl resin family. Vinyl resins include polyvinyl acetate, polyvinyl chloride, copolymers of these, the acrylic and
methacrylic resins, the polystyrene resins, etc.
VOLATILE - The easily evaporated components of any
coating composition in contrast to the nonvolatile components.
VOLATILE ORGANIC COMPOUND (VOC) - Any organic
compound which participates in atmospheric photo-chemical
reactions or that is measured by approved methods.
WASH PRIMER - Priming paint usually supplied as oneor two-water component systems. The paint contains carefully balanced proportions of an inhibiting chromate pigment,
phosphoric acid, and a synthetic resin binder mixed in an
alcohol solvent. On clean, light alloy or ferrous surfaces, and
on many nonferrous surfaces, such paints give excellent
adhesion, partly to chemical reaction with the substrate, and
give a corrosion-inhibiting film which is a good basis for the
application of subsequent coats of paint. Although these
materials are referred to as primers, the films that they
produce are so thin that it is more correct to consider them
as etching solutions and to follow them with an ordinary
primer if maximum protection is required.
617
Not for Resale
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
SSPC C H A P T E R * 2 7 * 3 93
WET-ON-WET COATING Technique of painting whereby further coats are applied before the previous coats have
dried, and the composite film then dries as a whole. The
process requires specially formulated paints.
WET SPONGE TESTER - A low voltage holiday detection
device.
WET STORAGE STAIN - White corrosion products (zinc
hydroxide or zinc oxide) on zinc coated articles.
WETTING -The ability of a vehicle to spread uniformly and
rapidly over the surface of pigment particles. A vehicle with
good wetting properties assists in the grinding or dispersion
of pigments and the ability to wet the surface to which the
finish coating is applied.
WHITE BLAST - Blast cleaning to white metal. This standard is defined in Steel Structures Painting Council Surface
Preparation Specification No. 5, White Metal Blast Cleaning (SSPC-SP 5).
WHITE RUST - White corrosion products (zinc hydroxide
and zinc oxide) on zinc coated surfaces.
WIRE BRUSH - Cleaning a surface with a wire brush including both hand wire brushing (SSPC-SP 2) and power wire
brushing (SSPC-SP 3).
WORK MIX - A mixture of sizes of abrasive comprised of
newly added abrasive and fractured or flaked, used abrasive.
WRAP AROUND EFFECT - The effect of an electrostatic
charge upon a sprayed coating, so that the coating covers
all exposed conductive areas, including edges.
WRINKLING
A distortion in a paint film appearing as
ripples.
ZINC CHROMATE - Bright yellow pigment comprised substantially of zinc chromate. It is used in anti-corrosive paints
and primers for steel.
ZINC DUST Finely divided zinc metal used as a pigment
in protective paints for iron and steel.
ZINC OXIDE A fine, white pigment used in paint for mildew resistance and film reinforcing properties. Although not
commonly considered an anti-corrosive pigment, it does add
anti-corrosive properties to steel primers.
ZINC-RICH PRIMER - Anti-corrosive primer for iron and
steel incorporating zinc dust in a concentration sufficient to
give electrical conductivity in the dried film, thus enabling
the zinc metal to corrode preferentially to the substrate, .e.,
to give galvanic protection.
ZINC SHOT BLASTING (Zincing)
A modification of the
normal blast cleaning procedure in which metallic zinc particles are substituted for all or part of the shot, grit, or sand.
ZINC SILICATE PRIMER Inorganic zinc-rich primers that
contain a silicate binder.
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

618
Not for Resale
93
627940 0004066 367
APPENDIX C
STANDARDS AND SPECIFICATIONS
REFERENCED IN VOLUME 1
A90
All1
American Association of State Highway and

Transportation Officials (AASHTO)
AASHTO M-68
AASHTO M-69
AASHTO M-70
AASHTO M-72
AASHTO M-229
AASHTO M-300
A112
(discontinued per Interim Specifications

- Materials) Standard Specification for
Black Paint for Bridges or Timber
Structures
Standard Specification for Aluminum
Paint
(discontinued per Interim Specifications
White and Tinted Ready-Mix Oil Base
Paint
(discontinuedper Interim Specifications
Red Lead Ready-Mixed Paint
Standard Specification for Basic Lead
Silico Chromate, Ready-Mixed Primer
Interim Specification for Inorganic ZincRich Primer
A116
A l 20
A121
A l 23
A l 43
A l 53
American National Standards Institute (ANSI)

ANSI B 165.1
ANSI N5.12
ANSI N101.2
ANSI N101.4
ANSI 241
ANSI 287.1
Safety Requirements for the Design,

Care and Use of Power Tools, and
Power-Driven Brushing Tools
(obsolete) Protective Coatings (Paints)
for the Nuclear Industry
(obsolete) Protective Coatings (Paints)
for Light Water Nuclear Reactor Containment Facilities
(obsolete) Quality Assurance for Protective Coatings Applied to Nuclear Facilities
Personnel Protection - Protective
Footwear
Practice for Occupational and Educational Eye and Face Protection
A242
A384
A385
A5251A525M
A591
A641 IA641M
American Petroleum Institute

API RP 1631
A642
Interior Lining of Underground Storage

Tanks
A767

(ASTM)
ASTM Parts 27,
28,29
ASTM Part 45
A53
A780
Now Paints, Volumes 6.01, 6.02 and

6.03
Now Nuclear Energy (i), Volume 12.01
and Nuclear Energy II, Volume 12.02
Standard Specification for Pipe, Steel,
Black and Hot-Dipped, Zinc-Coated
Welded and Seamless

B6
B117
8454
Standard Test Method for Weight of

Coating on Zinc-Coated (Galvanized)
Iron or Steel Articles
Standard Specification for Zinc-Coated
(Galvanized) Iron Telephone and Telegraph Line Wire
(canceled) Standard Specification for
Zinc-Coated(Galvanized) Steel Tie Wires
(Galvanized) Steel Woven Wire Fencing
(canceled) Standard Specification for
Black and Hot Dipped Zinc-Coated(Galvanized) Welded and Seamless Steel
Pipe for Ordinary Uses (replaced by A53)
(Galvanized) Steel Barbed Wire
Standard Specification for Zinc (Hot-Dip
Galvanized) Coatings on Iron and Steel
Products
Standard Practice for Safeguarding
Against Embrittlement of Hot-Dip Galvanized Structural Steel Products and
Procedure for Detecting Embrittlement
Standard Specification for Zinc Coating
(Hot-Dip) on Iron and Steel Hardware
(AASHTO M-232)
Standard Specification for High
Strength Low-Alloy Structural Steel
Standard Practice for Safeguarding
Against Warpage and Distortion During
Hot-Dip Galvanizing of Steel Assemblies
Standard Practice for Providing HighQuality Zinc Coatings (Hot-Dip)
Standard Specification for General Requirements for Steel Sheet, Zinc-Coated
(Galvanized) By the Hot-Dip Process
Standard Specification for Steel Sheet,
Electrolytic Zinc-Coated, for Light Coating Mass Applications
(Galvanized) Carbon Steel Wire
Standard Specification for Steel Sheet,
Zinc Coated (Galvanized)by the Hot-Dip
Process, Drawing Quality, Special Killed
(Galvanized) Steel Bars for Concrete
Reinforcement
Standard Practice for Repair of
Damaged and Uncoated Areas of HotDip Galvanized Coatings
Standard Specification for Zinc
Standard Test Method of Salt Spray
(Fog) Testing
(canceled) Specification for Mechanically Deposited Coatings of Cadmium and
Zinc on Ferrous Metals (replaced by
8695 and B 696)
619
Not for Resale
~
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
SSPC CHAPTER*27.3
8487
B498
6499
6504
8555
8571
8633
8695
8696
c190
D5
D14
D34
D36
D49
050
D95
D126
D135
8b27740 00040b7 2T3
Standard Test Method for Measurement

of Metal and Oxide Coating Thickness
by Microscopical Examination of a
Cross Section
(Galvanized) Steel Core Wire for Aluminum Conductors, Steel Reinforced
(ACSR)
of Coating Thicknesses by the Magnetic Method: Nonmagnetic Coatings on
Magnetic Basis Metals
of Thickness of Metallic Coatings by the
Coulometric Method
Standard Guide for Measurement of
Electrodeposited Metallic Coating
Thicknesses by the Dropping Test
Standard Test Methods for Adhesion of
Metallic Coatings
Standard Specification for Electrodeposited Coatings of Zinc on tron
and Steel
Standard Specification for Coatings of
Zinc Mechanically Deposited on Iron
and Steel
Standard Specification for Coatings of
Cadmium Mechanically Deposited
(canceled) Standard Test Method for
Tensile Strength of Hydraulic Cement
Mortars
Standard Test Method for Penetrationof
Bituminous Materials
(canceled) Specification for RubberLined Wire Hose for Public and Private
Fire Departments (use 0296)
Standard Guide for Chemical Analysis
of White Pigments
Standard Test Method for Softening
Point of Bitumen (Ring-And-Ball Apparatus)
Standard Methods of Chemical Analysis
of Red Lead
Standard Test Methods for Chemical
Analysis of Yellow, Orange, Red and
Brown Pigments Containing Iron and
Manganese
Standard Test Method for Water in
Petroleum Products and Bituminous
Materials by Distillation
Standard Test Methods for Analysis of
Yellow, Orange, and Green Pigments
Containing Lead Chromate and Chromium Oxide Green
(canceled) Specification for Asphalt Cement 120-150 Penetration for Use in
Asphalt Macadam Products

D154
D185
D283
0284
D296
0344
D427
D444
D451
D478
D480
D521
0522
D523
0555
D562
D564
D609
D61O
D660
D661
D662
D6951D695M
D714
0715
620
Not for Resale
Standard Guide for Testing Varnishes

Standard Test Methods for Coarse Particles in Pigments, Pastes and Paints
Analysis of Cuprous Oxide and Copper
Pigments
Analysis of Mercuric Oxide Pigment
(canceled) Specification for RubberLined Fire Hose with Woven Jacket
Standard Test Method for Relative Hiding Power of Paints by the Visual Evaluation of Brushouts
Standard Test Method for Shrinkage
Factors of Soils
Analysis of Zinc Yellow Pigment (Zinc
Chromate Yellow)
Standard Test Method for Sieve Analysis of Granular Mineral Surfacing for
Asphalt Roofing Products
Standard Specification for Zinc Yellow
(Zinc Chromate) Pigments
Standard Test Methods for Sampling
and Testing of Flaked Aluminum Powders and Pastes
Analysis of Zinc Dust (Metallic Zinc
Powder)
Standard Test Methods for Mandrel
Bend Test of Attached Organic
Coatings
Standard Test Method for Specular
Gloss
Standard Guide for Testing Drying Oils
Standard Test Methods for Consistency
of Paints Using the Stormer Viscometer
Standard Test Methods for Liquid Paint
Driers
Standard Practice for Preparation of
Cold-Rolled Steel Panels for Testing
Paint, Varnish, Conversion Coatings,
and Related Coating Products
Standard Test Method for Evaluating
Degree of Rusting on Painted Steel Surfaces (SSPC-Vis-2)
Degree of Checking of Exterior Paints
Degree of Cracking of Exterior Paints
Degree of Erosion of Exterior Paints
Standard Test Method for Compressive
Properties of Rigid Plastics
Degree of Blistering of Paints
Barium Sulfate Pigment
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
SSPC C H A P T E R * 2 7 = 3 7 3
SSPC CHAPTER*27-3 93 W 8627940 0004068 L 3 T

D716
D717
D718
D719
D767
D768
D772
D785
D822
D823
0870
D879
D913
D968
D970
01014
D1044
D1084
D1135
D1150
Standard Test Methods for Evaluating

Mica Pigment
Magnesium Silicate Pigment
Aluminum Silicate Pigment
Diatomaceous Silica Pigment
(canceled) Specifications for Venetian
Red
Standard Specification for Yellow Iron
Oxide Hydrated
Degree of Flaking (Scaling) of Exterior
Paints
Standard Test Method for Rockwell
Hardness of Plastics and Electrical Insulating Materials
(canceled) Method of EvaluatingDegree
of Abrasion, Erosion or a Combination of
Both in Road Service Tesis of Traffic
Paint
Standard Practice for Conducting Tests
on Paint and Related Coatings and
Materials Using Filtered Open-Flame
Carbon-Arc Light and Water Exposure
Apparatus
Standard Practices for Producing Films
of Uniform Thickness of Paint, Varnish
and Related Products on Test Panels
Standard Practice for Testing Water
Resistance of Coatings Using Water Immersion
(canceled) Specifications for Communication and Signal Pin-Type Lime-Glass
Insulators
Standard Test Methods for Specific
Gravity, Apparent, of Liquid Industrial
Chemicals
Degree of Resistance to Wear of Traffic
Paint
Standard Test Methods for Abrasion
Resistance of Organic Coatings by Falling Abrasive
Standard Test Methods for Para Red
and Toluidine Red Pigments
Standard Test Method for Conducting
Exterior Exposure Tests of Paints on
Steel
Standard Test Method for Resistance of
Transparent Plastics to Surface
Abrasion
Standard Test Methods for Viscosity of
Ad hesives
Analysis of Blue Pigments
D1200
D121O
D1296
D1301
D1308
D1394
D1474
D1475
D1545
D1640
D1648
D1649
D1653
D1737
D1844
D1845
D1849
D2090
02092
D2134
D2196
D2197
D2200
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

621
Not for Resale
(canceled) Standard Single- and MultiPanel Forms for RecordingResults of Exposure Tests of Paints
Standard Test Method for Viscosity by
Ford Viscosity Cup
Standard Test Method for Fineness of
Dispersion of Pigment Vehicle Systems
Standard Test Method for Odor of Volatile Solvents and Diluents
Analysis of White Lead Pigments
Standard Test Method for Effect of
Household Chemicals on Clear and Pigmented Organic Finishes
Analysis of White Titanium Pigments
Standard Test Methods for Indentation
Hardness of Organic Coatings
Standard Test Method for Density of
Paint, Varnish, Lacquer, and Related
Products
Standard Test Method for Viscosity of
Transparent Liquids by Bubble Time
Method
Standard Test Methods for Drying, Curing or Film Formation of Organic Coatings at Room Temperature
Standard Specification for Basic Lead
Silico Chromate Pigment
Standard Specification for Strontium
Chromate Pigment
Standard Test Methods for Water Vapor
Transmission of Organic Coating Films
(canceled) Method of Test for Elongation
of Attached Organic Coatings with Cylindrical Mandrel Apparatus (replaced by
0522)
Analysis of Basic Lead Silicochromate
Analysis of Strontium Chromate
Pigment
Standard Test Method for Package Stability of Paint
Standard Test Method for Clarity and
Cleanness of Paint and Ink Liquids
Standard Practice for Preparation of
Zinc-Coated Steel Surfaces for Painting
(canceled) Test Methodfor Softening of
Organic Coatings by Plastic Compositions
Standard Test Methods for Rheological
Properties of Non-Newtonian Materials
by Rotational (Brookfield) Viscometer
Standard Test Method for Adhesion of
Organic Coatings by Scrape Adhesion
Visual Standard for Abrasive Blast
Cleaned Steel (SSPC-Vis 1)
SSPC CHAPTER*27-3 9 3
D2240
02244
D2247
02369
D2371
D2448
02455
D2488
D2621
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
D2698
D2742
D2744
D2792
D2801
02805
D3134
03168
03271
03274
03359
D3363
D3842
8627940 0004069 O76
Standard Test Method for Rubber

Property - Durometer Hardness
Standard Test Method for Calculation of
Color Differences from Instrumentally
Measured Color Coordinates
Standard Practice for Testing Water
Resistance of Coatings in lOOO/o Relative Humidity
Standard Test Method for Volatile Content of Coatings
Standard Test Method for Pigment Content of Solvent-Reducible Paints
Standard Test Method for WaterSoluble Salts in Pigments by Measuring
the Specific Resistance of the Leachate
of the Pigment
Standard Test Method for Identification
of Carboxylic Acids in Alkyd Resins
Standard Practice for Description and
Identification of Soils (Visual-Manual
Procedure)
Standard Test Method for Infrared Identification of Vehicle Solids from SolventReducible Paints
Standard Test Method for Determination of the Pigment Content of SolventReducible Paints by High-speed Centrifuging
(canceled) Method for Chemical Analysis of Tribasic Lead Phospho Silicate
(canceled) Specification for Tribasic
Phospho Silicate
Standard Test Method for Solvent and
Fuel Resistance of Traffic Paint
(canceled) Test Method for Leveling
Characteristics of Paint by the Draw
Down Method (replaced by 4400)
Standard Test Method for Hiding Power of Paints by Reflectometry
Standard Practice for Establishing Color
and Gloss Tolerances
Standard Practice for Qualitative Identification of Polymers in Emulsion
Standard Practice for Direct Injection of
Solvent-Reducible Paints into a Gas
Chromatograph for Solvent Analysis
Degree of Surface Disfigurement of
Paint Films by Microbial (Fungal or Algal) Growth or Soil and Dirt Accumulation
Standard Test Methods for Measuring
Adhesion by Tape Test
Standard Test Method for Film Hardness by Pencil Test
Standard Guide for Selection of Test
Methods for Coatings for Use in LightWater Nuclear Power Plants

D3843
D3911
D3912
D3960
D4082
D4227
D4228
D4256
04400
D4417
D4537
D4541
D4940
D5043
D6222
E l 62
E307
E308
622
Not for Resale
Standard Practice for Quality Assurance

for Protective Coatings Applied to
Nuclear Facilities
Coatings Used in Light-Water Nuclear
Power Plants at Simulated Design Basis Accident (DEA) Conditions
Standard Test Method for Chemical
Resistance of Coatings Used in LightWater Nuclear Power Plants
Standard Practice for Determining Volatile Organic Compound (VOC) Content
of Paints and Related Coatings
Standard Test Method for Effects of
Gamma Radiation on Coatings for Use
in Light-Water Nuclear Power Plants
Standard Practice for Qualification of
Journeyman Painters for Application of
Coatings to Concrete Surfaces of
Safety-Related Areas in Nuclear Facilities
Standard Practice for Qualification of
Journeyman Painters for Application of
Coatings to Steel Surfaces of SafetyRelated Areas in Nuclear Facilities
Standard Test Method for Determination of the Decontaminability of Coatings Used in Light-Water Nuclear Power
Plants
Standard Test Method for Sag
Resistance of Paints Using a Multinotch
Applicator
Field Measurement of Surface Profile of
Blast Cleaned Steel, Test Methods for
Standard Guide for Establishing Procedures to Qualify and Certify Inspection
Personnel for Coating Work in Nuclear
Facilities
Standard Test Method for Pull-off
Strength of Coatings Using Portable
Adhesion Testers
Standard Test Method for Condumetric
Analysis of Water Soluble Ionic Contamination of Blasting Abrasives
Standard Test Methods for Field Identification of Coatings
(canceled) Methods of Testing Automotive Airbrake and Vacuum Brake Hose
(Flexibility)
Standard Test Method for Surface Flammability of Materials Using a Radiant
Heat Energy Source
Standard Test Method for Normal Spectral Emittance at Elevated Temperatures
Standard Test Method for Computing
the Colors of Objects by Using the CIE
System
E376
G6
G8
G9
G1O
G11
G13
G14
G17
G18
G19
G20
G53
A b 2 7 9 4 0 0004070 8 9 8
Bureau of Reclamation
Standard Practice for Measuring Coating Thickness by Magnetic-Field or

Eddy-Current (Electromagnetic) Test
Methods
Standard Test Method for Abrasion
Resistance of Pipeline Coatings
Standard Test Methods for Cathodic
Disbonding of Pipeline Coatings
Standard Test Method for Water
Penetration into Pipeline Coatings
Standard Test Method for Specific
Bendability of Pipeline Coatings
Standard Test Method for Effects of
Outdoor Weathering on Pipeline
Coatings
Standard Test Method for Impact
Resistance of Pipeline Coatings (Limestone Drop Test)
Standard Test Method for Impact
Resistance of Pipeline Coatings (Falling
Weight Test)
Standard Test Method for Penetration
Resistance of Pipeline Coatings (Blunt
Rod)
Standard Test Method for Joints, Fittings and Patches in Coated Pipelines
Standard Test Method for Disbonding
Characteristics of Pipeline Coating by
Direct Soil Burial
Standard Test Method for Chemical
Resistance of Pipeline Coatings
Standard Practice for Operating Lightand Water-Exposure Apparatus (Fluorescent UV- Condensation Type) for Exposure of Nonmetallic Materials
AWWA C205
AWWA C206
AWWA C209
ANSIIAWWA
C215
AWWA C602
AWWA D102
California Department of Transportation

(CALTRANS)
Paint 721-80-62 (deleted for most purposes) Phenoxy or
Paint PWB-72
Paint PWB-83
Paint PWB-86
Paint PWB-88
Paint PWB-89
Paint PWB-142
Paint PWB-143
Paint PWB-145
Paint PWB-146
1-GP-14
1-GP-40
CANICGSB 1.40-M89
1-GP-59
CANICGSB
1.59-M89
1-GP-69
CANICGSB
1.69-M89
1-GP-122
CANICGSB
1.122-M91
1-GP-140
CAN ICGSB 1.140-M89
1-GP-166
1-GP-l66M
Coal-Tar Protective Coatings and Linings for Steel Water Pipelines - Enamel
and Tape Hot-Applied
Cement-Mortar Protective Lining and
Coating for Steel Water Pipe
Field Welding of Steel Water Pipe
Cold-Applied Tape Coatings for the Exterior of Special Sections, Connections
and Fittings for Steel Water Pipelines
Extruded Polyolefin Coatings for the Exterior of Steel Water Pipelines
Cement-Mortar Lining of Water
Pipelines
(withdrawn) Painting Steel WaterStorage Tanks (being Revised)
(Withdrawn) Primer, Red Lead in Oil

NOW:CANKGSB - 1.40-M89
Primer, Structural Steel, Oil Alkyd Type,
NOW:CANKGSB - 1.59-M89
Enamel, Exterior, Gloss, Alkyd Type
NOW:CANKGSB
Paint, Aluminum
NOW:CANKGSB -1.122-M91
Primer, Vinyl, Anti-Corrosive
1-GP-167
1-GP-171
1-GP-171M and
- 1.69-M89
NOW:CAN K G S B - 1.140-M89
Primer, Red Lead, Iron Oxide, Oil Alkyd
Type
NOW:1-GP-166M
Primer, Basic Lead Silico Chromate, Oil
Alkyd
Enamel, Exterior, Basic Lead Silico
Chromate, Alkyd Type
Now: 1-GP-171M and amendment
Coating, Inorganic Zinc
amendment
1-GP-182
1-GP-l82M
NOW:1-GP-182M
Vinyl, Exterior Paint,
Canadian Institute of Steel Construction (CISC)

CISCKPMA
1-73a
Corrosion Test of Flame-SprayedCoated Steel

Catalyzed Epoxy Zinc-Rich Primer

Paint Water Borne, Replaced by
PWB-142
Green Finish Paint - Water Borne
White Tintable Finish Paint, (Revised)
Replaced by PWB-145
Replaced by PW B-146
Red Primer Paint - Water Borne, Chromate Free
Pink Primer Paint - Water Borne, Chromate Free
Red Primer - Water Borne, Formula
PWB-145
Pink Primer Paint - Water Borne - Formula PWB-146
Canadian General Standards Board (CGSB)
American Welding Society (AWS)

AWS C2.14
Vinyl Resin Paint

Vinyl Resin Paint
M-54 VR-3
M-55 VR-6
American Water Works Association (AWWA)

AWWA C203
623
Not for Resale
Quick-Drying One-Coat Paint for Use

with Structural Steel
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
SSPC C H A P T E R * 2 7 * 3 9 3
SSPC C H A P T E R a 2 7 - 3 73
8627740 000407L 7 2 4
Federal Specifications and Commercial Item

Descriptions
Code of Federal Regulations (CFR)

Nuclear Regulatory Commission
FED-CTD-141
Nuclear Regulatory Commission Regulations

Food and Drug Administration (FDA)
10 CFR 0-50
21 CFR 175
FED-STD-595
A-A-341
BB-A-1034
L-(2-530
P-c-111
P-C-436
Indirect Food Additives: Adhesives and

Components of Coatings
Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA)

Safety and Health Regulations for
General Industry
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
29 CFR Part
1900-1910
(1901.1 to
1910.999)
29 CFR Part
1910.1O00 to
End
29 CFR 1926
P-c-437
SS-P-385
Safety and Health Regulations for

Construction
TT-C-490
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)*

40 CFR 50-99
40 CFR
100-149
40 CFR
150-189
40 CFR
260-280
40 CFR
280-299
40 CFR
300-399
40 CFR
400-699
40 CFR
700-799
TT-C-542
Air Pollution Control Regulations

Clean WaterActlSafe DrinkingWaterAct
Regulations
Federal Insecticide, Fungicide and
Rodenticide Act (FIFRA) Regulations
Resource Conservation and Recovery
Act (RCRA) Regulations
Underground Storage Tank (UST)
(RCRA) Regulations
Superfund Amendments and Reauthorization Act (SARA)/Comprehensive Environmental Compensation and Liability
Act (CERCLA) Regulations
Clean Water Act (CWA) Regulations
TT-E-489
TT-E-490
TT-E-529
TT-E-1593
TT-L-26
TT-L-50
TT-P-19
Toxic Substances Control Act (TSCA)

Regulations
TT-P-28
Department of Transportation
49 CFR 172
49 CFR 173
49 CFR 178
49 CFR 179
Hazardous Materials Table, Special

Provisions, Hazardous Materials Communications, Emergency Response and
Training Requirements
Shippers - General Requirements for
Shipments and Packagings
Specifications for Packagings
Specifications for Tank Cars
TT-P-3 1
TT-P-38
TT-P-8 1
TT-P-86
TT-P-320
TT-P-595
TT-P-6 15
Compressed Gas Association

G-7.1
Commodity Specification for Air
TT-P-636
(U.S. Army) Corps of Engineers

c200
V766
Coal Tar Epoxy (Black) Paint

Vinyl-Type White (or Gray) Paint
TT-P-641
"Including reserved sections

624
Not for Resale
Paint, Varnish, Lacquer and Related

Materials; Methods of Inspection, Sampling and Testing Colors: (For) Ready-Mixed Paints
Pigment, Aluminum, Powder and Paste
Compressed Breathing Air
Coating, Pipe, Thermoplastic Resin
Carbon Removing Compound
Cleaning Compound, Alkali, Boiling Vat
(Soak) or Hydrosteam
Cleaning Compound, High Pressure
(Steam) Cleaner
(canceled) Pipe, Steel, (Cement-Mortar
Lining and Reinforced Cement-Mortar
Coating)
Cleaning Methods for Ferrous Surfaces
and Pretreatments for Organic Coatings
Coat i ng , Po Iy u ret ha ne, O i I- F ree ,
Moisture Curing
Enamel, Alkyd, Gloss, Low VOC
Content
Enamel, Silicone Alkyd Copolymer,
Semigloss (For Exterior and Interior
Non-Residential Use)
Enamel, Alkyd, Semigloss, Low VOC
Content
Enamel, Silicone Alkyd Copolymer,
Gloss, (For Exterior and Interior Use)
Lacquer (Brushing, Clear and Pigmented For Exterior and Interior Use)
Lacquer, Nitrocellulose, Acrylic and
Acrylic-Butyrate, Aerosol (in Pressurized Dispensers)
Paint, Latex (Acrylic Emulsion, Exterior
Wood and Masonry)
Paint, Aluminum, Heat Resisting (1200
Deg. F)
Paint, Oil: Iron-Oxide, Ready-Mixed,
Red and Brown
Paint, Aluminum (Ready-Mixed)
Paint, Oil, Alkyd, Ready Mixed, Exterior, Medium Shades
Paint, Red-Lead-Base, Ready-Mixed,
(canceled) Pigments, Aluminum: Powder and Paste, for Paint (use A-A-341)
Preservative Coating, Canvas
(canceled) Primer Coating: Basic Lead
Silico Chromate, Ready-Mixed
(canceled) Primer Coating, Alkyd, Wood
and Ferrous Metal (use TT-P-664 and
MIL-P-53030)
Primer Coating, Zinc Dust-Zinc Oxide
(For Galvanized Surfaces)
TT-P-645
TT-P-664
TT-P-1046
TT-P-1757
TT-P-2784
TT-S-711
TT-S-1543
TT-V-51
TT-V-81
TT-V-119
8 6 2 7 9 4 0 0004098 9-77
DOD-C-24596
Primer, Paint Zinc-Molybdate, Alkyd

Type (revised to replace zinc chromate
with zinc molybdate)
Primer Coating, Alkyd, CorrosionInhibiting, Lead and Chromate Free,
VOC-Compliant
Primer Coating: Zinc Dust, Chlorinated
Rubber, (For Steel and Galvanized
Surfaces)
Primer Coating, Zinc Chromate, LowMoisture-Sensitivity
Enamel (Acrylic Emulsion, Exterior
Gloss and Semigloss)
Stain; Oil Type, Wood, Interior
Sealing Compound: Silicone Rubber
Base (For Caulking, Sealing and Glazing in Buildings and Other Structures)
Varnish: Asphalt
Varnish: Mixing, for Aluminum Paint
Varnish, Spar, Phenolic-Resin
MIL-C-24667
MIL-C-38334
MIL-C-43616
MIL-C-46081
MIL-C-46156
MIL-C-46168
MIL-C-46487
MIL-C-81302
MIL-C-85285
MIL-C-87936
(US.) Maritime Administration

52-MA-602
MIL-D-23003
(canceled) Compounds: Rust Preventive
MIL-D-24483
MIL-D-24667
(U.S.) Military Specifications

MIL-STD-338
MIL-STD-2138
MIL-A-8625
MIL-C-10578
MIL-C-11O90
MIL-C-11796
MIL-C-13924
MIL-C-14460
MIL-C-16173
MIL-C-17504
MIL-(2-19537
MIL-C-19565
DOD-C-22325
MIL-C-22542
MIL-C-22750
Cleaning and Treatment of Aluminum

Parts Prior to Painting
Metal Sprayed Coating System for Corrosion Protection Aboard Naval Ships
Anodic Coatings, For Aluminum and
Aluminum Alloys
Corrosion Removing and Metal Conditioning Compound (Phosphoric Acid
Base)
Cleaning Compound, Degreasing and
Depreserving Solvent
Corrosion Preventive Compound,
Petrolatum, Hot Application
Coating, Oxide, Black, for Ferrous
Metals
Corrosion Removing Compound, Sodium Hydroxide Base, For Electrolytic or
Immersion Application
Corrosion Preventive Compound, Solvent Cutback, Cold-Application
Coating Compound, Acrylic, Clear
Lacquer: Acrylic-Nitrocellulose Gloss
(For Aircraft Use)
Coating Compounds, Thermal Insulation, Fire- and Water-Resistant, VaporBarrier
Colors, Tinting, For Interior Nonflaming
(Dry) Paints (Metric)
Cleaning Compound, High Pressure
Cleaner, Liquid
Coating, Epoxy, VOC-Compliant
DOD-E-699
MIL-E-15090
MIL-E-15145
MIL-E-17970
MIL-E-17971
DOD-E-1821O
DOD-E-24607
MIL-E-24635
MIL-F-902
MIL-H-13528
MIL-L-14486
625
Not for Resale
Coating Compounds, Nonflaming, FireProtective (Metric)

Coating System, Non-Skid, For Roll or
Spray Application (Metric)
Corrosion Removing Compound,
Prepaint, For Aircraft Aluminum Surfaces
Cleaning Compounds, Aircraft Surface
Coating Compound, Thermal Insulating
(Intumescent)
Corrosion Removing Compound, Sodium Hydroxide Base, For Immersion Application
Coating, Aliphatic Polyurethane,Chemical Agent Resistant
Cleaning, Preparation and Organic
Coating of Steel Cartridge Cases
Cleaning Compound, Solvent, Trichlorotrifluoroethane
Coating: Polyurethane, High-Solids
Cleaning Compounds, Aircraft Exterior
Surfaces, Water Di1utable
Deck Covering Compound, Nonslip,
Rollable (Reinstated)
Deck Covering, Spray-On, Nonslip
Coating System, Non-Skid, For Roll or
Spray Application (Metric)
(canceled) Enamel, Exterior, Deck, Gray
(Formula No. 20) (Metric) (use DODE-24635 and FED-STD-595)
Enamel, Equipment, Light-Gray (Formula No. 1 1 1)
(canceled) Enamel, Zinc Dust Pigmented, Fresh Water Tank Protective, Formula No. 102
(canceled) Enamel, Nonflaming (Dry),
Chlorinated Alkyd Resin, Soft White,
Semigloss, Formula No. 124/58 (use
DOD-E-24607)
(canceled) Enamel, Nonflaming (Dry),
Chlorinated Alkyd Resin, Pastel Green,
Semigloss, Formula No. 7 26/58 (use
DOD-E-24607)
(canceled) Enamel, Interior, Deck, Red
(Formula No. 23) (Metric) (use MILE-24635 and FED-STD-595)
Enamel, Interior, Nonflaming (Dry),
Chlorinated Alkyd Resin, Semigloss
(Metric)
Enamel, Silicone Alkyd Copolymer
(Metric)
Furniture, Shipboard, Aluminum;
General Specification For
Hydrochloric Acid, Inhibited, RustRemoving
(canceled) Lacquer, Vinyl Resin, SemiGloss (use MIL-C-46168)
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
S S P C CHAPTERx27.3 73
S S P C CHAPTERa27-3 73
8627740 0004079 803
Lacquer: Acrylic-Nitrocellulose Gloss

(For Aircraft Use)
(canceled) Primer and Enamel, Coal Tar
MIL-P-15147
(use SSPC-PS 10.01 or AWWA C203)
Primer (Wash), Pretreatment (Formula
DOD-P-15328
No. 117 for Metals) (Metric) (Equivalent
to SSPC-Paint 27)
(canceled) Primer Coating, Shipboard,
MIL-P-15929
Vinyl-Red l e a d (Formula No. 119) (use
MIL-P-15930 or MIL-P-24441)
Primer Coating, Shipboard, Vinyl-Zinc
MIL-P-15930
Chromate (Formula No. 120)
Paint, Antifouling, Vinyl (Formulas No.
MIL-P-15931
121, 121A, 129 and 129A)
(canceled) Paint, Antifouling, Vinyl,
M IL-P-16189
Black (Formula No. 129/63) (use
MIL-P-15937)
Phosphate Coatings, Heavy, ManDOD-P-16232
ganese or Zinc Base (For Ferrous
Metals)
(canceled) Primer Coating, Alkyd-Red
DOD-P-17545
l e a d Type Formula No. 116 and No.
116D (Metric) (use TT-P-645)
(canceled) Paint, Antifouling, Cold PlasMIL-P-19451
tic, Shipbottom Navy Formula No. 105
(canceled) Paint, Antifouling, Hot Plastic,
MIL-P-19452
Shipbottom Navy Formula No. 15HPN
(canceled) Primer Coating, Shipbottom
MIL-P-19453
Paint, Anticorrosive Type I (use MILP-24441, MIL-P-24442)
(canceled) Paint, Black, Polyisobutylene
MIL-P-22298
(Formula No. 133) (use DOD-P-24631)
(canceled) Paint, Antifouling, PolyMIL-P-22299
isobutylene (Formula No. 134) (use
DOD-P-2463 1)
Paint Coating Systems, Fuel and Salt
MIL-P-23236
Water Ballast (Metric)
Primer Coatings: Epoxy, Chemical and
MIL-P-23377
Solvent Resistant
Paint, Anchor Chain, Solvent Type,
MIL-P-24380
Gloss Black (Metric)
Paint, Epoxy-Polyamide, General
MIL-P-24441
Specification For
MIL-P-24441/41 (canceled) Paint, Epoxy-Polyamide,
Black NonabrasiveNonslip, Formula 163
Type I V (use MIL-C-24667)
Paint, Aluminum, Heat-Resisting (650
DOD-P-24555
C) Low Emissivity (0.40 or Less) (Metric)
(Reinstated)
(canceled) Paint, Antifouling, Vinyl,
DOD-P-24588
Camouflage (Formula No. 170, 1 71, 172,
173) (Metric) (use DOD-P-24647)
Paints,
Camouflage For Submarines,
DOD-P-24631
General Specification For (Metric)
Paint System, Anticorrosive and AnDOD-P-24647
tifouling, Ship Hull
DOD-P-24648
MIL-L-19537
iJllL-P-28577
MIL-P-28578
MIL-P-38336
MIL-P-53030
MIL-R-15058
MIL-R-19907
MIL-R-21006
MIL-S-5002
MIL-V-1174
Enamel, Silicone and Alkyd Copolymer

(Metric)
Primer, Water-Borne, Acrylic or Modified Acrylic, For Metal Surfaces
Paint, Water-Borne, Acrylic or Modified
Acrylic, Semigloss, for Metal Surfaces
Primer Coating, Inorganic, Zinc Dust
Pigmented, Self Curing, for Steel
Surfaces
Primer Coating, Epoxy, Water Reducible, Lead and Chromate Free
(canceled) Rubber, Shaft Covering
Materials (For Marine Propeller)
Repair Kit, Glass Reinforced Plastic
Laminate
(canceled) Rust Retarding Compound,
Flotation Type, Ballast Tank Protective
Surface Treatments and Inorganic
Coatings for Metal Surfaces of
Weapons Systems
(canceled) Varnish, Spar, Water Resisting (Formula No. 80) (use TT-V-119)
National Association of Corrosion Engineers

(NACE)
NACE RP0169
NACE RPO178
NACE RP0274
NACE RP0275
NACE RP0285
NACE RP0287
NACE TMO 70
NACE TMO 75
Control of External Corrosion on Underground or Submerged Metallic Piping

Systems
Fabrication Details, Surface Finish Requirements, and Proper Design Considerations for Tanks and Vessels to Be
Lined for Immersion Service
High Voltage Electrical Inspection of
Pipeline Coatings Prior to Installation
Application of Organic Coatings to the
External Surface of Steel Pipe for Underground Service
Control of External Corrosion on Metallic, Buried or Submerged Liquid Storage
Systems
Field Measurement of Surface Profile of
Abrasive Blast Cleaned Steel Surfaces
Using a Replica Tape
Visual Comparator for Surfaces of New
Steel Airblast Cleaned with Sand
Abrasive
Visual Standard for Surfaces of New
Steel Centrifugally Blast Cleaned with
Steel Grit and Shot
NSF International
ANSIINSF 61
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

626
Not for Resale
Drinking Water System Components Health Effects
6 2 7 9 4 0 0004LOO 355
Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE)

SA J 444
SA J 827
Cast Shot and Grit Size Specifications

for Peening and Cleazing, Recommended Practice
Cast Steel Shot, Recommended
Practice
Steel Founders Society of America (SFSA)

SFSA 20-66
SFSA 21-68
Steel Structures Painting Council (SSPC)

SSPC-SP COM
SSPC-SP 1
SSPC-SP 2
SSPC-SP 3
SSPC-SP 4
SSPC-SP 5
SSPC-SP 6
SSPC-SP 7
SSPC-SP 8
SSPC-SP 10
SSPC-SP 11
SSPC-PS
Guide 1.O0
SSPC Guide 61
SSPC-PS 1.O4
SSPC-PS 1.09
SSPC-PS
Guide 2.00
SSPC-PS
2.03"
SSPC-PS 2.05
SSPC-PS
Guide 3.00
SSPC-PS
Guide 4.00
SSPC-PS 4.02
SSPC-PS 4.04'
SSPC-PS 11.o1
SSPC-PS
Guide 12.00
SSPC-PS 12.01
SSPC-PS 13.01
SSPC-PS 14.01
One-Coat Zinc-Rich Painting System

Epoxy-Polyamide Painting System
Steel Joist Shop Painting System
SSPC-PS
Guide 15.00
SSPC-PS 15.01
Guide for Selecting Chlorinated Rubber

Painting Systems
Chlorinated Rubber Painting System
(For Salt Water Immersion)
Silicone Alkyd Painting System for New
Steel
Guide for Selecting Urethane Painting
Systems
Three-Coat Latex Painting System
Latex Painting System for Industrial
and Marine Atmospheres, Performance-8ased
Red Lead and Raw Linseed Oil Primer
Red Lead, Iron Oxide, Raw Linseed
Oil & Alkyd Primer
Zinc Dust, Zinc Oxide & Phenolic
Varnish
Aluminum Vinyl Paint
White (or Colored) Vinyl Paint
Red Iron Oxide Zinc Chromate, Raw
Linseed Oil & Alkyd Paint
Coal Tar Epoxy-Polyamide Black (or
Dark Red) Paint
Chlorinated Rubber Inhibitive Primer
Chlorinated Rubber Intermediate Coat
Paint
Chlorinated Rubber Topcoat Paint
Zinc-Rich Primers (Type I-Inorganic &
Type II-Organic)
White or Colored Silicone Alkyd Paint
Epoxy-Polyamide Paints (Primers, Intermediate & Topcoat)
Latex Primer for Steel Surfaces
Latex Semi-Gloss Exterior Topcoat
Basic Zinc Chromate-Vinyl Butyral
Wash Primer
Aluminum Alkyd Paint
Black Alkyd Paint
White or Tinted Alkyd Paint
Black Vinyl Paint
High-Build Thixotropic Leafing Aluminum Paint
Shop, Field & Maintenance Painting
Measurement of Dry Paint Thickness
with Magnetic Gages
A Guide to Safety in Paint Application
SSPC-PS
16.01 +
SSPC-PS
Guide 17.00
SSPC-PS 18.01
SSPC-PS 24.00
Cast Steel Abrasives

Malleable Iron Abrasives
Surface Preparation Commentary

Solvent Cleaning
Hand Tool Cleaning
Power Tool Cleaning
(cancelled) Flame Cleaning of New Steel
White Metal Blast Cleaning
Commercial Blast Cleaning
Brush-off Blast Cleaning
Pic kling
Near-White Blast Cleaning
Power Tool Cleaning to Bare Metal
Guide for Selecting Oil Base Painting
Systems
Guide for Containing Debris Generated
During Painting Operations
Three-Coat Oil-Alkyd (Lead- and
Chromate-Free) Painting System for
Galvanized or Non-Galvanized Steel
(With Zinc Dust-Zinc Oxide Linseed Oil
Primer)
Three-Coat Oil Base Zinc Oxide Painting System (Without Lead or Chromate
Pigment)
Guide for Selecting Alkyd Painting
Syst ems
Three-Coat Alkyd Painting System with
Red Lead Iron Oxide Primer (For
Weather Exposure)
Three-Coat Alkyd Painting System for
Unrusted Galvanized Steel (For
Weather Exposure)
Guide for Selecting Phenolic Painting
Systems
Guide for Selecting Vinyl Painting
Systems
Four-Coat Vinyl Painting System (For
Fresh Water, Chemical, and Corrosive
Atmosp heres)
Four-Coat White or Colored Vinyl Painting System (For Fresh Water, Chemical
and Corrosive Atmospheres)
Black (or Dark Red) Coal Tar EpoxyPolyamide
Guide for Selecting Zinc-Rich Painting
Systems
SSPC-Paint 1 '
SSPC-Paint 2'
SSPC-Paint 5
SSPC-Paint 8
SSPC-Paint 9
SSPC-Paint 11 '
SSPC-Paint 16
SSPC-Paint 17
SSPC-Paint 18
SSPC-Paint 19
SSPC-Paint 20
SSPC-Paint 21
SSPC-Paint 22
SSPC-Paint 23
SSPC-Paint 24
SSPC-Paint 27*
SSPC-Paint 1O1
SSPC-Paint 102
SSPC-Paint 104
SSPC-Paint 106
SSPC-Paint 108
SSPC-PA 1
SSPC-PA 2
SSPC-PA
Guide 3
SSPC-PA
Guide 4
SSPC-Guide to
Vis 1-89
SSPC-Guide to
vis 2
627
Not for Resale
Guide to Maintenance Repainting with

Oil Base or Alkyd Painting System
Visual Standard for Abrasive Blast
Cleaned Steel
Standard Method of Evaluating Degree
of Rusting on Painted Steel Surfaces
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
S S P C C H A P T E R * 2 7 - 3 93
SSPC CHAPTERx27-3 9 3
8 6 2 7 9 4 0 0 0 0 4 1 0 1 291
Steel Tank Institute

STI-P3
Standard for Dual Wall Underground

Steel Storage Tanks
..
Underwriters Laboratory
UL 45
Standard for Safety of Portable Electric

Tools
These painting systems and paints use chromate pigments, toxic substances that are closely regulated. Users
are urged to follow all health, safety and environmental requirements in applying, handling or disposing of these
materials
+These painting systems and paints use lead pigments.
It has become evident over the last several years that the
hazards and precautions associated with leaded paints outweigh their merits. Leaded paint poses a health hazard both
to those who apply it and those who remove it. Containment
and disposal requirements add significantly to the cost of using leaded paint. SSPC has proposed to withdraw all SSPC
specifications for leaded paint. Under this proposal, all
specifications for paints that contain lead would be withdrawn. Paints containing lead would also be deleted from
SSPC Paint Systems, Guides and Commentaries. If a system offers no non-lead alternatives for a particular use, the
system itself would be withdrawn.
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

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8 6 2 7 9 4 0 0 0 0 4 1 0 2 128
93
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629
Not for Resale
SSPC CHAPTERx27.3
b279LO 0004L03 Ob4
Index
Abrasion. exposure environments
. . . . . . . . . . . .340
. . . . . . . . . . . . .513.515
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .308
Abrasion resistance . . . . . . . . . .129. 134. 298. 303

338. 357. 397
Abrasive air blast cleaning . . . . . . . . . . . . . .295.296
equipment .....................
.248. 250-251
Abrasive blasting. hazards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .545
Abrasive blast cleaning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5
abrasive dusting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
abrasive flow ......................
abrasive recycling . . . . . . . . . . . .
abrasive selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
abrasives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .57.58. 83-84. 187
air consumption ..........................
53
.53. 186
air supply . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
air supply hose ..........................
53
air-fed helmets ......................
.62. 63
anchor patiern . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
blast couplings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. 54.55
blast h w d s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56-57
blast hoses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54-55
60
blast nozzles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
breathing air . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
choke valves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
56
chromium paints. hazards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78.79
compressor size . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
53
contaminated dust . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
control valves ........................
.55.56
conventional nozzle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
...................... 52
58.59
efficiency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
58
etching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
fabricating plants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
243
field painting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .54.55. 6162
.54.55. 61-62
grounding .....................
.62+ 7879
hazards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. i 77.178
helmet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
hose construction ........................ 54
hoses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187
lead paints. hazards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .78-79
metering valves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .54.56, 187
. . . . . . . . . . . .56. 186
moisture separato
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
new steel . . . . . .
Abrasive recovery. centrifugal blast

23. 25
cleaning .............................
Abrasive velocities. centrifugal blast
24
cleaning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Abrasive volume. centrifugal blast
......................... 24
........................ 297
Abrasives. abrasive blast cleaning . . . . . . . . .57.58.
83.64 187
....................
.........................
189
57
. . . . .222.236
hardness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
57-58
. . . . . . . . .187
inspection . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
metallic . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
metallic. anchor pattern .
metallic. breakdown . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 38.39
metallic. cast steel . . . . . .
metallic. characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
58
metallic. chemical properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
metallic. chilled cast iron . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .32. 34
metallic. common uses . .
metallic. consumption rate
metallic. cost of wear .....................
32
metallic. coverage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
metallic. cut steel wire . . . . . . . . . . .
metallic. de.flashing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
34
metallic. degree of cleaning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
metallic. effect of hardness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
metallic. failure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.38.39
metallic. flaking failures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .38
metallic. flow rates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
37
metallic. fracture failures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .36. 38
metallic. hardness . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . .38
metallic. history . . . . . . . . . .
metallic. impact energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .37. 40
metallic. impact life cycle . . . . . . . .
metallic. iron grit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
metallic. malleable iron . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .32. 34
nozzle materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
55
nozzle orifice size . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..55, i 8 8
nozzle size . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . .53
.56. 186
oil separators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . 6163
paint residue recovery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .78. 87
portable enclosures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
87
. . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
pressure pot . . . . . . . .
procedure . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . 58.59
production rates . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . 60. 76
profile . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . .58
283
regulations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
respirators ..............................
56
. . . . . . . . . . 6163
safety requirements
silicosis .................................
78
static electricity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.54.61
steam propelled ..........................
83
variables .............................
5960
venturi nozzles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
water curtain .....................
Abrasive feed. centrifug
............ 22
cleaning . . . . . . . . . . .
............55
Abrasive flow .........
Abrasive handlers. field painting ............. 223
Abrasive injection. water blast
cleaning .......
............... 64
metallic. microstructure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
metallic. operating mix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .39-41
metallic. physical properties . . . . . . . . . .32.34-35
metallic. production rates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
metallic. profile . . . . . . . . . .
metallic. selection . . . . . . . .
metallic. shot peening . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
metallic. size distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3941
metallic. size specifications
metallic. size versus coverag
metallic. size versus impact energy . . . . . . . . . . 36
metallic. steel grit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .58.60. 86
metallic. steel shot . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .58.86
metallic. surface cleaning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
metallic. surface etching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
metallic. velocity .........................
35
metallic. versus non-metallic
metallic. work mix . .
. .32. 37-41. 43-44
metallic. work mix re
nt . . . . . . . . . . . .40
metallic. zinc shot ........................
84
non-metallic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .45.51. 58. 296
nonmetallic. aluminum oxides . . . . . . . . . .46. 48.
non.metallic. breakdown
. . . . . . . . . . .49
non.metal1ic. breakdown
. . . . . . . . . . . 51
non.metallic. breakdown
non.metallic. by-product . . . . . . . . . . . . .4546. 50
non.metallic. carbon dioxide
pellets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . 83
non.metallic. characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
non.metallic. chemical propenies . . . . . . . . .48. 50
non-metallic. cherry pits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .84
non.metallic. coal slag . . . . . . . . . . . . . .58. 60. 62
non.metallic. consumption rates . . . . . . . . . . . . .60
non.metallic. copper slags . . . . .47. 48. 58. 60. 62
non.metallic. corncobs . . . . . . . . . .
non.metallic. degree of cleaning .
non.metallic. dense versus light . .
nonmetallic. density . . . . . . . . . . . .
non.metallic. dusting ...................... 50
non.metallic. environmental
constraints ............................
48
non.metallic. evaluation tests . . . . . . .
-51
non.metallic. flint . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
60
non.metallic. foundry castings . . . . . . . . . . . . . .47
non.metallic. free silica . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..48. 50
non.metallic. garnets . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 5 46. 48. 52
non.metallic.
non.metallic.
non.metallic.
non.metallic.
sands
nonrmetallic.
non.metallic.
non.metallic.
non.meta1lic.
non.metallic.
non.metallic.
non.rnetal1ic.
non.metallic.
non.metallic.
non.metallic.
non.metallic.
glass beads
hard versus SOA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .46
hardness
heavy mineral
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4546. 48
ice particles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .E3.84
49
impact ......................
large versus small . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
58
limestone ....................
magnetite . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
magnesium silicate . . . . . . . . . . . .58
manufactured . . . . . . . . . ..45-46. 50
metal smelting slags . . . . . . . . . . . 45
millscale surfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . .47
naturally occurring . . . . . . . . .45. 50
nickel slags . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .47. 58
non.metallic. novaculite ....................

non.metallic.
non.metallic.
non.metallic.
non.metallic.
non.metallic.
non.metallic.
non.metallic.
non.metaliic.
non.metallic.
non.metallic.
non.metallic.
non.metal1ic.
non.metallic.
non.metallic.
non.metallic.
non.metallic.
non.metallic.
non.metallic.
painted surfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . .47

peach pits . . . . . . . . . . . .
pH values . . . . . . . . . . . . .
physical properties . . . . . .
plastic pellets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
production rates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
47-48
profile ....................
48
recycling .....................
rusted surfaces . . . . . . .
.47
sands .......................
45
selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..46-48
shape . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . .46
sieve analy
silica sands . . . . . . . . . . . .45. 52. 60
silicon carbide . . . . . . . . . .46. 48 58
size
. . . . . . . . . . . . . 4647
size
slag
Not for Resale
nonmetallic. soluble chloride . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50

nonmetallic. staurolite . . .
non.metallic. surface finish . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .47
non.metallic. toxic contaminants . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
non.meta1lic. walnut shells ....... . 4 M . 58. 84
non.metallic. zinccoated ................... 84
non.metallic. zircon ....................
45-46
non.metallic. zirconium ....................
58
pH ...................
. . . . . . . . . . . 57
recycling . . . . . . . . . . . . .
....... .61. 86
. 57.58
shape . . . . . . . . . . . . .
........
52. 58. 60. 86
non-metallic. angular ......................

49
nonmetallic angular versus round .......... 46
non-metallic. boiler slags
.45. 47
45
specific gravity
.......................
water blast cleaning
. 57.58
......................
65
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Acceptance tests. paints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .213.221

Accessibility. pipeline painting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 351
Access and rigging, hazards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 546
falls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 547
guardrails. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 547
ladders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 546
lines and lanyards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
547
safety belts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 547
safety nets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
547
Accessories, ladders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168
scaffolding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
Accidents, painting bridges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 290
Acid cleaners, solvent cleaning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
Acid concentration, effect on
pickling rate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .107-108
Acid embrittlement, pickling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 1 1
Acrylic emulsion, paints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .381-382
Acrylic epoxy, paints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 431
Additives, toxic materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
Adhesion failures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.14,66
causes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 1
Adhesion failures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .14,66. 495-500
Adhesion, chemically bonded. . . . . . .
cross-cut test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
effect of rust inhibitors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .66. 81
effect of surface contaminants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
paint to metal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . i 0
penknife test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204
physical . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204,341
zinc-rich primers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 3. 133-135
Adjustable wheels. Centrifugal
blast cleaning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
Administration. painting programs . . . . . . . . . . . . 396
Aerial supports, bosun's chairs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
rigging . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.168,170-171
safety . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.173-174
scaffolding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.171-174
work cage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171-172
After-blast primers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.295-296
Agitation. effect on pickling rate . . . . . . . . . .107-108
Air and Waste Management Association.
592
address . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Air consumption versus nozzle
size, blast cleaning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
Air consumption, abrasive blast
cleaning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
Air fed respirators, respiratory
.177-178
protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Air powered machines, rotary
cleaning tools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.71-72
Air pressure. adjustment, spray
technique . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
165
Air quality
lead ....................... 560, 562,568-569
ozone and volatile organic compounds . . . . . . 561
particulates. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..560.562, 569-571
Air quality monitoring. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .568-571
duration of testing and placement
of monitors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 571
lead . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 568
need. for paint removal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . -570-571
particulates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.570-571
Air quality regulations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..560-572
Clean Air A c t . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .558,560
Clean Air Act Amendments . . . . . . . .558.560-565
federal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.558,560-572
hazardous air pollutants . . . . . .558,560-562,564
lead . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .558,560-561,568-569,571
National Ambient Air Quality
Standards . . . . . . . . . . . .558,560. 562, 568-569
ozone and VOCS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .558.561-567
particulates ....................
.558,569-570
state and local . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Air spray, application production rates . . . . . . . . 160
application technique . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .164-165
comparison with airless spray . . . . . . . . . . . . .162
equipment., . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .156-162.194
field painting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223
gun . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
156
paint application . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .156-157. 160.
194 196
Ai: supply couplings, abrasive blast
cleaning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
Air supply hose, abrasive blast cleaning . . . . . . . . 53
Air supply, abrasive blast cleaning ....... .53,188

93
Ab27940 0004104 T T O
primers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
primers. formulation . . . .
Antifouling coatings . . . . . . . . . . . . . .6.298.299. 592
Federal Insecticide. Fungicide and
Rodenticide Act . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 592
foulant release coatings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .592
Organotin Antifouling Paint Act . . . . . . . . . . . . 592
regulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
592
zebra mussels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
592
Appearance in container. paints. tests . . . . . . . .212
Appearance properties, binders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
Appearance. painting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280
Application characteristics,
194. 196
paints, tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
safety . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176. 544 Application equipment, paints . . . . . . . . . . .
spray technique . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
Application properties. binders . .
Alcohols. solvents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
123
qualify control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 252
Application-related paint failures . . . . . . . . . .505-510
Application technique air spray . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
inside corners . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
adducts and polyamides .
. . . . . . . . . . 541
inspection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196
urethane binders . . . . . . . .
. . . . .ll9-120 Application, paint . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .150-167
Applicator. evaluation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 357
surface preparation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
Apprenticeship training of painters . . . . . . . . . . . 249
Alkali silicate. zinc-rich primers . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 2-13 Approval. painting programs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 421
Alkyd. binders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .118.121-122 138 Architectural and Industrial
paints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1 5. 381-382.416
564
Maintenance Coatings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
vehicles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 338
Clean Air Act . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.558.560
Alkyd paints. health hazards . . . . . . . . . . . . .540-541
Alkyl silicates. zinc-rich primers . . . . . . . . . . .13.127
Standards . . . . . . . . . . .558,560. 562. 568. 571
Alligatoring. failures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .489-490 Arch span bridges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280
Aluminum oxides. non-metallic
Aromatic. hydrocarbon solvents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
urethane binders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .119-120
abrasives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .46.48. 52.58. 60.86
Asphalt enamel, paints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 351
Aluminum-related failures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 501
Aluminum. coatings. thermal spray . . . . . . .457-458. Asphalt mastic, extruded . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 353
paints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.352-353
460-461.463
flake pigments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
144 ASTM-D 1640 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
ladders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
168 Atlas Test Cell . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.322-323
painting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .145,434. 524 Atmospheric weathering, paints,
358
tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
pigments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 17. 338
surface preparation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .387.400 Atmospheric exposure environments . . . . . .338-339,
381-382,385
Ambient conditions measurements.
inspection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183-185 Atmospheric exposure environments,
paints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 347
Ambient curing. zinc-rich
primers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.126-127 Automatic spray . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257
Azelaic acid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
138
American Bureau of Shipping
survey requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .294.299
American Conference of Governmental
Industrial Hygienists . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .123,538
American National Standards
Institute . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
Back to back angles. coating failures . . . . . . . . . 512
American Petroleum
Bacterial cleaning. surface
Institute. address . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 592
.84.85
preparation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
American Railway Bridge and
Bacterial exposure environments . . . . . . . . . . . . 429
Building Association . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .263.269
Ballast tanks. ships. painting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 305
American Railway Engineering
Barges. fresh water service . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 307
Association . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263
paint residue recovery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
American Society for Testing
. . . . . . . . . . . . . .309,311-312
and Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216
gments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
address . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 450
American Society of Safety Engineers . . . . . . . . 554
Barrier. coatings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
paints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .lo-11,280. 298, 331
American Water Works Association . . . . . . . . . . .315
paints, choice of vehicle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 1
address . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 592
primers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10
Ammonium silicates. zinc-rich
protection, zinc-rich primers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
.126-127
primers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
thermal spray coatings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .458
Analysis. pickling baths . . . . . . . . . . . . .108-110.112
Barriers, safety . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180
Anatase titanium dioxide. pigments . . . . . . . . . . . 140
Basic lead silico-chromate
Anchor pattern. abrasive blast
.140-141.
245
pigments ......................
cleaning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
measurements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..189.192-193 Batelle Memorial Institute . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
Baths. immersion. phosphating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
metallic abrasives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .37.40-41
spray. phosphating ......................
100
Angle of impingement. centrifugal
Beam span, bridges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
280
blast cleaning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
Bendability, paints, tests .................... 357
Angular versus round, non-metallic
46 Bids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238-240
abrasives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
invitation for . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
238
Angular. non-metallic abrasives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .49
maintenance painting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 426
Angular profiles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Animal bristles. brushes .....................
93 Bilge areas. ships. painting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 304
Binders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .11 8-120
Anodic areas. corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5. 365
acrylic latex ........................
.121-122
Anodic inhibitors. pigments . . . . . . . . . ..6.138. 146
aliphatic urethane . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Anodic passivation ........................
142
alkyd ......................
1
adsorption ............................. 143
appearance properties . . . . . . . .
precipitation . . . . . . . . . . . . .
application properties ....................
121
Anodic reactions. corro
catalyzed epoxy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 391
Anlicorrosion, paints .
chlorinated rubber . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .119,121-122
pigments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1 1 7,122. 138-149
cleanliness. blotter test

spray painting . . . . . . .
Air-powered tools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
297
Air-wash separator. cenlri
blast cleaning . . . . . . .
. . . . . .23.25
Air-water-sand blast cleaning . . . . . . . . . . . . ..79.81
Airless spray. application production
rates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
compa!ison with air spray . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
equipmenl . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
field painting . . . . . . . . . . . .
gun . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
157
paint application . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .157.159-160.
Not for Resale
S S P C CHAPTERx27.3
coal tar epoxy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 18

comparisons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
curing methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . l l 7.118
dermatitic materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
durability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
epoxy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
118
epoxy ester . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . .118,391
epoxy lacquer ..........................
118
epoxy polyamide . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
epoxy polyamine ........................
118
inorganic . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
inorganic silicate . . . . . . . .
146,245
long oil alkyd . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
391
oil-based . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
119
oiticica oil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
paints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
117
performance properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .121
phenolic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.119,121-122
polyurethane . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
primer, purpose of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243
polyvinyl butyral . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243
safety . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
176
silicone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
sjlicone alkyd . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
styrene-based . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1 19
thermoplastic . . . . . . . . . .
thermosetting . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . 11
toxic materials . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . 179
t u n g ~ i.l . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
138
two-component epoxy . . . . . . . . . . . .ll8,121-122
urethane . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
vinyl . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.120-122
vinyl acetate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
vinyl butyral . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
vinyl chloride . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
120
vinyl copolymer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 391
vinyl-alkyd . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
water-borne . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
zinc-rich primers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
Bins, painting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 270
Bituminous enamels, paints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 351
Black light test, surface contaminants . . . . . . . . .401
Blast cleaning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 273
abrasive air . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .52.63 295-296
abrasive air, equipment . . . . . . . . . . .248,250-251
abrasive characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .57.58
abrasives, inspection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187
centrifugal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .22.32. 34
closedcycle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
295
dust-free . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
equipment. abrasive air . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .52-63
equipment. centrifugal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .249.250
equipment, inspection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186189
equipment. pressure type . . . . . . . ..52.55,57,59
equipment. suction type . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .52.56
equipment, vacuum recovery . . . . . .52.56 85-87
field versus shop . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227
inspection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
188
interiors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . -60
mechanics. metallic abrasives . . . . . . . .35,37-38
metallic abrasives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3244,295
non-metallic abrasives . . . . . . . . . . . . . .4551.296
nozzle size, abrasive consumption . . . . . . . . . . .53
nozzle size versus air consumption . . . . . . . . . . 53
regulations .............................
291
respiratory protection .....................
52
room . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251
safety . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176. 545
selection of metallic abrasives ..... .38.39. 4243
selection of non-metallic abrasives . . .
shop versus field . . . . . . . . . .
versus pickling, paint life . . .
water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
water, high pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .295-297
Blast couplings. abrasive blast cleaning . . . . .54-55
Blast enclosures, centrifugal blast
.23,25
cleaning ............................
Blast furnaces, painting . . . . . . .
Blast hoods, abrasive blast cleaning ........ 56-57
Blast hoses, abrasive blast cleaning ....... .54- 55
Blast nozzles, abrasive blast cleaning . . . . . . . . . .60
Blast pattern centrifugal blast
.22-23
cleaning .............................
93 I8627940 0004L05 937
Blast wheel. centrifugal blast

.22.23.25
cleaning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Bleeding failures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 508
Blistering. causes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .io.12. 102.103.
105. 112. 139

failures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.495.498
osmotic
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
Blotter test. air supply. cleanliness . . . . . . . . . . . 186
Blushing, coal tar epoxy paints . . . . . . . . . .380.383
Blushing. failures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 508
Boiler slags. nonmetallic abrasives . . . . . . . .45.47
Boom lift. ground supports . . . . . . . . . . . . . .169.170
Booths. painting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257
Boottops. painting cyst
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .302
ships. painting . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 303
Borosilicate pigments .
.......
. 142
. 171
Bosun's chairs. aerial supports . . . . . .
painting bridges. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. 290
Breakdown rates, non-metallic
abrasives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
Breakdown test. nonmetallic abrasives . . . . . . . . 51
Breakdown. abrasives. test for rate . . . . . . . . . . . .58
metallic abrasives .....................
.38.39
non-metallic abrasives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
Breathing air. abrasive blast cleaning . . . . . . . . . . 62
Bridge crews. painting. railroad . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 272
Bridges. arch span . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
-280
beam span . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280
costs. surface preparation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 284
decks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269.280
design features . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263
designs for corrosion prevention . . . . . . . . . . . 264
exposure environment. railroad . . . . . . . . . . . . 264
exposure environments. highway . . . . . . .281.283
field painting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
283
floor beams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269
girder . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
269
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280-292
inspection, highway . . . . . . . . . . . . . .281.288-289
inspection. railroad . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269
laterals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
-269
life expectancy. paints. highway . . . . . . . .287.288
maintenance painting, highway . . . . . . . .281.282.
287-288
open deck . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280
paint application. highway . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 284
painting costs. railroad
. . . . . . . . . . . . 269
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 290
painting. accidents . .
fire hazards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 290

health hazards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .289.290
ladders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
290
life lines .......................
290
. . . . 290
painting. regulations ..................... 290
painting systems. highway . . . . . . . . . . . . .284.288
pre-painting surface conditions,
.281-282
highway . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
railroad. painting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.263.279
rigid span . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
solid deck .......................
statistics. highway . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 283
stringers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
269
superstructures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
269
surface preparation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .283.284
suspension span . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280
through and overhead ....................
280
tonnage and surface area . . . . . . . . . . . . .269.270
truss span . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280
zinc-rich primers ....................
.135.136
British Iron and Steel Research
Association . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
Brush versus spray. paint
256
application .............................
Brush. paint application . . . . . . . . . . . .150.152-154,
painting.
painting.
painting.
painting.
196.256,274.275.
284.343
Brushes. animal bristles .....................
93
application production rates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
Chinese hog . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . 154
cleanup ...............................
166
horsehair ..............................
154
natural fibers ............................
93
nylon ..............................
153-154
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

632
Not for Resale
paint. construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ,153.154

paint. conventional . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .153.154
painl, flat . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . .153.154
paint. oval . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . .153.1 54
paint. sash . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . i53
paint, wall . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .i53.154
plastic bristles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
polyester . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.153.154
solvent cleaning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
wire . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
wire. hand tool cleaning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68.69
wire. rotary cleaning tools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .70.71
Buddy system. safety . . . . . . . .
Budgets painting programs . . .
Bureau of Reclamation. address . . . . . . . . . . . . . 450
specifications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
449
Buried structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268
Burn-resistant paints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 303
Burnished. profiles . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
Burnishing power tool cleaning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
Burrs. hand tool cleaning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
power tool cleaning .......................
70
By-product. non-metallic abrasives . . . . . . .4546.50
C
Cable supported scaffolding . . . . . . . . . . . . .170.171
Calcium barium phosphosilicate.
pigments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
Calcium borosilicate. pigments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
Calcium carbonate. pigments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
Calcium phosphosilicate. pigments . . . . . . . . . . . 142
Calcium strontium phosphosilicate
pigments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
Calcium zinc molybdate. pigments . . . . . . . . . . . 142
Calibration, dry film thickness
gages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199-201
Calibration standards. dry film
.199.201
thickness gages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
California Air Resources Board . . . . . . . . . . . . . 290
California Department of
.87.286
Transportation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Carbon dioxide pellets. non-metallic
83
abrasives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Cargo boxes. barges. painting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 312
Cargo carriers. zinc-rich primers . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
Cargo holds. ships. painting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 305
Cargo tanks. ships. painting . . . . . . . . .293.304-305
Case hiclories. materials selection . . . . . . . . . . . 399
zinc-rich primers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.135.136
Cast steel abrasives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .32.34
Catalysts. safety . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
Cathode. effect of location upon
5
corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Cathodic areas. corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5.365
Cathodic disbonding. paints. tests . . . . . . . . . . . . 358
pipelines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 350
Cathodic inhibitors. pigments . . . . . . . . . . . .138.145
Cathodic pigments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
Cathodic polarization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
140
Cathodic protection . . . . . . . . . . . .267.268.280. 355
basic theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.364365
coatings with ....................
.7.363-364
construction of system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . -372-373
current flow ........................
.366-367
design of system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .369.372
electrical potential . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..365.367
evaluating effectiveness . . . . .
galvanic anodes . . . . . . . . . . .7.367.368. 370-371.
373.375
hydrogen evolution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
366
impressed current . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7.11. 299.
368.369. 371 .373. 375-376

pigments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138-139
pipelines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .349.350,365376
pipelines in permafrost . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
sacrificial anodes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
shipbottoms ......................
stray currents ......................
.373.374
system maintenance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .375-376
system operation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .375.376
thermal spray coatings ................... 458
. . . . . . . . .7
throwing power ............
zinc-rich primers . . . . . . .6. 13. 129. 131, 133-134
S S P C C H A P T E R * 2 7 = 3 9 3 E 8 6 2 7 9 4 0 0004106 8 7 3
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Cathodic reaction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Cathodic reactions. corrosion
of steel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-4
Cavitation erosion. exposure
environments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.339.340
Cellosolve silicates. zinc-rich
primers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
i27
Cement mortar. application . . . . . . . . . . . . . .343.344
linings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.332.333.336
Centrifugal blast cleaning . . . . . . . . . . . . . .22.32. 34
abrasive feed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
22
abrasive recovery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.23.25
abrasive velocities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
abrasive volume . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
abrasives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
adjustable wheels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
-27
advantages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
23
air-wash separator ....................
.23.25
angle of impingement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
23
blast enclosure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.23.25
blast patiern .........................
.22.23
blast wheel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.22.23.25
degree of cleaning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
dust collector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.23.25
equipmenl . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.188.249-250
equipment selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .28.29
gantrycrane . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
hand-held systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
30
in-line systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.23.24
inspection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188
machines. operation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .23.25
pipelines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 351
portable systems . . . . . . . . . . . . .23.28.30. 86-87
post-fabrication system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .25.28
pre-fabrication systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . .24.26-27
rate of cleaning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
roll conveyors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . -26-27
self-propelled systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
ship deck systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
ship hull systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
ship side systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
shipbottom systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
ships . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
295
shop cleaning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.26.28
wheel travel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
25
work car . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . -25.26
work handling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23, 25. 27-29
Chalking. failures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.487-488
Characteristics. thermal spray
coatings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
457
Checking. failures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .488-489.494
Chemical analysis. paint tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21 7
Chemical bonding. adhesion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .10
zinciich primers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .128.i33
Chemical cleaning. government
specifications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
92
surface preparation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .90.97
Chemical coatings. phosphating . . . . . . . . . . .98.103
Chemical curing. paints . . . . . . . . . . . . . .15.16. 117
Chemical exposure environments.
513
failures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Chemical exposures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268
Chemical inhibition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
139
Chemical plant painting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .412-419
Chemical plants. exposure
412
environments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Chemical properties metallic abrasives . . . . . . . . 35
non-metallic abrasives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .48. 50
Chemical reactions. paints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
pigment-vehicle combinations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
pigments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
138
zinc-rich primers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .126.128-130
Chemical resistance. failures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 495
paints. tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 358
zinc-rich primers ........................
134
Chemical resistant paints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 397
Chemical separator. lining . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 321
Chemical versus physical cleanliness . . . . . . . . . . 20
Chemical, exposure environments . . . . . . . B O .429
Cherty pits, non-metallic abrasives . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
Chilled cast iron abrasives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .32.34
Chinese hog brushes . . .
Chip blow line. painting ....................
422
Chipper. rotary. rotary impact
72
cleaning tools ............................
Chipping hammers, hand tool cleaning . . . . . . 6849

impact cleaning tools . . . .

69-70
Chisels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . 297
imDact cleanina tools . . . .
.69.70
Chloiides. soluble non-metallic abrasives . . . . . .50
Chlorides. surface contaminants . . . . . . . . . . 1O. 297
Chlorinated rubber. binders . . . . . . . . .119,121.122
paint application . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
150
paints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.15.315. 392.
415. 483
Chlorinated solvents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
123
solvent cleaning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.90-91
Choke valves. abrasive blast
cleaning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
56
Chromate-free acid rinses.
.......................
103
nts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
147
Chromates. pigments . . . . . . . . . . . l l . 144-145.246
pigments. solubilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 497
rust inhibitors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
Chromic acid rinses. phosphating . . . . . . . . 102-103
Chromic acid. pickling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
105
Chromium paints. hazards. abrasive
blast cleaning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.78-79
Chromium. regulated materials . . . . . . . . . . . .il. 79
Circular nozzles. water blast cleaning . . . . . . . . . . 65
Citric acid cleaning. surface
preparation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
85
Clean Air Act Amendments . . . . . . . . . .558.560-568
architectural and industrial maintenance
564
coatings rule . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
hazardous air pollutants . . .558.560-562.564-565
maximum available control technology . .560.564
summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 562-563
Cleaners. acid. solvent cleaning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
alkali. solvent cleaning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . -90-91
detergent. solvent cleaning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
safety . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
Cleaning shop. fabricating plants . . . . . . . . .247-248
Cleaning. field welds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259
shop welds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259
steel to be enclosed in concrete . . . . . . . . . . . 243
welds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 308.311-312
Cleanliness. abrasives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
between coats . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202-203
paint application equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
surface preparation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
189
Cleanup. brushes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
mitts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
paint application equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
rollers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
spray equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
166
water-borne paint application . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
Clean Water Act . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
558
Clemtex Coupons. profile measurements . . . . . . 192
Closedcycle blast cleaning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295
Coal slag. non-metallic abrasives . . . . . . . . . .60.62
Coal tar enamel. paints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .315.351
Coal tar e w x v . binders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 1 8
paints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .16.315-316.334.335.
...
355. 379.381. 383.

387 392
paints blushing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.380,383
Coal tar. linings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.333.336
paints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.333.335
paints. application . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 344
paints. environmental constraints . . . . . . . . . . . 333
tapes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 355
Coalescence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
Coalescing paints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 1 7-118
Coated abrasives. rotary cleaning tools . . . . . .70-71
Coated abrasives. safety. power

tool cleaning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
Coating operations. effects on the environment
abrasive blast cleaning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 556
impad on acquatic life . . . .
paint application . . . . . . . . .
product storage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 557
waste production ........................
557
Coating system. with cathodic
protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Coating systems. design . . . . .
Coatings. aluminum, thermal spray . . . . . . .457-458.
barrier . . . .
cathodic pr
concrete . .
..........
633
Not for Resale
designs for corrosion prevention . . . . . . . .528.537

extruded . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.353.354
fusion-bonded . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .354.355
hot dip galvanizing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .465.480
iron phosphate . . . . . . . . .98.99,101.103 112-114
mechanism of corrosion prevention . . . . . . . . . . . 3
metallizing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.456-464
osmotic effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
phosphating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
98-103
pipeline, desirable
characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .349.351
powder . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .335,337,354-355
protection mechanisms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . i 0.18
suppliers, painting programs . . . . . . . . . . .377.378
tape . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 337,355-356
thermal spray . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.456-464
thermosetting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 354
water absorption . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
-4
wax . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 356
zinc phosphate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .98.103
zinc silicate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
zinc, hot-dip galvanized . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .465.480
zinc, thermal spray . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .457-458,
460-461,463
Code of Federal Regulations . . . . . . . . . . . .548,558
Coefficient of friction, zinc-rich
primers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .133.134
Cofferdams, ships, painting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 306
Cohesion failures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
causes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . t 1
Coke oven plants, painting . . . . . . . . . . . . . .390.395
paints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 390
Cold weather, painting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
248
Colloidal silica, zinc-rich
primers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
Colloidal dispersions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
Color selection, painting programs . . . . . . . . . . . 420
Color, specifications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 347
Colors, abrasives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
57
safety . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 306,393.394, 420,481
Comparators, profile measurements . . . . . . . . . . 192
Compatibility between coats of paint . . . . . . . . . . . 14
Compatibility, maintenance painting . . . . . .272.416
Composition specifications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 448
Composition
abrasives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57-58
millscale . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
paints, tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
212
pigments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
Comprehensive Environmental Response,
Compensation and Liability
Act . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 559,580, 563-585
environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 564
hazardous substance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 580 584
National Response Center . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 585
release . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 584
reportable quantities . . . . . . . . . . . . .580,584-585
Superfund . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
558
threat of release . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 584
violations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 584
Compressed air cooled aftercoolers . . . . . . . . . . . 62
Compressed air standard OSHA . . . . . . . . . . . . . 550
Compressor size, abrasive blast
cleaning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
Concrete encased steel. painting . . . . . . . .247,278
Concrete pipe, painting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 422
Concrete-related failures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .501,503
Concrete, coatings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 356
painting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .394,422,432-433
surface preparation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 387, 432
Conductive extenders, zinc-rich
primers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.12.14, 131-132
Conductor, electrical . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
electrolytic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.4,363-365
Configuration designs for
corrosion prevention . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .533.534
Confined spaces standard, OSHA . . . . . . . . . . . . 550
Construction industry standard OSHA . . . . .550-551
Consultation assistance, OSHA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 549
Consumption rates, metallic
abrasives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
non-metallic abrasives ..................... 60
Contact surfaces, painting . . . . . :. . . . . . . . .258-259
Containers sampling paints from . . . . . . . .213,216
Contaminants abrasives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
SSPC C H A P T E R * 2 7 = 3
surface. chlorides . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 297

surface. effect on adhesion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
surface. sulfates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . 297
Contaminated steel. painting . . . . . . .
. . . 273
Contamination intercoat. maintenance
painting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 425
Continuous hot dip galvanizing . . .
. . . . . 478
Contractors
maintenance painting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .425-426
painting. railroad . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
272
.238-240
Contracts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
cost and cost sharing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238
cost plus fixed fee . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
cost plus fixed fee and award . . . . .
cost plus incentive fee
. . . . . . . . . . . . 239
cost plus. inspection . .
......
fixed price. escalation . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
fixed price. firm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
fixed price. inspection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
fixed price. with incentive . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .238
fixed price. with redetermination . .
indefinite delivery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239
labor hour . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
letter .........................
Control valves. abrasive blast

55-56
cleaning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Controlled cavitation cleaning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .82
operator fatigue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
production rates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
profile . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
Conveyors. painting . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 422
Copper-related failures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 501
Copper slags. non-metallic abrasives . . . . . . .47-48.
60. 62
Copper. painting . . . . . . . . . .
surface preparation . . . . . .
Corncobs. non-metallic abrasives . . . . . . . . . .46. 48.
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Corner-related failures . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . 511
Corners. inside. applicatio
Corps of Engineers. specifications . . . . . . . . . . .449
Corrosion of steel. anodic reactions . . . . . . . . . . . 3-4
cathodic reactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-4
mechanisms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
millscale formation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3
pitting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6
rust formation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Corrosion prevention. designs for . . . . . . . . . 246-247
29-430. 528-537
designs for. bridges . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . 264
Corrosion survey. painting pr
Corrosion. anodic areas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5. 365
at discontinuities in a
5-6
paint film . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.5. 365
cathodic areas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
cells . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3. 5
direct current . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..268. 363-365
effect of cathode location . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
effect of dissimilar metals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .247
effect of film thickness .
effect of millscale . . . . .
effect of noble metals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247
effect of polarization upon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5
effect of resistance upon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-6
effect of steel composition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7
effect of stray electrical
currents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
effect of surface contaminants . . . . . . . . . . . . . .10
electrochemical ......................
.3. 349
electrochemical reactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .4. 139
.246. 267
electrolytic ........................
fresh water service . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 310
galvanic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.4. 6-7
8627940 0004107 7 0 T
Cost effectiveness. ships. painting . . . . . . . . . . .293

Cost of wear. metallic abrasives . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
Cost plus contracts. inspection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
Cost plus fixed fee and award
contract . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239
Cost plus fixed fee contract . .
238-239
Cost plus incentive fee contract . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239
Costs. abrasive blast cleaning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
abrasives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
estimating procedures. surface
preparation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. 76-77
.222-226,
field painting ......................
229. 235
field painting equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223
field painting example
calculation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
field painting labor . . . . . . . . . . .
field painting. malerials . . . . . . .
field painting. work sheet . . . . . .
field surface preparation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .75-77
fouling. Very Large Crude
Carriers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 294
hand tool cleaning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
hydroblasting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
181
inspection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
paint materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .231-234
painting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.229,
painting, breakdown . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
painting. comparative . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
painting discounted cash flow . . . . . . . . .403. 408
painting. highway bridges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .289
painting. railroad bridges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269
.
painting total structure life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226
pickling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
351
pipeline painting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
power too1 cleaning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
75
review. surface preparation . . . . . . . . . . . . . .75-77
shop painting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.229. 234
75
solvent cleaning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
surface preparation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .75-77. 401
surface preparation. bridges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 284
.462-463
thermal spray . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
water blast cleaning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .66-67. 76
wet abrasive blast cleaning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
Coverage versus size. metallic
abrasives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Coverage. metallic abrasives . . . . . . . . . . . . ..37. 40
Covered hopper barges. fresh
water service ......................
.307-308
.15 5-156
Covers. roller . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Cracking. failures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.489. 492
Cratering. failures .........................
508
Crevices. designs for corrosion
prevention . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
529
Critical pigment volume
concentration ....................
.11-12. 139
Cross-cut test. adhesion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204
Crude oil-resistant paints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .397
Cryogenic coating removal,
surface preparation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
85
Cure of coating. evaluation . . . . . . .
solvent rub test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Curing agents. health hazards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 541
Curing. binders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.117-1 18
341
inspection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.
.
.
.
paints. oxidation
..
zinc-rich primers .
Current flow. cathodic protection . . . . . . . . .366-367
Currents. stray electrical.
7
effect upon corrosion ......................
Cut steel wire abrasives ..................... 32
Cutter bundles. rotary impact
cleaning tools ........................
.72-73
3-4. 6
prevention. designs for . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .330. 418
prevention. function of coatings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
protection. painting ......................
280
reinforcing steel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
268
stray electric currents ....................
268
Corrugated siding. painting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 392
Cost accounting. pickling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
Cost and cost sharing contract ..............238
Damp surfaces. paint application . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150

Dams. painting .......................
.33 0.348
De.flashing. metallic abrasives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
Decks. bridges .......................
.26 9.280
...........................
.......................

Not for Resale
Decks painting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
312
Defects. hot dip galvanizing . . . . . . . . . . . . .475-477
Defense Supply Center . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 448
Degree of cleaning. centrifugal
blast cleaning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
effect on surface preparation . . . . . . . . . . . . . t 9-20
metallic abrasives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
Dense versus light. non-metallic
abrasives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
Density, measurements, paints.
tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211
. . . . . . . . . 46-47
non-metallic abrasives
Department of Agricultur
S . . . . . . . . . 591
Department of Defense Index
of Specifications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 449
Department of Defense,
specifications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 449
Department of Housing and Urban
Development Guidelines . . . . . . . . . .559. 591-592
Depth micrometers. profile
measurements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
192-193
Dermatitic materials, binders . . . . . . . . . . . . 179 542
safety . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
solvents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
Design Basis Accident, tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 442
Design features bridges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263
.to
Design. coating systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
considerations, hot dip
galvanizing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.470-472
for corrosion prevention . . . . . . . . . .246-247, 330.
418, 421, 429-430
for corrosion prevention.
bridges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
264
for corrosion prevention, coatings . . . . . . .534-536
dissimilar metals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
529
for corrosion prevention, economics . . . . . . . . 536
for corrosion prevention. geometry . . . . . .531-532
for corrosion prevention. insulation . . . . . . . . . 529
for corrosion prevention, joints . . . . . . . . . . . . . 246
for corrosion prevention,
maintainability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.535-536
for corrosion prevention, materials . . . . . .528-530
for corrosion prevention, mechanical . . . .532-533
pipe hangers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 246
steel grating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 246
for corrosion prevention, stiffeners
for corrosion prevention, surfaces .
for corrosion prevention
tank interiors . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
for corrosion prevention, vessels
Design-related paint failures . . . . . .
Design. for better painting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .246-247
for corrosion prevention . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .246-247
bridges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
264
joints. for corrosion prevention . . . . . . . . . . . . . 246
pipe hangers, for corrosion
prevention . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 246
steel grating, for corrosion
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 246
rosion prevention . . . . . . . . . .246
Detergent cleaners, solvent cleaning . . . . . . . . . . . 91
Detergent cleaning, foamed
94-95
detergent solution. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. 94-95
high pressure-hot . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Dew point, measurements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . t 8 4 -186
measurements. psychrometer . . . . . . . . . .18 4-186
Di-iron phosphide . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12. 14 131-132
Dial surface profile gage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186
Dichromates, rust inhibitors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .-66
Digital thermometer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
184
Dipping operations, thinnin
paints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . .256
Dipping procedure. hot dip
.468-470
galvanizing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Direct costs, surface preparation . . . . . . . . . . . . . .75
Direct currents. corrosion . . . . . . . . . . .268. 383-365
459
Disadvantages, sealers .....................
Discoloration, failures ...................... 494
Discontinuities in a paint
film. corrosion
. . . . . . . . . . . . 5-6
Discontinuity-related failures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 511
8627940 0004108 646
S S P C C H A P T E R k 2 7 . 3 93
Discounted cash flow. painting

costs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 403. 408
Dispersion. measurements. paints. tests . . . . . . . 211
Dispersions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
colloidal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
118
Dissimilar metals, design for
corrosion prevention . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .529-530
eflect on corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
247
Documentation, inspection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .181
surface preparation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
DOD-P-15328 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
DOD-P-16232 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
101
Drilling rigs. zinc-rich primers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
Drum handling equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256
Drum paint agitator, mixing
equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
Dry bulb temperature
measurements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.183-184
Dry film thickness gages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .198-201
gages, calibration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199-201
gages, eddy current . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
202
gages, Elcometer 300 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .197. 201
gages, Elcometer 345 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .194. 201
gages. Elcometer Minitest
100 F . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
196, 201
4000 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
197, 201
gages, Electro-Physik
Pentest . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
188
gages. magnetic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.199-201
gages, magnetic, pull-off . . . . . . . . . . . . ..199-201
gages, micrometer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .199-202
gages. microprocessor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202
gages, Mikrofest . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .188, 192. 201
gages. Minitest . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .196-197. 201
gages, Positector 6000 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .194, 201
gages, Ouanix 1500 FE . . . . . . . . . . . . . .196. 201
195. 201
2200 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2300 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195. 201
gages, Tooke . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198-199, 201
measurements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .165. 198-202,
244, 258, 318. 339
343
Drydocking, ships. painting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 293
Drying ovens . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257-258
Drying times, primers. versus
wetting ability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
245
252
quality control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Drying, cleaned steel. maintenance
painting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
425
painted steel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .259. 261
Dump guns. water blast cleaning . . . . . . . . . . . . .65
Dump valves, water blast cleaning . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
Durability, binders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
122
Dust collector, centrifugal blast
23, 25
cleaning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Dust-free blast cleaning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
Dust removal. surface preparation . . . . . . . . . . . . 342
Dust respirators, respiratory protection . . . .177-178
Dust, contaminated, abrasive blast
cleaning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
Dusting, non-metallic abrasives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
E
Ear protection. power tool cleaning . . . . . .
Economics. designs for corrosion
prevention . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 536
painting programs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .403. 408. 412
ship painting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
294
Eddy current. dry film thickness
gages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
198. 202
Edge-relaled failures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .510.51 1
Edge protection. maintenance
painting ............................... 425
Edge striping ........................
Elcometer 300 dry film
197
thicknessgages .........................
Elcometer. dry film
thickness gages . . . . . . . . .
Elcometer Pencil Pull-oif. dry film
thickness gages . . . . . . . . .
Electric arc gun. thermal spray .......... .456-457
Electric psychrometer . . . . . . . . . . . .
Electrical conductivity zinc-rich primers . . . . . . .129

Electrical conductor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
Electrical potential. cathodic
proteclion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.365.367
Electrical standard. OSHA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .550
Electrical tools. safety. power
tool cleaning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
Electrically driven machines. rotary
cleaning tools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 t
Electrochemical corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3. 349
Electrochemical inhibitors. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . -147
Electrochemical reactions corrosion . . . . . . . .4. 139
Electrochemical reactions. pigments . . . . . .138-139
Electrochemical tests. paints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 358
.478-479
Electrogalvanizing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Electrolytic conductor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .363-365
Electrolytic corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .246. 267
Electrolytic pickling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .114. 115
Electrostatic spray . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .257. 354 355
equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. i 62-164
paint application . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .160. 343
Electrostatic holiday detection
.203-204
instruments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Emission spectroscopy paint tests . . . . . . . . . . . 399
Emissivity paints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 397
Enamels. catalyzed epoxy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 381
painting systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 351
paints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.351-352
Enforcement. OSHA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 549
Environment-related paint failures . . . . . . . .513-514
Environmental constraints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20-21
coal tar paints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 333
.330. 347-348
painting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
painting navy ships . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
525
paints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 382
phosphating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
pickling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .104. 115
pigments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
solvent cleaning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.90. 96
surface preparation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .30. 78-79.
88. 324
tank painting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.315. 319
Environmental impact. surface
preparation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
Environmental Protection Agency . . . . . .72. 78. 81.
290. 315. 556-593
Environmental reactions. zinc-rich
primers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
128
Environmental regulations . . . . . . . . . .79. 246. 295.
556-594
air quality regulations . . . . . . . . . . . .558. 560-572
antifouling coatings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
592
Clean Air Act . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.558. 560
Clean Air Act Amendments . . . . . . . .558. 560-568
Clean Water Act . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .558. 580-582
Comprehensive
Environmental Response.
Compensation and Liability
AC1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .558. 580. 583-585. 589
federal acts and regulations . . . . . . . . . . .557-559
hazardous material regulations . . . . .559. 583-587
hazardous waste regulations . . . . . . .558. 573-579
591-592
miscellaneous . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 556-559
.559. 592
pesticides . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
regulatory agencies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 557
regulatory structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 557
Resource Conservation and
Recovery Act . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .558.573-578
Safe Drinking Water Act . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 558
soilquality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
559. 591
sources of information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .592-593
storage vessels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.587-591
Superfund Amendments and
Reauthorization Act . . . . . . . . .558-559. 585-587
Toxic Substances Control Act . . . . . . . . .559. 583
waste handling and
disposal regulations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .573-579
water pollution control regulations . .558. 580-583
268
Environmental zones .......................
Environmental zones. painting
systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.264-267
zone 10 ...............................
264
zone 2A ...........................
zone 2 8 ............................ 267-268
zone 3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
268
Not for Resale
Environments. resistance to. paints . . . . . .391. 415

lI.?.
391
Epoxy ester. binders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Epoxy lacquer. binders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . i i 8
Epoxy polyamide. binders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
paints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16. 355. 398. 415416. 433
Epoxy polyamine. binders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
paints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16. 355 398
Epoxy polyester. paints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 431
Epoxy. binders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
118
binders two-component . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .12 1-122
catalyzed. binders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 391
catalyzed. enamels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 381
catalyzed. paints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .382. 387
high-build. paints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .379-381. 387
linings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 323
paints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .15. 284 315-317.
335. 392. 432
Epoxy resins. health hazards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 541
Equipment. air spray . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .160-162. 194
airless spray . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .160-164. 194
blast cleaning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
188
blast cleaning. abrasive air . . . . . . . . . . . . . .52-63
blast cleaning. inspection . . . . . . . . . . . . . i 88-189
electrostatic spray . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .162-164
field painting. costs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223
heated spray . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
164
.422. 425
new. painting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
paint application . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .257. 401
painting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 394
pickling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11O 112-114
steam cleaning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93-94. 102
thermal spray . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.456. 462
two-component paint
application . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
two-component spray gun . . . . . . . . . . . .163. 165
water blast cleaning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65-66
Erosion. exposure environments . . . . . . . . . . . . 340
failures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .488. 513-514
Esters. solvents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
123
Etch surface preparation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
water blast cleaning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
Etching abrasive blast cleaning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
metallic abrasives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Ethyl silicates. zinc-rich primers . . . . . . . . . . 127-128
Evaluations
new paint materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
276
paint field tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
-219
paint service tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219
panel paint records . . . . . . . . . . . . . .215. 218-219
Evaporation times. solvents . . . . . . . . . . . . .120. 123
Explosive-propelled surface
preparation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
Exposure environments. abrasion . . . . . . . . . . . . 340
atmospheric . . . . . . . . . . . .338-339. 381-382 385
bacterial . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 429
buried structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268
cavitation erosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .339-340
chemical . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268.340.429
chemical plants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 412
erosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 340
frequently wet. fresh water . . . . . . . .267. 337-338
frequently wet. salt water. . . . . . . . . . . . . .267-268
highway bridges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .281. 283
humid interior . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
281
hydrogen sulfide . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.381-382
industrial . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.268. 281
interiors. dry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .382-383. 386
marine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.267-268. 281
mild . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 281
moist atmospheres . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .381. 384
navy ships . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 517
normally dry (rural) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
264
railroad bridges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 264
splash zones . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267
.380-381. 384
submerged . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
underground . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .268. 335-337
underwater . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 332-335
Exposure to gases. vapors. dusts and
mists standard. OSHA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .551
Extender pigments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
117
168
Extension ladders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Exterior areas. ships. painting . . . . . . . . . . .303-304
Exterior structural steel
painting ............................
431432
Extruded asphalt mastic ....................
353
Extruded coatings ....................
.353 - 3 9
SSPC C H A P T E R r 2 7 . 3 9 3 I 8627940 O O O Y L O 9 5 8 2
Extruded polyethylene .
Extruded polypropylene
Eye protection. goggles
hand tool cleaning . .
power tool cleaning .
safety . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . .353.354
. . . . . . . . . . . . . .353.354
. . . . . . . . . . . . .178, 549
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178
Fabric. roller covers . . . . . .

.156.1 57
Fabricated steel. surface
conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249
Fabricating plants. cleaning
shop . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
drum handling equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256
efficient layout . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247
inspection records . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
244
paint application . . . . . . . . .244. 251.252. 254-259
paint. house . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244
paint records . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244
painting costs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247
.242.262
painting in .........................
painting inspection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 260
painting shop . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.247.248
painting supervision . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 260
production lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248
quality control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.252. 254
safety . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . -261.262
selection of primer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243
surface preparation . . . . . . . . . . . . . .242.243, 249
training of painters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249
training of workers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248
Fabricators, pre-job review
of specifications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247
Factory application. phosphating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
Failures, abrasion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .513.514
adhesion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14. 66
adhesion. causes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . i 1
alligatoring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.489-490
aluminum-related . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 501
at intermittent welds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 332
back to back angles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 512
bleeding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 508
blistering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .139. 495-4913
blistering, causes . . . . .lo. 12. 102.103. 105. 112
blushing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 508
chalking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 487488
checking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.48&189, 494
chemical exposure environments . . . . . . . . . . -513
chemical resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
495
cohesion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
i4
cohesion, causes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
il
concrete-related . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.501, 503
copper-related . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 501
corner-related . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 511
cracking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.489. 494
cratering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 508
discoloration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 494
discontinuity-related . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 511
.510-511
edge.related . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
erosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. W .513-514
faying surfaces .........................
514
filiform corrosion, causes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . i 2
flaking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 498
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 507-508
intercoat delamination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .499.500
lifting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 508
metallic abrasives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..36. 38-39
microorganism-related . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 491
248
millscale lifting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
505
mixingrelated ..........................
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 490, 494
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 508509
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 506507
.................... 276
paints, adhesion-related
paints application-related . . . . . . . . . . . . . 505-510
paints, causes . . . . . . .
274. 486515
paints. design-related . .
paints, environment-rela
paints, formulation-related . . . . . . . . . . . . . 487495
paints. prevention . . . . . . . . . .
. .486-515
. .500-505
paints, substraterelated . . . . .
peeling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.498-499
507
pinholes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
pinpoint rusting . . . . . _. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
pipe structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 513
runs and sags . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 509-510
scaling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 498
shop primers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250
spatter coating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
507
steel-related . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .500-501, 503
storage tanks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 513
sulfide discoloration. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 494
506
thickness-related . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
thinning-related . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 505
undercutting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .139, 500-501
underfilm corrosion, causes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
water tank lining . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 322
weather-related . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.505.506
weld-related . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 511
wood-related . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.502.503
wrinkling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 491
zinc-related . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .501.502
Faying surfaces, designs for
corrosion prevention . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 529
painting . . . . . . . . .
zinc-rich primers . .
Federal Acquisition R
. . . . . . . .448
Federal Highway Administration . . . . . . . . .283, 289
Federal Register . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 548
Federal specifications
448-449
Federal Specifications and
Standards, Index of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 449
Federal Standard No 595
Colors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 449
Federal Supply Classification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 450
Federal Supply Classification
Listing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 449
Federal Test Method Standard
No 141 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 449
Federation of Societies for
Coatings Technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216
Fence rollers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
Fence painting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 270
Ferric molybdate, pigments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
Fiberglass, ladders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168
Field application, phosphating . . . . . . . . . . . .99, 102
Field bolt heads, paint
application . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 278
Field coating, paint application . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 342
Field history, materials selection . . . . . . . . . . . .-322
.250, 278
Field painting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
223
abrasive blasting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
abrasive handlers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223
abrasives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223-224
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223
223
airless spray . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
bridges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
costs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
costs, equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
-223
costs, example calculation . . . . . . . . . . . . .224.226
costs, labor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .222.223
costs, materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .223-224
costs, work sheet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..236-237
223
helpers ................................
271
new steel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
paint application ........................
223
paints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224
pot tender . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
222
..........
223
riggers . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .271
shop primed steel ....................... 271
solvents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
224
supervisors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
223
Field surface preparation, costs . . . . . . . . . . . .75-77
Field tests, materials
.322, 331, 399
selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
paint evaluations ........................
219
220
panel preparation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
panel racks ............................ 219
performance evaluations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220
test panels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219
Field topcoating, specifications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 430
Field versus shop, blast
.227, 421
cleaning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Field versus shop, paint
application . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

Not for Resale
Field welding. surface

preparation after . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277
Field welds. cleaning and
259
painting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Filiform corrosion. causes . . . . . . . . . .
Film characteristics. paints
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211
on. latexes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
15
Film properties. paints. tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211
278
Film thickness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
calculations from volume
Solids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.197.1 98
dry. measurements . . . . . . . . . . . . . .165. 198.202.
244. 258 318. 339
effect on paint life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271
effect on paint performance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
effect upon corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
-5-6
finish coats . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
14
measurements. effect of
profile . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
200
paint application . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .166. 196-202
wet. measurements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.165.
196-198. 258
13
zinc-rich primers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Fingerprinting. paints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 398
Finish coats. film thickness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
.14.16
selection of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
selection of pigments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
16
vehicles. properlies of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
17
Finished product. paints. quality
207-210
control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
quality acceptance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213
Fire . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 539-540
extinguishers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
540
prevention . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 540
Fire hazards. painting bridges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 290
Fire protection tanks. painting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 316
Fireproofed steel. painting . . . . . . . . . .243. 247. 278
First aid. safety . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180
Fish oil. paints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
15
Fixed price contract
238
escalation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
firm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
238
with incentive . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238
with redetermination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238
inspection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
182
499
Flaking failures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
38
metallic abrasives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Flame cleaning surface
preparation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
Flash points. solvents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120. 123
Flash rusting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
Flashblast. surface preparation . . .
Flat brushes. paint . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.153.154
Flexibility. paints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
14. 397
Flexible flaps. rotary impact
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72.73
cleaning tools
Flint. non-metalli
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .45.
58. 60
Floor beams. bridges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269
Florida Department of
Transportation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 286
Flow coating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
257
Flow rates. metallic abrasives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .37
Flue gas stack. painting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 445
Foamed detergent cleaning.
solvent cleaning ......................
.94.95
Food and Beverages. coating contact
. . . . . . . . . .591
Food processing plants.

painting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 429441
painting systems .....................
437440
regulations .............................
436
Footner process. pickling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .112.1 13
214
Forms. paint application ....................
panel paint records . . . . . . . . . . . . . .215. 218-219
Formulation. anticorrosion
primers . . . . . . . . .
paints. quality control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .207.208
practices. primers . . . . .
. . . . . . . . .245246

Fouling. effect on ship
operating costs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 294
foundry castings. non-metallic
47
abrasives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Fracture failures. metallic
abrasives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36. 38
Free silica. non-metallic
abrasives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48. 50
Frequently wet exposure
environments paints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 347
Frequently wet exposure. fresh
water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267
salt water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.267.268
Fresh water service. abrasion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 308
barges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 307
corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 310
corrosion of vessels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .307.309
covered hopper barges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .307.308
hopper barges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
307
new work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 310
old work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 310
painting. ships and vessels . . . . . . . . . . . .307.314
tank barges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 307 309
towboats . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .307. 310-311
types of vessels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 307
Fresh water vessels maintenance
painting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 311
painting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .31 1.313
painting systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 313
pretreatments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 310
surface preparation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .310.31 1
wash primers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 310
Fresh water. frequently wet
exposure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267. 337-338
Fuel oil tanks. painting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 316
Fusion coatings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.335. 337
Fusion-bonded coatings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .354.355
Gages. dry film thickness . . . . . . . . . . . . . .16 5.166

wet film thickness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .165.166
Galvanic anodes. cathodic
protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.7. 367.368,
370.371, 373. 375
Galvanic corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .4. 6-7
Galvanic couple . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.7
Galvanic primers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1O. 331
Galvanic protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
Galvanized decking. painting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . -431
Galvanized roofing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268
Galvanized roofing, painting . . . . . . . . . . . .270. 393
Galvanized sieel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263
chemical treatments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 483
. . . . . . . . . .122. 145, 339, 394. 434,
481.485, 523
painting systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.48 1-485
painting. problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 482483
painting. synergism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 481
painting, tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 484
reasons for painting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
-481
repair systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 485
surface preparation . . . . . .387, 400, 434. 482484
wash primer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 483
weathering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 483
Galvanizing . . . . . . . . . . . . . .125, 128. 335. 337-339
compared with zinc-rich
primers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.132.133
hot dip, coatings. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .46 5-480
pickling for . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
479
specifications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
versus zinc-rich primers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227
Gantry crane, centrifugal blast
cleaning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
Garnets. non-metallic abrasives . . . . . . . . . . . .4546,
48 52, 58, 60. 86
Gas chromatography. paint tests . . . . . . . . . . . .216.
398-399
........................... 145
102
Gels, phosphating .........................
General duty clause, OSHA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 548
General industry standard, OSHA . . . . . . . . . . . . 550

= Bb27940
0004110 2 T 4
Ground fault circuit interrupters . . . . . . . . . . . . . .546

General Services Administration . . . . . . . . .448.450
address . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
450
Geography. pipeline painting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 351
Geometry. designs for corrosion
prevention . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. 5 30.532
Girder span. bridges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
280
Girlars. bridges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269
Glass beads. non-metallic
.46-47. 58
abrasives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Glass transition temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
Glycol ethers solvents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
123
Goggfes. eye protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . i 7 8
Golden Gate Bridge. zinc-rich
primers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
136
Government painting practices . . . . . . . . . . .448-451
Government regulations . . . . . . . .290-291. 293. 349
.182. 538-555
safety . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Government specifications . . . . . . . . . . . . . .448-451
chemical cleaning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
phosphating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
Gratings. steel. painting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 422
Grease paints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
275
Grease removal. surface
preparation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 342
Grit. metallic. size
specifications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
Ground supports. boom lit . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169-170
168-169
ladders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
portable . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169-170
scaffolding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.168-169
scissors lift . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . i 69-170
Grounding. abrasive blast
54-55. 61-62
cleaning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Guide to US Government
Paint Specifications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 449
Hammers. chipping. hand tool

cleaning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
68-69
chipping. impact cleaning
tools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. 69.70
rotary. rotary impact
cleaning tools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72.73
scaling. impact cleaning tools . . . . . . . . . . . .69.70
Hand and power tools. hazards . . . . . . . . . . . . . 545
OSHA standard . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 550
Hand tool cleaning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.68.74.
272, 283, 297
burrs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
chipping hammer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68.69
costs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
75
eye protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
hand tools. safety . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
loose rust . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
non-woven abrasives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68-69
painted surfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
procedures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68.69
respirators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
safety . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72-74
safety equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68.69
scrapers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68.69
surface preparation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .105, 342
tight mill scale . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
tight rust . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
IOOIS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
68-69
versus water blast cleaning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
. 68.69
wire brushes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Hand tools, safety. hand tool
cleaning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
Hand-held systems. centrifugal
blast cleaning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
Handles. rollers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
158
Handling cleaned surfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
Handling painted steel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .259, 261
Handling painted pipeline . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 351
422
Handrails, painting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Hard versus soft. non-metallic
abrasives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
46
Hardness. abrasives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. 57.58
637
Not for Resale
metallic abrasives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
metallic abrasives. effect of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
Hazardous materials. regulation . . . . . .559. 583-587
Comprehensive Environmental Response.
Compensation and
Liability Act . . . . . . . . . . 558-559 580. 583-585
Emergency Planning and Community
Right to Know Act . . . . . . . . . .558.559. 585-587
Federal Insecticide. Fungicide and
Rodenticide Act . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .559. 592
SARA Title 111 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 558.559. 585-587
Superfund Amendments and Reauthorization
Act . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 558.559. 585-587
Toxic Substances Control Act . . . . . . . . .559. 583
Hazardous waste . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .558. 573-579
acutely hazardous waste . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 574
characteristic wastes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .573.574
classifying wastes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .573.574
contingency plan and training . . . . . . . . . . . . 576
empty containers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57.4
generators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .573. 575-576
identification number . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .575.576
land disposal restrictions . . . . . . . . . . . . 573. 577
573
listed wastes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
manifests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 576
on-site treatment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
578
packaging and labeling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 576
pretreatment of blast abrasives . . . . . . . . . . . 578
574
recycled or reused . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
responsibilities for . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .574.577
sampling and testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 577
scrap metal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 574
state regulations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 579
toxicity characteristic leaching
procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 574. 577-579
transportation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .576.578
treatment. storage and disposal
.573. 575. 577
facilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
waste analysis plan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 576. 578
waste accumulation time . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 576
Hazards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
539-548
abrasive blast cleaning.
chromium paints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
78-79
abrasive blast cleaning.
lead paints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78.79
abrasive blast cleaning . . . . . . .62. 64. 78.79 545
access and rigging . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 546
air atomization method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 544
airless spray . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
544
compressor pumps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 544
confined spaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 550
degree of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176
544
electrostatic spray . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
fire hazards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.539.540
hand and power tools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 545
health hazards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.540.541
ladders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 546
linseed oil primers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245
paint application . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.544.545
painting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 254
289-290
painting bridges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
546
pressure pots . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
pressure vessels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62.63
solvents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 306
sources of information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .254. 554
spray application . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .256. 544-545
surface preparation . . . . . . . . . . . 78. 254. 545-546
463
thermal spray . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
water jetting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 546
welding. cutting and heating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 546
wet abrasive blast cleaning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
worker awareness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
Health hazards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.540.541
aliphatic and aromatic polyamines.
polyamine adducts and polyamides . . . . . . . 541
alkyd paints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 540
540
causes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
curing agents. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 540
epoxy resins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 541
heavy metal pigments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 542
isocyanates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 541
liquid epoxy resins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 541
materials removed from surfaces . . . . . . . . . . . 543
of types and components of paints . . . . . . . . . 540
organic pigments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
542
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
SSPC C H A P T E R * 2 7 - 3 9 3
S S P C C H A P T E R * 2 7 - 3 9 3 I6627940 0004LLL 1 3 0
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 542
pigments and other additives
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
silica . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
542. 543
541
solvents and thinners ....................
surface preparation materials . . . . . . . . . . .78. 543
. . . . . . . . . 541
urethane resins
Heat curing zinc-ri
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
Heat.resistant paints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .382.383.
393, 433
Heated spray. equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .164
paint application . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
257
Heaters, paint ............................
Heavy mineral sands. non-metallic
abrasives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.4546. 48
Helmets. air.fed. abrasive
. . . . . . . . . . . . . .62-63
blast cleaning
Helpers, field painting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223
Hematite .................................. 3
High pressure hot detergent.
solvent cleaning ......................
94-95
High pressure, water blast
cleaning ..............................
64-65
High voltage. holiday detection
instruments ........................
.203.205
High-build lacquers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
15
High-build paints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
High-solids lacquers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
High-solids paints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11
Highway bridges. exposure
environments ........................... 283
inspection .....................
.281. 288-289
maintenance painting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .281.282.
287-288
paint application . . . . . . . . . . . . .
painting costs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
painting systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
statistics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
283
. . . . . . . . . 280292
History. metallic abrasives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .32. 34
History zinc-rich primers
. . . . . .125.126
341
Holidays. detection ........................
detection inspection . . . . . . . . . .203.204. 317. 327
detection pipelines . . . . . . . . . . . . . .352.353. 355
failures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
electrostatic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
high voltage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
K-D Bird D o g . , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
low voltage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
spy .......................
Tinker-Rasor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Hoods. blast. abrasive blast
cleaning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56-57
Hopper barges. fresh water
service ................................
307
154
Horsehair, brushes ........................
Hose construction. abrasive blast
cleaning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Hoses. abrasive blast cleaning .....
. .187
Hot dip galvanizing,
coatings ............................
465480
continuous .............................
478
defects ......................
design considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .470-472
dipping procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 468470
process variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .474-477
steel selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
surface preparation . . . . . . . . .
treatments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
type of zinc . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
welding procedures ...................... 472
Hot spray. paint application ................. 257
Hot stacks. painting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .392-393
Housekeeping standard. OSHA .............. 551
Hulls. exteriors painting ....................
311
interiors. painting ................... .31 1-312
303
ships. painting ..........................
Humid interior exposures ................... 281
Humidity. paint application .................. 343
Hydraulic structures. maintenance
painting ...............................
346
........... .330-348
.......... .330-340
...... .6667, 79-83
production rates ....
............. 76
............. 76

Hydrochloric acid. pickling . . . . . . . . . .104.109. 115

Hydrofluoric acid. pickling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .106
Hydrogen embrittlemen!. pickling . . . . . . . . . . . .111
Hydrogen evolution. cathodic
protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 366
pickling ................................
104
Hydrogen sulfide. exposure
environment .......................
.381-382
Hygrometer. recording .....................
185
Ice particles. non-metallic

abrasives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Immersion process. phosphating . . . . .
Impact cleaning tools. chipping
needle scaler
83-84
.......
power tool cleaning .

Impact energy versus size.
metallic abrasives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
36
Impact energy. metallic abrasives . . . . . . . . . .37. 40
Impact life cycle. metallic
abrasives . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . 40
Impact-resistant paints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 397
tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 357
Impact tools. safety. power
tool cleaning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
73
Impact. non-metallic abrasives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .49
Impressed current. cathodic
protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7. 11. 299. 368.369.
371.373. 375-376
Injury and Illness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
553
log . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
553
.
statistics. painting industry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 538
In-line machines. rotary
cleaning tools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.70. 72
In-line systems. centrifugal
blast cleaning ........................
. 23.24
Inaccessible surfaces. paint
258
application .............................
Indefinite delivery contract . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .239
Index of Federal Specifications
449
and Standards ..........................
Indirect costs. surface
preparafion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
Industrial exposures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .268. 281
Industrial plants. painting
.377.378
Information Handling Services.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 450
.39 8.399
tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Inhibitive mechanisms. pigments . . . . . . . . .138.139.
142.144. 146
Inhibitive pigments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .11. 138-149
passivation ........................
.6. 10-11
Inhibitive primers .......................
.10.12
Inhibitive soaps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
143
Inhibitors. chemical ........................
139
electrochemical . .
. 147
paints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280
pickling ..............................
.104.
110.111. 115
Inorganic silicate. binders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 391
Inorganic. binders .........................
118
zinc-rich. painting system
zinc-rich primers . . . . . . .
383. 392-393. 415-416. 444
zinc-rich primers.
characteristics
135134
zinc-rich primers. pickling for . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
zinc-rich primers. single
component .........................
.1 3-14
zinc-rich primers. surface pH . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
zinc-rich primers. versus
organic ......................
.13. 134-135
Inspection .......................
.181.205. 388
abrasives ..............................
187
adhesion testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .204.205. 341
after painting .....
................ 261
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261
after pretreatments
638
Not for Resale
after surface preparation . . . . .

. .260.261
air supply . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . .186
ambient conditions
measurements ....................
.183.1 85
anchor pattern measurements .185, 186, 192-193
and spot repair. maintenance
painting . . . . . . . . . . . . .
and spot repair, painting
programs . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 421
application tec
blast cleaning . . . . . . . . . .
blast cleaning abrasives . .
blast cleaning equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . i 86.1 88
bridges. railroad . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
269
bridges. visual rusting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 282
cleanliness between coats . . . . . . . . . . . . .202.203
182
cost plus contracts ......................
crosscut adhesion test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204
cure of coating .....................
.204.205
curing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
341
dew point measurements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . i 83.186
digital thermometer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184
182
direct costs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
dry bulb temperatura
measurements. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.184.1 85
dry film thickness
measurements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .198.202, 318
182
fixed price contracts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
formal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
highway bridges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .281. 288-289
holiday detection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .203.204.
317. 327. 341
hypodermic needle pressure
gage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
informal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
181
inspectors purpose ...................... 181
181
job documentation .......................
maintenance painting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .403. 425.
435436
maintenance painting. ships .
. . . . . . . . 300
mixing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195
nozzle orifice gage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
185
paint application . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193-1
. 96. 261.
285. 327.
341. 357
painting ...........................
.288.289
painting programs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .403. 418
penknife adhesion test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .204
.
percentage of rusting ....................
183
pocket microscope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200
post-surface preparation . . . . . . . . . . . . ..189.193
practices, railroads ......................
278
pre-surface preparation . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..182.188
profile measurements . . . . . . . . . . . .189. 192-193
records. fabricating plants . . . .
relative humidity measurements
ships for corrosion damage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 294
shop painting ......................
.260.261
soluble salts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.190.191
solvent rub test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204
spray painting equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .194
surface preparation . . . . . . . . . .75. 188189. 284.
2 8 a 2 ~ 9 . 3 2 7 ,341
surface temperature measurements . . . . . . . . .185
surface temperature
thermometer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
.317.318
tank coatings ......................
327
tank linings ............................
temperature measurements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
thinning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
195
viscosity measurements . . . . . . . . . . . . . .187. 195
visual surface preparation
wet bulb temperatur
measurements....................
.184.185
wet film thickness ....................
196-198
. . . .217
Instrumental analysis. paint tests
Insulation designs for corrosion prevention . . . .533
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 356
polyurethane foam
Interchemical, wet film
thickness gages .........................
197
Intercoat delamination. failures ........... 499-500
Interior areas. dry, exposure ........ .382.383. 386
environments .................. .382.38 3. 386
393-394
painting ............................
304
ships. painting ..........................
S S P C C H A P T E R * 2 7 = 3 93
Interior blast cleaning . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .60

Interior decks. ships. painting . . . . . . .. . . . . . . .303
Interior process areas. painting . . . . . .. . . . . . . .431
Interior structural steel. painting . . . . . . . . . . . . .431
Intermediate coats. paints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .112
selection o f . , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .l 4.16
Invitation for bids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .238
Iowa Department of Transportation ... ......... 87
Iron grit metallic abrasives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
Iron oxide pigments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . .140
Iron oxide-linseed oil. paints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
Iron phosphate coatings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 1 2.114
Iron salts. effect on pickling rate
.107.109,112
Irrigation works. painting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .330.348
Isocyanates. health hazards . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . 541
....
Job standards maintenance

painting ...............................
426
painting programs ....................... 378
Joint Army.Navy, specifications . . . . . . . . . . . . . .449
Joints, designs for
corrosion prevention ..................... 246
K-0 Bird Dog. holiday

detection. instruments .................... 203
Keane-Tator surface profile
.185.186,192
comparator ....................
Ketones. solvents .........................
123
Kort nozzles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 308.311
L
Labeling requirements. quality
acceptance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213
Labor hour contract .......................
239
Labor, costs. field painting . . . . . .
.222.223
Laboratory. paints. quality
.398.399
screening. materials selection .
testing. materials selection . . . . . . . .322.323. 331
Lacquers .........................
.14.15. 117
...........................
15
paint application . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Ladders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
accessories . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . 168
m 8627940 0004LL2 077 m
Lead. regulated materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
abrasives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Limestone non-metallic
abrasives ...............................
58
Limitations, water blast cleaning . . . . . . . . . . . . . .64
Limitations, zinc-rich primers . . . . . . . . . . . . .134.135
Linings. cement mortar . . . . . . . . . . . ..332.333. 336
chemical separator . . . .
coal tar . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
dry foodstuff tanks . . . . . . .
epoxy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
food processing tank . . .
liquid foodstuff tanks . . .
neoprene . . . . . . . . . . . .
phenolic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
323
phenolidepoxy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 323
polyester ..........................
.323-324
polyethylene .......................
.326.337
polyvinyl chloride . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 381
railroad tank car . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . .326
steel tanks . . . . . . . . . . .
steel tanks. materials
selection . . . .
.......
. 321 -324
tanks. curing . . .
........
. .326.327
tanks, inspection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
327
tanks. maintenance painting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .328
tanks. paint application . . . . . . . .
tanks, surface preparation . . . . . . . . . . . . .324.325
vinyl ........................
vinyl ester . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
water tanks. failures . . . . . . . . . . .
zinc-rich primers . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Linseed oil. binders . . . . . .
Layout. fabricating plants

Lead
air quality regulations . .558.560-562.56869.571
Lead and lead removal. OSHA standards . . . .551
hazardous waste regulations . . . . . ..574.577-578
monitoring .....................
.56&569. 571
Lead chromate. pigments ................... 141
Lead paints. hazards. abrasive blast cleaning 7879
Lead silicate. pigments .....................
141
Lead soaps ..........................
138. 142
Lead suboxide. pigments ................... 142
Machined surfaces. painting . . . . . . . . . . . . .259.260

Machinery areas. ships. painting .............304
Machinery painting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .394.433.436
Magnetic. dry film thickness
gages ............................. 198-202
fixed probe ..........
. . . . . . .201.202
pull-off ..............
...... .199.201
Magnetite ..................................
3
non-metallic abrasives ........
. . . . . . .45
Maintainability. designs for
corrosion prevention . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .535.536
Maintenance painting. bids .................426
compatibility ............................ 416
criteria for recoating ..................... 402
descriptions .................
...... 122
drying cleaned steel .....................
425
edge protection ......................... 425
tresh water vessels ...................... 311
highway bridges
.281.282.387-288
hydraulic structures ......................
346
inspection ............ .182.403.425. 435436
inspection and spot repair . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .426
............
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

inspection. ships
.....
. . . . . . 300
intercoat contamination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .425
job standards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 426
management awareness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .425
materials selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..426,434435
outside contractor ....................
425-426
paint application . . .
.435
paint compatibility . .
.272
painting history . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . 318
personnel . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . .425
planning . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . ..425-426
plant personnel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 425
procedures .............................
228
procedures, ships . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..300-302
programs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.402403.412.
425426,434436
railroad ...........................
.271-272
records . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 425
reports, ships ......................
.302-303
specifications, ships . . . . . . . . . . .
surface preparation
tanks . . . . . . . .
. . . .413414,425,435
....................
318
versus initiai painting . . . . . . . .
Management awareness, maintenance

painting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 425
Manual process. phosphating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
.
Manufactured. non-metallic
abrasives ........................
.45-46,50
Manufacturers instructions safety . . .
.180
Manufacturing methods. metallic abrasives . . . . .32
Manufacturing, paints, quality control . . . . . .207-212
Manufacturing, process. paints
quality control . . . . . . . . .
Marine exposures . . . . . . . .
Maritime Administration specifications . . . . . . . . .449
138,146,245
Linseed oil and red lead primers . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243
Liquid epoxy resins. health hazards ............541
Lithium silicates. zinc-rich
.126-127
primers ...........................
Living areas. ships. painting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .304
Long oil alkyd, binders ..................... 391
Loss of Coolant Accident. tests . . . . . . . .
Low carbon steel pickling . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Low permeability. paints ....................
397
Low pressure. water blast
cleaning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Low temperature, phosphating
Low voltage. holiday detection.
instruments . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Low-alloy steel ............................
7.8
paints .........
79
639
Not for Resale
Material Safety Data Sheet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 541

Materials selection. case histories . . . . . . . . . . . . 399
field history . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 322
field testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .322,331,399
laboratory screening . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .398-399
laboratory testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .322-323,
331
lining steel tanks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .321-324
maintenance painting . . . . . . . . . . . . .426,434435
new product evaluation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .398-399
painting programs . . . . . . . . . . .377-380,
396-398,
414-416,418,420
painting, hydraulic structures . . . . . . . . . . .330-340
Materials. designs for corrosion
prevention .........................
.528-529
Materials, field painting, costs . . . . . . . . . . .223-224
McKenzie. M G ...........................
126
Mechanical, design for
corrosion prevention . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .532-533
protection. pigments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .138-139
surface preparation . . . . . . . . . .
Metal smelting slags, non-metallic

abrasives ............................... 45
Metallic abrasives . . . . . . . . . . . . . .32-44,
52, 58 62
Metallic pigments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Metallic soaps ......................
Metallic versus non-metallic abrasives . . . . . . . . . 35
Metallizing ............................... 315
coatings
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .456-464
Metals. dis
ct
on wrrosion ...............
noble, effect on corrosion . . . .
Metering valves, abrasive blast c
Microorganism-related failures ............... 491
Microprocessor, dry film thickness gages ...... 202
Microscope, pocket size ....................
200
SSPC cHApTER1c27.3
Microstructure. metallic abrasives . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38

Mikrotest. dry film thickness gages . . .188. 199.200
MIL-C-10578 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
MIL-C-11090 . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . 92
MIL-'2-13924 . . . . . . . .
MIL-C-14460 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
92
MIL-C-25769 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
MIL-C-27251 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
MILC-38334 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
MIL443616 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
MILC-46156 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
MlLC-46487 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
101
MILC-81302 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
MILC-81533 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
92
MIL-H-15328 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
M IL-S-10561 . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
MIL-S-5002 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
MIL-T-7003 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
92
Mild exposures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 281
Military specifications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 448449
105
Millscale. composition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
effect on corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .6. 247
effect on paint life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244
effect on paint performance . . . . . . . . . . . -242.243
.3, 104, 242
formation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
lifting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250
lifting, cause of paint failures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248
-242-243
removal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
removal. non-metallic abrasives . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
removal, pickling .
. . . . . . . . . 104
93
8627940 0004LL3 T O 3
National Safety Council . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..72. 279

address . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 554
National Shipbuilding Research Program . . . . . . 297
Natural fiber brushes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
Naturally occurring non-metallic
abrasives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45, 50
Naval Architects and Marine Engineers,
address . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 450
Naval jelly . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
Naval vessels, painting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
293
Navy safety procedures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .524-525
Navy ships, exposure environments . . . . . . . . . . 517
painting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.51 6-527
paints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .520-524, 526
Needle scaler, impact cleaning tools . . . . . . . . . . . 69
Neoprene linings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 324
New construction, painting programs . . . . . . . . .418,
421425, 429434
New product evaluation, materials
selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.398-399
New steel, field painting . .
New structures, painting . .
New work, fresh water service . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .310
Nickel slags, non-metallic abrasives . . . . . . . . . . . 47
Nightingall, Victor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..125-126, 137
Nitrates, rust inhibitors
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .81
Nitric acid, pickling . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . 104, 106
123
Nitroparaffin, solvents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . .247
Noble metals, effect on
Non-metallic abrasives
. .45-51, 58
Non-metallic versus met
. . . . . . . . 35
Non-silica sands, non-metallic abrasives . . . . . . . . 45
Non-skid, paints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 303
Non-woven abrasives, hand tool cleaning . . . . 68-69
rotary cleaning tools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70-72
safety, power tool cleaning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
Notch type, wet film thickness gages . . . . . . . . .197
Novaculite non-metallic abrasives . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
Nozzles, circular, water blast cleaning . . . . . . . . . 65
conventional, abrasive blast cleaning . . . . . . . . 60
hypodermic needle pressure gage . . . . . .185, 188
inspection, abrasive blast cleaning . . . . . .186-189
Kort . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
308, 311
materials, abrasive blast cleaning . .
orifice gage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
orifice size, abrasive blast cleaning .
orifice size, gage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
189
pressure, abrasive blast cleaning . . . . . . .61, 190
shapes, abrasive blast cleaning . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
sizes, abrasive consumption, blast cleaning . . .53
size versus air consumption, blast cleaning . . .53
tapered, water blast cleaning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
thrust, wet abrasive blast cleaning . . . . . . . . . . .81
venturi, abrasive blast cleaning . . . . . . . . . .55,60
NSF International, address . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 593
Nuclear power plants, painting . . . . . . . . . . .442447
zinc-rich primers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
136
.153-154
Nylon brushes .......................
'
tight. power tool CI
Minitest. dry film thickness gages
. . . . . . . .196.
201
166
Mitts, cleanup . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
paint application . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .153. 155. 160
Mixing. equipment, drum paint agitator . . . . . . . . 151
equipment, paint shaker . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
inspection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195
latex paints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.15 1.152
manual paint application . . . . . . . . . . . . . .15 1.152
mechanical. paint application . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
paint application . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .151 196, 343
paints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255,274, 277
related. failures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 505
two-component paints . . . . . . . . . . . .151.152, 195
zinc-rich primers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
195
Moist atmospheres. exposure
environments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.381, 384
Moisture separators, abrasive
blast cleaning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.56. 186
Moisture vapor transmission
rates, paints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Moisturecuring, urethane binders
Molybdated zinc oxide. pigments . . . . . . . . . . . . -142
Molybdates, pigments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .142, 144
81
rust inhibitors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Morgan Whyalla pipeline. zinc-rich primers 126. 136
Mudcracking, failures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .490, 494
Multicoat systems. shop painting . . . . . . . . . 421422
Muriatic acid. pickling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104-109, 115
NACE RP-0275 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.358-361
Nap. roller covers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
Standards . . . . . .78. 558.560. 562. 568.569, 571
National Association of Corrosion
Engineers. address . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .450. 592
National Association of Environmental
Professionals. address . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .592
National Bureau of Standards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 448
National Fire Protection Association. address . . 593
National Institute for Occupational Safety and
Health. ................................
548
address ...............................
554
National Lead Abatement Council. address ....593
National Leak Prevention Association. address .593
National Paint and Coatings Association ...... 449
450.554. 593
address .......................
National Public Health Service ............... 315
O
Organic pigments. health hazards . . . . . . . .542.543
Occupational Safety and
Health Administration . . . . . . . . . .72. 78. 306. 315
authority . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 548
compliance program . . . . . . . . . . .
consultation assistance . . . . . . . . .
enforcement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
549
general duty clause . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 548
regulatory process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 548
Ohm's Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Oil-alkyd. painting system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .286
Oil-based binders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
119
Oil-modified urethane binders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .119
Oil separators, abrasive blast cleaning . . . . .56. 187
ollution Act of 1990 ....................
587
ca oil. binders. ....................... 138
Old work. fresh water service . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .310
Olivene rutile, non-metallic abrasives . . . . . . . . . . 45
On-the-job training of painters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .249
Opaque pigments .........................
117
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

640
Not for Resale
. .
Open deck bridges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

280
Operating mix metallic abrasives . . . . . . . . . . . 39.41
Operatior rJf centrifugal blast
. 23.25
cleaning machines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Operation procedures, pickling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
Operator fatigue. controlled m i t a t i o n cleaning . . 82
plasma-hot gas cleaning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
-83
water blast cleaning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Operators. abrasive blast cleaning . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
Or-equal clause, specifications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 317
Orange peel, failures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .508.509
Organic zinc-rich primers . . . . . . . . . . . 12. 118, 125.
131.132, 415
zinc-rich primers, characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . 134
zinc-rich primers, versus inorganic . . .13, 134-135
zinc.rich. painting system . . . . . . . . . . . . .286.287
Orifice size, nozzles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
55
OSHA standards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.550.551
advance notice of proposed rulemaking . . . . . 548
applicable to abrasive blasting . . . . . . . . . . . . .550
comment period
. . . . . . . . . . . . . 548
compressed air
. . . . . . . . . . . . . 550
550
confined spaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
construction industry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .550.551
electrical . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 550
exposure to gases, vapors, dusts,
mists and fumes ......................
551
eye and face protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . -550
general industry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
550
hand and power tools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 550
ladders and scaffolding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 551
lead and lead removal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 551
.
.
noiselhearing conservation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 550
notice of proposed rulemaking . . . . . . . . . . . . . 548
organization and hierarchy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 550
personal protective equipment
process safety management . .
respiratory protection
. . . . . . .%O, 551-553
Osmotic blistering . . . . .
Osmotic effects, coatings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4
Oval brushes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.153.154
Overspray failures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.506.507
Oxidation curing. paints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .15. 117
Oxygen-fuel gas gun. thermal spray . . . . . . . 456457
Ozone and volatile organic compounds . . . .56 1.567
architectural and industrial maintenance
coatings rule . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 564
. .561, 565565, 567
non-attainment areas
561
relationship . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
P-C-111 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
92
P-C-436 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
92
92
PC437 ..................................
Pads. paint application . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .153.155
Paint application . . . . . . . . . . .150-167. 274-275. 325
204
adhesion testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .
air spray., . . . . . . . . . . . . .156-157. 160, 194. 196
airless spray . . . . . . . . . . .157. 159.160 194. 196
application equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . .
automatic spray . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
brush . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .150.152.154 196. 256.
274-275. 284. 343
brush versus spray . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256
cement mortar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .343-344
150
chlorinated rubber .......................
cleanliness between coats . . . . . . . . . . . . .202.203
.
.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 344
contact surfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.258.259
cure of coating . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . .2O4.205
150
damp surfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .258 343
dry film thick
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257-258
drying ovens
drying painte
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259-261
150
effect of surroundings ....................
effect of weather . . . . . . . .
. . . . .15O. 274
electrostatic spray . . . . . . .
.160.257. 343
equipment ........................
.257. 401
equipment. cleanliness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
.... 166
equipment. cleanup ....
evaluation of applicator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 357

fabricating plants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244
faying surfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
field bolt heads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
field coating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 342
field painting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.222.226
field structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 278
field versus shop . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227
film thickness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .166,196-202.278
flow coating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257
forms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214
handling painted steel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .259,261
heated spray . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
highway bridges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 284
hotspray . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257
humidity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 343
in fabricating plants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .251-259
inaccessible surfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 258
inspection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .193.205,261.285,
327,341,357
lacquer paints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
manual mixing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.I51.152
mechanical mixing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
mitts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153, 155,160.483
mixing . . . . . . . . . . . .151, 195,255,274,277,343
overspray loss . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 258
pads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153-155
paint heaters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257
paint recirculating systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255
painting booths . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257
painting programs . . . . . . . . . . .401.403,416-418.
426-428
pipelines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .352-361
power plants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 446
pre-job conference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 388
primers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.257-258
production rates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
railroad . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .274.275
records . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214,275
roller . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .150,153.160. 284.417
rust preventives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .345.346
safety . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .176.1 80,278-279
shop painting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.426-428
shop versus field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 421
solvent recovery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257
spray . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .150,152-153, 156-165,
194,196,249,256-258,274.275.
284.285. 343
spray pot . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
spray technique . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.164.165
spreading rates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255
SSPC-PA 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
storage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.254.255, 277
storing painted steel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .259,261
strainers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.152-153
striping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.256-257
tanks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 402
temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .153,343
thinning . . . . . . . . . . .152,195,255-256,277.343
tinting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. i 5 1.152
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
two-component equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
twocomponent paints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 345
ventilation equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257
vinyl . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.150.344-345
volume solids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.192. 198
waste treatment plants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .387.388
water-borne paints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .150. 345
wet film thickness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 258
zinc-rich primers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
Paint application, hazards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .544-545
air atomization method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 544
airless spray . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 544
compressor pumps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .544445
electrostatic spray . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 544
Paint crews. railroad bridges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 272
Paint dusts, toxicity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 283
Paint heaters, . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257
Paint house, fabricating plants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244
Paint life, effect of film thickness . . . . . . . . .Il, 271
effect of millscale . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244
effect of rusting environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 416
effect of surface pH . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
effect of surface preparation . . . . . .140,244.245.
272,415

8b27940 0004080 737
effect of surface preparation. tests . . . . . . . . . 114

pickling versus blast cleaning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I14
rural exposures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.264-265
variables affecting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
Paint materials. safety . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176
Paint records. fabricating plants . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244
Paint removers. safety . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176
Paint residues. recovery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
Paint shaker, mixing equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
Paint specialists . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244
Paint trays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
Paint viscosity, adjustment,
spray technique . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
Painted surfaces. hand tool cleaning . . . . . . . . . . 69
Painters. qualification tests . . . . . . . . . . . . .249,444
Painting and Decorating Contractors
.77,554
of America . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Painting equipment, pre-fabrication . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
Painting systems, descriptions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
Painting. aluminum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .145,434,524
appearance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280
ballast tanks. ships . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 305
barges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 309,311-312
bilge areas, ships . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 304
bins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 270
blast furnaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .391.392
booths . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257
boottops, ships . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 303
bridge crews. railroad . . . . . . . . .
bridges. accidents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 290
bridges. bosun's chairs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .290
bridges. fire hazards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 290
bridges, health hazards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .289-290
bridges, ladders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 290
bridges, life lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 290
bridges, life nets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 290
bridges. regulations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
290
cargo boxes. barges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 312
cargo holds, ships . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 305
cargo tanks. ships . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .293.304-305
chemical plants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .412-419
chip blow line . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 422
cofferdams, ships . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 306
coke oven plants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .390.395
cold weather . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248
concrete . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .394,422,432433
concrete encased steel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .247,278
concrete pipe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 422
contact surfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25&259
contractor. railroad . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 272
copper . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 434
corrosion protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280
corrugated siding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 392
cost effectiveness. ships. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 293
costs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245.413
costs, breakdown. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 276
costs, comparative . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .222-241
costs, fabricating plants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247
costs, highway bridges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 289
costs, railroad bridges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269
costs, total structure life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226
conveyors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 422
crude oil tanks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 404
dams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 330-348
decks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 312
drydocking. ships . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 293
during construction, ships . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 294
economics. ships . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 294
environmental constraints . . . . . . . . .330.347-348
exterior areas. ships . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .303.304
exterior structural steel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 431432
faying surfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .258.259
fences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 270
field erected tanks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 422
field welds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259
fire protection tanks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 316
fireproofed steel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .243,247
flue gas stack . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 445
food processing plants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 429441
fossil fuel power plants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .442.447
fresh water vessels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .311.313
fuel oil tanks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 316
galvanized decking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 431
galvanized roofing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 393
64 1
Not for Resale
galvanized steel . . . . . . . . . . . .122,145. 339.394.
434.481.485. 523-524
government practices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 448-451
handrails . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 422
hazards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 254
highway bridges and structures . . . . . . . .280-292
history determination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 318
hot liquor tanks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 422
hot stacks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .392.393
hull exteriors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 311
hull interiors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .311.312
hulls. ships . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 303
hydraulic structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .330.348
hydraulic structures. materials
.330-340
selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
in fabricating plants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .242-262
industrial plants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.377-378
initial versus maintenance . . . . . . . . . . . .226-228
inspection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.261.288-289
interior areas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.393-394
interior areas. ships . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 304
interior decks. ships . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 303
interior process areas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 431
interior structural steel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 431
irrigation works . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .330.348
living areas. ships . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 304
machined surfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .259.260
machinery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 433.436
machinery and equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 394
machinery areas. ships . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 304
masonry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 394
masonry encased steel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247
navy ships . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .293.516-527
navy ships. environmental constraints . . . . . . . 525
new equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .422.425
new structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271
nuclear power plants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .442.447
peak tanks. ships . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 305
penstocks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 335
petroleum refinery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .396.41 1
petroleum tanks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 319
pickling plants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
pipelines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .349-362
pipelines. regulations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 349
piping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .270,330.348. 433.436
plastic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 524
potable water tanks . . . . . . . . . . . . .315.319.380
potable water tanks. ships . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 305
power plants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.442-447
preferences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228
prejudices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228
process equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 402
programs. administration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 396
programs. approval . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 421
programs. budgets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 421
programs. coatings suppliers . . . . . . . . . . .377.378
programs. color selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 420
programs. corrosion survey . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 420
programs. economics . . . . . . . . . . . .403.408.412
programs. inspection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .403.418
programs. inspection and spot repair . . . . . . . 421
programs. job standards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 378
programs. maintenance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .425-426
programs. maintenance painting . . . . . . .402-403.
412.434-436
programs. materials selection . . . . .377.379-380.
396.398. 414-416.418.420
programs. new construction . . . . . . .418.421.425.
429-434
programs. paint application . . . . . . . . . . .401403.
416-41 8.426428
programs. planning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .377.378
programs. pre-job conference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 378
programs. recommendation form . . . . . . . . . . . 409
programs. records . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 421
programs. safety . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .403,409
programs. specifications . . . . . . . . . .378-379.398.
417-421. 430
programs. surface preparation . . . . . . . . .399.401.
412-414.418
pulp and paper mills . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .420-428
railroad bridges and structures . . . . . . . . .263.279
reasons for . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226
records . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275. 394
roofing. galvanized . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 270
roofs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 393
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
SSPC CHAPTERx27.3
safety . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 289,348
safety, ships
. . . . . . . . 306
salt cake silo ...........................
422
salt contaminated steel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .268.273
shipbottoms ........................
29E-299
ships and vessels, fresh
water service. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .307-314
ships and v
water service . . . .293-306
shop welds
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259
shop, fabric
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247-248
siding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 393
spray equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 284
steel enclosed in concrete . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .270
steel gratings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 422
steel piling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.269,281
steel plants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.390-395
steel stacks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 422
steel tanks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.315-319
steel to be fireproofed . . . . . . . . . .
steel to be permanently enclosed
stern and propeller areas . . . . . . .
superstructures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 312
systems, boottops . .
systems, costs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .229-230,
234
systems. enamels
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
systems. food processing plants . . . . . . . . 43740

systems, fossil fuel power plants . . . . . . . . . . . 445
systems, fresh water vessels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 313
systems. galvanized steel
systems, highway bridges . . . . . . . . . . . . .284-288
systems, inorganic zinc-rich . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 287
systems, nuclear power plants . . . . . . . . . . . . . 446
systems, oil-alkyd . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 286
systems. organic zinc-rich . . . .
systems, petroleum refinery . . .
systems. pipelines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .351-356
systems, power plants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 445446
systems, pulp and paper mills . . . . . . . . . .423424
systems, railroad bridges . . . . . . . . . . . . ..266-267
systems, railroads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .275,278
systems, service life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .228-233
systems, shipbottoms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 300
systems, topsides .......................
302
systems, vinyl . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 287
systems, water-borne . . . .
tank barges . . . . . . . . . . . .
tank exteriors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .316-317,
433434
tank interiors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .315-316,
318
tank interiors, safety .....................
320
tank interiors, safety check list . . . . . . . . . . . . . 320
tanks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 270,394,400402
tests, railroad bridges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265
. .268-269
timber bearing surfaces . . . . . . .
towboats . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.309,31 1-312
towers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 270
trackscales . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
training programs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
........................
270
ctures . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..349-362
underwater areas. ships . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 294
voids, ships . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 306
waste treatment plants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..379-389
water treatment plants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .379-389
weather decks, ships . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 303
welds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 308
wood . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 394,524
Paints, abrasion resistant . . . . . .298.303.338. 397
acceptance tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215221
acrylic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 483
acrylic emulsion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.381-382
acrylic epoxy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 431
acrylics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
adhesion to metal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
aliphatic urethane . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .415,431,433
alkyd . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .15. 381-382.416,483
anticorrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .IO-18,
298,331
anti-fouling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .6.298-299
application equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256
asphalt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
barrier . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 0 - 1 1 , 280,298,331
binders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.I17-120
bituminous . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

93
= 8b279YO
OOOYOBL b73
bituminous enamels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 351

burn resistant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 303
catalyzed epoxy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..382,387
cement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 483
chemical curing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .15.
. 16. 117
chemical reactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
140
chemical resistant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
chlorinated rubber . . . . . . .15.315. 392.
m a l tar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .270.333-335
coal tar enamel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.315.351
coal tar epoxy . . . . . . .16.315.316. 334-335.355.
379381.383.387.392.485
coalescing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 17-118
coke oven plants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 390
compatibility between
compatibility with rust
. . . . . . . . 272
compatibility. mainten
crude oil resistant . . .
. . . . . . . .397
drying . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
259,261
emissivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 397
enamels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 351-352
environmental constraints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 382
epoxy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .15. 284.315-317.
335.392 432,485
epoxy ester . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 484
epoxy polyamide . . . . . . . . I 6.355. 398.415416.
433.488
epoxy polyamine . . . . . . . . . . ..16.355.398. 484
epoxy polyester . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 431
evaluation of new materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 276
evaluations. field tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
219
evaluations. service tests
failures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
failures. causes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.486.515
field painting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224
fingerprinting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 398
failures. prevention . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .486.515
fish oil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
flexibility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. I 4. 397
frequently wet exposure environments . . . . . .347
grease . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275
heat resistant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .382.383.393.433
high-build . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.11. 276. 284
high-build epoxy. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .379-381.
387
high-Solids. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11
impact resistant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
ingredients . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .280
122
oil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .14-15.117
. . . .15. 117.118. 382.485
lead-free . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
381
life expectancy . . . . . . . . . . . .
275-276
life expectancy. highway bridges . . . . . . .287.288
low permeability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 397
materials. costs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .229-230.234
mixing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
255.274.277
moisture vapor transmission rates . . . . . . . . . .493
navy ships . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 516-527
non-skid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . 303
oil base . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. .483
oxidation curing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5. 117
panel evaluation records . . . . . . . . .215.218-219
petrolatum . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275
.......................
pigments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
117
pot-life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 1 7
product information sheets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244
quality acceptance. users . . . . . . . . . . . . .213-221
quality control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 340
quality control tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .207-212
quality control. manufacturing . . . . . . . . . .207-212
red lead-linseed oil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
139
residue recovery, abrasive blast cleaning . .78.87
residue recovery. barges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
residue recovery. tarpaulins
. . . . . . . . . . 87
sampling. from containers . . .
sampling. from tanks . . . . . . .
sampling. quality acceptance
silicone aluminum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .393.415
solvents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.117.120. 123
642
Not for Resale
spreading rates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255

standardized tests
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216
steel plants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
390
storage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.254.255. 277
synthetic polymer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 288
temperature resistant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 397
tests, chemical analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .217
.
tests. gas chromatography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218
tests. infrared spectroscopy . . . . .
tests. instrumental analysis . . . . . .
tests. physical properties . . . . . . . .
tests. qualitative . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218
thermoplastic . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . I 4.15
thickness. effect on life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .271
thinning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.255.256.277
thinning for dipping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
256
topcoats . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
two-component . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.16.117
underground exposure environments . . . . . . . . 346
underwater exposure environments . . . . . . . . . 347
uralkyd . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
urethane . . . . . . . . . . .16.317.335. 338.354.392
vegetable oil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
vinyl . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.14.284.286.315.
335.337. 381.386-387.483
viscosity. effect of temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . .161
water-borne . . . . . . . .286.288. 315.339.381-382
water-borne epoxy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 430431
weatherability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 397
zinc dust-zinc oxide . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 485
zinc-rich primers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.431-432
Panel preparation. field tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .220
Panel racks. field tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219
Panel tests. scriber . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 399
Particle-teparticle contact.
zinc-rich primers. . . . . . . . . . . .129.131.134. 145
Particulates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .79.558, 560. 569-570
air quality regulations . . . . . . . .558. 560. 569-570
methods for assessing particulate emissions .570
PM-1O emission standards . . . . . . . . . . . . .569-570
Passivating rinses, phosphating . . . . . . . . . .IO2-103
Passivation, anodic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
142
anodic. adsorption . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
anodic. precipitation . . . . . . . . . . . . .
corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
inhibitive pigments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .6.10-11
mechanisms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
pigments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.4.6
Peach pits, non-metallic abrasives . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
Peak count. profile . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41-43
Peak distribution. profile . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
. . . . . . . . . . .305
Peak tanks ships. painting
. . . . . . . . . .4041
Peak.to.valley. profile . . . . .
Peeling. failures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 498499
Penetration resistance. paints. tests . . . . . . . . . . 358
Penknife test. adhesion .................... 204
Penstocks. painting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
335
Performance. evaluations. field tests
paints. tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
properties. binders ......................
121
specifications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 448
Personal protective
equipment. OSHA standards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 551
head protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 551
foot protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 551
respiratory protection . .
Personnel. maintenance pa
Pertechnetate. pigments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
Petrolatum paints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275
Petroleum Equipment Institute. address . . . . . . . 593
. . . . . . . . . . . . . 396.411
Petroleum refinery.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . .405.407
painting systems .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 398
Petroleum solvents. solvent cleaning . . . . . . . . . . 90
Petroleum tanks. painting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 319
pH of abrasives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
non-metallic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
pH of surface. effect on paint life . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
for inorganic zinc-rich primer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
Phenolic. bin
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119.121.122
linings . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 323
paints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.15.315.335.392
Phenolic. epoxy. linings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 323
Phosphate pigments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
144
Phosphates, rust inhibitors. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .66.81
SSPC CHAPTERm27.3 73 W 8627940 O004082 5 0 T

welded assemblies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
105
Pigment volume concentration . . . . . . . . .11.12. 139
Pigment-vehicle combinations.
chemical reactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
Pigments
aluminum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .117.338
aluminum flake . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
anatase titanium dioxide . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
anodic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
anodic inhibitors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .138.146
anti-corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 17. 122. 138-149
barium metaborate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
basic lead silicochromate . . . . . . . . .140.141,245
borosilicate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
calcium barium phosphosilicate . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
calcium borosilicate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
calcium carbonate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
calcium phosphosilicate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
calcium strontium phosphosilicate . . . . . . . . . . 142
calcium zinc molybdate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
cathodic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
cathodic inhibitors . . . . . . . .
cathodic protection . . . . . . . .
chemical reactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
chromate-free . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
147
chromates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.144.145,246
chromates. solubilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 497
electrochemical reactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . I 3 8-139
environmental constraints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .147
extender . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
ferric molybdate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
inhibitive . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11, 138-149
inhibitive mechanisms . . . .
42.144. 146
inhibitive, passivation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .6,
. 10-1i
iron oxide . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
lamellar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
lead chromate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
lead silicate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
lead suboxide . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
lead-free . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
mechanical protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .I38.139
metallic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
117
molybdated zinc oxide . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
molybdates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.I42.144
opaque . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I I 7
paints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
passivation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .4,6
pertechnetate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
phosphates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I44
phosphosilicate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
142
primer. purpose of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243
red lead . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .138.140. 143.245
safety . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.176,179,542
selection of, for finish coats . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
sciorin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
sodium chromate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
strontium chromate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .I43-144
strontium nitrate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.I43.144
technetium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
toxic materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .I78.179
tribasic lead phosphosilicate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
typical compositions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
142
zinc . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
zinc chromate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .140.144. 146
zinc dust . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145. 246
zinc oxide . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
zinc phosphate . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
zinc phospho oxide ......................
146
zinc phosphosilicate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
zinc potassium chromate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145-146
zinc salts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.I46-147
zinc yellow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
Pigments and other additives, health hazards . . 542
chromium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 542
lead . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 542
titanium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 542
zinc . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 542
Piling. steel. painting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .269.281
Pinholes, failures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 507
Pinpoint rusting. failures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 495
Pipe hangers. designs for
corrosion prevention . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 246
Pipe rollers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.154.159
Pipe structures failures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 513
Pipeline, coatings, desirable
.349-351
characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Not for Resale
cathodic disbonding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 350

cathodic protection . . . . . . .349-350.
363.364-376
cathodic protection in permafrost . . . . . . .374.375
holiday detection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .352.353. 355
paint application . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.352.361
painting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.349.362
painting systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .351,356
painting. accessibility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 351
painting. costs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 351
painting. geography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
351
painting. handling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 351
painting. soil conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 350
.
painting. storage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 351
painting. temperatures. ambient . . . . . . . . . . . . 351
painting. temperatures. operating. . . . . . . . . . . 351
regulations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 349
zinc-rich primers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .126.136
Pipes, painting . . . . . . . . . . .270.330.348. 433. 436
Piston scaler, impact cleaning tools . . . . . . . . . . 69
.
Pitting. corrosion of steel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
failures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 495
Planning. maintenance painting . . . . . . . . . .425-426
painting programs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 377-378
Plant personnel. maintenance painting . . . . . . . .425
Plasma spray gun, thermal spray . . . . . . . . .456.457
Plasma-hot gas cleaning, operator
fatigue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
Plastic bristles. brushes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
Plastic pellets. non-metallic abrasives . . . . . . . . . . 85
Plastic. painting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 524
Pneumatic tools safety. power tool cleaning . . . . . 73
Polarization. cathodic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
effect upon corrosion .
Polyester, brushes . . . . . .
linings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 323-324
Polyethylene. extruded . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .353.354
linings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 336-337
...........................
355
tic. paints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 288

Polypropylene. extruded . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .353.354
Polyurethane. binders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
Polyvinyl butyral. binders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
Polyvinyl chloride. linings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 381
Polyvinyltapes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 355
Porosity. zinc-rich primers . . . . . . . . . . . . . .128.130
Portable enclosures. abrasive blast cleaning . . . .87
Portable ground supports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .I69.170
Portable supports. safety . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .I72.173
Portable systems. centrifugal blast
cleaning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .23.28.30. 86-87
Positector 6000.dry film thickness gage . .194.201
Post.curing. zinc-rich primers . . .
Post-fabrication system. centrifug
blast cleaning . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Post-surface preparation. inspect
Post-treating of metal pickling . .
Pot tender. field painting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222
Pot.life. paints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
117
two-component paints ....................
152
Potable water tanks, painting . . . . . . . . . . .315,319
ships. painting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 305
Potassium silicates. zin
primers . . . . . .I26-127
Powder coatings . . . . .
. . . .335.337. 354-355
Power plants. paint application . . . . . . . . . . . . . .446
painting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 442447
painting systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.445-446
surface preparation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .444-445
Power tool cleaning . . . . . . . . . . . . .68.74. 272. 283
abrasive wheels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 297
air-powered tools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
297
burnishing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
burrs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
chisels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 297
coated abrasives. safety . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
costs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
ear protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
electrical tools. safety . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
eye protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
impact cleaning tools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .69.70
impact tools. safety . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
non-woven abrasives. safety . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
pneumatic tools. safety .................... 73
respirators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Phosphating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .98.103
chromate-free rinses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
chromic acid rinses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .IO2.103
comparison of zinc and iron phosphate . . . . . . 103
environmental constraints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
factory application . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
field application . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.99,102
gels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
i02
government specifications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
immersion baths . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
immersion process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
low temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .IO1-102
manual process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
passivating rinses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .IO2-103
pretreatment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.8
process operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
selection of process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
solvent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
spray baths . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
spray process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
Phosphoric acid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
pickling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .104-106.
111.113. 115
pretreatment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275
treatments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.98,102
Phosphosilicate, pigments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
Physical adhesion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Physical properties. metallic abrasives . . .32,34-35
non-metallic abrasives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .48-51
paint tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.211.212,218
Physical tests, paints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 358
Physical versus chemical cleanliness . . . . . . . . . .20
Pickling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.IO4-116
acid embrittlement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
baths, analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I 0 8.I IO, 112
baths, liner materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
baths. quality control . . . . . . . . . . . ..108.110, 112
chromic acid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
clear water rinses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
cold rinses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
cost accounting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
costs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
electrolytic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114-115
environmental constraints . . . . . . . . . . . . .104,115
equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.110, 112-114
Footner process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112-113
for galvanizing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
for inorganic zinc-rich primers . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
heat treated steels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
high strength steels. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
hot rinses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
hydrochloric acid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .104-109.115
hydrofluoric acid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
hydrogen embrittlement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
hydrogen evolution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
inhibitors. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .104. 110.111. 115
low carbon steel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
millscale removal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
muriatic acid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .IO4.1 09,115
neutralizing rinses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
nitric acid., . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.104,106
operation procedures ....................
106
operation records . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
phosphoric acid . . . . . . . . .104-106,
111-113,115
plants, painting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 0 6
plants, ventilation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
106
post-treating of metal ....................
105
pre-cleaning of metal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
procedures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . i13
quality control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
114
rate, effect of acid concentration . . . . . . . .107.108
rate, effect of agitation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .IO7.108
rate, effect of iron salts . . . . . . . . . . .107-109,
112
rate, effect of temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . .IO7.108
rust removal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
smut, causes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
smut, removal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11O
sodium dichromate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
special steels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
111
stainless steels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .104,111
sulfuric acid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .104-113,115
sulfuric-phosphoric acid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I 1 2.113
tanks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251
tanks, construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 0 6 , 114
tanks, lining . . . . . . . .
. . . . .106,114
versus blast cleaning. paint life . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
SSPC CHAPTERx27.3 73 W 8627740 0004083 44b W

rotary cleaning tools . . . . . . . . . . 69.70
rotary impact cleaning tools . . . . . . . . . . . . 69.73
rotary impact tools, safety . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
rotary wire brushes. safety . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
roto peen. safety . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
73
safety . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.
.
72-74
scalers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 297
tight mill scale . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
versus water blast cleaning . . . . . . . . . . . . .67
Pre-cleaning of metal. pickling . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
Pre-construction primers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14. 295
zinc-rich . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
Pre-fabrication cleaning. advantages . . . . . . . . . 26
Pre-fabrication painting equipment . . . . . . . . . . . .24
Pre-fabrication primers . . . . . . . . . . . . .26-27. 84
Pre-fabrication systems, centrifugal
blast cleaning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24-27
Pre-job conference. inspection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .182
paint application . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 388
painting programs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 378
Pre-paint treatments, phosphating . . . . . . . . . 98-103
Pre-surface preparation, inspection . . . . . . .182-183
Pressure gage, hypodermic needle . . . . . . .185. 188
Pressure pot, abrasive blast cleaning . . . . . . . . . .53
hazards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 546
Pressure rollers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
Pressure type blast cleaning
equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .52-55. 57. 59
Pressure vessels, hazards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62-63
Pretreatments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275
fresh water vessels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 310
inspection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261
phosphating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-8
phosphoric acid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275
wash primers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261
wetting oils . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261
Prevention. health hazards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
paint failures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .486-515
Primer. selection of, fabricating plants . . . . . . . 243
Primers, after-blast . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295
anti-corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
barrier . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
criteria for selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .251
drying time versus wetting ability . . . . . . . . . . .245
formulation practices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .245. 246
galvanic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10. 331
hazards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245
inhibitive . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-12
latex . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .142, 145
linseed oil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245
paint application . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .257-258
pigment. purpose of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243
pre-construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .14. 295
pre-fabrication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .26-27, 84
red lead . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245
red lead. linseed oil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243
selection. effect of surface preparation . . . . . . 245
shop . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249-251
shop, typical . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253
testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251
vehicle. purpose of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243
wash . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .120, 122, 144-145.
261. 275, 297. 387
water-borne . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
zinc-rich . . . . . . . . . . . . . .6, 10, 42. 122. 125-137.
145 284-285. 315-316. 339
Procedure, abrasive blast cleaning . . . . . . . . . . 68-69
hand tool cleaning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68-69
pickling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
Process equipment, painting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 402
Process operations, phosphating . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
Process variables. hot dip galvanizing . . . . .474-477
Product development. paints. quality
control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207-208
Product information sheets. paints . . . . . . . . . . .244
Production lines. fabricating plants . . . . . . . . . . .248
Production platforms, zinc-rich primers . . . . . . . . 135
Production rates, abrasive blast
cleaning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60, 76
air spray application . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
airless spray application . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
brush application . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
controlled cavitation cleaning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
hydroblasting . . . . . . . .
.
. 76
metallic abrasives
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .60
non-metallic abrasives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .60
paint application . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
160
power tool cleaning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
roller application . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
solvent cleaning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
surface preparation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 75-77
water blast cleaning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
wet abrasive blast cleaning . . . . . . . . . . . . .E1-82
.
.
.
.
. 285
Profile . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
abrasive blast cleaning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .58
angularity
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
burnish . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
controlled cavitation cleaning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .82
effect on film thickness measurements . . . . 200
height . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40-41
measurements . . . . . . . . . .i85-187. 192-193, 324
measurements, Clemtex Coupons . . . . . . . . . . 192
measurements, comparators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192
measurements, depth micrometers . . . . . .192-193
measurements, dial surface profile gage . . . . 186
measurements, Keane-Tator
comparator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .i85-186, 192
measurements, Testex Press-O-Film
Tape . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186, 193
measurements, replica tape . . . . . . . . . . .186, 193
metallic abrasives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .37, 40-44
non-metallic abrasives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47-48
peak count . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41-43
peak distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
peak-to-valley . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40-41
requirement, effect on surface preparation . . . . 20
surface preparation . . . . . . . . . . . . . .20, 189, 192
water blast cleaning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
Proposals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238-240
request for . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238
Protective clothing, safety . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .178
Protective equipment, water blast cleaning . . . . . . 67
Psychrometer, dew point measurements . . 182-185
electric . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. i 82-185
relative humidity measurements . . . . . . . 183-185
sling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182,183
Psychrometric tables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184
Pulp and paper mills painting . . . . . . . . . .420, 428
painting systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .423-434
Qualification tests. painters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .444

Qualified products list . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 448
Qualifying test. painters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249
Quality acceptance. finished product . . . . . . . . . . 213
labeling requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213
paints, sampling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .213.214. 216
paints. users . . . . . . . . . . . . . .213.221, 398
specifications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213
testing procedures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213
Quality assurance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .288-289
Quality control. application properties . . . . . . . . .252
drying times . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 252
fabricating plants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 252. 254
paints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 340
paints, finished product . . . . . . . . .207, 209-210
paints, formulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .207.208
paints. laboratory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207
paints. manufacturing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..207.21 2
paints. manufacturing process . . . . . . . . .207. 209
paints. product development . . . . . . . . .207-208
paints, raw materials . . . . . . . . . . . .207.209
pickling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
114
pickling baths . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .108-110. 112
tests. paints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .207.212
thinning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 252
viscosity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 252
volatile content . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .252. 254
weight per gallon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
252
Railroads bridges. inspection

inspection practices
maintenance painting
269
278
271-272
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

644
Not for Resale
paint application . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..274.275

painting systems . . . . . . . . . . . .
275, 278
painting systems. bridges . . . . . . . . . .266.267
painting. bridges and structures . . . . . . . .263.279
tank cars. lining . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 326
Rate of cleaning. centrifugal blast cleaning . . . . . 25
Rate of consumption. metallic abrasives . . . . . . . .32
Raw materials. paints. quality control . . . . .207-209
Reaction cathodic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10
Recirculating systems. paint application . . . . . . . 255
Recoating criteria. maintenance painting . . . . . . 402
Recommendation form. painting program . . . . . .409
Recording hygrometer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
Records. inspection. fabricating plants . . . . . . . . 244
paint. fabricating plants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .244
painting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .275. 394
painting programs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 421
panel paint evaluations . . . . . . . . . . .215. 218-219
pickling operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
Recovery. paint residues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
Recycling. abrasives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
Red lead. pigments . . . . . . . . . . .138. 140. 143. 245
Red lead-linseed oil. paints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .139
primers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243
Refineries. zinc-rich primers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
Regulated materials. chromium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
silica . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
suspended particulates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
Regulations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251
abrasive blast cleaning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .283. 556
blast cleaning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .291. 556
environmental . . . . . . . . . . . . . .246. 295. 556-593
food processing plants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .436
government . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.290.291. 293
.538.555
health & safety . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
painting bridges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 290
petroleum refinery painting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 398
pipeline painting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 349
surface preparation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .79. 88. 291
tank interior paints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 315
US Department of Agriculture . . . . . . . . .436 591
US Food and Drug Administration . . . . . .436 591
Regulatory agencies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 557
federal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 548. 557
state . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 557
local . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 582
Reinforcing steel. corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .268
Relative humidity. measurements . . . . . . . . .183.185
measurements. psychrometer . . . . . . . . . . I 82.1 84
Remote controlled. water blast cleaning . . . . .82.83
Replica tape. profile measurements . . . . . .186. 193
Reportable quantities. hazardous
substance spills . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 580
Reports. maintenance painting. ships . . . . .302-303
Request for proposals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238
Requirements. sealers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 459
Resistance. effect upon corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . .5.6
Resource Conservation and Recovery
Act . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78. 558. 573-579
Respiratory protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .551-553
abrasive blast cleaning . . . . . . . . . . . . .56.57. 177
air-purifying respirators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 532
blast cleaning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
breathing air standards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 553
choosing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 551-553
for lead removal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 551
need for . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 551-552
OSHA standard . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 551
power tool cleaning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
protection factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 552
supplied air respirators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .177. 552
types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 552
Responsibilities. health and safety . . . . . . . . . . . 539
employers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 539
employees . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 539
engineers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 539
inspectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 539
Riggers. field painting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223
Rigging. aerial supports . . . . . . . . . .168. 170-171
choice of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .171.172
.173.1 74
safety . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.
.
SSPC CHAPTERs27.3 73
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Right angle machines. rotary

cleaning tools . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..70. 72
Rigid span. bridges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280
Rinse water. ionic content.
solvent cleaning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
Rinses. chromate-free. phosphating . . . . . . . . . .103
chromic acid. phosphating . . . . . . . . . . .102-103
clear water. pickling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .113
cold. pickling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .105
hot pickling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
neutralizing. pickling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
passivating. phosphating . . . . . . . . . . . .102-103
Roll conveyors. centrifugal blast
cleaning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
26-27
Roller. paint application . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..284. 417
Rollers. application production rates . . . . . . . . . .160
cleanup . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
covers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155-157
.156-157
fabric covers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
fence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
handles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
napcovers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
paint application . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .150. 153-160
pipe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154. 159
159
pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Rolling scaffolding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 326
Roofing. galvanized . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .268. 270
Roofs. painting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 393
Rotary cleaning tools. air
powered machines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71-72
coated abrasives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. 70-71
electrically driven machines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .71
.70. 72
in-line machines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
non-woven abrasives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70-72
power tool cleaning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . -69-70
right angle machines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .70. 72
wire brushes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. 70-71
Rotary impact cleaning tools.
cutter bundles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72-73
flexible flaps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72-73
power tool cleaning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .69. 71-73
rotary chipper . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
rotary hammers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72-73
roto peen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72-73
Rotary impact tools. safety. power
tool cleaning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
Rotary wire brushes. safety. power
tool cleaning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
Roto peen. rotary impact cleaning
tools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72-73
safety. power tool cleaning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
Round versus angular. non-metallic abrasives . . . 46
Runs and sags. failures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .509-510
Rural exposures. paint performance . . . . . . .264-265
Rust inhibitors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 297
chromates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
compatibility with paints . . . . . . . . . . .64. 66. 81
dichromates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
effect on adhesion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .66. 81
molybdate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
nitrates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
phosphates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66. 81
water blast cleaning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .64. 66. 296
wet abrasive blast cleaning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
Rust preventives. application . . . . . . . . . . . .345-346
Rust. composition of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
formation of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
loose hand tool cleaning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
removal. pickling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .104-116
tight. hand tool cleaning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .68
Rusted surfaces. non-metallic abrasives . . . . . . . .47
Rusting environment. effect on paint life . . . . . . . 416
Rusting. percentage of. inspection . . . . . . . . . 183
visual inspection. bridges . . . . . . . . . . . . 282
S
Sacrificial anodes. cathodic protection . . . . . . . . 299
Safe Drinking Water Act . . . . . . . . . .558. 581-583
drinking water standards . . . . . . . . . .58 1.583
maximum allowable levels . . . . . . . . . . . . . 582
maximum contaminant levels . . . . . . . . .558. 582
Safety . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .538.539
incentives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 538

8627740 0004084 382
sources of information . . .
. . . . . 554
Safety and health programs
establishing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 553
owner evaluation . . . . . . . . . . . . . .553
Safety. professional organizations . . . . . . . . . . . .538
Safety . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .176-180. 538-555
abrasive blast cleaning . . . . . . . . . .61-63. 545
airless spray . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .176, 544
binders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176
blast cleaning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .176. 545
buddy system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178
catalysts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .179, 541. 543
check list. painting tank interiors . . . . . . . 320
cleaners . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179. 543
colors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .306. 393-394. 420
degree of hazard . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176
dermatitic materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179, 541
equipment. hand tool cleaning . . . .68-69. 545-546
eye protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .178. 550
fabricating plants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261 -262
first aid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
government regulations . . . . . . . .180, 538-555
hand tool cleaning . . . . . . . . . . . . .72-74, 545-546
health hazards . . . . . . . . . . . . . .178-179, 540-544
manufacturers instructions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .180
paint application . . . . .176-180. 278-279. 544-545
paint materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .176. 539-544
paint removers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .176. 543
painting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 289. 348. 544-545
painting programs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .403, 419
painting tank interiors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .320
pigments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .176. 542-543
portable supports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .172-173
power tool cleaning . . . . . . . . .72-74. 545-546
procedures. navy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .524-525
protective clothing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .178. 551
respiratory protection . . . . . . . . . . . .177, 551-553
rigging . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .173-174. 176. 546-548
scaffolding . . . . . . . . . . . . . .172. 174. 176. 546
ships. painting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 306
shop painting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .261-262
signs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
180
solvent cleaning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .91, 176
solvents . . . . . . . .176. 178. 179. 539-541, 543
stationary supports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172
steam cleaning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176
surface preparation . . . . . . . . . . . . . .176, 545-546
tank painting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .410, 41 1
toxic materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .178. 540-543
water blast cleaning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .64. 67. 546
Sags and runs. failures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .509-510
Salt cake silo. painting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 422
Salt contaminated steel. painting . . . . . . . .268, 273
Salt water service. painting, ships
and vessels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 293-306
tugboats . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 309
Salt water. frequently wet exposure . . . . . . .267-268
Sampling procedures, quality
acceptance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213, 214, 216
Sand injection. water blast cleaning . . . .65. 79-80
Sand volume, wet abrasive blast cleaning . . . . . 80
Sands, non-metallic abrasives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .45
Sash brushes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
Scaffolding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .168-175
accessories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
aerial supports . . . . . . . . . . . . .111-174
cable supported . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .170-171
choice of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171-172
safety . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .172-174
Scalers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 297
Scaling hammers, impact cleaning tools . . . . . 69-70
Scaling. failures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .498-500
Scanning electron microscopy. paint tests . . . . . 399
Scissors lift. ground supports . . . . . . . . . . .169-170
Scrapers. hand tool cleaning . . . . . . . . . . . . 68-69
Scriber panel tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 399
Sealers. advantages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 459
disadvantages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 459
requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 459
thermal spray coatings . . . . . . . . . . . . . .458-460
Secondary containment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .587-590
acceptable containment structures . .587. 589-590
choice of coatings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .587-588
flake and fiber-filled coatings . . . . . . . . . .588. 590
Oil Pollution Act of 1990 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .587
regulations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .587-588
645
Not for Resale
reinforced thick-film coating systems . . . . . . . .588

thin film coatings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 588
use of coatings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 587
Selection of abrasive, air blast cleaning . . . . . . . . 52
Selection. centrifugal blast cleaning
equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28-29
Selection. phosphating process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
Self-curing. zinc-rich primers . . . . .127.128. 131-132
Self-propelled systems, centrifugal
blast cleaning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
Service life. painting systems . . . . . . .229.233
Service tests. paint evaluations . . . . . . . . . . . . . .219
Shape, abrasives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57.58
Sharp edges. rounding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
Shasta Dam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 331
Ship deck systems centrifugal blast cleaning . . 28
Ship hull systems. centrifugal blast cleaning . . . . 84
Ship side systems, centrifugal blast cleaning . . . . 28
Shipbottom systems, centrifugal blast cleaning . . 28
Shipbottoms. cathodic protection . . . . . . . . . . . .299
painting systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .298.300
Ships, ballast tanks. painting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 305
bilge areas, painting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 304
bootops. painting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 303
cargo holds. painting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 305
cargo tanks. painting . . . . . . . . . . .293. 304-305
cofferdams. painting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 306
construction. painting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 294
cost effectiveness. painting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 293
drydocking, painting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 293
economics. painting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 294
exterior areas. painting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .303.304
fresh water service. painting . . . . . . . . . .307314
hulls. painting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 303
inspection for corrosion damage . . . . . . . . . . . 294
interior areas. painting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . -304
interior decks, painting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 303
living areas, painting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 304
machinery areas, painting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 304
maintenance painting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .299, 303
navy. painting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .516-527
peak tanks. painting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 305
potable water tanks, painting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 305
safety painting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 306
salt water service. painting . . . . . . . . . . .293-306
surface preparation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
295
underwater areas. painting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 294
voids, painting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 306
weather decks, painting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .303
Shop cleaning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249
centrifugal blast cleaning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .26-28
Shop finished steel. field painting . . . . . . . . . . 271
Shop painting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .242.262
advantages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 421-422
costs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229. 234
inspection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 260-261
multi-coat systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .421.422
paint application . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .426.428
.26 1.262
safety . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
specifications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 420
supervision . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 260
Shop pretreating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249
Shop primed steel field painting . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271
Shop primers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .249.251. 253
failures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250
life expectancy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250
Shop versus field. blast cleaning . . . . . . . . .227, 421
Shop versus field. paint application . . . . . .227, 421
Shop welds, cleaning and painting . . . . . . . . . . . 259
Shot. peening, metallic abrasives . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
Shot metallic, size specifications . . . . . . . . . . . . . .33
Sicorin pigments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
Siding. painting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 393
Sieve analysis. non-metallic abrasives . . . . . . . . . 49
Signs, safety . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180
Silica, health hazards . . . . . . . . . . . . . .283. 542. 543
Silica sands, non-metallic abrasives . . . . .45. 52. 60
Silica sol, zinc-rich primers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
Silica. regulated materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
Silicates. zinc-rich primers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
Silicon carbide, non-metallic abrasives . . .46. 48. 58
Silicone acrylic. paints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .391. 433
Silicone alkyd. binders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
paints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 316. 383. 485
vehicles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 338
Silicone aluminum. paints . . . . . . . . . . . . . .393. 415
Silicone binders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
Silicosis. hazards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
abrasive blast cleaning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
Single component.
Size specifications. metallic abrasives . . . . . . . . . . 33
Size versus coverage. metallic abrasives . . . . . . . 36
Size versus impact energy. metallic abrasives . . . 36
Size. abrasives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
non-metallic abrasives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46-47
Slags, boiler, non-metallic abrasives . . . . .45. 4748
coal. non-metallic abrasives . . . . . . . . . . . . .60, 62
copper. non-metallic abrasives
metal smelting. non-metallic abrasives . . . . . . .45
mineral. non-metallic abrasives . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
nickel, non-metallic abrasives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
Sling psychrometer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .182. 184
Soaps. inhibitive . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
lead . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.138. 142
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
ngineers . . . . . . . . . . .32, 35
Society of Environmental Toxicology and
Chemistry. address . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 593
Society of Naval Architects and Marine
Engineers. address . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 303
Sodium chromate. pigments . .
Sodium dichromate, pickling .
Sodium silicates. zinc-rich primers . . . . . . . .126-127
Soil conditions. pipeline painting . . . . . . . . . . . . . 350
Soil. regulations
Housing and Community Development Act . . . 559
Soils. oily. solvent cleaning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
semi-solid. solvent cleaning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
solid containing solvent cleaning . . . . . . . . . . . 90
Solid deck bridges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280
Solubilities. chromate pigments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 497
Solvent cleaning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..68. 71. 273
acid cleaners . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90.91
alkali cleaners . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
brushes . . . . . . . . .
chlorinated solvents
. . . . . . . . . . . . . .90-91
choice of methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
costs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
91
detergent cleaners . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
environmental constraints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .90. 96
foamed detergent cleaning . . . . . . . . . . . . . .94-95
government specifications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
high pressure-hot detergent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94-95
materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90.97
methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .90.97
mineral spirits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
oily soils . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
painted surfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
petroleum solvents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
rinse water. ionic content . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
.91. 176
safety . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
semi-solid soils . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
solvent wiping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
sponges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
steam cleaning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .91, 93-94
stoddard solvent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
surface contaminants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
surface preparation . . . . . . . . . . . .90-97. 105. 401
waste disposal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
xylene . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
Solvent phosphating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
102
Solvent recovery. paint application . . . . . . . . . . . 257
Solvent resistance. zinc-rich primers . . . . . . . . . . 133
Solvent wiping. solvent cleaning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
Solvent-reducible zinc-rich primers . . . . . . . .131-132
Solvents. alcohols . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
123
aliphatic hydrocarbons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
aromatic hydrocarbons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .123
chlorinated . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
.120. 123
comparisons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
dermatitic materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
179
esters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
evaporation times . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .120. 123
field painting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224
.120. 123
flash points . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
glycol ethers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

ketones . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
nitroparaffin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
paints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. .117. 120. 123
. . . . . . .120. 123
threshold limit values . .
water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
Solvents and thinners . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .539-541
fire hazards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.539-540
health hazards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 541
precautions . . . . . . . . . . . .176. 178-179. 306. 541
Southern Railway . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269
Spatter coating. failures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 507
Specific gravity, abrasives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .57-58
Specifications. Bureau of Reclamation . . . . . . . . 449
chemical cleaning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
color . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 347
composition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 448
Corps of Engineers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 449
Department of Defense . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 449
Department of Defense. Index of . . . . . . . . . . . 449
federal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 448-449
field topcoating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 430
galvanizing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
479
government . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .448-451
Guide to U S Government Paint . . . . . . . . . . . 449
Joint Army-Navy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 449
maintenance painting. ships . . . . . . . . . . .300-301
Maritime Administration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 449
military . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .448-449
or-equal clause . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 317
painting programs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .378.379. 398.
417-421. 430
performance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
448
pre-job review of. by fabricators . . . . . . . . . . . . 247
quality acceptance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213
shop painting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
430
size, metallic abrasives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
Spills hazardous substances . . . . . . . .558.584-585
reportable quantities . . . . . . . . . . . . .580. 584-585
Splash zone exposures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267
Sponges. solvent cleaning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
Spot cleaning. maintenance painting . . . . . . . . . .273
Spray. application. hazards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256
automatic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
257
electrostatic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .257. 354-355
.156.157
equipment. air . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
equipment. airless . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .157.159
equipment. cleanup . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
159
equipment. hook-ups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
156
gun. air . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
gun. airless . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
157
paint application . . . . . . . .150, 152.153, 156-165.
194. 249, 258-258.
274-275. 284-285. 343
painting. air supply . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 284
painting equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 284
painting equipment. inspection . . . . . . . .193. 195
pattern adjustment, spray technique . . . . . . . . 165
pot. paint application. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
process. phosphating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
technique. air pressure adjustment . . . . . . . . . 165
technique. air spray . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
technique. airless spray . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
technique. paint application . . . . . . . . . . . .164.165
technique. paint viscosity adjustment . . . . . . . 165
technique. spray pattern adjustment . . . . . . . . 165
versus brush. paint application . . . . . . . . . . . . .256
Spreading rates. paints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255
Spy. holiday detection. instruments . . . . . . . . . . . 204
SSPC-PA 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . .150. 185. 343. 388. 418
SSPC-PA 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .198, 199. 201. 417
.176, 182
SSPC-PA 3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
SSPC-PA 4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .343, 391. 416
119
SSPC-Paint 5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
120
SSPC-Paint 8 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
SSPC-Paint 9 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
SSPC-Paint 1i . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
SSPC-Paint 13 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
SSPC-Paint 16 . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118. 253
SSPC-Paint 17 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.119. 253
SSPC-Paint 18 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
119
SSPC-Paint 19 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
SSPC-Paint 20 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .118. 129. 253
119. 253
SSPC-Paint 21 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
118. 253
SSPC-Paint 22 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
646
Not for Resale
SSPC-Paint 23 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
119. 253
119
SSPC-Paint 24. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
SSPC-Paint 25 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253
SSPC-Paint 27 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .122. 144. 272
SSPC-Paint 28 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253
SSPC-Paint 29 . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . .118. 253
SSPC-Paint 101 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
SSPC-Paint 104 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
SSPC-Paint 106 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
SSPC-PS 1.00 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
SSPC-PS 2.00 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
118
SSPC-PS 2.05 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
SSPC-PS 3.00. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
-119
SSPC-PS 4.00. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
SSPC-PS 11.O1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
SSPC-PS 12.00 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118. 135
SSPC-PS 12.01 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118. 135
SSPC-PS 13.01 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
SSPC-PS 15.00. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
SSPC-PS 16.01 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
SSPC-PS 17.00 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
SSPC-PS 18.01 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
SSPC-PS 24.00 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
SSPC-SP 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .75. 184. 273
SSPC-SP 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.75. 272. 283
.75. 272. 283
SSPC-SP 3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.75. 273
SSPC-SP 5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
SSPC-SP 6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .75. 273. 283
SSPC-SP 7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.75. 273. 283
SSPC-SP 8 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
75
SSPC-SP 10 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .75. 273. 283
SSPC-SP 11 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
SSPC-Vis 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
SSPC-Vis 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
Stacks. steel. painting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 422
Standardization Documents Order Desk . . . . . p. 218
State Highway Departments. survey . . . . . . . . . . 285
State Implementation Plans . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 290
Static electricity. abrasive blast
cleaning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
54. 61
Stationary scaffolding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
Stationary supports. safety . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172
Staurolite. non-metallic abrasives . . . . . . . . . .45. 60
Steam cleaning. equipment . . . . . . . . . . .93-94. 102
safety . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176
solvent cleaning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .91. 93-94
Steam propelled. abrasive blast cleaning . . . . . . . 83
Steel encased in concrete. cleaning . . . . . . . . . . 243
painting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
247. 270
Steel Founders Society of America . . . . . . . . . . .35
Steel grating. designs for
corrosion prevention . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 246
Steel grit. metallic abrasives . . . . . . . . . . .58. 60. 86
Steel plants. painting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 390-395
paints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 390
Steel related failures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .500.503
Steel selection. hot dip galvanizing . . . . . . . 472473
Steel shot. metallic abrasives . . . . . . . . . . . . .58. 86
Steel Structures Painting Council.
address . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 450. 593
Steel Tank Institute, address . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 593
Steel. composition. effect upon corrosion . . . . . . . . 7
galvanized . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263
low-alloy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-8
new. abrasive blast cleaning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
permanently enclosed painting . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243
plate. laminations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .182-183
theory of corrosion . . . .
weathering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.7-8. 263
Steels. heat treated. pickling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
. . . . . . . . . . . . 106
high strength pickling
special, pickling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
stainless. pickling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .104. 111
Stepladders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168
Stern and propeller areas. painting . . . . . . . . . . . 311
Stiffeners. designs for corrosion prevention . . . .246
Stoddard solvent. solvent cleaning . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
Storage. paints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .254-255. 277
pipeline painting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 351
Storage vessels. regulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . .587-591
hazardous waste . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .587-588. 590
petroleum products . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .584. 589
regulations. underground storage
tanks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 559. 588-591
SSPC CHAPTERa27.3
secondary containment . . . . . . . .587.588. 589-590

Storing. painted steel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .259.261
Strainers. paint application . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I 52.153
Stray currents. cathodic protection . . . . . . . .373.374
Stray electric currents. corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263
effect upon corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 246
Stress raisers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 246
Stringers. bridges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269
Striping coat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256
edges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244
Strontium chromate pigments . . . . . . . . . . . .I43-144
Strontium nitrate pigments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143-144
Structures designs for
corrosion prevention . . . . . . .
highway. painting . . . . . . . . .
railroad. painting. . . . . . . . . .
Styrene-based binders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
Submerged exposure environments . . .380-381.
384
Substrate-related paint failures . . . . . . . . . . .5004 0 5
Suction type blast cleaning equipment . . .52,54-56
Sulfates surface contaminants . . . . . . . . . . . .lo.297
Sulfide discoloration. failures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .494
Sulfuric acid pickling . . . . . .104.106. 108-111.115
Sulfuric-phosphoric acid. pickling . . . . . . . .112.113
and Reauthorization
. . . . . . . . .558-559.
585-587
tion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .585
National Response Center . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 585
planning and response . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 585
section 301-303. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 585
section 304 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 585
section 31 1-312 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .585-586
section 313 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 586
threshold planning quantity . . . . . . . . . .585.587
toxic chemical release inventory . . . . . .586.587
Superintendent of Documents. address . . . . . . . 450
Superstructures. bridges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269
painting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
312
Supervision. shop painting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 260
Supervisors field painting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223
Surface area and tonnage bridges . . . . . . . .269-270
Surface conditions. effect on
19
surface preparation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
fabricated steel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
pre.painting. highway bridges . . . .
black light test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
chlorides . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.lo.297
effect on adhesion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10
effect on corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
oily soils . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
semi-solid soils . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
sulfates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Surface finish. non-metallic abra
Surface preparation
abrasive air blast cleaning . . . . . . . . . . . . .295-296
abrasive blast cleaning . . . . . . . .52.63. 105,243.
283. 342.417
abrasives . . . . . . . . . . . .3244,45.51. 86.295-296
air-water-sand blast cleaning . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79-81
alkali cleaners . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
aluminum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
bacterial cleaning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. 84-85
blast cleaning . . . . . . . . .2241.52-63.79.83, 273
blast cleaning. regulations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 291
bridges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 283-284
centrifugal blast cleaning . . . . . . . . . . . .22.31.295
chemical cleaning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9097
chemical cleanliness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
choice of methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .19.21. 273
citric acid cleaning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
cleanliness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
closed-cycle blast cleaning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295
coke oven plants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 390
concrete . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . 387.432
copper . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 400
costs . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . .75-77.81.401
costs. estimating procedures . . . . . . . . . . . . .76-77
costs review .
cryogenic coating removal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .85
direct costs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
75
documentation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
dust removal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
342
93
8627940 000408b 155
effect of degree of cleaning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . l 9.20

effect of job location . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
effect of profile requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
effect of surface condition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
effect on paint life . . . . . . .140,244.245. 272,415
effect on paint life tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I i4
effect on primer selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245
environmental constraints . . 20-21,30,78-79,88
environmental impact . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
21
explosive propelled . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
fabricating plants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .242-243.249
field welding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277
flame cleaning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
flash rusting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
Flashblast . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
fresh water vessels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .310-311
galvanized steel . . . . . . . . .387,400,434,483-484
grease removal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 342
hand tool cleaning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .68-74.105,
272. 283.297,342
handling cleaned surfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
. . . . . . . . . . . . . 466-467
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
inspection . . . . . . . . . .75.188.193, 260-261.284,
288-289.327,341
laser cleaning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
maintenance painting . . . . . . ..413-414,425,435
masonry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 400
mechanical . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.22-31
metallic abrasives . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . .32-44
navyships . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 520
new approaches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.78-79
new structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277
non-metallic abras'
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45-51
painting programs
. .399401,412-414. 418
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .98-103
physical cleanliness. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
pickling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.104-116
pickling. fabricating plants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243
plasma-hot gas cleaning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
power plants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.444445
power tool cleaning . . . . . . . .68.74,272,283.297
production rates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.75-77
profile . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .20.192. 284
regulations . . . . . . .79.88, 291.543-546.569-571
rust inhibitors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
safety . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .176-180
ships . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295
shop cleaning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
shop painting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 426428
solvent cleaning . . . . . . . . . .90-97.105. 273.401
spot cleaning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 273
steel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 400
steel plants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 390
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 342
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 324
thermal cleaning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
thermal spray coatings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .458-459
ultrasonic cleaning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.85.86
visual comparator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .185,192
visual standards . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . 189
warranties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
waste treatment plants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .386-387
water blast cleaning . . . . . .64.67,79-83,295-297
water treatment plants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .386-387
wet abrasive blast cleaning . . . . . . . . . . . . . .79.83
wood . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 387,400
xenon flash lamps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83,85
zinc shot blasting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
zinc-rich primers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..13,134,135
Surface preparation, hazards . . . . .78,254,543-546
abrasive blasting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 545
acids and alkalis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 543
caustics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 543
chemical strippers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 543
dust and abrasive fines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 543
hand and power tools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 545
pressure pots . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 546
precautions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .176-180
silica . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 543
water jeting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 546
welding. cutting and heating . . . . . . . . . . .
Surface repairs. surface preparation . . . . . . . . . . 342
Surface temperature, measurements. . . . . . . . . .185
thermometer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Surface treatment, rust inhibitors. .
Surface treatments. effect on painted steel . . . . . . 8

Surfaces. designs for corrosion
.533-534
prevention . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Sulfuric acid, pickling . . . . . . . . . .105.107.112-113
Surroundings. effect on paint application . . . . . .150
Survey. State Highway Departments . . . . . . . . . .285
Suspended particulates. regulated materials . . . .79
Suspension span bridges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .280
Synergism. painting galvanized steel . . . . . .481-482
Synthetic polymer. paints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 288
Systems. thermal spray . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 461
T
Tank barges. fresh water service . . . . . . . .307.309
painting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
309
Tank painting, environmental constraints . . . . . . 315
Tankers, zinc-rich primers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
Tanks, coatings inspection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 317-318
crude oil, painting . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . 404
dry foodstuff, lining . .
exteriors, painting . . . . . . . . . . . .316-317,
433434
field erected, painting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 422
fire protection, painting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 316
food processing. lining . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 321
fuel oil. painting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 316
hot liquor. painting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 422
interiors, design for corrosion prevention . . . . 321
interiors, painting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .315-316.
318
interiors painting. regulations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 315
interiors. painting, safety . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 320
interiors, painting. safety check list . . . . . . . . . 320
lining. curing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 326-327
lining, inspection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 327
lining, maintenance painting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 328
lining, paint application . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 325327
lining, surface preparation . . . . . . . . . . . . .324-325
liquid foodstuff. lining . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 434
maintenance painting . . . . . . .
402
painting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .270,394,400-402
painting, environmental constraints . . . . . . . . .319
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 319
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251
n . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .106,114
pickling, lining . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.106,114
potable water. painting . . . . . . . . . . .315,319,380
safety. painting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .410,411
sampling paints from . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .213-214
steel, lining . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .320-329
steel, lining, materials selection . . . . . . . .321-324
steel, painting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.315-319
storage. failures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 513
water, lining failures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 322
g . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 318
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 337
cleaning . . . . . . . . . 65
Tapes, coal tar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 355
coatings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 355-356
polyethylene . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 355
polyvinyl . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 355
Tarpaulins, paint residue recovery . . . . . . . .
Technetium. pigments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
Temperature resistance, zinc-rich primers . . . . . 133
Temperature-resistant paints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 397
Temperature effect on paint viscosity . . . . . . . . . 161
ambient, pipeline painting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 351
effect on pickling rate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .IO7-108
measurements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.183-185
operating. pipeline painting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .351
paint application . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .153,343
Test panels. field tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219
Testex Pressa-Film Tape, profile
.186.193
measurements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Testing procedures, quality acceptance . . . . . . . 213
Testing, primers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251
Tests, abrasive breakdown rates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
abrasives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
61
breakdown non-metallic abrasives . . . . . . . . . . . 51
Design Basis Accident . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . -442
effect of surface preparation on paint life . . . .114
evaluation of non-metallic abrasives . . . . . . .48-51
evaluation, zinc-rich primers . . . . . . . . . . .135-136
field. for abrasives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

647
Not for Resale
field. zinc-rich primers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135

Loss of Coolant Accident . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 442
painting. galvanized steel . . . . . . . . . .481.485
painting. railroad bridges . . . . . . . . . . . . . .265
paints. abrasion resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .357
paints. acceptance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .213.221
paints. appearance in container . . . . . . . . . . .212
paints. application characteristics . . . . . . . 211
paints. atmospheric weathering . . . . . . . . . . . .358
paints. bendability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 357
paints. cathodic disbonding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .358
paints. chemical analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .217
paints. chemical resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 358
paints. composition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212
paints. density measurements . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211
paints. dispersion measurements . . . . . . . . . . .211
paints. electrochemical . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .358
paints. emission spectroscopy . . . . . . . . . . . . 399
paints. film characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .211
paints. film properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .211
paints. gas chromatography . . . . . . .218. 398-399
paints. impact resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 357
paints. infrared spectroscopy . . . . . .218. 398-399
paints. instrumental analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218
paints. mass spectroscopy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .398
paints. penetration resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . .358
paints. performance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .211-212
paints. physical . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 358
paints. physical properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 t 1-212
paints. qualitative . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .211-212. 218
paints. quality control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207-212
paints. scanning electron microscopy . . . . . . . 399
paints. standardized . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216
paints. ultraviolet spectroscopy . . . . . . . . . . . 399
paints. viscosity measurements . . . . . . . . . . . 21 1
surface treatment on painted steel . . . . . . . . . 8
Thermal cleaning. surface preparation . . . . . . . . .85
Thermal spray. aluminum coatings . . . . . . .457-458.
460-461. 463
coatings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 456-464
coatings. barrier . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 458
coatings. cathodic protection . . . . . . . . . . .458
coatings. characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .457
coatings. properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 458
coatings. sealers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .458-460
coatings. surface preparation . . . . . . . . . .458-459
costs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 462-463
electric arc gun . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .456-457
equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
456. 462
hazards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 463
oxygen-fuel gas gun . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .456-457
plasma spray gun . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .456-457
systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 461
zinc Coatings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .457-461. 463
Thermite reaction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 463
Thermoplastic binders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
paints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-15
Thermosetting binders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
coatings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 354
paints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-16
Thickness-related failures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .506
Thickness. effect on paint life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .271
Thinner. effect of additions on
volume solids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198
Thinning-related failures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 505
Thinning. inspection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195
paint application . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .152. 195. 343
.255-256. 277
paints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
paints. for dipping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256
quality control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 252
Thixotropic paints. viscosity
measurements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195
Threshold limit values. solvents . . . . . . . . . .120. 123
Through and overhead bridges . . . . . . . . . . . . .280
Throwing power. cathodic protection . . . . . . . . . . . .7
Tie-coats. zinc-rich primers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
Timber bearing surfaces. painting . . . . . . . .268-269
Time and materials contract . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .239
Time of wetness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 281
Tinker-Rasor. holiday detection.
instruments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .203-204
Tinting. paint application . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .15 1-152
Tonnage and surface area. bridges . . . . . . .269-270
Tooke. dry film thickness
gages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .t98-199. 201-202
Tools. hand tool cleaning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .68-69

8 6 2 7 9 4 0 0004087 091
93
Topcoating. zinc-rich primers . . . . . . . . 13. 115. 122.

128. 131-132. 134. 303. 339
Topcoats. paints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
Topsides. painting systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .302
Towboats. fresh water service . . . . . .307. 310-311
.309. 311-312
painting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Towers. painting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 270
Toxic contaminants. non-metallic abrasives . . . . . 50
Toxic materials. additives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
binders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
pigments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
safety . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
solvents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
178-179
Toxic Substances Control Act . . . . . . . . . . .559. 583
lead pigments in industrial paints . . . . . . . . . .583
premanufacture notice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .583
provisions affecting end users . . . . . . . . . . . . .583
provisions affecting formulators . . . . . . . . . . . .583
significant new use rule . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 583
Toxicity Characteristic Leaching
Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . .78. 574. 577-579. 581
Toxicity. paint dusts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 283
silica sand . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 283
Trackscales. painting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 270
Training of painters. apprenticeship . . . . . . . . . . 249
on-the-job . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249
Training of workers. fabricating plants . . . . . . . . 248
Training programs. evaluation
of program . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .454-455
identifying needs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 453
painting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .452-455
steps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 452-455
trainee selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 453
training methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.453-454
training staff . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 454
Training. operators abrasive
blast cleaning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. 61-63
water blast cleaning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
Training. paint application . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
Treatments. hot dip galvanizing . . . . . . . . . .477-478
phosphoric acid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.98. 102
Tribasic lead phosphosilicate. pigments . . . . . . . 144
Truss span. bridges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280
TT-C-490 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92. 101
TT-P-641 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 393
Tugboats. salt water service . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 309
Tung oil. binders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
Turntables. painting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 270
Two step formal advertising contract . . . . . .239-240
Two-component epoxy. binders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
Two-component paint application equipment . . . 160
.16. 117
paints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
paints. application . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 345
paints. mixing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .151-152. 195
paints. pot-life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
spray gun . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . 1 63.165
urethane . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
U
US Department of Agriculture
regulations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .436. 591
US Food and Drug Administration.
regulations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .436, 591
Ultrasonic cleaning. surface preparation . . . . .E5-86
Ultraviolet spectroscopy. paint tests . . . . . . . . . . 399
Undercutting. causes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
failures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 500
Underfilm corrosion. causes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
Underground structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268
painting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .349-362
Underground. exposure environments . . . . .335-337
exposure environments. paints . . . . . . . . . . . . 346
Underground storage tanks . . . . . . . . .559, 587-591
corrosion protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .589-590
existing petroleum underground
storage tanks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 589
federal regulations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .559. 587-590
new petroleum undergound storage tanks . . . 589
secondary containment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .587-589
state regulations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .590-591
underground chemical tanks . . . . . . . . . . .589-590
648
Not for Resale
Underwater areas. ships. painting . . . . . . . . . . . . 294

Underwater exposure environments . . . . . . .332-335
paints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 347
United States Public Health Service . . . . . . . . . . 305
Uralkyd paints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
Urethane. aliphatic. paints . . . . . . . . . .415 431. 433
binders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
binders. aliphatic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .119.122
binders. aromatic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . l l 9.120
binders. moisture-curing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
binders. oil modified . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
Urethane foam, insulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .356
Urethane, paints . . . . . .16, 317, 335, 338. 354. 392
Urethane resins, health hazards . . . . . . . . . . . . . 541
Urethane. two-component . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
Users. paints. quality acceptance . . . . 213.221. 398
Vacuum recovery blast cleaning

equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .52. 56. 85-87
Valves. choke. abrasive blast cleaning . . . . . . . . . 56
control. abrasive blast cleaning . . . . . . . . . . . 55.56
dump. water blast cleaning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
metering. abrasive blast cleaning . . . . .54.56. 187
Vegetable oil paints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
Vehicles. alkyd . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 338
barrier paints. choice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
primer. purpose of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243
properties of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
silicone alkyd . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 338
Velocity. metallic abrasives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
Ventilation equipment. paint application . . . . . . . 257
Ventilation. inspection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
pickling plants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
Venturi nozzles. abrasive blast cleaning . . . . .55. 60
Very Large Crude Carriers. fouling cost . . . . . . . 294
Vessels. corrosion. effect of water quality . . . . . . 307
corrosion. fresh water service . . . . . . . . . .307.309
designs for corrosion prevention . . . . . . . . . . . 309
fresh water service. painting . . . . . . . . . . .307.314
salt water service. painting . . . . . . . . . . . .293.306
types. fresh water service . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .307
Vinyl acetate binders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
Vinyl chloride binders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
Vinyl copolymer binders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 391
.120.122
Vinyl. binders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
ester. linings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .323.324
linings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 324
paint application . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .150.344-345
painting system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 287
paints . . . . . . . . . . . .14. 284. 286. 315. 335. 337.
381. 386-387. 483-485
Vinyl.alkyd. binders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
Viscosity. measurements. paints. tests . . . . . . . . 211
measurements. thixotropic paints . . . . . . . . . . . 195
measurements. Zahn cup . . . . . . . . . . . . .187. 195
quality control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 252
Visual standards. surface preparation . . . . . . . . . 189
Voids. ships. painting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 306
Volatile content. quality control . . . . . . . . . .252. 254
Volatile Organic Compounds
compliance with regulations . . . . . . . . . . .565.566
from shop applied coatings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 562
from marine coating operations . . . . . . . . . . . .564
low-voc coatings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 565
measuring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 566-567
state approaches to regulations . . . . . . . . . . . . 565
Volume solids. effect of added thinner . . . . . . . . 198
Volume solids. for film thickness
calculations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.197.198
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
SSPC CHAPTERs27.3
Wall brushes. paint . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .153.154

Walnut shells. non-metallic
abrasives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.45.48 58. 84
Warranties surface preparation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
Wash primers . . . . . . . . . . . . . .120. 122. 144-145
261 275. 297. 387
fresh water vessels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 310
SSPC CHAPTERs27.3
galvanized steel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 483

Waste disposal. solvent cleaning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
Waste handling and disposai
regulations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .558.575579
hazardous waste . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .558. 575579
non-hazardous waste . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 579
Waste treatment plants. paint application . .387.388
.379.389
painting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Water absorption, coatings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
Water blast cleaning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .64-67. 79-83
abrasive injection. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
abrasives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
controlled cavitation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
costs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66-67. 76
dump guns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
67
dump valves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. 65-66
etch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
high pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .64.65. 295-297
limitations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
low pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.64.65
maintenance painting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
nozzles. circular . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
nozzles. tapered . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
operator fatigue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
operator training . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
profile . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
protective equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
.82-83
remote controlled . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
rust inhibitors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .64. 66. 296
safety . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .64. 67. 546
sand injection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
scaffolding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
versus hand tool cleaning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
versus power tool cleaning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
with sand injection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. 79.80
Water curtain. abrasive blast cleaning . . . .79. 81-82
Water Environment Federation. address . . . . . . . 593
Water Jet Technology Association. The.
address . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 554
Water jetting. hazards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 546
Water quality regulations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 558
drinking water standards . . . . . . . . . . . . . .580.583
Federal Clean Water Act . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 558
maximum allowable levels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 582
maximum contaminant levels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 558
National Ambient Water Quality
Standards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.580-581
National Pollutant Discharge
Elimination System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .580-582
581-582
permits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
point source discharge. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .58 1-582
potable water in storage tanks . . . . . . . . .582-583
Safe Drinking Water Act . . . . . . . . . .558. 581-583
state and local ordinances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 582
storm water discharge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 582
Water tanks maintenance painting . . . . . . . . . . . 318
Water treatment plants. paint application . . .387.388
painting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .379.389
Water volume. wet abrasive blast cleaning . . . . . . 80
Water. fresh. frequently wet exposure . . . . . . . . . 267
ships and vessels. painting . . . . . . . . . . . .307-314
Water. salt. frequently wet exposure . . . . . .267-268
ships and vessels. painting . . . . . . . . . . . .293-306
Water solvents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
123
Water-borne epoxy paints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .430.431
147
Water-borne binders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Water.borne. paint application. cleanup . . . . . . . 166
painting system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 287
paints . . . . . . . . . . . . .286. 288. 315. 339. 381-382
paints. application . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150. 345
primers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
Water-reducible zinc-rich primers . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
Wax coatings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 356
Wear. metallic abrasives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
Weather decks. ships. painting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 303
Weather-related failures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .505-506
Weather. effect on paint application . . . . . .150. 274
Weatherability. paints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 397
.7-8. 263
Weathering steel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Weathering. galvanized steel . . . . . . . . . . . . 482-483
Weathering, zinc-rich primers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
Weight per gallon quality control . . . . . . . . . . . . . 252
93
8 6 2 7 9 4 0 0004096 O T 4 W
Weld-related failures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 511

Welded assemblies. pickling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
Welding. cutting and heating. hazards . . . . . . . .546
Welding procedure. hot dip galvanizing . . . . . . . 472
Welding. zinc-rich primers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
Welds. cleaning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.311-312
cleaning and painting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .259. 308
improperly prepared . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 311
intermittent. coating failures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 332
properly prepared . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 312
spatter removal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
Wet abrasive blast cleaning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .79-83
costs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
hazards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
nozzle thrust . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
production rates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
81-82
sand volume . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
water volume . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
Wet bulb temperature. measurements . . . . .184-185
Wet film thickness. gages . . . . . . .187.188. 196-198
gages. interchemical . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .190. 197
gages. notch type . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
197
measurements . . . . . . . . . . . . . .165. 196-198. 258
Wetness time . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Wetting ability. primers. versus
drying time . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
245
Wetting oils. pretreatments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261
Wheel travel. centrifugal blast cleaning . . . . . . . . . 25
Willemite . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
Wire brushes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
. 68.69
hand tool cleaning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
rotary cleaning tools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70.71
Wood ladders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168
Wood-related failures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .502-503
.394. 524
Wood. painting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
surface preparation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .387. 400
Work cage. aerial supports . . . . . . . . . . . . . .17 1.172
Work car. centrifugal blast cleaning . . . . . . . . . 25-26
Work handling. centrifugal
blast cleaning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .23. 25. 27-29
Work mix. metallic abrasives . . . . . .32. 3741. 4344
replenishment. metallic abrasives . . . . . . . . . . . 40
Woronora pipeline, zinc-rich primers . . . . . . . . . . 126
Wrinkling. failures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 491
X
Xenon flash lamps. surface preparation . . . . .83. 85
Xylene. solvent cleaning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
Z
Zahn cup. viscosity measurements . . . . . . .187. 195
Zinc chromate. pigments . . . . . . . . . . .140. 144. 146
Zinc dust. pigments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .145. 246
Zinc oxide. American process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
.140. 145. 246
pigments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Zinc phosphate. coatings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .98.103
pigments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
146
Zinc phospho oxide. pigments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
Zinc phosphosilicate. pigments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
Zinc potassium chromate. pigments . . . . . . .145.146
Zinc-related failures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 501-503
Zinc salts. pigments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .146-147
Zinc shot blasting. surface preparation . . . . . . . . . 84
Zinc silicate. coatings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
145
Zinc yellow. pigments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Zinc. coatings. hot dip galvanized . . . . . . . .465-480
coatings. thermal spray . . .457458. 460-461. 463
Zinc. pigments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
Zinc. type. hot dip galvanizing . . . . . . . . . . . . 473474
Zinc-coated. non-metallic abrasives . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
Zinc-dust-zinc oxide. paints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 485
Zinc-rich primers . . . . . . . . .6. 10. 12. 122. 125.137.
145. 284-285. 315-316. 339. 431-433
abrasion resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .129. 134
adhesion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .13. 133-135
.12.13
alkali silicates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
alkyl silicates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .13. 127
.126-127
ambient curing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
ammonium silicates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .126-127
application of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

649
Not for Resale
barrier protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
131
binders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.i35.136
bridges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
cargo carriers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
case histories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135-136
cathodic protection . . . . .6, 13, 129. 131. 133-134
127
cellosolve silicates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
chemical bonding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .128-133
chemical reactions . . . . . . . . . . .
chemical resistance . . . . . . . . . . .
coefficient of friction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .133.134
colloidal silica . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
compared with galvanizing . . . . . . . . . . . .132.133
conductive extenders . . . . . . . . . . .12.14, 131-132
curing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. i 26-131
drilling rigs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
electrical conductivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
129
environmental reactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
.127.128
ethyl silicates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
evaluation tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .135.136
.133.134
faying surfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
field tests . . . . .
film thickness . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .13
formulation . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . 12. 127
Golden Gate Bridge ..................... 136
heat curing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
126
history . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.125.126
inorganic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .12-13, 118, 125-132,
383, 392.393, 415-416, 444
inorganic versus organic . . . . . . . . . . .13, 134-135
inorganic, characteristics . . . . . . . . . . .
inorganic. pickling for . . . . . . . . . . . . .
inorganic, single component . . . . . . . .
inorganic, surface pH . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
105
limitations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .134-135
linings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 324
lithium silicates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .126.127
mist coats for . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
mixing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195
nuclear power plants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
organic . . . . . . . . . . . . .12. 118, 125, 131-132. 415
organic characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
particle-to-particle contact . . . .129. 131, 134. 145
pipelines. Morgan Whyalla . . . . . . . . . . . .126, 136
pipelines, Woronora . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
porosity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
128. 130
post-curing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .126, 127, 131
potassium silicates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .126-127
pre-construction primers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
production platforms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
refineries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
self-curing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .127.128, 131-132
silica sol . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
silicates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
single component . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .128. 132
sodium silicates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .126.127
solvent resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131-132
. . . . . . . . . . . . .13, 134-135
tankers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
temperature resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
tie-coats for . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
13
topcoating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .i
3. 115. 122, 128
131.132. 134, 303, 339
Type 1-A . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
Type 1-B . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
Type 1-C . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131-132
Type 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
versus galvanizing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227
water-reducible . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
weathering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
welding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
Zinc.rich, inorganic, painting system . . . . . . . . . .287
Zinc.rich, organic, painting system . . . . . . . .286287
Zircon, non-metallic abrasives . . . . . . . .
Zones, environmental . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268
chemical exposure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268
frequently wet, fresh water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267
frequently wet, salt water . . . . . . . . . . . . . .267-268
normally dry (rural) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 264
painting systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 266-267
zone 1 B . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 264
zone 2A . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267
zone 2B . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267-268
zone 3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268

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Copyright The Society for Protective Coatings

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Copyright The Society for Protective Coatings

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Copyright The Society for Protective Coatings

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Copyright The Society for Protective Coatings

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Copyright The Society for Protective Coatings

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