ECE102 - F12 LecSet 8

8.
Frequency Response
Reading: Sedra & Smith: Sec. 1.6, Sec. 3.6 and Sec. 9
(MOS portions),
(S&S 5th Ed: Sec. 1.6, Sec. 3.7 (capacitive effects), Sec.
4.8, Sec. 4.9, ,Sec. 6. (Frequency response sections,
i.e., 6.4, 6.6, ), Sec. 7.6
Typical Frequency response of an Amplifier

Up to now we have ignored capacitors in circuits & computed mid-band
properties. We have to solve the circuit in the frequency domain in order
to see the impact of capacitors (a typical response is shown below):
o Lower cut-off frequency: fL
o Upper cut-off frequency: fH
o Band-width: B = fH fL
F. Najmabadi, ECE102, Fall 2012 (2/59)
Observation on the
frequency response of an Amplifier
Observations:
Analytical solution of amplifiers in frequency domain is complicated!
Response (e.g., gain) of an ideal linear amplifier should be independent
of frequency (otherwise signal shape would be distorted by the
amplifier). Thus:
o A practical amplifier acts as an ideal linear amplifier only for a range of
frequencies, called the mid-band.
o The lower and the upper cut-off frequencies (fL and fH) identify the
frequency range over which the amplifier acts linearly.
o Amplifier response at high frequencies (near the upper cut-off frequency ,
fH) is important for stability considerations (gain and phase margins).
Thus, we are mainly interested in mid-band properties (where

capacitors can be ignored) and in poles and zeros of the amplifier
response (due to capacitors).
What do we mean by capacitors can be ignored?

Capacitor impedance depends on the frequency: |Z| = 1/(jC).
o At high frequency |Z| 0: capacitor acts as a short circuit.
o At low frequency |Z| : capacitor acts as an open circuit.
For the above two limits, circuit becomes a resistive circuit and
we do NOT need to solve the circuit in the frequency domain.
Thus, ignoring capacitors means that we operate at either a high
enough or at a low enough frequency such that capacitors become
either open or short circuits, leading to a resistive circuit.
o Note that the circuit is modified by the presence of the capacitors
(e.g., elements may be shorted out).
But high and/or low frequency compare to what?
Capacitor behavior depends

on the frequency of interest.
Capacitor approximates an open circuit at low frequencies:
Example:
| Z | = R || (1 / C )
R << (1 / C ) | Z | = R || (1 / C ) R
R << (1 / C ) << (1 / RC )
Capacitor approximates a short circuit at high frequencies:
R >> (1 / C ) | Z | = R || (1 / C ) (1 / C ) 0
R >> (1 / C ) >> (1 / RC )
We cannot ignore the capacitor when
R ~ (1 / C ) ~ (1 / RC )
This defines the reference frequency for high-f and low-f
Note: The above circuit is like a low-pass filter with a cut-off frequency of 1/RC
Finding Frequency response of amplifiers

Capacitors typically divide into two groups: low-f capacitors
(setting fL) and high-f capacitors (setting fH).
o We need to identify low-f and high-f caps. We will use absolute
limits of f = 0 (ALL capacitors open) and f = (ALL capacitors short)
for this purpose.
For bias (f = 0) all caps are open circuit!

For mid-band properties (fL << f << fH)
o Low-f capacitors will be short circuit (because fL << f ).
o High-f capacitors will be open circuit (because f << fH).

o The resulting resistive circuit gives mid-band properties.
We will use time-constant method to find fL and fH (separately)
o To find fL all high-f capacitors will be open circuit (because fL << fH)
o To find fH all low-f capacitors will be short circuit (because fH >> fL)
Impact of various capacitors depend on

the frequency of interest
Impendence of capacitors (1/C)
f
All Caps are short.
This limit is used
to find highfrequency Caps.
f0
All Caps are open.
This limit is used
to find lowfrequency Caps
Computing fL:
High-f caps are open.
Low-f caps included.
Mid-band:
High-f caps are open
Low-f caps are short.
Computing fH :
High-f caps are included.
Low-f caps are short
How to find which capacitors contribute

to the lower cut-off frequency
Consider each capacitor individually. Let f = 0 (capacitor is open circuit):
o If vo (or AM) does not change, capacitor does NOT contribute to fL (i.e.,
it is a high-f cap)
o If vo (or AM) 0 or is reduced substantially, capacitor contributes to fL
(i.e., it is a low-f cap)
Example:
Cc1 open:
v i = 0 vo = 0
Contributes to fL
CL open:
No change in vo
Does NOT contribute to fL
How to find which capacitors contribute

to the upper cut-off frequency
Consider each capacitor individually. Let f (capacitor is short circuit):
o If vo (or AM) does not change, capacitor does NOT contribute to fH
(i.e., it is a low-f cap)
o If vo (or AM) 0 or reduced substantially, capacitor contributes to fH
(i.e., it is a high-f cap)
Example:
Cc1 short:
No change in vo
Does NOT contribute to fH
CL short:
vo = 0
Contributes to fH
Constructing appropriate circuits

Example:
Cc1 : Low-f capacitor
CL : High-f capacitor
Computing fL:
High-f caps are open.
Low-f caps included.
Mid-band:
High-f caps are open
Low-f caps are short.
Computing fH :
High-f caps are included.
Low-f caps are short
Low-Frequency Response
Low-frequency response of an amplifier

Example: an amplifier with three poles
Vo
s
s
s
= AM
Vsig
s + p1 s + p 2 s + p 3
(Set s = j to find Bode Plots)
Each capacitors gives a pole.

All poles contribute to fL (exact value of fL from computation or simulation)
A good approximation for design & hand calculations:
fL fp1 + fp2 + fp3 +
If one pole is at least a factor of 4 higher than others (e.g., fp2 in the above
figure), fL is approximately equal to that pole (e.g., fL fp2 in above within 20%)
Low-frequency response of a CS amplifier

(from detailed frequency response analysis)
All capacitors contribute to fL (as vo is reduced when f 0 or caps open circuit)
Cc1 open:
vi = 0 vo = 0
Cc2 open:
vo = 0
Cs open:
Gain is reduced substantially
(from CS amp. to CS amp. With RS)
Lengthy calculations: See S&S pp689-692 for detailed calculations (S&S

assumes ro and RS )
Vo
s
s
s
= AM
Vsig
s + p1 s + p 2 s + p 3
AM =
RG
g m (ro || RD || RL )
RG + Rsig
p1 =
1
1
, p3 =
Cc1 ( RG + Rsig )
Cc 2 ( RD || ro + RL )
p2
1
,
Cs [ RS || [(ro + RD || RL ) /(1 + g m ro )]
Finding poles by inspection

1. Set vsig = 0*
2. Consider each capacitor separately, e.g., Cn (assume all others are
short circuit!)
3. Find the total resistance seen between the terminals of the
capacitor, e.g., Rn (treat ground as a regular node).
4. The pole associated with that capacitor is
f pn =
1
2Rn Cn
5. Lower-cut-off frequency can be found from

fL fp1 + fp2 + fp3 +
* Although we are calculating frequency response in frequency domain, we

will use time-domain notation instead of phasor form (i.e., vsig instead of Vsig)
to avoid confusion with the bias values.
Example: Low-frequency response of a CS amplifier

(from pole inspection)
Examination of circuit shows that ALL capacitors are low-f capacitors.

In the following slides with compute poles introduced by each capacitor.
(Compare with the detailed calculations of slide 13!)
fL fp1 + fp2 + fp3
Low-frequency response of a CS amplifier (fp1)
f p1 =
1. Consider Cc1 :
1
2 Cc1 ( RG + Rsig )
Terminals of Cc1
2. Find resistance between

Capacitor terminals

f p2 =
1
2 CS [ RS || [(ro + RD || RL ) /(1 + g m ro )]
ro + RD || RL
1 + g m ro
1. Consider CS :
ro + RD || RL
1 + g m ro
ro + RD || RL
1 + g m ro
Terminals of CS

Capacitor terminals
f p3 =
1. Consider Cc2 :
1
2 Cc 2 ( RL + RD || ro )
Terminals of Cc2

Capacitor terminals
High-Frequency Response
o Amplifier gain falls off due to the internal
capacitive effects of transistors as well as
possible capacitors in the circuit.
Capacitive Effects in pn Junction

Charge stored in the pn junction, leading to a capacitance
For majority carriers, stored charge is a function of applied voltage
leading to a small-signal junction capacitance, Cj
For minority carriers, stored charge depends on the time for these
carriers to diffuse across the junction and recombine, leading to a
diffusion capacitance, Cd
Both Cj and Cd depend on bias current and/or voltage.
Junction capacitances are small and are given in femto-Farad (fF)
1 fF = 1015 F
High-f small signal
model of diode
Forward Bias
Cj + Cd
C j 2 C j0
Cd =
rD
T ID
VT
Reverse Bias
Cj =
C j0
(1 + VR / V0 ) m
Cd = 0
*See S&S pp154-156 for detailed derivations
Capacitive Effects in MOS*

1. Capacitance between
Gate and channel
(Parallel-plate capacitor)
appears as 2 capacitors:
between gate/source &
between gate/drain
3. Junction capacitance
between Source and Body
(Reverse-bias junction)
2. Capacitance between
Gate & Source and Gate &
Drain due to the overlap of
gate electrode
(Parallel-plate capacitor)
4. Junction capacitance
between Drain and Body
(Reverse-bias junction)
MOS High-frequency
small signal model
*See S&S pp154-156 for

detailed derivations
MOS high-frequency small signal model

Accurate Model
(we use this model here)
For source connected to body

(used by S&S)
Generally, transistor internal capacitances are

shown outside the transistor so that we can use
results from the mid-band calculations.
High-frequency response of a CG amplifier

Cgs between
source & ground
Low-pass
filter
Input Pole
Mid-band Low-pass
Amp
filter
Output Pole
Cgd between
drain & ground
C L = C L + Cdb + C gd
Cin = C gs + Csb
High-f response of a CG amplifier Exact Solution (1)

Cin = C gs + Csb
Can be solved to find vo/vsig
Node vi :
Node vo :
vi vsig
Rsig
vi
v vo
g m ( vi ) + i
=0
1 / sCin
ro
vo
vo
v v
+
+ g m (vi ) + o i = 0
RL 1 / sC L
ro
High-f response of a CG amplifier Exact Solution (2)

Compact solution can be found by ignoring ro (i.e., ro )
Node vi : vi vsig + ( sCin + g m ) Rsig vi = 0
vi
1
1
1
=
=
vsig 1 + g m Rsig + sCin Rsig 1 + g m Rsig 1 + sCin Rsig /(1 + g m Rsig )

1/ gm
vi
1
=
vsig 1 / g m + Rsig 1 + sCin ( Rsig || 1 / g m )

Voltage divider
(Ri= 1/gm and Rsig)
Input Pole
Mid-band Gain
Node vo :
vo
+ sC L vo g m (vi ) = 0
RL
vo
g m RL
=
vi 1 + sC L RL
Output Pole
vo
Ri
1
1
=
( g m RL )
vsig Ri + Rsig
1 + sCin ( Rsig || 1 / g m ) 1 + sC L RL
Open-Circuit Time-Constants Method

1 + a1s + a2 s 2 + ...
1 + a1s + a2 s 2 + ...
H ( s) =
=
2
1 + b1s + b2 s + ... (1 + s / p1 )(1 + s / p 2 )...
b1 =
p1
p2
+ ...
b1 can be found by the open-circuit time-constants method.
1. Set vsig = 0
2. Consider each capacitor separately, e.g., Cj (assume others are open circuit!)
3. Find the total resistance seen between the terminals of the capacitor, e.g., Rj
(treat ground as a regular node).
4. b1 = nj =1 R j C j
A good approximation to fH is: f H =

1
2 b1
High-f response of a CG amplifier

time-constant method (input pole)
Cin = C gs + Csb
1 = Cin [ Rsig || (ro +RL ) /(1 + g m ro )]
Terminals of Cin
ro + RL
1 + g m ro
1. Consider Cin :
ro + RL
1 + g m ro
ro + RL
1 + g m ro

Capacitor terminals

time-constant method (output pole)
Cin = C gs + Csb
2 = C L [ RL || ro (1 + g m Rsig )]
1. Consider CL :
ro (1 +g m Rsig )
ro (1 +g m Rsig )

Capacitor terminals

time-constant method
Cin = C gs + Csb
AM = +
Ri
g m (ro || RL )
Ri + Rsig
1 = Cin [ Rsig || (ro +RL ) /(1 + g m ro )]

2 = C L [ RL || ro (1 + g m Rsig )]
fH =
Ri = (ro +RL ) / g m ro
1
2 b1
1
2 ( 1 + 2 )
Comparison of time-constant method with the exact solution (ro )

vo
1/ gm
1
1
=
( g m RL )
vsig 1 / g m + Rsig
1 + sCin ( Rsig || 1 / g m ) 1 + sC L RL
AM
Input pole :
p1 = 1 / 1
Output pole :
p2 = 1/ 2
High-frequency response of a CS amplifier

C L + Cdb
Cgd is between
output and input!
Two methods to find fH

1) Millers theorem
2) Direct calculation of
resistance between
terminals of Cgd (see
Problem Set 8, Exercise 4)
Input Pole?
Csb is shorted out.
Output Pole?
Millers Theorem
Consider an amplifier with a gain A with an impedance Z attached
between input and output
V1 and V2 feel the presence of Z only through I1 and I2
We can replace Z with any circuit as long as a current I1 flows out of
V1 and a current I2 flows out of V2.
V2 = A V1
I1 =
V1 V2 (1 A) V1
=
Z
Z
I2 =
V2 V1 ( A 1) V1 ( A 1) V2
=
=
Z
Z
ZA
I1 =
V1
V
= 1,
Z /(1 A) Z1
I2 =
V2
V
Z
= 2 , Z2 =
ZA /( A 1) Z 2
11/ A
Z1 =
Z
(1 A)
Millers Theorem Statement

If an impedance Z is attached between input and output an
amplifier with a gain A , Z can be replaced with two impedances
between input & ground and output & ground.
Other parts of the circuit
V2 = A V1
V2 = A V1
Z
Z1 =
1 A
Z2 =
Z
1
1
A
Example of Millers Theorem: Inverting amplifier

OpAmp : vo = A0 (v p vn ) = A0 vn
Recall from ECE 100, if A0 is large
Rf
vo
=
vi
R1
Solution using Millers theorem:
Rf 1
vn
=
vi R1 + R f 1
vo
vn A0 R f 1
= A0 =
vi
vi R1 + R f 1
Z
Z1 =
1 A
Rf1 =
Rf
1 + A0
Z
Z2 =
11/ A
Rf
A0
Rf 2 =
Rf
1 + 1 / A0
Rf
A0 ( R f / A0 )
R1 + ( R f / A0 )
vo R f
vi
R1
Rf
R1 + ( R f / A0 )
Applying Millers Theorem to Capacitors

V2 = A V1
Z
Z1 =
1 A
Z=
Large capacitor at
the input for A >> 1
Z2 =
Z
1
1
A
j C
Z
Z1 =
C1 = (1 A) C
1 A
Z
Z2 =
C2 = (1 1 / A) C
11/ A
High-frequency response of a CS amplifier

Using Millers Theorem
Use Millers Theorem to replace capacitor
between input & output (Cgd ) with two
capacitors at the input and output.
A=
vd
= g m (ro || RL )
vg
C gd ,i = C gd (1 A) = C gd [1 + g m (ro || RL )]
C gd ,o = C gd (1 1 / A) = C gd [1 + 1 / g m (ro || RL )]
C gd *
Cin = C gs + C gd ,i
C L = Cdb + C gd ,o + C L
Note: Cgd appears in the input (Cgd,i)

as a much larger capacitor.
* Assuming gmRL >> 1
High-f response of a CS amplifier

Millers Theorem and time-constant method
Cin = C gs + C gd [1 + g m (ro || RL )]
C L = Cdb + C gd + C L
Input Pole (Cin ):
Output Pole (CL ):

ro
1 = Cin Rsig
1
2 f H
2 = C L (ro || RL )
= b1 = Cin Rsig + C L (ro || RL )
High-f response of a CS amplifier Exact solution
Solving the circuit (node voltage method):
g m (ro || RL ) (1 sC gd / g m )
vo
=
1 + b1s + b2 s 2
vsig
b1 = Cin Rsig + C L (ro || RL )
b2 = [(C L + Cdb )(C gs + C gd ) + C gs C gd ]
Rsig (ro || RL )
Cin = C gs + C gd [1 + g m (ro || RL )]
C L = Cdb + C gd + C L
Miller & time-constant method:

1. Same b1 and same fH as the exact solution
1
= b1 = Cin Rsig + C L (ro || RL )
2 f H
2. Although, we get the same fH, there is a
substantial error in individual input and
output poles.
3. Miller approximation did not find the
zero!
Millers Theorem vs Millers Approximation

For Miller Theorem to work, ratio of V2/V1 (amplifier gain) should be
calculated in the presence of impedance Z.
In our analysis, we used mid-band gain of the amplifier and ignored changes
in the gain due to the feedback capacitor, Cgd. This is called Millers
Approximation.
o In the OpAmp example the gain of the chip, A0 , remains constant when Rf is
attached (as the output resistance of the chip is small).
Because the amplifier gain in the presence of Cgd is smaller than the midband gain (we are on the high-f portion of the Bode gain plot), Millers
approximation overestimates Cgd,i and underestimates Cgd,o
o There is a substantial error in individual input and output poles. However, b1
and fH are estimated well.
More importantly, Millers Approximation misses the zero introduced by

the feedback capacitor (This is important for stability of feedback amplifiers
as it affects gain and phase margins).
o Fortunately, we can calculate the zero of the transfer function easily (next slide).
Finding the zero of the CS amplifier

i = g m v gs
1) Definition of Zero: vo(s = sz) = 0
i=0
2) Because vo = 0, zero current will flow in ro, CL+Cdb and RL

3) By KCL, a current of gmvgs will flow in Cgd.
4) Ohms law for Cgd gives:
v gs 0 = Z i =
sz =
gm
,
C gd
g m v gs
s z C gd
fz =
gm
2 C gd
Zero of CS amplifier can play an important

role in the stability of feedback amplifiers
Substantial change in
gain and phase margins!
f p1
Case of
fz
f p1
f z >> f p 2 > f p1
Case of
f p2
fz
f p2
f p 2 > f z > f p1
Note: Since the input pole is at

1/(2 1 ) = 1 /( 2 Cin Rsig )
Small Rsig can push fp2 to very large values!
Comparison of CS and CG amplifiers

Both CS and CG amplifiers have a high gain of g m (ro || RL )
CS amplifier has an infinite input resistance while CG amplifier
suffers from a low input resistance.
CG amplifier has a much better high-f response:
o CS amplifier has a large capacitor at the input due to the
Millers effect: Cin = C gs + C gd [1 + g m (ro || RL )] compared to that
of a CG amplifier Cin = C gs + Csb
o In addition a CS amplifier has a zero.
The Cascode amplifier combines the desirable properties of a
high input resistance with a reasonable high-f response. (It has
a much better high-f response than a two-stage CS amplifier)
Caution: Time-constant Method &

Millers Approximation
The time constant method approximation to fH (see S&S page 724).

b1 = nj =1 R j C j
Since,
b1 =
p1
p2
H
+ ...
p1
p2
+ ...
This is the correct formula to find fH
However, S&S gives a different formula in page 722 (contradicting

formulas of pp724). Ignore this formula (S&S Eq. 9.68)
1
2
p1
2
p2
2
p3
+ ...
Discussions (and some conclusions re Millers theorem) in Examples 9.8

to 9.10 are incorrect. The discrepancy between fH from Millers
approximation and exact solution is due to the use of Eq. 9.68 (Not
Millers fault!)
Caution: Millers Approximation

The main value of Millers Theorem is to demonstrate that a large
capacitance will appear at the input of a CS amplifier (Millers
capacitor).
While Millers Approximation gives a reasonable approximation to
fH, it fails to provide accurate values for each pole and misses the
zero.
o Millers approximation should be used only as a first guess for
analysis. Simulation should be used to accurately find the
amplifier response.
o Stability analysis (gain and phase margins) should utilize
simulations unless a dominant pole far away from fH is
introduced.
Millers approximation breaks down when gain is close to 1 (See
source follower, following slides).
High-f response of a Source Follower

Cgd between gate
and ground
Cgs between
output and input
Cdb is shorted out.
Because mid-band gain is close to 1 and

positive, Miller approximation will not
work well.
o Need to apply Millers theorem exactly
o Lengthy calculations
High-f response of a source follower

Exact Solution
Node vi :
Node vo :
vi vsig
Rsig
+ sC gd vi + sC gs (vi vo ) = 0
vo
+ s (C L + C sb )vo + g m (vi vo ) + sC gs (vo vi ) = 0
RL || ro
(1 + sC gs / g m )
vo
g m (ro || RL )
=
vsig 1 + g m (ro || RL ) 1 + b1s + b2 s 2

Mid-band gain
Zero : s z =
gm
,
C gs
fz =
gm
2 C gs
Lengthy analysis is needed to find

b1, b2, and two poles
High-f response of a source follower

time-constant method (1)
Cgd :
CL + Csb:
1/ gm
1 = C gd Rsig
2 = (C L + Csb )(1 / g m || RL )
High-frequency response of a follower

Time-constant method (2)
3. Cgs (cannot use elementary R forms)
High-frequency response of a follower

Time-constant method (3)
3. Cgs (cannot use elementary R forms), continued
Vx = v gs
KVL Vx = I x Rsig + ( RL || ro )( I x g m v gs )
Vx = I x Rsig + ( RL || ro ) I x g m ( RL || ro )Vx
Vx [1 + g m ( RL || ro )] = I x [ Rsig + ( RL || ro )]
Vx Rsig + ( RL || ro )
Rgs =
=
I x 1 + g m ( RL || ro )
3 = C gs Rgs
1
2 f H
= b1 = 1 + 2 + 3 = C gd Rsig
Rsig + ( RL || ro )
+ (C L + C sb )(1 / g m || RL ) + C gs
1 + g m ( RL || ro )
Finding the zero of a source follower
i=0
i = g m v gs
i=0
1) Definition of Zero: vo(s = sz) = 0
2) Because vo = 0, zero current will flow in ro, CL, Csb and RL
3) By KCL, a current of gmvgs will flow in Cgs.

4) Ohms law for Cgs gives:
0 v gs = Z i =
sz =
gm
,
C gs
g m v gs
s z C gs
fz =
gm
2 C gs
Examples of Computing high-f response

of various amplifiers
Procedure:
1. Include internal-capacitances of NMOS and simplify the circuit.
2. Use Millers approximation for Miller capacitors in
configurations with large (and negative) A.
3. Use time-constant method to find fH
4. Do not forget about zeros in CS and CD configurations.

with current-source/active load
Csb1 , Csb2 , & Cgs2
are shorted out.
Millers
Between input &

ground
C L = C L + C gd 1,o + C gd 2 + Cdb1 + Cdb 2

Cin = C gs1 + C gd 1,i
Between output &

ground

with current-source/active load
ro1
v
A = d 1 = g m (ro1 || ro 2 || RL ) g m RL
v g1
C gd 1,i = C gd 1 (1 A) = C gd 1 (1 + g m RL )
C gd 1,o = C gd (1 1 / A) = C gd 1 (1 + 1 / g m RL )
C L = C L + C gd 1,o + C gd 2 + Cdb1 + Cdb 2
Cin : R = Rsig || = Rsig

1 = Cin Rsig
C L : R = ro1 || ro 2 || RL
2 = C L (ro1 || ro 2 || RL )
1
2 f H
sz =
= b1 = Cin Rsig + C L (ro1 || ro 2 || RL )
gm
,
C gd
fz =
gm
2 C gd
High-f response of Cascode amplifiers

Between output &
ground
C L = C L + C gd 2 + Cdb 2
C1 = C gd 1,o + Cdb1 + C gs 2 + Csb 2
Millers
Between D1
& ground
Between input &

ground
Csb1 is
shorted out.
High-f response of cascode amplifiers

Av 2 = g m 2 (ro 2 || RL )
Ro2
Mid-band Gains & resistances
Ro 2 = ro1 + ro 2 + g m 2 ro1ro 2 & Ri 2 =
ro 2 +RL
= RL1
1 + g m 2 ro 2
Ri2
Av1 = g m1 (ro1 || Ri 2 )
C gd 1,i = C gd 1 (1 Av1 )
C gd 1,o
Millers
= C gd (1 1 / Av1 ) Capacitors
ro1
C L = C L + C gd 2 + Cdb 2
C1 = C gd 1,o + C gs 2 + Cdb1 + Csb 2
Cin : R = Rsig || = Rsig 1 = Cin Rsig

C1 : R = ro1 || Ri 2
C L : R = Ro 2 || RL
1
2 f H
= b1 = 1 + 2 + 3
2 = C1 (ro1 || Ri 2 )
3 = C L ( Ro 2 || RL )
sz =
g m1
,
C gd 1
fz =
g m1
2 C gd 1
High-f response of differential amplifiers

For a symmetric differential amplifier (i.e. when we can use the
half-circuit concept):
vo 2 = vo1 vo ,d = vo 2,d vo1,d = 2vo1,d
Ad =
vo ,d
vd
= 2
vo ,1d
vd
vo ,1d
0.5vd
o Therefore, the poles and zero of the differential amplifier

(differential gain) are the same as those of differential half circuit.
Detailed analysis is necessary for asymmetric differential

amplifier (e.g., IC differential amplifier with a single-ended
output of slides 21-29 of Lecture set 7B),
Dominant Pole Compensation

1. Very often we need to purposely introduce an additional pole
in the circuit (in order to provide gain or phase margin in
feedback amplifiers). This is called the dominant pole
compensation.
2. This pole has to be the dominant pole (several octave below
any zero or pole).
3. As such, we can ignore transistor internal capacitances in the
analysis as poles introduced by these capacitances would be at
higher frequencies and does not impact the dominant pole.
4. Dominant pole is introduce by the addition of a capacitor either
a) Between output & ground or
b) Between input & output of one stage (using Miller Effect)
Dominant Pole by adding CL

Generic Form:
Example:
Ro
1 / f p = 2 C L ( RL || Ro )
Typically the required CL is large and CL is located outside the
chip (i.e., between output terminal and ground).
Dominant Pole via Millers effect

Generic Form:
Dominant pole is produced by |A|CM at the

input (not CM in the output). Otherwise we
would have connected CM in the output and
not as a Miller capacitor!
1 / f p = 2 | A | CM ( Rsig || Ri )
Example:
Ri
Dominant Pole via Millers effect

Generic Form:
1 / f p = 2 | A | CM ( Rsig || Ri )
Note: fp1 is proportional to Rsig
1. Usually not used in the first-stage as we do NOT know what Rsig is.
2. For second or latter stages, Rsig is Ro of previous stage and can be

large. Because CM appears as a large capacitor due to Millers effect,
this is the preferred method for including a capacitor inside the chip.
3. Note Millers approximation does NOT give the correct value for
poles. Simulation should be used to confirm the value of CM . Also
note that CM introduces a zero.

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8.

Typical Frequency response of an Amplifier

F. Najmabadi, ECE102, Fall 2012 (2/59)

Thus, we are mainly interested in mid-band properties (where

What do we mean by capacitors can be ignored?

o At low frequency |Z| : capacitor acts as an open circuit.

But high and/or low frequency compare to what?

F. Najmabadi, ECE102, Fall 2012 (4/59)

Capacitor behavior depends

Finding Frequency response of amplifiers

For bias (f = 0) all caps are open circuit!

o Low-f capacitors will be short circuit (because fL << f ).

o High-f capacitors will be open circuit (because f << fH).

We will use time-constant method to find fL and fH (separately)

F. Najmabadi, ECE102, Fall 2012 (6/59)

Impact of various capacitors depend on

How to find which capacitors contribute

F. Najmabadi, ECE102, Fall 2012 (8/59)

How to find which capacitors contribute

F. Najmabadi, ECE102, Fall 2012 (9/59)

Constructing appropriate circuits

F. Najmabadi, ECE102, Fall 2012 (10/59)

F. Najmabadi, ECE102, Fall 2012 (11/59)

Low-frequency response of an amplifier

Each capacitors gives a pole.

Low-frequency response of a CS amplifier

Lengthy calculations: See S&S pp689-692 for detailed calculations (S&S

F. Najmabadi, ECE102, Fall 2012 (13/59)

Finding poles by inspection

5. Lower-cut-off frequency can be found from

F. Najmabadi, ECE102, Fall 2012 (14/59)

* Although we are calculating frequency response in frequency domain, we

Example: Low-frequency response of a CS amplifier

Examination of circuit shows that ALL capacitors are low-f capacitors.

F. Najmabadi, ECE102, Fall 2012 (15/59)

Low-frequency response of a CS amplifier (fp1)

F. Najmabadi, ECE102, Fall 2012 (16/59)

2. Find resistance between

Low-frequency response of a CS amplifier (fp2)

F. Najmabadi, ECE102, Fall 2012 (17/59)

2. Find resistance between

Low-frequency response of a CS amplifier (fp3)

F. Najmabadi, ECE102, Fall 2012 (18/59)

2. Find resistance between

F. Najmabadi, ECE102, Fall 2012 (19/59)

Capacitive Effects in pn Junction

*See S&S pp154-156 for detailed derivations

Capacitive Effects in MOS*

F. Najmabadi, ECE102, Fall 2012 (21/59)

*See S&S pp154-156 for

MOS high-frequency small signal model

For source connected to body

Generally, transistor internal capacitances are

F. Najmabadi, ECE102, Fall 2012 (22/59)

High-frequency response of a CG amplifier

High-f response of a CG amplifier Exact Solution (1)

Can be solved to find vo/vsig

F. Najmabadi, ECE102, Fall 2012 (24/59)

High-f response of a CG amplifier Exact Solution (2)

vsig 1 + g m Rsig + sCin Rsig 1 + g m Rsig 1 + sCin Rsig /(1 + g m Rsig )

vsig 1 / g m + Rsig 1 + sCin ( Rsig || 1 / g m )

Open-Circuit Time-Constants Method