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In Philosophy and the Modem World (Indiana University Press, 1959), Albert
W. Levi reinterprets the history of philosophy from two perspectives. The first
is "multiplicity and division." Levi notes that the Tower of Babel is metaphor for
all modern understanding. During the Middle Ages, there was a unified intellec
tual approach to understanding, because there was but one group vested with the
authority to define "understanding." However, with the breakdown of Medieval
society and the advent of science, the Church lost its control over what ques
tions were to be studied and what answers were acceptable.
The rise of science led to a multiplicity of new questions and new methods for
answering them. For each new method invented, there arose a new answer.
Scientists became strongly divided over which method was most appropriate.
Practitioners became divided over which answers were true and which were
false.
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Levi also interprets the history of philosophy from the dual perspective of
"rationality vs. irrationality." According to him, there have been two great tradi
tions underlying attempts to explain behavior: the Darwinian and the Cartesian.
Freedom of choice
Levi argues that in the history of philosophy, these two perspectives have been
combined to form two principal approaches to understanding understanding. On
the other hand, philosophers representing both approaches acknowledge the
multiplicity of questions and methods that have resulted in wo/man's attempt to
understand understanding. In addition, they acknowledge the divisions that exist
among scientists and practitioners in terms of the answers they provide to these
disparate questions.
On the other hand, what distinguishes these two approaches is how philoso
phers view the problems of multiplicity and division. According to Darwinian
philosophers, such multiplicity and division exist because people have different
reflex responses to different adaptive patterns in their environment. In our mod
ern age, people assume the values of those with whom they associate; their
"primary motivation is the insatiable force of the psychological need for ap
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Associated with different goals are different means. This gives rise to a multi
plicity of methods to define these goals. Different methods give rise to different
answers. Different methods and answers are appropriate for the goals for which
they were devised but not for other goals.
To understand the multiplicity and division associated with understanding, we
first must identify the goals that give rise to such differences. Next, we must
identify the best methods for defining and achieving these goals.
Before spanking, we identify that our goal is good behavior. We next define
good behavior and determine the best method for bringing it about. It may well
be that spanking as a means is unrelated to how we define our goal of good
behavior.
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