119

A new thermal engine concept suitable for

automobiles
A Kovacs
Ingenieur ECP, Consultant, 11, rue de Boulainvilliers, 75016 Paris, France

Abstract: The historical concept of thermal engines based on four strokes taking place in one single
capsulism (volumetric device) is currently reaching the limits of its perfectibility. It is therefore
legitimate to begin trying to conceive radical departures from this well-rooted paradigm. This paper
describes one of them, based on the use of two volumetric devices linked in a particular way and a
continuous combustion which can be internal or external. The theoretical figures for specific power
and efficiency are quite compatible with automotive uses as well as other features needed in these
applications.
Keywords: thermal engine, continuous combustion, capsulism/volumetric device, Joule cycle, automobile

INTRODUCTION

Practically all the hundreds of millions of automobiles

used today are powered by engines based on the Rochas
Otto or Diesel cycle. Hence they have the following
shortcomings:
1. As the mechanical work obtained results from a
succession of very short individual discontinuous
combustions that can hardly be made perfect, their
emission pollutes the environment to a degree which
has become a major civilization problem.
2. They can burn only a narrow variety of fuels.
3. They are not suited or adaptable to external combustion or heating.
The only two thoroughly researched alternative solutions proposed so far, the gas turbine and the stirling
external combustion engine, have both failed to provide
a workable replacement to the conventional car engines
because, however clean their emissions, neither could
exhibit at one time all the other features they need to
have, namely:
(a) a high power density,
(b) a quasi-immediate response to requests for load
changes,
(c) a good overall efficiency,

The MS was recei6ed on 8 June 1998 and was accepted after re6ision
for publication on 19 No6ember 1998.
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(d) the lowest possible production cost,

(e) a reliability and simplicity allowing a long life even
in the hands of laymen.

NEW PROPOSAL FOR AN ALTERNATIVE

AUTOMOBILE ENGINE CONCEPT

The author has had to call his present proposal new or

project K3 to avoid confusing the reader, because he has
already published two other, different concepts in 1980
and 1996 [1, 2]. This one is schematically described in Fig.
1 which shows two capsulisms (volumetric devices): Cd
exclusively devoted to compressions and Ed exclusively
devoted to expansions, both symbolized by vane-type
volumetric mechanisms but in fact with no assumption
regarding any particular type of real mechanisms to be
used, except that their flowrate is quasi-constant for a
constant rotational speed of their shaft and that their
downstreamupstream leak is small but not necessarily
zero (see the Appendix for a short discussion of the
critical leak concept).
Between the compression device, Cd, and the expansion device, Ed, are laid out an optional heat exchanger,
Ech, and a combustion chamber, Cmb. The exhaust of
the expansion device flows on the other side of the heat
exchangers heat transfer surface before escaping to the
atmosphere. The shafts of the two devices are linked with
the rotational speed ratio n (n= 1 for a direct coupling).
The layout resembles that of a gas turbine and it would
actually work with nothing else added, but with very
poor results. The missing key component to be added is
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A KOVACS

Fig. 1

Schematic representation of the proposed engine

the distributor, Dst, the function of which will be to limit

the introduction of hot gas into the expansion device
during a certain fraction of revolution of its shaft. This
degree of introduction will be designated by d and
defined as the fraction of revolution of the expansion
device during which the distributor is open. Thus, d can
be interpreted as the ratio of the volume introduced by
turn to the total volume displaced by turn by the
expansion device. The particular design of the distributor
is left to the ingenuity of the designer. In the example
shown in Fig. 4 it is a rotating butterfly valve, which
generates little friction losses in the open position.
The theoretical operation of this set-up is represented
on the p 6 diagram in Fig. 2. The compression device
compresses the air taken in from the atmosphere from
A to B adiabatically. This air is then supposed to receive
heat under constant pressure from two sources: qr from
B to E in the heat exchanger and then qc from E to C
in the combustion chamber. The hot gas then reaches the
expansion device at F and, as long as the distributor
remains open, it rotates the expansion device while
remaining approximately at the same pressure because
the variation in volume in this process is small, which will
bring the status point from F to C. As soon as the
distributor closes, the mass of gas it has thus isolated will

expand from C to M, where the exhaust takes place from

M to D, to atmospheric pressure. The ideal of an
expansion directly reaching atmospheric pressure is quite
achievable by a proper choice of the working parameters,
including d. It can then be seen that the theoretical cycle
described in this latter case by the working fluid is a Joule
cycle.
The reason the heat exchanger (the regenerator or
recuperator) can be omitted is not only to save weight
and cost but also because, as high pressure ratios can
easily be produced by volumetric devices, the temperature at the outlet of the compression device may well be
higher than at the exhaust of the expansion device,
thereby making the use of the heat exchanger not only
useless but even harmful to efficiency, a condition which
is practically never met in gas turbine practice.
3

STABILITY OF THE MASS FLOW AND THE

EXISTENCE OF A STEADY AVERAGE
WORKING PRESSURE

The following notations will be used (all variables in SI

units):
p, T=pressure and absolute temperature, the subscripts showing at which point of the cycle
Vbc = volume displaced by turn of the compression
device
Vbd = volume displaced by turn of the expansion
device
r=the gas constant related to 1 kg
g= the ratio of the specific heats of gases, cp /c6
The useful ratios (all dimensionless) will be given in
following short form:

Fig. 2

Theoretical thermodynamic cycle described by the

working fluid in the proposed engine

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Rap = pA/pB
1)/g
Rag = R (g
ap
Rav = Vbd/Vbc
Rat = TC/TA
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At each revolution, the compression device sucks in

and compresses a mass of air equal to mA = Vbc pA/
(rTA) with the outside atmospheric conditions characterized by constant pA and TA, the mass sucked in at
each revolution is constant, whatever the downstream
pressure pB. However, during the same time interval
of one turn of the compression device, the expansion
device will deliver a mass of mC =d n Vbd pB/(rTC) (in
the case of internal combustion, molar expansion is
neglected here).
Thus, if the pressure pB in the heating area between
the volumetric devices increases, the discharged mass
flow mC increases also, while the mass flow sucked in
remains constant, which means that the pressure pB
will come back to its steady state value. There is
consequently a stable steady state for the pressure,
which can be found by writing the equality of the
mass flows in and out:
mA = mC

or

mark of equal interest, to the power related to the

mass flow of air across the machine, in kW/kg s, as is
usually done for gas turbines. The detailed calculations will not be developed here, only their results are
given, assuming the following values for the constants:
cp = 1000 J/kg K
TA = 293 K
Flow-specific power:
Pk = 215 {g (Rat Rag + 1)
Rat [d g 1 + (g 1)/d Rap]}

Pa = 0.0199Pk

CALCULATION OF THE THEORETICAL

PERFORMANCES

In order to have an idea of the size of the proposed

engine for a given power, it remains useful, as is done
below, to relate the power to Vbc, the volume
displaced by turn of the compression device. However,
the principles involved are so different to those of
conventional internal combustion engines that care
should be taken not to be misled. It is therefore suggested that consideration also be given as a benchA03398

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(kW/L (1000 r/min) bar)

Efficiency without a recuperator:

hs = 1

and with the present shorthand notation:

Now, Rav being determined by construction and d and

n by setting, Rap depends only on Rat, i.e. on the
temperature at the entrance of the expansion device
which is determined by the heating conditions. This
property of the system to exhibit a steady state pressure between the devices that is stable but adjustable
with a very quick response time by acting on the fuel
supply rate alone is quite essential. Among others, it
makes the suggested engine suitable for automotive
uses. The above reasoning has been based on the
average mass flows by turn. As the distributor closes
the exit during a fraction of each turn while the compression device keeps compressing, a fluctuation will
take place around the average pressure, the amplitude
of which depends on the dead volume between the
compression and expansion devices. Such fluctuations
can be beneficial to the thoroughness of the combustion if it is internal or to the effectiveness of the heat
exchanger if it is external, and even to the air
throughput if a proper tuning is made.

(kW/kg s)

Volume-specific power:

Vbc pA/TA =d n Vbd pB/TC

Rap =Rat/(d n Rav)

121

(Rat/g)[d g 1 + (g 1)/d Rap] 1

Rat Rag

Assuming that the counterflow heat exchanger is perfect (its effectiveness is equal to 1), the efficiency with
a recuperator becomes:
h= 1

(1/g) {Rat[d g 1 + (g 1)/d Rap] g} n Rav +Rag

Rat n Rav

It could be shown that the same efficiency can be

obtained without a recuperator and a higher pressure
ratio Rap or with a recuperator and a lower Rap.
Therefore, as sufficiently high Rap ratios are easy to
obtain with volumetric devices, it is worth dispensing
with the recuperator, especially in automotive uses,
thereby saving weight and cost at no detriment to
efficiency.

EXAMPLES

Figure 3 illustrates the theoretical performances of an

engine in which the temperature TC at the entrance of
the expansion device is 800 C, a temperature compatible with current metals and materials. The specific
power and the efficiency without a recuperator are
plotted as functions of the degree of introduction d. It
can be seen that the specific power exhibits a
maximum towards d= 0.15 with values around 240
kW/kg s and that the theoretical efficiency there varies
between 42 and 52 per cent depending on n Rav, the
flow ratio of the volumetric devices. The various heat
and friction losses to be deducted should be of the
same relative magnitude as for conventional engines.
It should be noted that in these optimal areas the
pressure ratio Rap, plotted in dotted lines, also takes
higher values but is still quite compatible with current
volumetric devices. The author believes that all these
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Fig. 3

Calculated specific power and efficiency as a function of the degree of introduction d for an inlet
temperature to the expansion device of 800 C

figures can be taken as an objective encouragement to

build prototypes. For the sake of comparison, here are
some other flow-specific powers:
Fiat large gas turbine of 33 200 kW
Turbomeca Astazou X turboprop
aircraft engine
Any 2 L conventional car engine
developing 70 kW at 6000 r/min
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186 kW/kg s
127 kW/kg s
530 kW/kg s

The engine proposed in the present

paper

240 kW/kg s

These figures indicate that, for a given power, the

proposed engine in the given conditions would use
more than twice the air used by a conventional contemporary car engine. The average leanness of its airfuel
mixture, which is so low that in a conventional engine
it would hardly ignite, is indicative of an excess of
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Fig. 4

123

Example of a possible volumetric device suggested by the author to be used in the proposed
enginethe elliptical deviceand a possible distributor mechanism in the form of a rotating
butterfly valve

air ensuring thorough combustion and very low pollution.

required by automotive uses would then need additional care.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

OTHER POINTS AT ISSUE

The first point of course concerns the particular volumetric devices that are best suited to this application.
The author does have practical suggestions, especially
an elliptical device like that shown in Fig. 4 in transverse cutaway section, but many others could certainly
be proposed. It should be repeated that the concept of
this engine in itself is not bound to any particular type
of volumetric device, even cylinder piston pairs could
be used.
It is rather obvious that the layout of the system
proposed here lends itself very easily to external heating
by merely replacing the combustion chamber with an
externally heated (by combustion or otherwise) heat
exchanger. However, the reactivity to load changes
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The author expresses his thanks to Mr Pascal Stouffs,

lecturer at the ISITEM of the University of Nantes, for
checking the specific power and efficiency calculations
shown above.
REFERENCES
1 Kovacs, A. Les moteurs volumetriques a` cycle ferme. Entropie, 1980, 92. Note: The concept described in the present
paper is exactly the one reinvented 16 years later by L.
Brzeski and Z. Kazimierski, as presented in Proc. Instn
Mech Engrs, Part A, Journal of Power and Energy, 1996,
210(A5), 363 371.
2 Kovacs, A. Proposition pour un nouveau moteur a` combustion externe. Entropie, 1996, 196.
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APPENDIX
Influence of leaks on the performance of compressors
It is a common observation that any compressing volumetric device exhibiting a certain degree of leakage,
even a bicycle hand pump, can deliver a higher maximum pressure when operated at higher speed. This
observation can be of importance for the design of
machines in which the gas flow is unidirectional like the
engine proposed here, because a certain leak tolerance
can allow lower mechanical frictions, higher speeds and
a less expensive machining of parts.
E6aluation of a leakage flow
Saint-Venants law on the conservation of energy in the
flow stream of a compressible fluid states that the

Fig. 5

velocities u1 and u2 of the fluid at two points 1 and 2 of

a flow tube are related by the following equation:
g
p (g 1)/g
1 2
rT1 1 2
(u 2 u 21)=
p1
g 1
2
To calculate the flow Qf discharged across a wall by a
leak of cross-section Sf, the pressures on each side of
the wall being p1 and p2, the velocity u1 can be considered to be zero on the upstream side, so that
g
p2 (g 1)/g
Qf = u2 Sf with u 22 = 2
rT1 1
g-1
p1
For simplification the constants will be replaced with
the numerical values they take for air at ambient temperature: T1 = 293 K, r=286 J/kg K and g=1.36 (to
be consistent with the previous calculations), so that
p 0.265 1/2 3
Qf = 796 Sf 1 2
(m /s if Sf is in m2)
p1

    n

    n

  n

Achievable pressure ratios in compressors exhibiting a downstream upstream leak

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Maximum pressure at the outlet of a compressor

Here again, no assumption is made regarding the particular type of volumetric device used to compress the gas.
It is only assumed that the compressor displaces a volume
Vbc by turn of its shaft, which rotates at a speed of w
revolutions per second, so that the volume flow generated
is Qe = w Vbc (m3/s).
The outlet pressure will reach its limit when the
generated flow Qe is equal to the flow Qf leaking back
through the imperfectly tight parts of the compressor,
which can be stated as follows:
Qe = Qf

or

  n

wVbc =796 Sf 1

  n

p2
p1

0.265 1/2

The following equation is obtained for p2/p1:

p2
w Vbc
= 1
p1
796Sf

2 3.77

(1)

Critical leak and critical speed

Equation (1) confirms that the outlet pressure p1 of a
leaky compressor increases when the speed w increases.
In addition it shows that, by making the expression

125

between square brackets close to zero, it is possible to

make the pressure ratio Rap = p1/p2 as large as desired or
acceptable. The limit is for w Vbc = 796Sf, which shows
that there are two critical values for the parameters:
1. A critical leak surface Sfcr = w Vbc/796 such that, if
the actual leak surface is smaller, the pressure p1 can
be as large as required, for a given speed w.
2. A critical speed wcr = 796Sf/Vbc such that, if the actual
speed is higher, the pressure p1 can be as large as
required for a given leak surface Sf.
Of course, as large as required here means as large as
the conditions of strength and of driving power permit,
just as for any compressor, leaky or not. Obviously, when
coming near to the critical conditions, the net usable flow
decreases sharply until it becomes zero at the critical
conditions. Therefore, when applying these notions, one
should also take into account the flow efficiency:
hfl =

Qe Qf
Qe

Figure 5, which illustrates equation (1), gives the attainable pressure ratios Rap for a given leak surface Sf and
a given speed w for a compressor with a displacement Vbc
of 2 L per turn.

.
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